OVERVIEW ON SHEET METAL FORMING PROCESS

Muhammad Ajwad Haziq Hamdani1, Wan Syafiq Wan Syamsulbahri2, Akmal Danial Kamarul
Suhaimy3, Nazif bin Misnan, Rohaizad bin

Dr Mohd Faisal bin Hushim

Jabatan Kejuruteraan Mekanikal
Faculty of Engineering Technology,
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Hub Pagoh, km 1,
Jalan Panchor, 84600 Pagoh Muar.

Abstract (AJWAD)

Over the last century, the sheet metal industry has seen more technological advances than any other
industries. The transformation is very important to change from hand-forming processes to finite element
based simulation. They have a well-known industry application especially in the automotive industry. This
may be associated with the convenience of which the final component with the desired shape and
appearance can be generated using an easy tool. Due to various applications, the process of forming sheet
metal into various forms leads to the classification of the process of formation based on certain operations.
This will involves the process of deep drawing, bending, blanking, and stretch forming. All the process has
several parameters that determine the quality of work being made. This paper presents a critical survey for
different forming method and identifying the benefits for each method from recent research in sheet metal
forming process. Most studies on the formation of sheet metal focus on parameters that affect the quality
and economic factors of the final product. Effect of process parameters based on geometry such as punch
nose radius, blank temperature, and blank holding force, tool dimensions, blank thickness and punch depth
are important. Likewise, the parameters refer to the material properties like elastic strength, yield strength,
plasticity and anisotropy have as much influence as the geometry based parameters. The past researchers
have issued issues of defects in the formed parts. Defects such as wrinkling, tearing, springback, local
necking and buckling in regions of compressive stresses have been analysed using both experimental and
simulation techniques. Springback, the most important defect, has been carefully studied while considering
sheet thickness, punch force, nose radius, binder force, die opening, punch velocity, punch height, sheet
anisotropy, clearance, elastic limit and yield strength of the blank material as input parameters. This paper
also targets to do overviewing on the finite element based tool design, experimental and numerical
investigations into the process of forming sheet metal.

Keyword: Sheet Metal Forming processes; Forming Process Parameters; Springback; Finite Element
Simulation

1.0 INTRODUCTION (AJWAD)

Sheet metal forming in its basic sense means the stretching of sheet blank between a punch and a
die. The dynamic activity involving the controlled movement of tooling elements results in the rise
of various influencing parameters involving both physical and material properties. These
parameters wholly affect the final predicted part. The prediction is a huge process because it
involves coordinating the influencing parameters amongst each other and this is only for the known
industry standard problems. But, due to the changing nature of industry needs every new day, the
predicting process becomes challenging. Over a small scale, the trial and error methods can help
overcome the challenges above said. But from an economic and manufacturing point of view, trial
and error methods fail.
The recent technological advancements have paved the way for finite element based
analysis for all kinds of operations like casting, forming, cutting etc. The most important mode of
FE based analysis is the simulation or Computer Aided Engineering (CAE), in general terms. By
definition, simulation is a software tool capable of both designing and testing the potential of a
particular operation. Many a design software like LS-Dyna, AutoForm, HyperForm etc. have
evolved over the years to avail best of features covering all the needs of a forming industry. This
simulation based manufacturing has cut the time-cost factors significantly and in turn the money
that was being wasted earlier on the trial and error practice is now used for advancements in
simulation technology. In recent years, tool development and production time has been reduced
by about 50% by simulation and a further 30% reduction over the next few years appears realistic
[1]. Material properties, geometrical parameters, contour definition, physical parameters and
output parameters, can now be defined accurately for a given operation. On the contrary, not
everything is acceptable with the simulation based manufacturability. When we compare the
definition of several characteristics involved in sheet metal forming between simulation models
and physical reality, the incorrect description of significant factors does not go unnoticed [2]
Coming to the parameters influencing the sheet metal forming process, there are two
distinct types; geometrical and material parameters. The influence of geometrical parameters such
as punch nose radius, die shoulder radius, blank temperature, blank holding force, tooling
dimensions, blank thickness and punch depth is significant. Similarly, the parameters based on the
material properties like elastic strength, yield strength, plasticity and anisotropy have as much
influence as the geometry based parameters. These all parameters, if defined incorrectly, results in
defects such as wrinkling, tearing, springback, local necking and buckling in regions of
compressive stresses. In this paper, the literature available on the effect of process parameters on
the final product of a sheet metal forming process including drawing, bending and to some extent,
blanking and stretch forming are reviewed.
2.0 DRAWING (SASER)
Drawing refers to the manufacture of cups, shells, boxes and similar other products from sheet
metal blanks [3].The process involves the drawing of a metal blank placed on the die by the
downward movement of punch with a pre decided travel speed and stroke. Generally, when the
cup is no deeper than half its diameter it is called box or shallow drawing. And drawing is cup or
deep drawing when the cup depth is more than half its diameter [3]. A typical deep drawing process
to produce a cup is shown in Fig 1.

