Sand and Sandstone

F.J. Pettijohn P.E. Potter R. Siever

Sand and
Sandstone
Second Edition

With 355 Figures

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

 F.J. PETTI10HN
Professor Emeritus of Geology, The Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, MD 21218/USA

PAUL EDWIN POTTER

Professor of Geology, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, OH 452211USA

RA YMOND SIEVER
Professor of Geology, Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA 02138/USA

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Pettijohn, F.J. (Francis John), 1904-
Sand and sandstone.
IncJudes bibliographical references and index.
1. Sand. 2. Sandstone. I. Potter, Paul Edwin.
II. Siever, Raymond. III. Tide.
QE471.2.P47 1987 552'.5 86-17925

© 1972, 1987 by Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1987
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DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-1066-5
Sand and Sandstone-
Illustrious Forefathers

Henry C. Sorby, 1826-1908

The first to study rocks in thin section and a pioneer in the study of sand:
sedimentary structures, paleocurrents, provenance, and diagenesis. He
also founded carbonate petrology and metallography. Truly an outstand-
ing innovator and observer and the ultimate model of what a creative
individual working alone can accomplish.

lohan A. Udden, 1859-1932

Pioneer Swedish-American frontier scientist at Augustana College in the
American Midwest. Systematically studied the size distribution of sand
and was one of the first to relate it to process and environment in The
Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits, published in 1898. A devoted
teacher and a great contributor to a broad vista of sedimentology.

Lucien Cayeux, 1864-1944

Emphasized the "natural history" of a sediment from its earliest deposi-
tion to its most recent diagenetic event, placing great reliance on thin
section petrography. A prolific publisher with a long career as a teacher.
His monographs, such as Les Roches Sedimentaires de France, Roches
Siliceuses, set a high standard.

Marcus Goldman, 1881-1965

An American who studied with Thoulet at Nancy, Cayeux at Paris, and
Walther at Halle, he was the pioneer sedimentary petrologist in America.
His Ph.D. thesis on the Cretaceous of Maryland and his study of the
Catahoula (Tertiary) sandstone of Texas were milestone papers.

Paul D. Krynine, 1901-1964

An imaginative thinker, he emphasized careful thin section petrology and
deductive thinking. A leader in linking tectonics and sandstone composi-
tions. Because he was never afraid to speculate, many of today's contro-
versies about sandstones would have been instantly familiar to Krynine.

Philip H. Kuenen, 1902-1976

The origin and properties of sand and the origin and characteristics of
turbidity currents in both the modern and ancient environment were only
a few of his favorite topics. Both were studied in the field, on the oceans,
and experimentally in the laboratory. He had imagination, ingenuity in
experimentation, and a farsightedness in sedimentary dynamics pos-
sessed by few.

v
vi Sand and Sandstone-Illustrious Forefathers

William C. Krumbein, 1902-1979

The size distribution of sand, shape, roundness, porosity, and permeabil-
ity, sand mineralogy, the petrographic classification of sandstones,
diagenesis via Eh and pH, beach processes, facies maps and their inter-
pretation, statistical and computer analysis all show his sustained innova-
tion and application of quantitative methods and statistical approaches.

Edwin D. McKee, 1906-1984

Studies of modern and ancient sandstones on five continents plus field and
experimental investigations of stratification, trace fossils, and ancient
paleo-environments were the contributions of this long-term member of
the U.S. Geological Survey. An authority on the classical sections of the
Grand Canyon region, he applied his special knowledge of that area to
many general problems of sandstones, especially to eolian sedimentation.
Preface to the Second Edition

