Lab No.

5 Vector measurements

Vector measurements

Vector measurements allow finding out the components of a vector in one of its forms:
cartesian or polar coordinates in real or polar plane. The result is given as 2 components: X and
Y (Re and Im) or  and . Vector quantities are:

- impedance, admittance
- transfer functions (gain, attenuation)
The vector instruments are AC bridges (manual or automated), Q-meters, vector
impedance meters, vector voltmeters. Automated AC bridges allow measuring the impedance or
admittance components R, L and G, C. Manual bridges allow determining the components by
calculation. Q-meters measure the vector by resonance. They measure the frequency, the
capacitance and the quality factor. Automated Q-meters use the damped oscillation produced by
loses in the resonant circuit. Vector impedance meters display the result in polar coordinates 
and  as functions of frequency. They maintain one quantity constant, voltage for admittance
(the current is proportional with the admittance) or current for impedance (the voltage is
proportional with the impedance). The phase shift between voltage and current and the ratio
between the amplitudes are the modulus and the phase. Vector voltmeters have two voltage
channels. One is the reference and the other is evaluated in respect with the reference.

1. AC bridges

In DC the resistances are measured with the

Wheatstone bridge. The AC bridge is similar, but for
balancing are necessary 2 variable elements:

 Z x  Z 3 = Z 2  Z 4 (a)
Z x  Z3= Z2  Z4   (1)
 x + 3 = 2 + 4 (b)
One variable element balance the modules and the
other the phases. From equations 1.1 and 1.b it results
Fig. 1
z=Re(Zx)+j·Im(Zx). The impedances depend on frequency, so
the accuracy depends also on frequency. The sensitivity of an AC bridge is a complex parameter:
S = U 2 /U1 = F   (2)

where: - ΔU2 is the unbalancing voltage that appear when one of the variable impedances is
varied around the equilibrium

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

- F is the bridge factor;

- δ = δRi/Zi or δXi/Zi is the relative mismatch in one of the bridge arms.
The bridge sensitivity increases with the supply voltage, with the null instrument
sensitivity, with the decrease of the impedances modulus or with the match of the four
impedances (Zx≈Z2≈Z3≈Z4).

2. Audio-frequency bridges (AF)

In audio frequency the components are modeled by two simple elements of circuit using
a series or parallel configuration that approximates as good as possible their operation. There 2
types of bridges: for capacitors and for inductors, either for series equivalent configuration or
parallel configuration.

a) Audio frequency bridges for capacitors

Capacitors in audio frequency are measured mainly using the Sauty (series or parallel
model) and Schering (high and low voltage and series model) bridges.
Sauty bridges compare the unknown capacitor with a standard capacitor in series or in
parallel with a standard resistor (equivalent to the capacitor losses). The Sauty bridge for the
series model is shown in figure 2 a), while the parallel model is shown in figure 2 b

a) b)
Fig. 2
The equations for the series configuration bridge are:
R3 (a); R4 (b); tgδ  
C x = C2  R x = R2  ωR x C x = ω R2 C 2 (c)
R4 R3

 (3)
1  1 
Z x = Rx - j = R4  R2 -j 
ω Cx R3  ω C 2 

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

The equations for the parallel configuration bridge are:

R3 (a); R4 (b); tgδ  1 1 
C x = C2  R x = R2  = (c)
R4 R3 ω C x Rx ω R2 C 2

 (4)
R R R 
Zx =
x
= 4 2

1+jωj C x R x R3 1+jωj R2 C 2 
Schering bridges are presented in figure 3: high voltage in fig. a) and low voltage in fig.
b). They are used only for the series model of the capacitor. Its main application is for measuring
the insulating properties of electrical cables and equipment.
The equations under balance for HV bridge:

R3 (a); C 3 (b); tgδ  

C x = C4  R x = R2  ωR3 C 3 (c)
R2 C4 
 (5)
1  1  
Z x = R x -j = R2 C 3 1-j 
ωCx C 4  ω R3 C 3 
The equations under balance for LV bridge:

R3 (a); C 3 (b); tgδ  

C x = C2  R x = R4  ωR3 C 3 (c)
R4 C2 
 (6)
1  1 
Z x = R x -j = R4 C 3 1-j 
ωCx C 2  ω C 3 R3 

a) b)
Fig. 3
b) Audio frequency bridges for inductances
The most used bridges for measuring the inductances are the Maxwell-Wien for the

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

series model and Hay for the parallel model.