Figure 1: Deep Drawing Process [19]

2.1. Process parameters
Every sheet metal process is governed by various parameters. In case of drawing the
following parameters play a significant role.
• Punch nose radius
• Die shoulder radius
• Blank holding force
• Friction
• Material properties
The process parameters such as blank holder force, lubrication, punch nose radius and die
shoulder radius, die–punch clearance affect the formability of a sheet metal [4]. In an effort to
understand the influence of die shoulder radius, blank holding force and friction co-efficient on
the formability of a stainless steel sheet metal into a deep drawn cup, Padmanabhan et al. [4]
conducted FE analysis coupled with Taguchi technique of experimental design. Further, the
variance analysis based on ANOVA technique was used to analyze the percentage influence of
each of above mentioned parameters on the final product. In the Taguchi method, a L9 (3 3)
orthogonal array fitting 3 levels for each of 3 parameters was constructed. When die shoulder
radius, BHF and friction were varied, the test results indicated that, over the final product, the die
shoulder radius had a major influence of 89.2% followed by 6.3% for friction and 4.5% for BHF.
The above analysis is based only on finite element theory and simulation. In order to
analyze a particular process, experimental analysis coupled with finite element based analysis is
highly effective. Clogan et al. [5] conducted combined experimental and FE analysis (Numerical
analysis) of a deep drawing process. The theory behind the deformation of blank over the entire
process of drawing is beautifully explained. The influencing parameters considered in this study
include punch nose radius, die shoulder radius, punch velocity, clamping force, friction (type and
position of lubrication) and draw depth. For the experimental purpose a test rig was designed and
manufactured. The geometrical dimensions for the elements of the test rig were taken from the
literature and mild steel EN10130 FeP01 of 1 mm thickness was used as the test blank material.
Simultaneously FE analysis was carried out using AutoForm starting with FE modeling.Similar to
the works Padmanabhan et al., ANOVA technique was used in determining the most and least
influencing factors for the given process following which a L8 {27(2 levels and 7 parameters)}
array was constructed. The tests conducted by experiments and FE analysis were compared over
the resulting thickness of the final product. The results of ANOVA for wall thickness and for
maximum punch force at 20mm depth reveal punch nose radius and die shoulder radius to be the
most influencing parameters. Although friction does not influence the thickness distribution, it has
a major influence on the maximum punch force at 20mm depth. In all, this study helps in deciding
major influencing parameters on the final product but does not decide on their values or range of
working values.
In a way, as confirmation of the test results mentioned above and going a notch higher,
Zein et al. [6] conducted FE analysis (Simulation analysis) for the deep drawn cup of mild steel.
The test parameters considered are die shoulder radius, punch nose radius, sheet thickness, radial
clearance, BHF and three friction co-efficient values between blank and die, punch and blank
holder. Before proceeding with the analysis, validation of the FE model and corresponding results
for thickness variation was done against experimental work done by Clogan et al., for the same
geometric model. Sufficient ranges of values were considered for all the parameters while
conducting tests. The results are discussed considering two types of parameters; tool geometry
parameters and physical parameters. The tests carried out resulted in ideal values for all the
parameters to be considered while designing similar end product. The authors concluded that die