The first edition appeared fourteen years ago. Since then there have been
significant advances in our science that warrant an updating and revision
of Sand and Sandstone.
The main framework of the first edition has been retained so that the
reader can begin with the mineralogy and textural properties of sands and
sandstones, progress through their organization and classification and
their study as a body of rock, to consideration of their origin-prove-
nance, transportation, deposition, and lithification-and finally to their
place in the stratigraphic column and the basin.
The last decade has seen the rise of facies analysis based on a closer
look at the stratigraphic record and the recognition of characteristic bed-
ding sequences that are the signatures of some geologic process-such as
a prograding shallow-water delta or the migration of a point bar on an
alluvial floodplain. The environment of sand deposition is more closely
determined by its place in such depositional systems than by criteria
based on textural characteristics-the "fingerprint" approach. Our revi-
sion reflects this change in thinking.
As in the geological sciences as a whole, the concept of plate tectonics
has required a rethinking of our older ideas about the origin and accumu-
lation of sediments-especially the nature of the sedimentary basins.
These had been categorized as geosynclines of one kind or another. We
now have to redefine these in terms of plate tectonics. Plate motions
generate depositional basins. How do we classify these and recognize
them in the ancient record? What does the study of sandstones contribute
to this problem? We are still feeling our way and the criteria for recogni-
tion of the several types of basins and the characteristics of their fill are
only partially understood. A number of papers have appeared that focus
on the sands in particular.
We now know a good deal more about the relations between bedforms
and the internal current structures of sandstone and modern and ancient
flow regimes; hence we have incorporated this new knowledge in the
second edition. We have also added a chapter on paleocurrents. It is not
enough to study the process of sand transport and the bedforms but we
need also to reconstruct the transport pattern to better understand the
paleogeography at the time of deposition. Sandstones are the prime rec-
ord of these paleocurrents.
Also a great deal of progress has been made in sedimentary geochemis-
try, especially of diagenesis. These advances have led to extended revi-
sion of the subject as it relates to sandstones. We are now learning to use
new tools for investigating sandstone composition-the scanning electron
microscope, the electron microprobe, and others. These tools provide
data we did not have and the means to refine our interpretations. We

Vll
viii Preface to the Second Edition

take cognizance of these new data in our treatment of provenance and dia-
genesis.
We note also that just as thin-section studies of ancient sandstones are
routine, so also this technique is now being applied to the study of modern
sands. Such sections provide a much better means for identification of
rock and mineral grains and for point-counting. They have greatly en-
hanced our ability to compare ancient and modern sands.
We also became aware that sedimentology has become truly cosmopol-
itan. Whereas formerly most of the relevant literature came from the
English-speaking world, especially the United States, Canada, and Great
Britain and from western Europe, it is now truly international. We have
taken account of this expanded literature in our revision.
During this revision we were made acutely aware of the great quantity
of excellent work on sand and sandstone that is represented by the flood
of literature on the subject that has appeared since the first edition. It
became obvious that we could neither completely survey all the world's
work nor even refer to all of the new developments in the geology of
sands, the application of other disciplines to sand study or the application
of sand studies to practical matters such as the search for oil or mineral
deposits. What we hope is that we have covered most of the major ad-
vances that have become part of the body of knowledge we call the
geology of sand and sandstone.

Acknowledgments
We thank all those who helped with the second edition of Sand and
Sandstone.
Those who read text include: H.E. Clifton, U.S. Geological Survey,
Menlo Park, California; Jorge della Farvara, PETROBRAS, Rio de Ja-
neiro, Brazil; J.A. Gilreath, Schlumberger Offshore Services, New Or-
leans, Louisiana; R.V. Ingersoll, University of California at Los Angeles,
California; J. Barry Maynard, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio;
J.H. McGowen, ARCO Research, Plano, Texas; Rafael Unrug, Wright
State University, Dayton, Ohio; and W. Zimmerle, Deutsche Texaco,
CelIe, West Germany. Richard Spohn, Geology Librarian of the Univer-
sity of Cincinnati, was most helpful.
We also thank our typists for their care and patience: Wanda Osborne
and Joan Harman of Cincinnati, Christine Levitt of Harvard, and Kate
Francis of Johns Hopkins.

