2.5 Working Capital: Fianancial Management & International Finance

2.
5 Working Capital
This section includes:
Definition and classification of working capital

Determinants of Working Capital
Measurements of Working Capital
Working Capital Financing
Management of Working Capital
Inventory management
Cash Management
Receivables Management
INTRODUCTION :
The term working capital is commonly used for the capital required for day-to-day working in
a business concern, such as for purchasing raw material, for meeting day-to-day expenditure
on salaries, wages, rents rates, advertising etc. But there are much disagreement among various
financial authorities (Financiers, accountants, businessmen and economists) as to the exact
meaning of the term working capital.
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORKING CAPITAL :
Working capital refers to the circulating capital required to meet the day to day operations of
a business firm. Working capital may be defined by various authors as follows:
1. According to Weston & Brigham - “Working capital refers to a firm’s investment in short
term assets, such as cash amounts receivables, inventories etc.
2. Working capital means current assets. —Mead, Baker and Malott
3. “The sum of the current assets is the working capital of the business” —J.S.Mill
Working capital is defined as “the excess of current assets over current liabilities and
provisions”. But as per accounting terminology, it is difference between the inflow and outflow
of funds. In the Annual Survey of Industries (1961), working capital is defined to include
“Stocks of materials, fuels, semi-finished goods including work-in-progress and finished goods
and by-products; cash in hand and bank and the algebraic sum of sundry creditors as
represented by (a) outstanding factory payments e.g. rent, wages, interest and dividend; b)
purchase of goods and services; c) short-term loans and advances and sundry debtors
comprising amounts due to the factory on account of sale of goods and services and advances
towards tax payments”.
The term “working capital” is often referred to “circulating capital” which is frequently used
to denote those assets which are changed with relative speed from one form to another i.e.,
starting from cash, changing to raw materials, converting into work-in-progress and finished
products, sale of finished products and ending with realization of cash from debtors.
Working capital has been described as the “life blood of any business which is apt because it
constitutes a cyclically flowing stream through the business”.
Fianancial Management & international finance 203

Financial Management
COST-VOLUME-PROFIT Decisions
ANALYSIS
Working Capital may be classified in two ways

a) Concept based working capital
b) Time based working capital
Working Capital
Concept based Time based
Gross Working Net Working Negative Working Permanent or Temporary or

Fixed Working Variable Working
Capital Capital Capital Capital Capital
Seasonal Special
Working Working
Capital Capital
Regular Reserve
Working Working
Capital Capital
Concepts of working capital

1. Gross Working Capital: It refers to the firm’s investment in total current or circulating
assets.
2. Net Working Capital:
The term “Net Working Capital” has been defined in two different ways:
i. It is the excess of current assets over current liabilities. This is, as a matter of fact, the
most commonly accepted definition. Some people define it as only the difference
between current assets and current liabilities. The former seems to be a better definition
as compared to the latter.
ii. It is that portion of a firm’s current assets which is financed by long-term funds.
3. Permanent Working Capital: This refers to that minimum amount of investment in all
current assets which is required at all times to carry out minimum level of business
activities. In other words, it represents the current assets required on a continuing
basis over the entire year. Tandon Committee has referred to this type of working
capital as “Core current assets”.
The following are the characteristics of this type of working capital:
1. Amount of permanent working capital remains in the business in one form or another.
This is particularly important from the point of view of financing. The suppliers of such
working capital should not expect its return during the life-time of the firm.
204 Fianancial Management & international finance

2. It also grows with the size of the business. In other words, greater the size of the business,
greater is the amount of such working capital and vice versa
Permanent working capital is permanently needed for the business and therefore it should be
financed out of long-term funds.
4. Temporary Working Capital: The amount of such working capital keeps on fluctuating
from time to time on the basis of business activities. In other words, it represents additional
current assets required at different times during the operating year. For example, extra
inventory has to be maintained to support sales during peak sales period. Similarly,
receivable also increase and must be financed during period of high sales. On the other
hand investment in inventories, receivables, etc., will decrease in periods of depression.
Suppliers of temporary working capital can expect its return during off season when it is not
required by the firm. Hence, temporary working capital is generally financed from short-
term sources of finance such as bank credit.
Temporary or Variable
Working Capital
Capital
Working Capital
Working
Permanent of Fixed Working Capital
Time
Temporary or Variable
Working Capital
Capital
Working Capital
Working
Permanent of Fixed Working Capital
Time

ANALYSIS
5. Negative Working Capital: This situation occurs when the current liabilities exceed the
current assets. It is an indication of crisis to the firm.
Need for Working Capital
Working capital is needed till a firm gets cash on sale of finished products. It depends on two
factors:
i. Manufacturing cycle i.e. time required for converting the raw material into finished
product; and
ii. Credit policy i.e. credit period given to Customers and credit period allowed by creditors.
Thus, the sum total of these times is called an “Operating cycle” and it consists of the
following six steps:
i. Conversion of cash into raw materials.
ii. Conversion of raw materials into work-in-process.
iii. Conversion of work-in-process into finished products.
iv. Time for sale of finished goods—cash sales and credit sales.
v. Time for realisation from debtors and Bills receivables into cash.
vi. Credit period allowed by creditors for credit purchase of raw materials, inventory and
creditors for wages and overheads.
Chart for operating cycle or working capital cycle.
Debtors & Bills

Sales
Receivables
Sales Finished
Products
Raw Work-in
Materials -process
In case of trading concerns, the operating cycle will be:

Cash Stock Debtors Cash.
Cash Stock
Debtors

In case of financial concerns, the operating cycle will be:
Cash Debtors Cash only.
Cash Debtors
DETERMINANTS OF WORKING CAPITAL :

The factors influencing the working capital decisions of a firm may be classified as two groups,
such as internal factors and external factors. The internal factors includes, nature of business
size of business, firm’s product policy, credit policy, dividend policy, and access to money
and capital markets, growth and expansion of business etc. The external factors include business
fluctuations, changes in the technology, infrastructural facilities, import policy and the taxation
policy etc. These factors are discussed in brief in the following lines.
I. Internal Factors
1. Nature and size of the business
The working capital requirements of a firm are basically influenced by the nature and size of
the business. Size may be measured in terms of the scale of operations. A firm with larger
scale of operations will need more working capital than a small firm. Similarly, the nature of
the business - influence the working capital decisions. Trading and financial firms have less
investment in fixed assets. But require a large sum of money to be invested in working capital.
Retail stores, business units require larger amount of working capital, where as, public utilities
need less working capital and more funds to invest in fixed assets.
2. Firm’s production policy
The firm’s production policy (manufacturing cycle) is an important factor to decide the working
capital requirement of a firm. The production cycle starts with the purchase and use of raw
material and completes with the production of finished goods. On the other hand production
policy is uniform production policy or seasonal production policy etc., also influences the
working capital decisions. Larger the manufacturing cycle and uniform production policy –
larger will be the requirement of working capital. The working capital requirement will be
higher with varying production schedules in accordance with the changing demand.
3. Firm’s credit policy
The credit policy of a firm influences credit policy of working capital. A firm following liberal
credit policy to all customers require funds. On the other hand, the firm adopting strict credit
policy and grant credit facilities to few potential customers will require less amount of working
capital.
4. Availability of credit
The working capital requirements of a firm are also affected by credit terms granted by its
suppliers – i.e. creditors. A firm will need less working capital if liberal credit terms are available
to it. Similarly, the availability of credit from banks also influences the working capital needs
of the firm. A firm, which can get bank credit easily on favorable conditions will be operated
with less working capital than a firm without such a facility.