shoulder radius and punch nose radius have to be ideally 8 times and 3 times the sheet thickness
respectively. Slightly thicker metal blanks can be gripped better as well as % thinning can be
improved. Radial clearance, the final geometrical parameter, for better finish has to be more than
the sheet thickness. Blank holding force, first of physical parameter, is recommended to be less
than 3 tons to reduce over thinning. Co-efficient of friction values between blank & punch, blank
& die and blank & blank holder, are ideally to be between the range of 0-0.3, 0-0.2 and 0-0.2
respectively. The results of this study are significant in a way that further studies can be conducted
keeping in mind the obtained range of values for all the above discussed parameters.
In all the above cases the blank material is either mild steel or stainless steel. Considering
AA6111 Aluminum alloy for the blank material, Reddy et al. [7] conducted experimental analysis
to understand the influence of punch nose radius, die shoulder radius and blank holding force on
thickness. A L9 (3 3) array derived from Taguchi method while considering three levels for each
of three parameters was constructed. ANOVA technique was used to analyse the percentage
influence of each of above mentioned parameters on the final product. The analysis helped in
obtaining optimal design parameters for punch nose radius, die shoulder radius and blank holding
force to attain uniform thickness. Finally, as far as the percentage influence of each parameter on
thickness is concerned, blank holding force leads with 56.98% followed by punch nose radius
(30.12%) and die shoulder radius (12.90%). As stated in the introduction section, material
properties like elastic strength, yield strength, plasticity and anisotropy are significant not only on
the final product but also on the process parameters. En-zhi et al. [8] conducted finite element
based numerical simulation of deep drawing of a thin walled hemisphere to study the influence of
material properties like hardening exponent (n), yield stress (σs) and elastic modulus (E) on punch
force, thickness variation and equivalent strain. Hardening exponent determines the metal behavior
while being formed. Formability and hardening exponent are directly proportional to each other
[9]. As all the three parameters are dependent, variation in any one of the parameter results in
various suppositional materials with varying material properties. Varying elastic modulus, yield
stress and hardening exponent independently resulted in a total of 18 valid FE models.
The results indicated that when E increases and σs or n decreases, the equivalent plastic
strain increases mainly at wall regions outside die corner. But the equivalent plastic strain increases
at ball top when σs or n are decreased continuously. Coming to the effect on punch force, as E, σs
or n increases the punch force required to produce a defect free product increases. In particular as
n increases larger is the punch force required. But as larger n results in wrinkling, care must be
taken to optimally select its value.
3.0 BENDING (ROHAIZAD)
Bending is defined as shaping metal around a straight axis which extends completely across the
material. A typical tool set up for U-bending and V-bending is shown in Fig 2. The consequence
is a plane surface at an angle to the original plane of the workpiece. Metal flow is even across the
bend axis, with the internal surface of the bend in compression and the external surface in tension
[3]. But on the removal of load total strain on the work reduces because of elastic recovery resulting
in shape discrepancy. This is defined as springback. Springback is the most discussed issue when
studying bending; both V and Wipe bending. There are a number of parameters that influence the
springback effect while bending. In the following write-up, the work of various authors on
springback is being reviewed and reported.

Figure 2: Die Bending Operation [19]