November I, 1986 F.J. PETTIJOHN

P.E. POTTER
R. SIEVER
Preface to the First Edition

This book is the outgrowth of a week-long conference on sandstone orga-

nized by the authors, first held at Banff, Alberta, in 1964 under the auspi-
ces of the Alberta Association of Petroleum Geologists and the University
of Alberta, and again, in 1965, at Bloomington, Indiana, under the spon-
sorship of the Indiana Geological Survey and the Department of Geology,
Indiana University. A 200-page syllabus was prepared for the second
conference and published by the Indiana Geological Survey. Continuing
interest in and demand for the syllabus prompted us to update and expand
its contents. The result is this book.
We hope this work will be useful as a text or supplementary text for
advanced undergraduate and graduate courses in sedimentation, sedimen-
tary petrology, or general petrology and perhaps will be helpful to the
teachers of such courses. Though we have focussed on sandstones we
have necessarily included much of interest to students of all sediments.
We hope also that it will be a useful reference work for the professional
geologist, especially those concerned with petroleum, ground-water, and
economic geology either in industry or government. Because the subject
is so closely tied to surface processes it may also be of interest to geomor-
phologists and engineers who deal with beaches and rivers where sand is
in transit.
This work presupposes a general knowledge of the elements of mineral-
ogy, chemistry and statistics on the part of the reader. As no investigation
of sediments-especially sandstones-can be considered adequate or
complete without careful microscopical analysis, we also presume, there-
fore, that the user of this book has the knowledge and skills needed to
study sands and sandstones under the microscope.
On the other hand, some cognate fields of knowledge are less familiar to
geologists and while we did not include a section on statistics or thermo-
dynamics, we did include a section on the principles underlying fluid flow
and the propulsion of granular materials. We feel that some knowledge of
this subject will become increasingly important in understanding physical
sedimentation and the resulting textures and structures of sands.
The book is organized in such a manner as to lead the reader from
consideration of the component grains in a sandstone to the analysis of
sandstones in the sedimentary basin as a whole. The first half is largely
descriptive, a summary of what is known about sandstones beginning
with the components, their composition (Chapter 2) and geometrical
properties (Chapter 3), progressing to the larger organization and struc-
ture (Chapter 4) to the whole rock itself (Chapters 5, 6 and 7). The second
half of the book is more largely interpretative and process-oriented. It
includes the processes of sand formation (Chapter 8), transportation and

ix
x Preface to the First Edition

deposition (Chapter 9), and post-depositional alteration (Chapter 10). The

book concludes with a resume of the relation of sands to their environ-
ment of deposition and to other sediments (Chapter 11) and a summary of
their distribution in space and time (Chapter 12). We have included a
synoptic review of several better-known sedimentary basins in which an
integrated approach-involving stratigraphy, sedimentary petrology, and
paleocurrents-was used to unravel geologic history.
For the most part, analytical techniques are omitted. They are ade-
quately covered in several modern texts and manuals (see references, p.
19). Exceptionally, however, we have included a short appendix on the
art of petrographical description and analysis which, like field work, is
best learned perhaps from experience under the guidance of a skilled
master of the subject. We felt it worthwhile, however, to set down some
guiding principles as these are seldom made explicit in most published
works.
We did not include many "case histories" because, unlike in law or
psychiatry, we feel that the student can turn to no better source of instruc-
tion than the rocks themselves. No course on this subject can be consid-
ered adequate or complete without a well-integrated program of field and
laboratory studies. The student, under the supervision of his teacher,
should work out his own problems. The clinic is a better guide to practice
than the case book.
References to the literature are of two kinds-actual citations in the
text to specific papers and a collection of annotated references. The latter
for the most part supplement rather than repeat the text citations. Both
are placed at the end of the appropriate chapters. In general, our refer-
ences are selective, that is, although they include some older classic
papers, emphasis is on the more recent ones. In many cases, such as the
chapter on sedimentary structures, we did not feel the need of an in-depth
review of the literature inasmuch as several specialized modern works
which contain an extensive bibliography are readily available.
As is inevitable in a work of this kind, much of what is contained
therein is a compilation from many sources which transcend and go be-
yond the immediate and direct experience of the authors. We have tried to
acknowledge our debt to these sources at the appropriate places. We also
wish to acknowledge the helpful criticism of those who read sections of
this work when it was in manuscript form. In particular, we are indebted
to Earle McBride, University of Texas, for checking our glossary of rock
names applied to sandstones, to Robert L. Smith, U.S. Geological Sur-
vey, William F. Jenks, University of Cincinnati, and Richard V. Fisher,
University of California at Santa Barbara, for reading the chapter on
volcaniclastic sands, to Lee Suttner for criticism of Chapters 4 and 6, to
Gerald V. Middleton of McMaster University, Yaron M. Sternberg of the
University of Maryland and John B. Southard ofthe Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology for their help with the chapter on transport and deposi-
tion, to S. V. Hrabar of the Humble Oil Company for reading all of Chap-
ter 11 and Donald A. Holm of Williams, Arizona, and Richard Mast of the
Illinois Geological Survey for reading parts of it, to D.A. Pretorius of the
University of Witwatersrand and R.W. Ojakangas of the University of
Minnesota at Duluth for their comments on portions of Chapter 12, and to
Miriam Kastner for help in the X-ray and electron probe analysis of the
Trivoli Sandstone. Alan S. Horowitz oflndiana University read and help-
fully edited many of the chapters. We wish to thank Mrs. Susan Berson,
Miss Kathleen Feinour, Miss Jean Dell'Uomo, Mrs. Debby Powell, and
Miss Cynthia Worswick for the final typing of the manuscript and our
Preface to the First Edition xi