The Maxwell-Wien bridge in fig. 4 a), is used for inductances with low quality factor,
1≤ Q ≤ 10. The equations under balance are:

a) b)
Fig. 4
R4 (b); L 
L x = C 3  R2  R4 (a); R x = R2  Q x = ω  x = ω R3 C 3 (c)
R3 Rx 
 (7)
R 4 R 4

Z x = R x +jω L x = R2 ( 1+jω C 3 R3 ) = R2 ( 1+jQ)
R3 R3 
The Hay bridge, fig. 4 b), is used for high quality factor inductances (Q ≥ 10). The
equations under balance are:

R 4 (b); Rx = 1 
L x = R 2  R 4  C 3 (a); R x = R 2  Qx = (c)
R3 ω Lx ω C 3 R3

 (8)
1 1 1 R3  1 
Yx = -j =  1-j 
Rx ω Lx R 2 R 4  ω C 3 R3 
The the series model can be transformed into the parallel model:
 1 
 
L p = L s  1+ 2  (a); R p = R s  1+ Q (b)
2
(9)
 Q 
For Q > 5 the two models have close values: Lp ≈ Ls.

Observations
1. In AC it is not possible to reach the zero value at the balance, but a minimum value.
This value reaches the lowest value when the bridge power supply has small distortions from a
sinusoidal wave and the disturbing signals are completely annealed. The null indicator is a

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

frequency selective voltmeter or uses a synchronous detection on the frequency of the

fundamental
2. The sensitivity to adjusting elements is changing during balancing. This asks for an
alternate adjustment from the element that has the maximum influence until the minimum
voltage is obtained.
3. Neglecting the sensitivity errors, the measurement errors are calculated starting from
the equations under balance for the most unfavourable case.

3. Radio-frequency bridges (RF)

The most used bridge in RF is the Schering bridge. According to the model of the
impedance there are two types: the Schering bridge for the series model and the Schering bridge
for the parallel model: fig. 5 a) and b). The balance is achieved C1, C3 in 2 steps: without Zx and
then with Zx connected in the bridge. The bridge for the series model is balanced in the first step
with the connections Zx short circuited, while the bridge for the parallel model is balanced with
the connections opened. When balanced, the series Schering bridge equations are:

a) b)
Fig. 5
- with the connections Zx short circuited:
1  R2
Z 31 = Y 11  Z 2  Z 4 =  +jω C11   = R 2 C11 + R 2 (10)
 R1  jω C 4 C 4 jω R1 C 4
- with the impedance Zx connected:

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

C 12 R2 Δ C1 
Z x + Z 32 = R 2 + = Z 31 + R 2 (a) 
C 4 jω R 1 C 4 C4 
1  1 1  1 1 1   (11)
Z 31 - Z 32 =  -  = j  -  (b) 
jω  C 31 C 32  ω  C 32 C 31  
The unknown impedance is:

Δ C1 1  1 
Z x = R x +jX x = R 2  j Δ 
ω  C 3 
(12)
C4
When balanced, the parallel Schering bridge equations are:
- with Zx connections opened:
1 C4
Y 31 = Z 11Y 2 Y 4 = +jω C 31 = +jω C 4 R1 (3)
R3 C11 R2 R2
- with Zx connected:

C4 C  1 1 
Y x +Y 32 = Z 12 Y 2 Y 4 = +jω C 4 R1 = Y 31+ 4  -  (4)
C12 R2 R2 R2  C12 C11 
From the above equations (12) and (13) the admittance value is:
1 1
Yx = = G x + jB x = C 4  Δ +jω  Δ(C 3) (5)
Zx R 2  C1 
The Schering bridges work for resistors, capacitances or inductances for frequencies up
to 300 MHz.