ANALYSIS
5. Growth and expansion of business

Working capital requirement of a business firm tend to increase in correspondence with growth
in sales volume and fixed assets. A growing firm may need funds to invest in fixed assets in
order to sustain its growing production and sales. This will, in turn, increase investment in
current assets to support increased scale of operations. Thus, a growing firm needs additional
funds continuously.
6. Profit margin and dividend policy
The magnitude of working capital in a firm is dependent upon its profit margin and dividend
policy. A high net profit margin contributes towards the working capital pool. To the extent
the net profit has been earned in cash, it becomes a source of working capital. This depends
upon the dividend policy of the firm. Distribution of high proportion of profits in the form of
cash dividends results in a drain on cash resources and thus reduces company’s working
capital to that extent. The working capital position of the firm is strengthened if the
management follows conservative dividend policy and vice versa.
7. Operating efficiency of the firm
Operating efficiency means the optimum utilisation of a firm’s resources at minimum cost. If
a firm successfully controls operating cost, it will be able to improve net profit margin which,
will, in turn, release greater funds for working capital purposes.
8. Co-ordinating activities in firm
The working capital requirements of a firm is depend upon the co-ordination between
production and distribution activities. The greater and effective the co-ordinations, the pressure
on the working capital will be minimized. In the absence of co-ordination, demand for working
capital is reduced.
II. External Factors

1. Business fluctuations
Most firms experience fluctuations in demand for their products and services. These business
variations affect the working capital requirements. When there is an upward swing in the
economy, sales will increase, correspondingly, the firm’s investment in inventories and book
debts will also increase. Under boom, additional investment in fixed assets may be made by
some firms to increase their productive capacity. This act of the firm will require additional
funds. On the other hand when, there is a decline in economy, sales will come down and
consequently the conditions, the firm try to reduce their short-term borrowings. Similarly the
seasonal fluctuations may also affect the requirement of working capital of a firm.
2. Changes in the technology
The technological changes and developments in the area of production can have immediate
effects on the need for working capital. If the firm wish to install a new machine in the place
of old system, the new system can utilise less expensive raw materials, the inventory needs
may be reduced there by working capital needs.

3. Import policy
Import policy of the Government may also effect the levels of working capital of a firm since
they have to arrange funds for importing goods at specified times.
4. Infrastructural facilities
The firms may require additional funds to maintain the levels of inventory and other current
assets, when there is good infrastructural facilities in the company like, transportation and
communications.
5. Taxation policy
The tax policies of the Government will influence the working capital decisions. If the
Government follow regressive taxation policy, i.e. imposing heavy tax burdens on business
firms, they are left with very little profits for distribution and retention purpose. Consequently
the firm has to borrow additional funds to meet their increased working capital needs. When
there is a liberalised tax policy, the pressure on working capital requirement is minimised.
Thus the working capital requirements of a firm is influenced by the internal and external
factors.
MEASUREMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL :
There are 3 methods for assessing the working capital requirement as explained below:
a) Percent of Sales Method
Based on the past experience, some percentage of sale may be taken for determining the
quantum of working capital
b) Regression Analysis Method
The relationship between sales and working capital and its various components may be
plotted on Scatter diagram and the average percentage of past 5 years may be ascertained.
This average percentage of sales may be taken as working capital. Similar exercise may
be carried out at the beginning of the year for assessing the working capital requirement.
This method is suitable for simple as well as complex situations.
c) Operating Cycle Method
As a first step, we have to compute the operating cycle as follows:
M
i) Inventory period: Number of days consumption in stock = I +
365
Where I – Average inventory during the year
M = Materials consumed during the year
K
ii) Work-in-process: Number of days of work-in-process = W+
365
Where W = Average work-in-process during the year
K = Cost of work-in-process i.e., Material + Labour + Factory overheads.

ANALYSIS
F
iii) Finished products inventory period = G÷
365
Where G = Average finished products inventory during the year
F= Cost of finished goods sold during the year
S
iv) Average collection period of Debtors = D÷
365
Where D = Average Debtors balances during the year
S= Credit sales during the year
P
v) Credit period allowed by Suppliers = C÷
365
Where C= Average creditors’ balances during the year
P = credit purchases during the year
vi) Minimum cash balance to be kept daily.
Formula: O.C. = M + W + F + D – C
Note: It is also known as working capital cycle. Operating cycle is the total time gap between
the purchase of raw material and the receipt from Debtors.
Importance or Advantages of Adequate Working Capital
Working capital is the life blood and nerve centre of a business. Just as circulation of blood is
essential in the human body for maintaining life, working capital is very essential to maintain
the smooth running of a business. No business can run successfully without an adequate
amount of working capital. The main advantages of maintaining adequate amount of working
capital are as follows:
1. Solvency of the business: Adequate working capital helps in maintaining solvency of
the business by providing uninterrupted flow of production.
2. Goodwill: Sufficient working capital enables a business concern to make prompt
payments and hence helps in creating and maintaining goodwill.
3. Easy loans: A concern having adequate working capital, high solvency and good credit
standing can arrange loans from banks and other on easy and favourable terms.
4. Cash Discounts: Adequate working capital also enables a concern to avail cash
discounts on the purchases and hence it reduces costs.
5. Regular supply of raw materials: Sufficient working capital ensures regular supply of
raw materials and continuous production.
6. Regular payment of salaries, wages and other day-to-day commitments: A company
which has ample working capital can make regular payment of salaries, wages and
other day-to-day commitments which raises the morale of its employees, increases
their efficiency, reduces wastages and costs and enhances production and profits.

7. Exploitation of favourable market conditions: Only concerns with adequate working
capital can exploit favourable market conditions such as purchasing its requirements
in bulk when the prices are lower and by holding its inventories for higher prices.
8. Ability to face Crisis: Adequate working capital enables a concern to face business
crisis in emergencies such as depression because during such periods, generally, there
is much pressure on working capital.
9. Quick and Regular return on Investments: Every Investor wants a quick and regular
return on his investments. Sufficiency of working capital enables a concern to pay
quick and regular dividends to its investors as there may not be much pressure to
plough back profits. This gains the confidence of its investors and creates a favourable
market to raise additional funds i.e., the future.
10. High morale: Adequacy of working capital creates an environment of security,
confidence, high morale and creates overall efficiency in a business.
Excess or Inadequate Working Capital
Every business concern should have adequate working capital to run its business operations.
It should have neither redundant or excess working capital nor inadequate or shortage of
working capital. Both excess as well as short working capital positions are bad for any business.
However, out of the two, it is the inadequacy of working capital which is more dangerous
from the point of view of the firm.
Disadvantages of Redundant or Excessive Working Capital
1. Excessive Working Capital means ideal funds which earn no profits for the business and
hence the business cannot earn a proper rate of return on its investments.
2. When there is a redundant working capital, it may lead to unnecessary purchasing and
accumulation of inventories causing more chances of theft, waste and losses.
3. Excessive working capital implies excessive debtors and defective credit policy which
may cause higher incidence of bad debts.
4. It may result into overall inefficiency in the organization.
5. When there is excessive working capital, relations with banks and other financial
institutions may not be maintained.
6. Due to low rate of return on investments, the value of shares may also fall.
7. The redundant working capital gives rise to speculative transactions.
Disadvantages or Dangers of Inadequate Working Capital
1. A concern which has inadequate working capital cannot pay its short-term liabilities
in time. Thus, it will lose its reputation and shall not be able to get good credit
facilities.
2. It cannot buy its requirements in bulk and cannot avail of discounts, etc.
3. It becomes difficult for the firm to exploit favourable market conditions and
undertake profitable projects due to lack of working capital.