publishers for their help in the preparation of the illustrations and seeing
the work through the press.
To emphasize our spirit of teamwork we have listed our names in
alphabetical order.

January 1, 1972 F. J. PETTIJOHN

P. E. POTTER
R. SIEVER
Contents

Preface to the Second Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

Preface to the First Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX

1. Introduction and Source Materials ....................... .

Sand and Sandstone Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Relative and Absolute Abundance ................ . . . . . . . . 3
Distribution, Past and Present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
History of Investigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Economic Value of Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
General Sources for the Study of Sand and Sandstone. . . . . . 13
General. .. . . .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . 13
Sandy Environments and Depositional Systems. . . . . . . . . . 14
Specialized Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Sedimentary Petrology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Manuals, Encyclopedias, and Special Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

PART 1. THE FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF

SANDSTONES

2. Mineral and Chemical Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Weathering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Diagenesis ........................................... 26
Mixing of Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Sedimentary Differentiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Rock Fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Detrital and Chemical Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Sandstone Mineral Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
X-Ray and Other Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Surface Appearance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
The Detrital Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
The Silica Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Feldspars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Micas, Chlorites, and Clay Minerals .................... 38
Heavy Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Rock Fragments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

XIII
xiv Contents

The Chemical Minerals ................................. . 46

Carbonates .......................................... . 46
Sulfates ............................................. . 48
Sulfides ............................................. . 49
Other Minerals ...................................... . 49
Organic Matter ...................................... . 52
Relation of Mineralogy to Texture ....................... . 53
Mineralogy and Size .................................. . 53
Mineralogy and Resistance to Abrasion ................. . 53
Chemical Composition .................................. . 54
Chemical Composition as a Function of Mineral
Constituents ....................................... . 54
Isotopic Composition ................................. . 56
Chemical Classification of Sandstones .................. . 57
Chemical Composition as a Function of Sandstone Type .. 58
Chemical Composition and Tectonic Setting ............ . 58
References ............................................ . 60

3. Texture ............................................... . 69
Introduction ........................................... . 69
Grain Size ............... " ......... '" ................ . 69
Meaning of Size ..................................... . 69
Techniques .......................................... . 70
Statistical Measures .................................. . 72
Shape and Roundness .................................. . 77
Surface Textures ....................................... . 80
Textural Maturity ...................................... . 82
Evaluation ............................................ . 83
Control of Physical Properties ........................... . 85
Fabric .............................................. . 85
Porosity and Permeability ............................. . 87
References ............................................ . 92

4. Sedimentary Structures and Bedding ..................... . 97

Introduction ........................................... . 97
Current and Deformational Structures .................... . 99
Bedding ............................................. . 99
Contemporaneously Deformed Bedding ................. . 113
Biogenic Structures .................................... . 118
Chemical Structures .................................... . 122
Obtaining Maximum Value from Sedimentary Structures ... . 124
References ............................................ . 132