4. Q-meter

The Q- meter uses the series resonance of a circuit. Figure 6 shows a schematic diagram
of a Q-meter. At resonance, the voltage over CV is Q times the voltage U1 – neglecting the
resistance r – the order of miliohms:
1
U 2 =Q  U 1
2
ω= (16.a); (16.b)
L  Cv

Fig. 6

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

Knowing the frequency, the capacity and measuring Q, the inductance L can be found:
1 ωL ωL 1
L= 2
(a); Q = (b); r = = (c) (17)
2
4 π f Cv r Q 2πf C v Q

1 1 1 1 
Z L = r+jω L = +j =  +j  (18)
2πf C v Q 2πf C v 2πf C v  Q 

The digital Q-meter, figure 7, is based on the damping of oscillations in an L, r, C

resonant circuit:
2
i di 1
L d 2 +r + i = 0 (19)
dt dt C

Fig. 7
The oscillating circuit is a second order system with a self oscillating angular frequency
of:

a0 1/C 1
ω0 = = = (20)
a2 L L C
and damping ratio of:
a1 r r 1
ξ= = = = (21)
2 a0  a 2 2  L/C 2  L  0 2Q

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

For Q>0,5 and ξ<1 – the circuit is underdamped, leading to sinusoidal oscillations as solution of
equation (15):
ω0 r
i = Ae0t sin(ω0 1- ξ 2t+ ) ; ξ  ω0 = = (22)
2Q 2L
Choosing the initial moment t1, resulting:

 r    1 
i = I 1  exp - t  cosω0 1- ξ 2 t  (23)
 2L    2  
2L 2Q 2π
t 2 - t1 = ln K =  ln K = N  T = N (24)
r ω0 ω
If I2=I1 /K, the angular frequency is:
 1 
ω = ω0 1- ξ 2  because ξ  1, ω  ω0 (25)
 2 
Q
N=  ln K (26)

Choosing I2 such that lnK = π, equation (26) becomes: N=Q (27).
The schematic in figure 7b) contains, besides the oscillating circuit, there is a peak
detector that detects the levels I1 and I2 and drive a flip-flop (FF) that opens or closes the gate P.
The pulses triggered from the damped oscillation pass through the gate and are counted by a
counter, the final counted value N being displayed. Switching S on the position f the pulses are
counted for given time interval (1s) and the frequency is measured Tm = Nf·T (28)  Nf = Tm/T
=Tm·f (29). The instrument can have 2 counters to perform both measurements in the same time
like in figure 8.

Fig. 8
Having the values C, f and Q, the inductance components can be computed:
1 2πfL 1 1 1 
L= (a); r = = (b); Z L =  +j  (c) (30)
2 2
4π f C Q 2πfCQ 2πfC  Q 

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

The accuracy of this kind of Q- meters is around 1- 2 % for Q and 0,1 - 0,2% for f. The
display error has to be added ± 1/N.

5. Vector impedance meter

This is an instrument that gives the measurement result in polar coordinates (modulus
and phase). The measurement can be performed for a single frequency or for a frequency band.
The block diagram of a digital vector impedance meter in shown in fig. 9:

Fig. 9
1= signal generator; 2= phase detector; 3= pulse shaper; 4= limiter; 5= filter; 6= output stage; 10= analog
outputs; 11= level stabilizer; 12= programmable amplifier; 14= detector; 15= amplifier; 16= calibration;
Z= modulus display; φ = phase display.

The measuring mode is different for small impedances (under 1 kΩ) in respect with high
value impedances. For the first mode the current through the impedance is kept constant, the
voltage being the measure of the impedance/admittance, while in the second case the voltage is
kept constant, the current being the measure of the impedance/admittance.
- for impedances with small value:
Ux Ux U
Z x= = (argU x - arg I x ) (a); I x =I=ct. (b); Z x = x argU x (c) (31)
Ix Ix I

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

- for impedances with high values:

1 I
Yx = = x = I x arg I x (32)
Zx Ux U
The constant current is between 1mA and 3 μA and the constant voltage between
3V and 3 mV according to the measuring range. The phase shift between the constant quantity
and the measuring signal is measured with a phase meter with flip flop and displayed in degrees.
The modulus is displayed on a linear scale in the first case and inverted in the second case. For
certain values of the frequency (33), the reactive components are given in equations (35) and
(36), where  is the measured modulus and  is the measured phase. When the phase is not 0 or
± 90o the results must be corrected with sinφ and cosφ:
i
10
f= (a), i = 1,2... (b) (33)
2π
ω=2πf = 10i (a); sin  =  1 (b) (34)
-i
ρ 1
L= = ρ 10-i (35) ; C= = 10 (36)
ω ρω ρ
Z x = R+jX = ρ cos +jρ sin  (a); Q = tg  (b); tg  = ctg  (c) (37)

1
L = 10-i ρ sin  (38) or: C = 10-i (39)
ρ sin 
The measurement errors are in the range of 5% for modulus and ± 6o for phase.

6. Vector voltmeter

The vector voltmeter measures 2 voltages, one being the reference and both having a
constant frequency. The measurement is performed through synchronous sampling. If the
sampling period is chosen as:
T
T E = m T + , m,n  N-{0} (40)
n
after sampling, the signal’s frequency will be:
T FI = m  n +1 (41).
In fig. 10 the principle of synchronous sampling is presented. Fig 11 presents the block
diagram of a vector voltmeter. Such instrument is used to measure voltages between 1mV and
1V and frequencies up to 1GHz. Because the signals are simultaneously sampled the phase shift
between them is kept with enough accuracy. The channel A is the reference signal that is used to
synchronize the vector voltmeter. The intermediary frequency is 20kHz. The amplitudes and the
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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

phase shift of the two signals are converted into digital, processed by the processor and
displayed.

Fig. 10

Fig. 11
1. Use of the vector voltmeter to measure the impedance

In order to measure the impedance, a coaxial test fixture like in fig. 12 must be used. The
instrument can be interfaced with a digital frequency to compute Ls, Rs respectively Cp, Rp. The
unknown impedance can be computed with:
U A -U B U
= B (42)
Zx Z0

 1  1
Z x = R x + j X x = R0  cos-1 - j R0 sin  (43)
U B / U A  UB /UA

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

Fig. 12
 

WORKS TO BE COMPLETED IN THE LAB

1. Various instruments for vector measurements will be studied.

2. R, L and C components will be measured at low and RF frequencies. Parallel and
series models correspondence will be verified
3. Based on the results and limit errors, the methods will be characterized by showing the
advantages and disadvantages.

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

Group Name  Date 

     

Labwork no. 5 Vector measurements

Abstract: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 

Keywords:…………………………………………………………………………….

Experimental work
1. Inductances and capacitances measurement using the vector impedance meter, figure 1.

 k
X
 Y
|Z|


Fig. 1
Table 1
Det.  f  φ  |Z| CX RX LX Obs. 
no.  [Hz]  []  [Ω]  [nF]  [Ω]  [mH] 
1  159             
2  1.591             
3  15.915             
4  159.155             
 

2. RF inductance measurement using the Q-meter, figure 2.

Table 2
Det.  f  CV  Q  CX  RX tgδ LX C  R  Obs. 
no.  [kHz]  [pF]  [pF]  [Ω]  [μH]  L  
1  159                   
2  318                   
3  159                   
4  318                   

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Lab No. 5 Vector measurements

3. RF resistances measurement with the vector voltmeter, figure 3.

   8  8  8  ADAPTOR FREQUENCY METER

Zx/Sc 1AF88737 
2
fs IMPEDANCE METER
1
T |V| φ 
Cv  Z0
B A
f s  A B

f/Q  I/E  Start 

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Table 3
Det.  f  φ  VA  VB VB/VA ZL CX RX LX   Obs.
nr.  [MHz]  []  [mV]  [mV]  [Ω]  [pF]  [Ω]  [nH] 
1  1,591  0      Z0=50         
2  1,591        Z0+ZX         
3  3,183  0      Z0=50         
4  3,183        Z0+ZX         

Conclusions:
………………………………………….…………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….………

                                                            
Observation: Schematics must be completed with instrument types and components
values used in the experiments.
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