ANALYSIS
4. The firm cannot pay day-to-day expenses of its operations and its creates
inefficiencies, increases costs and reduces the profits of the business.
5. It becomes impossible to utilize efficiently the fixed assets due to non-availability
of liquid funds.
6. The rate of return on investments also falls with the shortage of working capital.
WORKING CAPITAL FINANCING:
Accruals
The major accrual items are wages and taxes. These are simply what the firm owes to its
employees and to the government.
Trade Credit
Trade credit represents the credit extended by the supplier of goods and services. It is a
spontaneous source of finance in the sense that it arises in the normal transactions of the firm
without specific negotiations, provided the firm is considered creditworthy by its supplier. It
is an important source of finance representing 25% to 50% of short-term financing.
Working capital advance by commercial banks
Working capital advance by commercial banks represents the most important source for
financing current assets.
Forms of Bank Finance: Working capital advance is provided by commercial banks in three
primary ways: (i) cash credits / overdrafts, (ii) loans, and (iii) purchase / discount of bills. In
addition to these forms of direct finance, commercials banks help their customers in obtaining
credit from other sources through the letter of credit arrangement.
i. Cash Credit / Overdrafts: Under a cash credit or overdraft arrangement, a pre-determined
limit for borrowing is specified by the bank. The borrower can draw as often as required
provided the out standings do not exceed the cash credit / overdraft limit.
ii. Loans: These are advances of fixed amounts which are credited to the current account of
the borrower or released to him in cash. The borrower is charged with interest on the
entire loan amount, irrespective of how much he draws.
iii. Purchase / Discount of Bills: A bill arises out of a trade transaction. The seller of
goods draws the bill on the purchaser. The bill may be either clean or documentary
(a documentary bill is supported by a document of title to gods like a railway
receipt or a bill of lading) and may be payable on demand or after a usance period
which does not exceed 90 days. On acceptance of the bill by the purchaser, the
seller offers it to the bank for discount / purchase. When the bank discounts /
purchases the bill it releases the funds to the seller. The bank presents the bill to
the purchaser (the acceptor of the bill) on the due date and gets its payment.
iv. Letter of Credit: A letter of credit is an arrangement whereby a bank helps its
customer to obtain credit from its (customer’s) suppliers. When a bank opens a
letter of credit in favour of its customer for some specific purchases, the bank
undertakes the responsibility to honour the obligation of its customer, should the
customer fail to do so.

Regulation of Bank Finance
Concerned about such a distortion in credit allocation, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has
been trying, particularly from the mid 1960s onwards, to bring a measure of discipline among
industrial borrowers and to redirect credit to the priority sectors of the economy. From time
to time, the RBI issues guidelines and directives relating to matters like the norms for inventory
and receivables, the maximum permissible bank finance, the form of assistance, the information
and reporting system, and the credit monitoring mechanism. The important guidelines and
directives have stemmed from the recommendations of various committees such as the Dehejia
Committee, the Tandon Committee, the Chore Committee, and the Marathe Committee.
However, in recent years, in the wake of financial liberalisation, the RBI has given freedom to
the boards of individual banks in all matters relating to working capital financing.
From the mid-eighties onwards, special committees were set up by the RBI to prescribe norms
for several other industries and revise norms for some industries covered by the Tandon
Committee.
Maximum Permissible Bank Finance: The Tandon Committee had suggested three methods for
determining the maximum permissible bank finance (MPBF).
Lending Norms The recommendation of the Tandon Committee regarding the “Lending
norms” has far - reaching implications. The lending norms have been suggested in view of
the realization that the banker’s role as a lender in only to supplement the borrower’s resources
and not to meet his entire working capitals needs. In the context of this approach, the committee
has suggested three alternative methods for working out the maximum permissible level of
bank borrowings. Each successive method reduces the involvement of short-term bank credit
to finance the current assets.
First Method: According to this method, the borrower will have to contribute a minimum of
25% of the working capital gap from long-term funds, i.e., owned funds and term borrowings.
This will give a current ratio of 1:17:1.
The term working capital gap refers to the total of current assets less current liabilities other
than bank borrowings. This can be understood with the help of following example:
Example 1.
Rs.
Total Current assets required by the borrower as per norms 20,000
Current liabilities 5,000
Amount of maximum permissible bank borrowings as per the first
method can be ascertained as follows: -
Working Capital gap (Rs. 20,000 – Rs. 5,000) 15,000
Less: 25% from long-term sources 3,750
Maximum permissible bank borrowings 11,250

ANALYSIS
Second Method: Under this method the borrower has to provide the minimum of 25% of the
total current assets that will give a current ratio of 1.33:1.
Example 2: On the basis of the data given in Example 1, the maximum permissible bank
borrowings as per second method can be ascertained as follows:
Rs.
Current assets as per norms 20,000
Less: 25% to be provided from long – term funds 5,000
15,000
Less: Current liabilities other than bank borrowings 5,000
Third Method : In this method, the borrower’s contribution from long term funds will be to
the extent of the entire core current assets and a minimum of 25% of the balance of the current
assets. The term core current assets refers to the absolute minimum level of investment in all
current assets which is required at all times to carry out minimum level of business activities.
Example 3 : On the basis of the information given in Example 1, the amount of maximum
permissible bank finance can be arrived at the follows if the core current assets are Rs. 2,000
Rs.
Current assets as per norms 20,000
Less: Core Current Assets 2,000
18,000
Less: 25% to be provided from long-term funds 4,500
13,500
Less: Current Liabilities 5,000
It will thus be seen that in the third method current ratio has further improved.
Reserve Bank’s directive : The Reserve Bank of India accepted the recommendations of the
Tandon Committee. It instructed the commercial banks in 1976 to put all the borrowers having
aggregate credit limits from banking system in excess of Rs. 10 lakhs, under the first method
of lending.
Public Deposits
Many firms, large and small, have solicited unsecured deposits from the public in recent years,
mainly to finance their working capital requirements.
Inter-corporate Deposits
A deposit made by one company with another, normally for a period up to six months, is
referred to as an inter-corporate deposit. Such deposits are usually of three types.

a. Call Deposits: In theory, a call deposit is withdrawable by the lender on giving a
day’s notice. In practice, however, the lender has to wait for at least three days.
The interest rate on such deposits may be around 10 percent per annum.
b. Three-months Deposits: More popular in practice, these deposits are taken by
borrowers to tide over a short-term cash inadequacy that may be caused by one or
more of the following factors: disruption in production, excessive imports of raw
material, tax payment, delay in collection, dividend payment, and unplanned capital
expenditure. The interest rate on such deposits is around 12 percent per annum.
c. Six-months Deposits: Normally, lending companies do not extend deposits beyond
this time frame. Such deposits, usually made with first-class borrowers, carry and
interest rate of around 15 percent per annum.
Short-term loans from financial institutions
The Life Insurance Corporation of India and the General Insurance Corporation of India provide
short-term loans to manufacturing companies with an excellent track record.
Rights debentures for working capital
Public limited companies can issue “Rights” debentures to their shareholders with the object
of augmenting the long-term resources of the company for working capital requirements. The
key guidelines applicable to such debentures are as follows:
i. The amount of the debenture issue should not exceed (a) 20% of the gross current
assets, loans, and advances minus the long-term funds presently available for
financing working capital, or (b) 20% of the paid-up share capital, including
preference capital and free reserves, whichever is the lower of the two.
ii. The debt. -equity ratio, including the proposed debenture issue, should not exceed
1:1.
iii. The debentures shall first be offered to the existing Indian resident shareholders of
the company on a pro rata basis.
Commercial paper
Commercial paper represents short-term unsecured promissory notes issued by firms which
enjoy a fairly high credit rating. Generally, large firms with considerable financial strength
are able to issue commercial paper. The important features of commercial paper are as follows:
i. The maturity period of commercial paper usually ranges from 90 days to 360 days.
ii. Commercial paper is sold at a discount from its face value and redeemed at its face
value. Hence the implicit interest rate is a function of the size of the discount and
the period of maturity.
iii. Commercial paper is either directly placed with investors who intend holding it
till its maturity. Hence there is no well developed secondary market for commercial
paper.