3.1. Process parameters

The various parameters that influence the manufacturability of a part by bending process are listed
below.
• Punch nose radius
• Die shoulder radius
• Punch velocity
• Die opening
• Sheet thickness
• Material properties
Vasudevan et al. [10] studied the springback effect in electrogalvanised steel sheets experimentally
while considering coating thickness, orientation of the sheet, punch nose radius, die shoulder
radius, die opening and punch velocity as the influencing parameters.
The experiments were all conducted upon a 1mm thick AKDQ steel sheet, for both coated
and uncoated type. The coating thickness was varied and two orientation angles, 0° and 90° were
used for taking all the measurements. The results showed that for increasing thickness of coating,
springback increased. It may be attributed to zinc coating which reduces the friction between the
tool and sheet and thereby reducing the strain rates leading to increased springback. As far as
orientation of the sheet is concerned, 90° orientation showed higher springback compared to 0° for
both coated and uncoated sheets. This was attributed to the fact that springback depends upon yield
strength to Young’s modulus ratio (σs/E) which is higher for 90° (transverse direction) orientation.
On varying the next parameter, punch nose radius, experimental results showed similar
results for uncoated as well as coated sheets. With increasing punch nose radius, springback
increased. As the punch nose radius increased, the effective clearance between punch and die
increased leading to an increase in springback. The experiments over die openings also concluded
same results for both types of sheets. As die opening was varied, higher springback angles were
observed for higher die openings caused by increased bending moments. Similarly, when die
shoulder radius was varied, springback angles increased proportionately. This was attributed to
increased die opening as die shoulder radius increased leading to higher bending moments. The
last parameter i.e. punch velocity also had directly proportionate influence on springback. As
punch velocity was varied, springback angles increased and for both coated and uncoated sheets.
This was attributed to the fact that friction decreases with increased punch velocity. Although
springback increased in both types of sheets, it was more dominant in EG coated sheets.
Analysis carried out through finite element based simulation help a great extent in predicting
springback and the influence of process parameters on the same. Biradar et al. [11], employing
ANSYS software conducted FE based springback analysis in wipe (L) bending of a copper alloy
sheet while considering the influence of punch nose radius, die shoulder radius, die opening and
sheet thickness. As the die shoulder radius was increased, springback increased which was
attributed to increased die opening. In a similar manner as punch nose radius was increased,
springback increased. But when punch nose radius was varied beyond 1mm, spring back slightly
decreased. Coming to die opening effect, springback increased as die opening was increased.
Contrary to the above variation, as the sheet thickness was increased, springback decreased owing
to the fact that increased sheet thickness increased the effective surface contact between punch &
sheet and sheet & die.
The material properties are very important factors in the analysis of springback as elastic
recovery is dependent mainly on the internal structure of the material. Panthi et al. [12] conducted
finite element analysis to study the effect of material properties, geometrical parameters and
lubrication between the sheet and tool on springback. While studying the effect of material
properties such as yield stress, Young’s modulus and strain hardening exponent, arbitrary values
were considered for the parameters so as to cover maximum kind of materials. The analysis was
conducted by varying yield stress, hardening exponent and Young’s modulus. The results showed
that springback angles increased with increasing yield stress as well as increasing hardening
exponent. But, springback angles decreased with increased values of Young’s modulus. While
studying the effect of friction between blank & punch and blank & die on springback, it was found
out that friction had no significant effect on springback. The study also involved the analysis of
influence of geometrical parameters such as sheet thickness and die shoulder radius on springback.
The results indicated that springback increased as die shoulder radius increased which is due to
increased die opening. And as sheet thickness increased, springback decreased. This may be
attributed to increased surface contact between blank & punch and blank & die.
Although springback is dominant in V-bending and wipe bending, a finite element based
study conducted by Lokhande et al. [13] reveals springback effect in U-bending. Sheet thickness
and blank holding force were considered for influencing parametric study on springback. Using
HyperForm for pre-processing and Radioss for solving, a material provided in the database of
HyperForm, IS513D, was considered for the blank. As the sheet thickness was varied, springback
increased with increase in sheet thickness. This is in contrast to the effect of sheet thickness on
springback in V-bending or wipe bending. The other parameter, blank holding force, when
increased resulted in decreased springback.
 In order to attain the dimensional accuracy on the final product, the punch velocities are
set to operate at low values. But, lower punch velocities lead to increased springback. Krinninger
et al. [14] conducted experimental study of the influence of punch velocity, bend angle, bend radius
and component width on springback. The study was done on free bending of two materials; a
microalloyed steel HX260LAD and a stainless steel 1.4310 (higher yield strength) of 0.84 mm and
1.00 mm sheet thickness respectively. Springback was observed to be lower at smaller bend angle
and highest at larger bend angles.
But the results were not sufficient to establish a linear relation between springback and
bend angle. On the other hand, a linear relationship between band radius and springback was
established owing to increased springback with increase in bend radius. This was attributed to
larger zone of plastic deformation at higher bend radius. As component width was varied,
springback increased for wider components. This was due to increased residual stresses as width
and thereby area of the component increased. When punch velocity was varied, springback
decreased with increase in punch velocity. This variation was attributed to reduction in recovery
at higher velocities. The same trend of variation between parameters and springback was observed
for both the materials but the magnitude of springback was higher for stainless steel 1.4310 due to
its higher yield strength.
4.0 BLANKING (NAZIF)
Unlike the above two forming processes, blanking and punching are two cutting operations
performed on a sheet metal. In blanking, as shown in Fig 3, the stock left on the die after punching
is scrap while in punching, the cut part is the scrap. One of the most common examples for both
punching and blanking operations, combined, is the manufacturing of a washer [3].