PART II. THE PETROGRAPHY OF SANDSTONES

5. Petrography of Common Sands and Sandstones . . . . . . . . . . .. 139

Nomenclature and Classification ......................... , 139
Defining Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 140
Major Trends in Sandstone Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
Making a Choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Introduction to Petrography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147
Feldspathic Sands and Arkose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
Contents xv

General Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149

Varieties and Types of Arkose. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150
Field Occurrence and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 153
Provenance and Tectonics of Arkose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
Significance and Origin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
Lithic Arenites and Related Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
Definitions and Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
General Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
Special Types ........................................ 158
Field Occurrence and Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
Origin and Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
Graywackes and Related Rocks: The Wackes. ...... .... ... 163
Definitions and History of Term. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163
General Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164
Varieties and Types of Graywacke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166
Field Occurrence and Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 167
The Matrix Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
The Problem of Na20 ................................. 174
Significance of Graywackes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175
Quartz Arenites (Orthoquartzites). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
Definitions and Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
General Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
Field Occurrence and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Distribution in Space and Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Significance and Origin of Quartz Arenites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Miscellaneous Sandstones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Hybrid Sands and Sandstones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186
Greensands. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
Phosphatic Sandstones ................................ 189
Calcarenaceous Sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
Tuffaceous Sandstones .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190
Relative Abundance of Sandstones and the "Average"
Sandstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
Sandstone Petrogenesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193
Glossary of Rock Names Applied to Sands and
Sandstones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 196
References to Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 206

6. Volcaniclastic Sandstones and Associated Rocks. . . . . .. . . .. 215

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 215
Characteristic Petrographic Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 216
Petrographic Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 222
Volcaniclastic Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 224
Pyroclastic Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 224
Air Falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 229
Debris Avalanches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 229
Lahars............................................... 230
Redeposited Volcaniclastic Sandstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 231
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 233
Tectonic Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237
Plate Boundaries and Intraplate Volcanism .............. 237
Plate Tectonics and Basin Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 240
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 243
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 244
xvi Contents

PART III. PROCESSES THAT FORM SAND AND

SANDSTONE
7. Production and Provenance of Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
How Sand is Formed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
Weathering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 252
Volcanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
Crushing and Fracturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
Pelletization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
Precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
Summary and Grain-Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254
The Problem of Provenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254
Definitions and Concepts .............................. 254
Evidence from Detrital Components .................... 255
Mineral Stability, Climate, and Provenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 261
Reading Provenance History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 263
Provenance and Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 266
Examples of Provenance Studies ......................... 268
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 269

8. Transportation and Deposition of Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275
Fluid Flow and Entrainment ............................. 276
Aspects and Fluid Flow ............................... 276
Settling Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280
Entrainment of Single Grains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 283
Suspension and Discontinuities in Grain-Size Curves. . . . .. 285
Bedforms in Flumes and Alluvial and Tidal Channels . . . . . .. 286
Paleohydraulics and Open Channel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 293
Transport and Bedforms on Sandy Shelves and Beaches .. .. 296
Subaqueous Gravity Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303
Wind.................................................. 310
Fabric................................................. 312
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 313
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 15

9. Paleocurrents and Dispersal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 321

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 321
Dispersal Patterns Defined by Composition and Texture. . . .. 322
Dispersal Patterns Inferred from Primary Structures . . . . . . .. 326
Deducing Current Direction from Sedimentary
Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 327
Paleoslope and Current Directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328
Paleocurrent Models .................................... 329
Alluvial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329
Shoreline and Shallow Marine Shelf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330
Basinal Turbidite Models .............................. 333
Eolian Paleocurrent Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 334
Volcanic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 334
Summary ............................................ 335
Paleocurrents and Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 335
Paleocurrents and Basin Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 336
Paleocurrents and Plate Tectonics ........................ 336
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 337
Contents XVII