ANALYSIS
Factoring
Factoring, as a fund based financial service, provides resources to finance receivables as well
as facilitates the collection of receivables. It is another method of raising short-term finance
through account receivable credit offered by commercial banks and factors. A commercial
bank may provide finance by discounting the bills or invoices of its customers. Thus, a firm
gets immediate payment for sales made on credit. A factor is a financial institution which
offers services relating to management and financing of debts arising out of credit sales.
Factoring is becoming popular all over the world on account of various services offered by the
institutions engaged in it. Factors render services varying from bill discounting facilities offered
by commercial banks to a total take over of administration of credit sales including maintenance
of sales ledger, collection of accounts receivables, credit control and protection from bad debts,
provision of finance and rendering of advisory services to their clients. Factoring, may be on
a recourse basis, where the risk of bad debts is borne by the client, or on a non-recourse basis,
where the risk of credit is borne by the factor.
At present, factoring in India is rendered by only a few financial institutions on a recourse
basis. However, the Report of the Working Group on Money Market (Vaghul Committee)
constituted by the Reserve Bank of India has recommended that banks should be encouraged
to set up factoring divisions to provide speedy finance to the corporate entities.
Inspite of many services offered by factoring, it suffers from certain limitations. The most
critical fall outs of factoring include (i) the high cost of factoring as compared to other sources
of short-term finance, (ii) the perception of financial weakness about the firm availing factoring
services, and (iii) adverse impact of tough stance taken by factor, against a defaulting buyer,
upon the borrower resulting into reduced future sales.
Financing and Policies of Working Capital, and their impact
After arriving the estimation of working capital for any firm, the next step is how to finance
the working capital requirement. It is of two sources of financing:
i) Short –term
ii) Long – term
Short-term financing refers to borrowing funds or raising credit for a maximum of 1 year
period i.e., the debt is payable within a year at the most. Whereas, the Long – term financing
refers to the borrowing of funds or raising credit for one year or more. The finance manager
has to mix funds from these two sources optimally to ensure profitability and liquidity. The
mixing of finances from long-term and short term should be such that the firm should not face
either short of funds or idle funds. Thus, the financing of working capital should not result in
either idle or shortage of cash funds.
Policy is a guideline in taking decisions of business. In working capital financing, the manager
has to take a decision of mixing the two components i.e., long term component of debt and
short term component of debt. The policies for financing or working capital are divided into
three categories. Firstly, conservative financing policy in which the manager depends more
on long term funds. Secondly, aggressive financing policy in which the manager depends
more on short term funds, and third, are is a moderate policy which suggests that the manager

depends moderately on both long tem and short-term funds while financing. These policies
are shown diagrammatically here under.
⎧
Seasonal Current Assets ⎨
⎩ Short Term funds
Conservative
Financing Policy Permanent Current Assets ⎧ Long term funds +
⎨
Fixed Assets ⎩ Equity Capital
Seasonal Current Assets ⎧
Aggressive ⎨ Short Term funds
Permanent Current Assets ⎩
Financing Policy
⎧ Long term funds +
Fixed Assets ⎨ Equity Capital
⎩
Seasonal Current Assets ⎧

Moderate ⎨ Short Term funds
⎩
Financing Policy Permanent Current Assets
⎧ Long term funds +
Fixed Assets ⎨ Equity Capital
⎩
Working Capital Policies

Matching Approach
The question arising here is how to mix both short term and long term funds while financing
required working capital. The guiding approach is known as ‘matching approach’. It suggests
that if the need is short term purpose, raise short – term loan or credit and if the need is for a
long term, one should raise long term loan or credit. Thus, maturity period of the loan is to be
matched with the purpose and for how long. This is called matching approach. This matches
the maturity period of the loan with the period for how long working capital requires. The
following diagram shows the graphic presentation of the matching approach.
Short-term Funds
Seasonal Working Capital

Long-term Funds
Permanent Working Capital
Amount
Equity Capital
Fixed Capital
Equity
Matching Approach

ANALYSIS
Types of Funds Working capital requirement

Short – term - Seasonal Working Capital
Long – term - Permanent Working Capital
Equity Capital - Fixed Assets
Impact of working capital policies
A firm’s sales are Rs. 25 lakhs, and having an EBIT – Rs. 3 lakhs. It has fixed assets of Rs. 8
lakhs. The firm is thinking to hold current assets of different size of Rs. 5 lakhs; Rs. 6 lakhs or
Rs. 8 lakhs. Assuming profits and fixed assets do not vary, the impact of these working capital
policies are in the following manner which is explained is a hypothetical illustration:
Types of Policy (Rs. in lakhs)
Aggressive Moderate Conservatory
Sales 25 25 25
EBIT 3 3 3
Current Assets 5 6 8
Fixed Assets 8 8 8
Total Assets 13 14 16
Return on Assets %
23.07 21.42 18.75
(EBIT/total assets)
Lower the level current assets (aggressive) higher the returns (23.07 percent) higher the level
of current assets (conservative) lower the returns (18.75 percent).
Optimal Size of Current Assets
As we have discussed in the earlier paragraphs, current assets and their size depends upon
several factors. Arriving appropriate size of current assets such as cash, raw materials, finished
goods and debtors is a challenge to the financial manager of a firm. It happens some times
excess or shortage. We have also discussed in the fore-gone paragraphs about the evils of
excess working capital and inadequate working capital. Activity very few firms arrive optimum
level of working capital by their sheer experience and scientific approach. The ratio of current
assets to fixed assets helps in measuring the performance of working capital management.
The higher the ratio, conservative the firm is in maintaining its current assets and lower the
ratio, aggressive the firm is in maintaining its current assets. So every firm should balance
their level of current assets and make it optimum.
Liquidity Vs. Profitability
Any exercise in working capital management will influence either liquidity or profitability.
The working capital management is a razor edge exercise for financial manager of an enterprise.
In this context the financial manager has to take several decisions of routine and non-routine
such as:
Sufficient cash balance to be maintained;
To raise long term or short term loans decide the rate of interest and the time of repayment;
Decide the purchase policy to buy or not to buy materials;

To determine the economic order quantity for inputs,
To fix the price at which to buy the inputs if any;
To sell for credit or not and terms of credit;
To decide the terms of purchase;
To decide the credit period and extent of credit;
In all these aspects the financial manager has to take decisions carefully so that the firm’s twin
objectives such as profitability and solvency are not affected.
Trade off between liquidity and profitability
If a firm maintains huge amount of current assets its profitability will be affected though it
protects liquidity. If a firm maintains low current assets, its liquidity is of course weak but the
firm’s profitability will be high. The trade off between liquidity and illiquidity are shown in
the following diagram.
Total Cost
Cost of Liquidity
Cost (Rs)
Profitability Level of
Current Asset
Optimum of Current Asset
A Trade off between Profitability and liquidity
MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL:
Working Capital Management involves management of different components of working

capital such as cash, inventories, accounts receivable, creditors etc. A brief description follows
regarding the various issues involved in the management of each of the above components of
working capital.
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT:
Inventory constitutes an important item in the working capital of many business concerns.
Net working capital is the difference between current assets and current liabilities. Inventory
is a major item of current assets. The term inventory refers to the stocks of the product of a
firm is offering for sale and the components that make up the product Inventory is stores of