Figure 3: Blanking Process [19]

4.1. Process parameters
• Clearance
• Punch radius
• Sheet thickness
• Friction
• Punch velocity
• Tool wear
 In an effort to study the influence various parameters on sheet metal blanking, Maiti et al.
[15] conducted finite element based analysis of blanking of a thin mild steel sheet. The parameters
considered in this study are tool clearance, friction, sheet thickness, punch/die size and blanking
layout. The analysis was done using ANSYS while considering a plain-strain condition for all the
tests. The analysis was done for two cases; single blanking and double blanking. As the clearance
increased, punch load decreased. This was attributed to increased plastic deformation zone with
increasing clearance. Similarly, as the friction increased, punch load increased. While varying
sheet thickness, punch load did not vary proportionately and it was concluded that sheet thickness
had no direct impact on punch load. But, when blank diameter was increased keeping sheet
thickness constant, punch load increased. The effect of friction and clearance in both cases of
single and double blanking was same. In a similar but exclusive study of influence of clearance on
the formability in a blanking process, Fang et al. [16] conducted FE based numerical simulation
of blanking operation of an aluminum alloy 2024. The study was aimed at optimizing the clearance
values for the material considered. The clearance between the punch and die was varied while
keeping 1mm sheet thickness constant for all the tests. As clearance increased, blanking forces
decreased but this trend was observed to be insignificant when the clearance was between 0-
20percent of sheet thickness. The study also revealed that clearance had significant effect on the
dimensional and shape accuracies. Extreme values for clearance resulted in bad profiles on the
final product. A clearance of 0.5mm was considered to be resulting in favorable dimensional
accuracy.
Husson et al. [17] studied the influence of punch-die clearance, tool wear and friction on
sheared edge (blank profile) obtained on the final product of a blanking process. The study
involved FE based simulation of blanking of thin copper sheets of 0.58mm thickness.
Commercially available ABAQUS/Explicit software was used to perform blanking simulations.
The blank profile was divided into 4 regions. Starting from bottom, the blank profile was divided
as burr, fracture, burnish and rollover regions. When the clearance was varied, it was observed that
it had no effect on burr region. However both fracture and rollover regions are increased with
increase in clearance. The tool wear is a direct impact of sharp (0.01mm) and dull (0.10mm) edges
on punch and die. It was observed that dull edges and higher clearance resulted in under quality
blank profile while sharp and lower clearance resulted in good quality blank profile. Coming to
friction, it was observed that there was no significant effect on sheared edge when co-efficient of
friction was varied.The application of blanking process is multi-disciplinary ranging from
mechanical to electrical fields. An example of such kind is ferromagnetic sheet metal blanking.
Marouani et al. [18] conducted FE based numerical analysis on blanking of a 0.65mm thick FeSi
(3wt. %) steel sheet. Commercially available ABAQUS/Explicit software was used to perform
blanking simulations. The influencing parameters considered were clearance and punch velocity
while performance parameters considered are punch force and punch penetration. The results
showed that for all punch velocities, punch forces increased as punch penetration increased but
decreased as punch penetration further increased. Similar to all the previous findings, increased
clearance resulted in decreased punch forces. The relation between clearance and punch
penetration is observed to be not documented.
5.0 STRETCH FORMING (WAN)
Stretch forming is a process of tensile forming used to impart impressions on curved or flat sheet
whereby enlargement is due to decreased sheet thickness [19]. In Fig 4, as the sheet is stretched
between the two collets, the thickness is reduced from S0 to S1, while imparting the convex
impression on the sheet.

