APPENDIX

Partial
Fractions
B
Outline
Basic Theorems
Partial Fraction Decomposition
 You have now had considerable experience combining two or more rational
expressions into a single rational expression. For example, problems such as

2 3 2(x ⫺ 4) ⫹ 3(x ⫹ 5) 5x ⫹ 7
⫹ ⫽ ⫽
x⫹5 x⫺4 (x ⫹ 5)(x ⫺ 4) (x ⫹ 5)(x ⫺ 4)

should seem routine. Frequently in more advanced courses, particularly in calcu-

lus, it is advantageous to be able to reverse this process—that is, to be able to
express a rational expression as the sum of two or more simpler rational expres-
sions called partial fractions. As is often the case with reverse processes, the
process of decomposing a rational expression into partial fractions is more diffi-
cult than combining rational expressions. Basic to the process is the factoring of
polynomials, so the topics discussed in Section 3-2 can be put to effective use.
We confine our attention to rational expressions of the form P(x)/D(x), where
P(x) and D(x) are polynomials with real coefficients. In addition, we assume that
the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of D(x). If the degree of P(x) is greater
than or equal to that of D(x), we have only to divide P(x) by D(x) to obtain

P(x) R(x)
⫽ Q(x) ⫹
D(x) D(x)

where the degree of R(x) is less than that of D(x). For example,

x 4 ⫺ 3x3 ⫹ 2x2 ⫺ 5x ⫹ 1 ⫺6x ⫹ 2

⫽ x2 ⫺ x ⫺ 1 ⫹ 2
x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 1 x ⫺ 2x ⫹ 1

If the degree of P(x) is less than that of D(x), then P(x)/D(x) is called a proper
fraction.

Basic Theorems
Our task now is to establish a systematic way to decompose a proper fraction into
the sum of two or more partial fractions. The following three theorems take care
of the problem completely. Theorems 1 and 3 are stated without proof.

EQUAL POLYNOMIALS
THEOREM Two polynomials are equal to each other if and only if the coefficients of
terms of like degree are equal.
1
For example, if

Equate the constant terms.

(A ⫹ 2B)x ⫹ B ⫽ 5x ⫺ 3
afddddbddddfc

Equate the coefficients of x.

A-84
 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS A-85

then

B ⫽ ⫺3 Substitute B ⫽ ⫺3 into the second equation to

solve for A.
A ⫹ 2B ⫽ 5
A ⫹ 2(ⴚ3) ⫽ 5
A ⫽ 11

Explore/Discuss If

x ⫹ 5 ⫽ A(x ⫹ 1) ⫹ B(x ⫺ 3) (1)

1 is a polynomial identity (that is, both sides represent the same polyno-
mial), then equating coefficients produces the system

1⫽A⫹ B Equating coefficients of x

5 ⫽ A ⫺ 3B Equating constant terms

(A) Solve this system graphically.

(B) For an alternate method of solution, substitute x ⫽ 3 in equation (1)
to find A and then substitute x ⫽ ⫺1 in equation (1) to find B.
Explain why this method is valid.

LINEAR AND QUADRATIC FACTOR THEOREM

THEOREM For a polynomial with real coefficients, there always exists a complete
factoring involving only linear and/or quadratic factors with real coeffi-
2 cients where the linear and quadratic factors are prime relative to the real
numbers.

That Theorem 2 is true can be seen as follows: From earlier theorems in Chap-
ter 3, we know that an nth-degree polynomial P(x) has n zeros and n linear fac-
tors. The real zeros of P(x) correspond to linear factors of the form (x ⫺ r), where
r is a real number. Since P(x) has real coefficients, the imaginary zeros occur in
conjugate pairs. Thus, the imaginary zeros correspond to pairs of factors of the
form [x ⫺ (a ⫹ bi)] and [x ⫺ (a ⫺ bi)], where a and b are real numbers. Mul-
tiplying these two imaginary factors, we have

[x ⫺ (a ⫹ bi)][x ⫺ (a ⫺ bi)] ⫽ x2 ⫺ 2ax ⫹ a2 ⫹ b2

This quadratic polynomial with real coefficients is a factor of P(x). Thus, P(x)
can be factored into a product of linear factors and quadratic factors, all with real
coefficients.
A-86 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Partial Fraction Decomposition

We are now ready to state Theorem 3, which forms the basis for partial fraction
decomposition.

PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

THEOREM Any proper fraction P(x)/D(x) reduced to lowest terms can be decom-
posed into the sum of partial fractions as follows:
3 1. If D(x) has a nonrepeating linear factor of the form ax ⫹ b, then the
partial fraction decomposition of P(x)/D(x) contains a term of the
form

A
A a constant
ax ⫹ b

2. If D(x) has a k-repeating linear factor of the form (ax ⫹ b)k, then the
partial fraction decomposition of P(x)/D(x) contains k terms of the
form

A1 A2 Ak
⫹ ⫹...⫹ A1, A2, . . . , Ak constants
ax ⫹ b (ax ⫹ b)2
(ax ⫹ b)k

3. If D(x) has a nonrepeating quadratic factor of the form ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹

c, which is prime relative to the real numbers, then the partial frac-
tion decomposition of P(x)/D(x) contains a term of the form

Ax ⫹ B
A, B constants
ax ⫹ bx ⫹ c
2

4. If D(x) has a k-repeating quadratic factor of the form (ax2 ⫹ bx

⫹ c)k, where ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c is prime relative to the real numbers,
then the partial fraction decomposition of P(x)/D(x) contains k terms
of the form

A1x ⫹ B1 A2x ⫹ B2 Ak x ⫹ Bk
⫹ ⫹...⫹
ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c (ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c)2 (ax2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c)k
A1, . . . , Ak, B1, . . . , Bk constants

Let’s see how the theorem is used to obtain partial fraction decompositions in
several examples.

EXAMPLE Nonrepeating Linear Factors

1 Decompose into partial fractions:
5x ⫹ 7
.
x ⫹ 2x ⫺ 3
2
 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS A-87

Solution We first try to factor the denominator. If it can’t be factored in the real numbers,
then we can’t go any further. In this example, the denominator factors, so we
apply part 1 from Theorem 3:

5x ⫹ 7 A B
⫽ ⫹ (2)
(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫹ 3) x ⫺ 1 x ⫹ 3

To find the constants A and B, we combine the fractions on the right side of equa-
tion (2) to obtain

5x ⫹ 7 A(x ⫹ 3) ⫹ B(x ⫺ 1)
⫽
(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫹ 3) (x ⫺ 1)(x ⫹ 3)

Since these fractions have the same denominator, their numerators must be equal.
Thus

5x ⫹ 7 ⫽ A(x ⫹ 3) ⫹ B(x ⫺ 1) (3)

We could multiply the right side and find A and B by using Theorem 1, but in
this case it is easier to take advantage of the fact that equation (3) is an iden-
tity—that is, it must hold for all values of x. In particular, we note that if we let
x ⫽ 1, then the second term of the right side drops out and we can solve for A:

5 ⴢ 1 ⫹ 7 ⫽ A(1 ⫹ 3) ⫹ B(1 ⫺ 1)
12 ⫽ 4A
A⫽3

Similarly, if we let x ⫽ ⫺3, the first term drops out and we find

⫺8 ⫽ ⫺4B
B⫽2

Hence,

5x ⫹ 7 3 2
⫽ ⫹ (4)
x ⫹ 2x ⫺ 3 x ⫺ 1 x ⫹ 3
2

as can easily be checked by adding the two fractions on the right.

7x ⫹ 6
MATCHED PROBLEM Decompose into partial fractions: .
x2 ⫹ x ⫺ 6
1
A-88 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Explore/Discuss A graphing utility can also be used to check a partial fraction decomposi-
tion. To check Example 1, we graph the left and right sides of equation
(4) in a graphing utility (Fig. 1). Discuss how the TRACE feature on the
2 graphing utility can be used to check that the graphing utility is display-
ing two identical graphs.
FIGURE 1 10

⫺10 10

⫺10

EXAMPLE Repeating Linear Factors

2 Decompose into partial fractions:
6x2 ⫺ 14x ⫺ 27
.
(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 3)2

Solution Using parts 1 and 2 from Theorem 3, we write

6x2 ⫺ 14x ⫺ 27 A B C
⫽ ⫹ ⫹
(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 3)2
x ⫹ 2 x ⫺ 3 (x ⫺ 3)2
A(x ⫺ 3)2 ⫹ B(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 3) ⫹ C(x ⫹ 2)
⫽
(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 3)2

Thus, for all x,

6x2 ⫺ 14x ⫺ 27 ⫽ A(x ⫺ 3)2 ⫹ B(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 3) ⫹ C(x ⫹ 2)

If x ⫽ 3, then If x ⫽ ⫺2, then

⫺15 ⫽ 5C 25 ⫽ 25A
C ⫽ ⫺3 A⫽1

There are no other values of x that will cause terms on the right to drop out. Since
any value of x can be substituted to produce an equation relating A, B, and C, we
let x ⫽ 0 and obtain

⫺27 ⫽ 9A ⫺ 6B ⫹ 2C Substitute A ⫽ 1 and C ⫽ ⫺3.