ANALYSIS
goods and stocks. This includes raw materials, work-in-process and finished goods. Raw
materials consist of those units or input which are used to manufactured goods that require
further processing to become finished goods. Finished goods are products ready for sale. The
classification of inventories and the levels of the components vary from organisaion to
organisation depending upon the nature of business. For example steel is a finished product
for a steel industry, but raw material for an automobile manufacturer. Thus, inventory may
be defined as “Stock of goods that is held for future use”. Since inventories constitute about 50
to 60 percent of current assets, the management of inventories is crucial to successful working
capital management. Working capital requirements are influenced by inventory holding.
Hence, the need for effective and efficient management of inventories.
A good inventory management is important to the successful operations of most organisaions,

unfortunately the importance of inventory is not always appreciated by top management.
This may be due to a failure to recognise the link between inventories and achievement of
organisational goals or due to ignorance of the impact that inventories can have on costs and
profits.
Inventory management refers to an optimum investment in inventories. It should neither be

too low to effect the production adversely nor too high to block the funds unnecessarily. Excess
investment in inventories is unprofitable for the business. Both excess and inadequate
investment in inventories are not desirable. The firm should operate within the two danger
points. The purpose of inventory management is to determine and maintain the optimum
level of inventory investment.
Techniques of Inventory Control
The following are the various measures of selective control of inventory:
A. Economic Ordering Quantity (EOQ)
It is important to note that only the correct quantity of materials is to be purchased. For this
purpose, the factors such as maximum level, minimum level, danger level, re-ordering level,
quantity already on order, quantity reserved, availability of funds, quantity discount, interest
on capital, average consumption and availability of storage accommodation are to be kept in
view. There should not be any over stock vis-à-vis no question of non-stock. Balance should
be made between the cost of carrying and cost of non-carrying i.e. cost of stock-out. Cost of
carrying includes the cost of storage, insurance, obsolescence, losses an interest on capital
invested. Cost of not carrying includes the costly purchase, loss of production and sales and
loss of customer’s goodwill. Economic Ordering Quantity (EOQ) is the quantity fixed at the
point where the total cost of ordering and the cost of carrying the inventory will be the
minimum. If the quantity of purchases is increased, the cost of ordering decreases while the
cost of carrying increases. If the quantity of purchases is decreased, the cost of ordering increases
while the cost of carrying decreases. But in this case, the total of both the costs should be kept
at minimum. Thus, EOQ may be arrived at by Tabular method by preparing purchase order
quantity tables showing the ordering cost, carrying cost and total cost of various sizes of
purchase orders.

Graph. EOQ : Behaviour of Ordering and Carrying Costs.
Cost Total Cost
Carrying Costs
Ordering Cost
Quantity per order
Economic Ordering Quantity may also be worked out mathematically by using the following
formula:
2 × Annual usage × Buying Cost

EOQ =
Cost of Carring of One Unit expressed as perecentage
2 AB
EOQ =
C
Note: Buying Cost is the ordering cost.
B. Fixing levels (Quantity Control) - For fixing the various levels such as maximum,
minimum, etc., average consumption and lead time i.e. the average time taken
between the initiation of purchase order and the receipt of materials from suppliers
are to be estimated for each item of materials.
a. Maximum Stock Level - The maximum stock level is that quantity above which
stocks should not normally be allowed to exceed. The following factors are taken
into consideration while fixing the maximum stock level:
1. Average rate of consumption of material.
2. Lead time.
3. Re-order level.
4. Maximum requirement of materials for production at any time.

ANALYSIS
5. Storage space available, cost of storage and insurance.

6. Financial consideration such as price fluctuations, availability of capital, discounts
due to seasonal and bulk purchases, etc.
7. Keeping qualities e.g. risk of deterioration, obsolescence, evaporation, depletion
and natural waste, etc.
8. Any restrictions imposed by local or national authority in regard to materials
i.e. purchasing from small scale industries and public sector undertakings, price
preference clauses, import policy, explosion in case of explosive materials, risk of
fire, etc.; and
9. Economic ordering quantity is also considered.
Formula
Maximum Level = Re-order level—(Minimum consumption) × (Minimum lead times) +
Reordering quantity
b. Minimum Stock Level - The minimum stock level is that quantity below which
stocks should not normally be allowed to fall. If stocks go below this level, there
will be danger of stoppage of production due to shortage of supplies. The following
factors are taken into account while fixing the minimum stock level:
1. Average rate of consumption of material.
2. Average lead time. The shorter the lead time, the lower is the minimum level.
3. Re-order level.
4. Nature of the item.
5. Stock out cost.
Formula
Minimum Level = Re-order level – (Average usage × Average lead time)
c. Re-order Level - This is the point fixed between the maximum and minimum stock levels
and at this time, it is essential to initiate purchase action for fresh supplies of the material. In
order to cover the abnormal usage of material or unexpected delay in delivery of fresh supplies,
this point will usually be fixed slightly higher than the minimum stock level. The following
factors are taken into account while fixing the re-order level:
1. Maximum usage of materials
2. Maximum lead time
3. Maximum stock level
4. Minimum stock level

Formula
Re-order level = Maximum usage X Maximum lead time or Minimum level + Consumption
during lead time.
Re-ordering Quantity (How much to purchase): It is also called Economic Ordering Quantity.
d. Danger Level - This is the level below the minimum stock level. When the stock reaches
this level, immediate action is needed for replenishment of stock. As the normal lead time is
not available, regular purchase procedure cannot be adopted resulting in higher purchase
cost. Hence, this level is useful for taking corrective action only. If this is fixed below the re-
order level and above the minimum level, it will be possible to take preventive action.
C. ABC Analysis for value of items consumed
ABC Analysis for Inventory Control: ABC analysis is a method of material control according
to value. The basic principle is that high value items are more closely controlled than the low
value items. The materials are grouped according to the value and frequency of replenishment
during a Period.
‘A’ Class items: Small percentage of the total items but having higher values.
‘B’ Class items: More percentage of the total items but having medium values.
‘C’ Class items: High percentage of the total items but having low values.
Illustration:
A manufacturing concern is having 1,000 units of materials valuing Rs. 1,00,000 in total. Prepare
the statement showing the stock according to ABC Analysis.
Quantity Value Average values Rs.

Category % No. of items % Amount
A (High value items) 10% 100 70% 70,000 70,000 ÷ 100 = 700
B (Medium value items) 20% 200 20% 20,000 20,000 ÷ 100 = 200
C (Low value items) 70% 700 10% 10,000 10,000 ÷ 700 = 14
Total: 100% 1000 100% 1,00,000
For the sake of simplicity, the above percentage has been considered. But in practice, the
percentage may vary between 5% to 10%, 10% to 20% and 70% to 85%.