Figure 4: Stretch Forming Process [19]

5.1. Process parameters
• Punch radius
• Sheet thickness
• Punch travel
• Friction
• Material properties
As in the case of bending process, springback is a dominant part of stretch forming. Most
of the literature available on stretch forming deals with the springback analysis. Fahd Fathi [20]
conducted FE based simulation on stretch forming of Al 3003-H14 aluminum alloy using ANSYS
and studied the influence of blank thickness, punch travel, punch radius and friction between
tooling & blank on springback. Before proceeding with the analysis, the FE model was validated
against experimental benchmarks. The sheet thickness was varied while keeping punch radius as
17.5mm and µ as 0.3. It was observed that as sheet thickness increased, springback decreased. This
was attributed to increased stretch forming forces as sheet thickness increased. Next, as the punch
travel increased, springback also increased. This was due to higher elastic recovery at higher plastic
deformations. Two values for punch radius were considered to study its influence on springback.
It was observed that at lower punch radius, springback observed was less compared higher punch
radius. When friction values were varied, it was observed that springback decreased with
increasing friction co-efficient between punch and blank.
The material properties of the blank being stretched play an important role in springback
analysis. Study of influence of material properties like yield stress (σs) and strain hardening
exponent (n) along with sheet thickness on springback was carried out by Hardt et al. [21]
experimentally. Although no values are provided for each of the three parameters, the analysis was
done considering % changes in the values. The study revealed that springback increased with
increasing yield stress and strain hardening exponent owing to lower plasticity overall. But, as the
thickness of the sheet increased, springback decreased.
 Forming Limit diagram (FLD) is an important tool in knowing the failure points in a
formed part. Manikandan et al. [22] conducted both experimental and finite element analysis of
stretch forming of HIF and IF galvanized steel sheets. The influencing parameter studied in this
work is friction. In both experimental and finite element analysis, it was observed that friction had
a negligible effect (minimal) on the left side of FLD but significant effect on the right side. The
results showed that in the absence of friction, both major and minor strains were equal. But as the
friction co-efficient increased, major strain was observed to be greater than minor strain.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS (AJWAD)
It is evident from all the literature available that finite element based simulations in sheet metal
industry is of great advantage over trial and error technique of optimization. The manufacturability
becomes efficient eliminating time and cost liabilities.
Coming to the sheet metal forming processes itself, drawing and bending are the two most
widely used techniques in sheet metal industry. Both experimental and FE based simulation works
have been done in analysing these two processes. It is understood from the literature that punch
nose radius and die shoulder radius coupled with appropriate blank holding force are the main
parameters that influence the manufacturability of a part using drawing. Similarly, the most
important study in bending is the influence of process parameters such as punch nose radius, die
shoulder radius, friction between the blank and tooling and material properties on springback.
Again, the influence of punch nose radius and die shoulder radius is found out to be more
significant than other parameters.
Blanking and stretch forming techniques are used for specific purposes but for mass
production. While the influencing parameters in blanking process include clearance between
punch and die, sheet thickness, friction and punch travel, stretch forming process depends upon
punch radius, sheet thickness, friction and punch travel. In both the cases punch travel and sheet
thickness have significant effect on the manufacturability of the final product. Also, springback
plays an important role in stretch forming.
Although FE based simulation yields favorable outcomes, the factors that are involved in
a sheet metal forming or cutting operation are not accurately defined owing to simulation
limitations [2]. Therefore, the future research should be focused on performing efficient
simulations considering all factors. One such example is definition of friction between tooling and
blank in case of deep drawing of a cup. Most of the literature available uses a constant value for
friction throughout the drawing process. But in reality, the values change as the punch stroke
increases from initial to final position [23]. In order to attain better and accurate results, the
simulation interface has to be properly developed and used for design and testing.
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