⫺27 ⫽ 9 ⫺ 6B ⫺ 6
B⫽5
 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS A-89

Thus,

6x2 ⫺ 14x ⫺ 27 1 5 3
⫽ ⫹ ⫺
(x ⫹ 2)(x ⫺ 3)2
x ⫹ 2 x ⫺ 3 (x ⫺ 3)2

x2 ⫹ 11x ⫹ 15
MATCHED PROBLEM Decompose into partial fractions: .
(x ⫺ 1)(x ⫹ 2)2
2
EXAMPLE Nonrepeating Linear and Quadratic Factors
3 Decompose into partial fractions:
5x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 5
.
(x ⫺ 2)(x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1)

Solution First, we see that the quadratic in the denominator can’t be factored further in the
real numbers. Then, we use parts 1 and 3 from Theorem 3 to write

5x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 5 A Bx ⫹ C
⫽ ⫹
(x ⫺ 2)(x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1) x ⫺ 2 x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1
A(x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1) ⫹ (Bx ⫹ C)(x ⫺ 2)
⫽
(x ⫺ 2)(x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1)

Thus, for all x,

5x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 5 ⫽ A(x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 1) ⫹ (Bx ⫹ C)(x ⫺ 2)

If x ⫽ 2, then

9 ⫽ 3A
A⫽3

If x ⫽ 0, then, using A ⫽ 3, we have

5 ⫽ 3 ⫺ 2C
C ⫽ ⫺1

If x ⫽ 1, then, using A ⫽ 3 and C ⫽ ⫺1, we have

2 ⫽ 3 ⫹ (B ⫺ 1)(⫺1)
B⫽2

Hence,

5x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 5 3 2x ⫺ 1
⫽ ⫹ 2
(x ⫺ 2)(x ⫺ x ⫹ 1) x ⫺ 2 x ⫺ x ⫹ 1
2
A-90 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS

7x2 ⫺ 11x ⫹ 6
MATCHED PROBLEM Decompose into partial fractions: .
(x ⫺ 1)(2x2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 2)
3
EXAMPLE Repeating Quadratic Factors
4 Decompose into partial fractions:
x3 ⫺ 4x2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5
.
(x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3)2

Solution Since x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3 can’t be factored further in the real numbers, we proceed to

use part 4 from Theorem 3 to write

x3 ⫺ 4x2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5 Ax ⫹ B Cx ⫹ D
⫽ 2 ⫹
(x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3)2 x ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3 (x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3)2
(Ax ⫹ B)(x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3) ⫹ Cx ⫹ D
⫽
(x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3)2

Thus, for all x,

x3 ⫺ 4x2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5 ⫽ (Ax ⫹ B)(x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3) ⫹ Cx ⫹ D

Since the substitution of carefully chosen values of x doesn’t lead to the immedi-
ate determination of A, B, C, or D, we multiply and rearrange the right side to obtain

x3 ⫺ 4x2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5 ⫽ Ax3 ⫹ (B ⫺ 2A)x2 ⫹ (3A ⫺ 2B ⫹ C)x ⫹ (3B ⫹ D)

Now we use Theorem 1 to equate coefficients of terms of like degree:

A⫽1
1x 3 ⫺4x 2 ⫹9x ⫺5
B ⫺ 2A ⫽ ⫺4
abc
abc abc abc

3A ⫺ 2B ⫹ C ⫽ 9 abc
afddddbddddfc afddddgddddbddddddddgfc afddddbddddfc
Ax 3 ⫹ (B ⫺ 2A)x 2 ⫹ (3A ⫺ 2B ⫹ C )x ⫹ (3B ⫹ D)
3B ⫹ D ⫽ ⫺5
From these equations we easily find that A ⫽ 1, B ⫽ ⫺2, C ⫽ 2, and D ⫽ 1.
Now we can write
x3 ⫺ 4x2 ⫹ 9x ⫺ 5 x⫺2 2x ⫹ 1
⫽ 2 ⫹ 2
(x ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3)
2 2
x ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3 (x ⫺ 2x ⫹ 3)2

3x3 ⫺ 6x2 ⫹ 7x ⫺ 2
MATCHED PROBLEM Decompose into partial fractions: .
(x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 2)2
4
Answers to Matched Problems
4 3 3 2 1 2 3x ⫺ 2 3x x⫺2
1. ⫹ 2. ⫺ ⫹ 3. ⫹ 4. ⫹
x⫺2 x⫹3 x ⫺ 1 x ⫹ 2 (x ⫹ 2)2 x ⫺ 1 2x2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 2 x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 2 (x2 ⫺ 2x ⫹ 2)2
 Appendix B PARTIAL FRACTIONS A-91