ANALYSIS
Percentage of Consumption Value

100 C
90
B
70
10 30 100
Percentage of Number of Items
In foreign countries, Bin Cards and Stores Ledger Cards are not maintained for ‘C’ class items.
These are issued directly to the production foreman concerned and controlled through norms
of consumption based on production targets. By doing this, 70% of the effort required for
maintaining the Bin Cards and Stores Ledger Cards is eliminated. With 30% of the effort, an
organization will be able to exercise control on the 90% of the inventory values. This reduces
the clerical costs and ensures the closer control on costly items in which large amount of capital
is invested.
The general procedure for classifying A,B or C items is as follows:
1. Ascertain the cost and consumption of each material over a given period of time.
2. Multiply unit cost by estimated usage to obtain net value.
3. List out all the items with quantity and value.
4. Arrange them in descending order in value i.e., ranking according to value.
5. Ascertain the monetary limits for A, B or C classification.
6. Accumulate value and add up number of items of A items. Calculate percentage on
total inventory in value and in number.
7. Similar action for B and C class items.
Advantages of ABC Analysis:
1. To minimize purchasing cost and carrying cost (i.e. holding cost).
2. Closer and stricter control on these items which represent a high portion of total stock
value.
3. Ensuring availability of supplies at all times.
4. Clerical costs can be reduced.
5. Inventory is maintained at optimum level and thereby investment in Inventory can be
regulated and will be minimum. ‘A; items will be ordered more frequently and as
such the investment in inventory is reduced.

6. Maintaining enough safety stock for ‘C’ items.
7. Equal attention to A, B and C items is not desirable as it is expensive.
8. It is based on the concept of Selective Inventory Management and it helps in maintaining
high stock-turnover ratio.
A. Perpetual Inventory System
The Institute of Cost and Management Accountants, London defines the perpetual inventory
system as “A system of records maintained by the controlling department, which reflects
physical movements of stocks and their current balance.”
This system consists of the following three:
a. Bin cards i.e. Quantitative Perpetual Inventory.
b. Stores ledger i.e. Quantitative and Value Perpetual Inventory.
c. Continuous Stock taking i.e. Physical Perpetual Inventory.
B. H.M.L. Classification
In ABC analysis, the consumption value of items has been taken into account. But in this case,
the unit value of stores items is considered. The materials are classified according to their unit
value as high, medium or low valued items. Combining ABC analysis and HML classification,
it will be more useful to an organisation in the sense that the low value components having
substantial consumption, that is to say, a small item costing Re. 1 each consumed a lakh numbers
will cost Rs.1.00 lakh which is quite high and it is to be controlled properly.
C. F S N Analysis
According to this approach, the inventory items are categorized into 3 types. They are fast
moving, slow moving and non moving. Inventory decisions are very carefully taken in the
case of ‘non moving category’. In the case of item of fast moving items, the manager can take
decisions quite easily because any error happened will not trouble the firm so seriously. Since
risk is less in fast moving items, because they can be consumed quickly unlike the non- moving
category which are carried in the godowns for more time period.
As risk is high in case of slow – moving and non – moving – items, the inventory decisions
have to be taken carefully without affecting the objectives of profitability and liquidity of the
organisation.
D. V.E.D. Classification
The V.E.D. classification is applicable mainly to the spare parts. Spares are classified as vital
(V), essential (E) and desirable (D). Vital class spares have to be stocked adequately to ensure
the operations of the plant but some risk can be taken in the case of ‘E’ class spares. Stocking
of desirable spares can even be done away with if the lead time for their procurement is low.
Similarly, classification may be done in respect of the plant and machinery as vital, essential,
important and normal (VEIN). If the classifications VED and VEIN are combined, there will
be 12 different classes as follows:

ANALYSIS
Vital spares for vital plant, vital spares for essential plant, vital spares for important plant and
vital spares for normal plant. Essential spares for essential plant, essential spares for important
plant, essential spares for normal plant and essential spares for vital plant, Desirable spares
for essential plant, desirable spares for important plant, desirable spares in vital plant and
desirable spares for normal plant.
E. Just in Time (JIT)
Normally, inventory costs are high and controlling inventory is complex because of
uncertainities in supply, dispatching, transportation etc. Lack of coordination between
suppliers and ordering firms is causing severe irregularities, ultimately the firm ends-up in
inventory problems. Toyota Motors has first time suggested just – in – time approach in 1950s.
This means the material will reach the points of production process directly form the suppliers
as per the time schedule. It is possible in the case of companies with respective process. Since,
it requires close coordination between suppliers and the ordering firms, and therefore, only
units with systematic approach will be able to implement it.
F. Inventory Turnover Ratio
i) Inventory Turnover Ratio: Cost of goods sold / average total inventories. The higher
the ratio, more the efficiency of the firm
Cost of goods sold

ii) Work in process turnover ratio =
Average inventory of finished goods at costs
Here, in this ratio also higher the ratio, more the efficiency of the firm.
Finished Goods
iii) Weeks inventory finished goods on hand → Weekly of finished sales goods
The ratio reveals that the lower the ratio, the higher the efficiency of the firm
Raw material on order

iv) Weeks raw material on order →
Weekly consumption of raw material
This ratio indicates that the lower the ratio, the higher the efficiency of the firm.
Average raw material inventory at cost

v) Average age of raw material inventory →
Average daily purchases of raw material
This ratio says that the lower the ratio the higher the efficiency of the firm.
vi) Average age of finished goods inventory
Average finished goods insntory at cost

→
Average cost of finished goods manufactured per day

This ratio comes that the lower the ratio the higher the efficiency of the firm.
No. of times out of stock

i) Out of stock index →
No. of items requisitioned
This ratio indicates the lower the ratio higher the efficiency of the firm.
Value of spars parts invsntory

ii) Spare parts index →
Value of capital equipment
This ratio reveals that the higher the ratio the more the efficiency of the firm.
CASH MANAGEMENT :
Cash management is one of the key areas of working capital management. Cash is the most
liquid current assets. Cash is the common denominator to which all current assets can be
reduced because the other major liquid assets, i.e. receivable and inventory get eventually
converted into cash. This underlines the importance of cash management.
The term “Cash” with reference to management of cash is used in two ways. In a narrow
sense cash refers to coins, currency, cheques, drafts and deposits in banks. The broader view
of cash includes near cash assets such as marketable securities and time deposits in banks.
The reason why these near cash assets are included in cash is that they can readily be converted
into cash. Usually, excess cash is invested in marketable securities as it contributes to
profitability.
Cash is one of the most important components of current assets. Every firm should have
adequate cash, neither more nor less. Inadequate cash will lead to production interruptions,
while excessive cash remains idle and will impair profitability. Hence, the need for cash
management. The cash management assumes significance for the following reasons.
Significance
1. Cash planning - Cash is the most important as well as the least unproductive of all
current assets. Though, it is necessary to meet the firm’s obligations, yet idle cash earns
nothing. Therefore, it is essential to have a sound cash planning neither excess nor
inadequate.
2. Management of cash flows - This is another important aspect of cash management.
Synchronisation between cash inflows and cash outflows rarely happens. Sometimes,
the cash inflows will be more than outflows because of receipts from debtors, and cash
sales in huge amounts. At other times, cash outflows exceed inflows due to payment
of taxes, interest and dividends etc. Hence, the cash flows should be managed for
better cash management.
3. Maintaining optimum cash balance - Every firm should maintain optimum cash balance.
The management should also consider the factors determining and influencing the
cash balances at various point of time. The cost of excess cash and danger of inadequate
cash should be matched to determine the optimum level of cash balances.