10. Sandy Depositional Systems ............................. 341

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 341
Concepts and Methods ....... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 343
Depositional Strike, Paleoslope, and Walther's Law. . . . .. 343
Associated Lithologies, Vertical Sequence, and Memory.. 345
Geophysical Logs .................... ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 347
Seismic Stratigraphy ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 350
Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 351
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 353
Alluvial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 354
Meandering Streams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 355
Braided Streams and Alluvial Fans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 361
Anastomosing Streams ................................ 363
Coal Measures and Other Economic Deposits. . . . . . . . . . .. 363
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. 364
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 366
Deltas. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. 36S
River-Dominated Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 372
Tide-Dominated Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 374
Wave-Dominated Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 376
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. 377
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 378
Fan Deltas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 379
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381
Sandy Coastlines and Shelves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381
Sandy Coastlines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381
Sandy Shelves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38S
Summary ............................................ 393
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 394
Slope and Deep Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 396
Turbidite Model ...................................... 397
Ancient Turbidites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 400
Summary .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 403
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 404
Eolian. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. 405
Summary ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 410
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 I
Sandy Reservoirs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 411
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 S
Epilogue; Unresolved Problems and Future Research. . . . . .. 420
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 422

11. Diagenesis............................................. 425

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 425
Aspects of Diagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 426
Diagenetic Textures and Compositions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 427
Textures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 427
Mineralogy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 429
Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 429
Chemical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 429
Summary: Two Typical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 430
Physical Diagenetic Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 431
Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 431
Bioturbation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 431
Graywacke Matrix Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 431
xviii Contents

Clay Mineral Dehydration and Compaction ............. . 432

Brittle and Ductile Deformation ....................... . 432
Chemical Diagenetic Processes .......................... . 432
Precipitation ......... ; ............................... . 433
Dissolution .......................................... . 435
Recrystallization ..................................... . 438
Partial Dissolution and Alteration ...................... . 439
Pore water Reactions and Formation Waters ............. . 442
Sequence and Timing of Mineral Transformations ......... . 444
Cement Paragenesis .................................. . 444
Diagenetic Ages ..................................... . 446
Major Diagenetic Effects ................................ . 447
Carbonate Cementation ............................... . 448
Silica Cementation ................................... . 452
Clay Minerals ....................................... . 456
Alteration of Volcaniclastics and Zeolites ............... . 458
Common Accessory Diagenetic Minerals ............... . 461
Porosity Reduction and Production ...................... . 463
Burial Diagenesis ...................................... . 465
Conclusion ............................................ . 467
References ............................................ . 467

12. Sandstones, Tectonics, and Continental Evolution ......... . 475

Introduction ........................................... . 475
Sandy Basins .......................................... . 476
Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Accumulations .......... . 478
Geosynclines-The Classical View ....................... . 479
Plate Tectonic Settings ................................. . 480
Plate Convergence Settings ............................. . 482
Intra-oceanic Convergences ........................... . 482
Oceanic-Continental (Andean-Type) Convergences ...... . 487
Continent-Continent Convergences (Himalayan-type) .... . 490
Plate Divergence Environments .......................... . 493
Mid-Ocean Ridges ................................... . 493
Intra-Continental Rifts ................................ . 493
Plate Transform Boundary Settings ...................... . 498
Intra-Plate Settings ..................................... . 499
Oceanic Intra-Plate ................................... . 499
Passive Continental Margins .......................... . 500
Continental Intra-Plate ................................ . 502
Evolutionary Sequences and Successor Basins ............ . 504
Sandstone in the History of the Earth .................... . 506
Sandstone Composition in Relation to Age .............. . 506
Sandstones in Relation to Evolutionary Changes in
Earth History ...................................... . 509
Conclusions and a Look at the Future .................. . 512
References ............................................ . 512

Appendix: Petrographic Analysis of Sandstones .............. . 519

Introduction .................................... . 519
Rock Description and Analysis ................... . 519
A Comprehensive Petrographic Analysis: The
Trivoli Sandstone of Southern Illinois ........... . 525
References ..................................... . 531

Author Index ............................................... . 533

Subject Index .............................................. . 547
Sand and Sandstone