EXERCISE B 3x ⫺ 13 11x ⫺ 11
13. 14.
6x2 ⫺ x ⫺ 12 6x2 ⫹ 7x ⫺ 3
A x2 ⫺ 12x ⫹ 18 5x2 ⫺ 36x ⫹ 48
15. 16.
x3 ⫺ 6x2 ⫹ 9x x(x ⫺ 4)2
In Problems 1–10, find constants A, B, C, and D so that the
right side is equal to the left. 5x2 ⫹ 3x ⫹ 6 6x2 ⫺ 15x ⫹ 16
17. 18.
x3 ⫹ 2x2 ⫹ 3x x3 ⫺ 3x2 ⫹ 4x
7x ⫺ 14 A B
1. ⫽ ⫹ 2x3 ⫹ 7x ⫹ 5 ⫺5x2 ⫹ 7x ⫺ 18
(x ⫺ 4)(x ⫹ 3) x ⫺ 4 x ⫹ 3 19. 20.
x 4 ⫹ 4x2 ⫹ 4 x 4 ⫹ 6x2 ⫹ 9
9x ⫹ 21 A B
2. ⫽ ⫹ x3 ⫺ 7x2 ⫹ 17x ⫺ 17 x3 ⫹ x2 ⫺ 13x ⫹ 11
(x ⫹ 5)(x ⫺ 3) x ⫹ 5 x ⫺ 3 21. 22.
x2 ⫺ 5x ⫹ 6 x2 ⫹ 2x ⫺ 15
17x ⫺ 1 A B
3. ⫽ ⫹
(2x ⫺ 3)(3x ⫺ 1) 2x ⫺ 3 3x ⫺ 1
x ⫺ 11 A B
4. ⫽ ⫹ C
(3x ⫹ 2)(2x ⫺ 1) 3x ⫹ 2 2x ⫺ 1
3x2 ⫹ 7x ⫹ 1 A B C In Problems 23–30, decompose into partial fractions.
5. ⫽ ⫹ ⫹
x(x ⫹ 1)2 x x ⫹ 1 (x ⫹ 1)2
4x2 ⫹ 5x ⫺ 9
23.
x2 ⫺ 6x ⫹ 11 A B C x3 ⫺ 6x ⫺ 9
6. ⫽ ⫹ ⫹
(x ⫹ 1)(x ⫺ 2)2 x ⫹ 1 x ⫺ 2 (x ⫺ 2)2
4x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 1
24.
3x ⫹ x
2
A Bx ⫹ C x3 ⫺ x ⫹ 6
7. ⫽ ⫹ 2
(x ⫺ 2)(x2 ⫹ 3) x ⫺ 2 x ⫹3
x2 ⫹ 16x ⫹ 18
25.
5x ⫺ 9x ⫹ 19
2
A Bx ⫹ C x3 ⫹ 2x2 ⫺ 15x ⫺ 36
8. ⫽ ⫹ 2
(x ⫺ 4)(x2 ⫹ 5) x ⫺ 4 x ⫹5
5x2 ⫺ 18x ⫹ 1
26.
2x2 ⫹ 4x ⫺ 1 Ax ⫹ B Cx ⫹ D x ⫺ x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 12
3
9. 2 ⫽ 2 ⫹ 2
(x ⫹ x ⫹ 1)2
x ⫹ x ⫹ 1 (x ⫹ x ⫹ 1)2
⫺x2 ⫹ x ⫺ 7
27.
3x ⫺ 3x ⫹ 10x ⫺ 4
3 2
Ax ⫹ B Cx ⫹ D x ⫺ 5x3 ⫹ 9x2 ⫺ 8x ⫹ 4
4
10. ⫽ 2 ⫹
(x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 3)2 x ⫺ x ⫹ 3 (x2 ⫺ x ⫹ 3)2
⫺2x3 ⫹ 12x2 ⫺ 20x ⫺ 10
28.
x ⫺ 7x3 ⫹ 17x2 ⫺ 21x ⫹ 18
4
B
4x5 ⫹ 12x4 ⫺ x3 ⫹ 7x2 ⫺ 4x ⫹ 2
29.
In Problems 11–22, decompose into partial fractions. 4x 4 ⫹ 4x3 ⫺ 5x2 ⫹ 5x ⫺ 2
⫺x ⫹ 22 ⫺x ⫺ 21 6x5 ⫺ 13x 4 ⫹ x3 ⫺ 8x2 ⫹ 2x
11. 12. 30.
x2 ⫺ 2x ⫺ 8 x2 ⫹ 2x ⫺ 15 6x 4 ⫺ 7x3 ⫹ x2 ⫹ x ⫺ 1