ANALYSIS
4. Investment of excess cash - The firm has to invest the excess or idle funds in short term
securities or investments to earn profits as idle funds earn nothing. This is one of the
important aspects of management of cash.
Thus, the aim of cash management is to maintain adequate cash balances at one hand and to
use excess cash in some profitable way on the other hand.
Motives
Motives or desires for holding cash refers to various purposes. The purpose may be different
from person to person and situation to situation. There are four important motives to hold
cash.
a. Transactions motive - This motive refers to the holding of cash, to meet routine cash
requirements in the ordinary course of business. A firm enters into a number of
transactions which requires cash payment. For example, purchase of materials, payment
of wages, salaries, taxes, interest etc. Similarly, a firm receives cash from cash sales,
collections from debtors, return on investments etc. But the cash inflows and cash
outflows do not perfectly synchronise. Sometimes, cash receipts are more than
payments while at other times payments exceed receipts. The firm must have to
maintain sufficient (funds) cash balance if the payments are more than receipts. Thus,
the transactions motive refers to the holding of cash to meet expected obligations whose
timing is not perfectly matched with cash receipts. Though, a large portion of cash
held for transactions motive is in the form of cash, apart of it may be invested in
marketable securities whose maturity conform to the timing of expected payments
such as dividends, taxes etc.
b. Precautionary motive - Apart from the non-synchronisation of expected cash receipts
and payments in the ordinary course of business, a firm may be failed to pay cash for
unexpected contingencies. For example, strikes, sudden increase in cost of raw materials
etc. Cash held to meet these unforeseen situations is known as precautionary cash
balance and it provides a caution against them. The amount of cash balance under
precautionary motive is influenced by two factors i.e. predictability of cash flows and
the availability of short term credit. The more unpredictable the cash flows, the greater
the need for such cash balances and vice versa. If the firm can borrow at short-notice, it
will need a relatively small balance to meet contingencies and vice versa. Usually
precautionary cash balances are invested in marketable securities so that they contribute
something to profitability.
c. Speculative motive - Sometimes firms would like to hold cash in order to exploit, the
profitable opportunities as and when they arise. This motive is called as speculative
motive. For example, if the firm expects that the material prices will fall, it can delay
the purchases and make purchases in future when price actually declines. Similarly,
with the hope of buying securities when the interest rate is expected to decline, the
firm will hold cash. By and large, firms rarely hold cash for speculative purposes.
d. Compensation motive - This motive to hold cash balances is to compensate banks and
other financial institutes for providing certain services and loans. Banks provide a
variety of services to business firms like clearance of cheques, drafts, transfer of funds

etc. Banks charge a commission or fee for their services to the customers as indirect
compensation. Customers are required to maintain a minimum cash balance at the
bank. This balance cannot be used for transaction purposes. Banks can utilise the
balances to earn a return to compensate their cost of services to the customers. Such
balances are compensating balances. These balances are also required by some loan
agreements between a bank and its customers. Banks require a chest to maintain a
minimum cash balance in his account to compensate the bank when the supply of
credit is restricted and interest rates are rising.
Thus cash is required to fulfill the above motives. Out of the four motives of holding cash
balances, transaction motive and compensation motives are very important. Business firms
usually do not speculate and need not have speculative balances. The requirement of
precautionary balances can be met out of short-term borrowings.
Objectives
The basic objectives of cash management are
(i) to make the payments when they become due and
(ii) to minimize the cash balances. The task before the cash management is to reconcile
the two conflicting nature of objectives.
1. Meeting the payments schedule - The basic objective of cash management is to
meet the payment schedule. In the normal course of business, firms have to make
payments of cash to suppliers of raw materials, employees and so on regularly. At
the same time firm will be receiving cash on a regular basis from cash sales and
debtors. Thus, every firm should have adequate cash to meet the payments
schedule. In other words, the firm should be able to meet the obligations when
they become due.
The firm can enjoy certain advantages associated with maintaining adequate cash. They are:
a. Insolvency - The question of insolvency does not arise as the firm will be able to meet
its obligations.
b. Good relations - Adequate cash balance in the business firm helps in developing good
relations with creditors and suppliers of raw materials.
c. Credit worthiness - The maintenance of adequate cash balances increase the credit
worthiness of the firm. Consequently it will be able to purchase raw materials and
procure credit with favorable terms and conditions.
d. Availing discount facilities - The firm can avail the discounts offered by the creditors for
payments before the due date.
e. To meet unexpected facilities - The firm can easily meet the unexpected cash expenditure
in situations like strikes, competition from customers etc. with little strain.
So, every firm should have adequate cash balances for effective cash management.

ANALYSIS
2. Minimising funds committed to cash balances - The second important objective of cash
management is to minimise cash balance. In minimizing the cash balances two conflicting
aspects have to be reconciled. A high level of cash balances will ensure prompt payment
together with all advantages, but at the same time, cash is a non-earning asset and the
larger balances of cash impair profitability. On the other hand, a low level of cash balance
may lead to the inability of the firm to meet the payment schedule. Thus the objective of
cash management would be to have an optimum cash balance.
Factors determining cash needs - Maintenance of optimum level of cash is the main problem
of cash management. The level of cash holding differs from industry to industry, organisation
to organisation. The factors determining the cash needs of the industry is explained as follows:
i. Matching of cash flows - The first and very important factor determining the level of cash
requirement is matching cash inflows with cash outflows. If the receipts and payments
are perfectly coincide or balance each other, there would be no need for cash balances.
The need for cash management therefore, due to the non-synchronisation of cash receipts
and disbursements. For this purpose, the cash inflows and outflows have to be forecast
over a period of time say 12 months with the help of cash budget. The cash budget will
pin point the months when the firm will have an excess or shortage of cash.
ii. Short costs - Short costs are defined as the expenses incurred as a result of shortfall of cash
such as unexpected or expected shortage of cash balances to meet the requirements. The
short costs includes, transaction costs associated with raising cash to overcome the
shortage, borrowing costs associated with borrowing to cover the shortage i.e. interest on
loan, loss of trade-discount, penalty rates by banks to meet a shortfall in compensating,
cash balances and costs associated with deterioration of the firm’s credit rating etc. which
is reflected in higher bank charges on loans, decline in sales and profits.
iii. Cost of cash on excess balances - One of the important factors determining the cash needs is
the cost of maintaining cash balances i.e. excess or idle cash balances. The cost of
maintaining excess cash balance is called excess cash balance cost. If large funds are idle,
the implication is that the firm has missed opportunities to invest and thereby lost interest.
This is known as excess cost. Hence the cash management is necessary to maintain an
optimum balance of cash.
iv. Uncertainty in business - Uncertainty plays a key role in cash management, because cash
flows can not be predicted with complete accuracy. The first requirement of cash
management is a precautionary cushion to cope with irregularities in cash flows,
unexpected delays in collections and disbursements, defaults and expected cash needs
the uncertainty can be overcome through accurate forecasting of tax payments, dividends,
capital expenditure etc. and ability of the firm to borrow funds through over draft facility.
v. Cost of procurement and management of cash - The costs associated with establishing and
operating cash management staff and activities determining the cash needs of a business
firm. These costs are generally fixed and are accounted for by salary, storage and handling
of securities etc. The above factors are considered to determine the cash needs of a business
firm.

The Strategies for Cash Management are Discussed in Detail in the Following Lines
I) Projection of cash flows and planning - The cash planning and the projection of cash
flows is determined with the help of cash budget. The cash budget is the most important
tool in cash management. It is a device to help a firm to plan and control the use of cash.
It is a statement showing the estimated cash inflows and cash outflows over the firm’s
planning horizon. In other words the net cash position i.e., surplus or deficiency of a firm
is highlighted by the cash budget from one budgeting period to another period.
II) Determining optimal level of cash holding in the company - One of the important
responsibilities of a finance manager is to maintain sufficient cash balances to meet the
current obligations of a company. Determining to optimum level of cash balance
influenced by a trade off between risk and profitability. Every business enterprise holding
cash balances for transaction purposes and to meet precautionary, speculative and
compensative motives. It is also observed that cash inflows and cash outflows and cash
outflows. With the help of cash budget the finance manager predicts the inflows and
outflows of cash during a particular period of time and there by determines the cash
requirements of the company. While determining the optimum level of cash balance
(neither excess nor inadequate cash balances) the finance manager has to bring a trade off
between the liquidity and profitability of the firm. The optimum level of cash balances of
a company can be determined in various ways: They are
a) Inventory model (Economic Order Quantity) to cash management
b) Stochastic model
c) Probability model
a) Inventory model (EOQ) to cash management - Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) model
is used in determination of optimal level of cash of a company. According to this
model optimal level of cash balance is one at which cost of carrying the inventory of
cash and cost of going to the market for satisfying cash requirements is minimum. The
carrying cost of holding cash refers to the interest foregone on marketable securities
where as cost of giving to the market means cost of liquidating marketable securities in
cash.
Optimum level of cash balance can be determined as follows:
2AO
Q=
C
Where Q = Optimum level of cash inventory
A+ Total amount of transaction demand
O = Average fixed cost of securing cash from the market (ordering cost of cash /
securities)

ANALYSIS
C+ Cost of carrying cash inventory, i.e., interest rate on marketable securities for the
period involved.
Assumptions: The model is based on the following assumptions:
1) The demand for cash, transactions costs of obtaining cash and the holding costs for a
particular period are given and do not change during that period.
2) There is a constant demand for cash during the period under consideration.
3) Cash payments are predictable
4) Banks do not impose any restrictions on firms with respect of maintenance of minimum
cash balances in the bank accounts.
For example: Teja & Company estimated cash payments of Rs. 36,000 for a period of 30 days.
The average fixed cost for securing capital from the market (ordering cost) is Rs. 100 and the
carrying cost or interest rate on marketable securities is 12% per annum. Determine the
optimum quantity of cash balance?
A+ Monthly requirement = Rs. 36,000
O = Fixed Cost for securing capital = Rs. 100
C = Cost of interest on marketable securities = 12% per year
Per month: 1% or (0.1)
2 AO 2 (36 ,000 × 100 )

Therefore: Q = =
C 0 .1
Optimum transaction of cash: Rs. 8,485.28
Graphically
Point of minimum
Total Cost
Total Costs
Fixed Cost
Cost
Transaction Cost
Cash Balance

Limitations - The EOQ model to determine the optimum size of cash balances is suffered with
several practical problems. The first and important problem (limitation) is related with
determination of fixed cost associated with replenishing cash. The fixed cost includes both
explicit cost (interest rate at which required capital can be secured from the market and implicit
cost (time spent in placing an order for getting financial assistance etc.) The computation of
implicit cost is very difficult. The model is not useful and applicable where the cash flows are
irregular nature.
B) Stochastic (irregular) Model - This model is developed to avoid the problems associated
with the EOQ model. This model was developed by Miller and Orr. The basic assumption of
this model is that cash balances, are irregular, i.e., changes randomly over a period of time
both in size and direction and form a normal distribution as the number of periods observed
increases. The model prescribes two control limits Upper control Limit (UCL) and Lower
Control Limit (LCL) when the cash balances reaches the upper limit a transfer of cash to
investment account should be made and when cash balances reach the lower point a portion
of securities constituting investment account of the company should be liquidated to return
the cash balances to its return point. The control limits are converting securities into cash and
the vice – versa, and the cost carrying stock of cash.
The Miller and Orr model is the simplest model to determine the optimal behavior in irregular
cash flows situation. The model is a control limit model designed to determine the time and
size of transfers between an investment account and cash account. There are two control limits.
Upper Limit (U) and lower limit (L).
According to this model when cash balance of the company reach the upper limit, cash equal
to “U – O” should be invested in marketable securities so that new cash balance touches “O”
point. If the cash balance touch the “L’ point, finance manager should immediately liquidate
that much portion of the investment portfolio which could return the cash balance to ‘O’
point. (O is optimal point of cash balance or target cash balance)
The “O” optimal point of cash balance is determined by using the formula
3TV
O=3
4I
Where,
O = target cash balance (Optimal cash balance)
T= Fixed cost associated with security transactions
I = Interest per day on marketable securities
V = Variance of daily net cash flows.

ANALYSIS
Upper Control Limit
Cash Balance
Return Point
Time Lower Control Limit
Limitations: This model is subjected to some practical problems

1) The first and important problem is in respect of collection of accurate data about transfer
costs, holding costs, number of transfers and expected average cash balance.
2) The cost of time devoted by financial managers in dealing with the transfers of cash to
securities and vice versa.
3) The model does not take in account the short term borrowings as an alternative to
selling of marketable securities when cash balance reaches lower limit.
Besides the practical difficulties in the application of the model, the model helps in providing
more, better and quicker information for management of cash. It was observed that the model
produced considerable cost savings in the real life situations.
C) Probability Model - This model was developed by William Beranek. Beranek observed
that cash flows of a firm are neither completely predictable nor irregular (stochastic). The
cash flows are predictable within a range. This occurrence calls for formulating the demand
for cash as a probability distribution of possible outcomes.
According to this model, a finance manager has to estimate probabilistic out comes for net
cash flows on the basis of his prior knowledge and experience. He has to determine what is
the operating cash balance for a given period, what is the expected net cash flow at the end of
the period and what is the probability of occurrence of this expected closing net cash flows.
The optimum cash balance at the beginning of the planning period is determined with the
help of the probability distribution of net cash flows. Cost of cash shortages, opportunity cost
of holding cash balances and the transaction cost.

Assumptions:
1) Cash is invested in marketable securities at the end of the planning period say a week
or a month.
2) Cash inflows take place continuously throughout the planning period.
3) Cash inflows are of different sizes.
4) Cash inflows are not fully controllable by the management of firm.
5) Sale of marketable securities and other short term investments will be effected at the
end of the planning period.
The probability model prescribed the decision rule for the finance manager that the finance
manager should go on investing in marketable securities from the opening cash balance until
the expectation, that the ending cash balance will be below the optimum cash balance, where
the ratio of the incremental net return per rupee of investment is equal to the incremental
shortage cost per rupee.
III. Strategy for economizing cash - Once cash flow projections are made and appropriate
cash balances are established, the finance manager should take steps towards effective
utilization of available cash resources. A number of strategies have to be developed for this
purpose they are:
a) Strategy towards accelerating cash inflows, and
b) Strategy towards decelerating cash outflows
a) Strategy towards accelerating cash inflows - In order to accelerate the cash inflows and
maximize the available cash the firm has to employ several methods such as reduce the
time lag between the movement a payment to the company is mailed and the movement
the funds are ready for redeployment by the company. This includes the quick deposit of
customer’s cheques, establishing collection centers and lock – box system etc.
i) Quick deposit of customer’s Cheques - The inflow are accelerated through quick
deposit of cheques in the banks, the moment they are received. Special attention should
be given to deposit the cheques without any delay.
ii) Establishing collection centres - In order to accelerate the cash inflows the organization
may establish collection centres in various marketing centres of the country. These
centres may collect the cheques or payments from the customers and deposit them in
the local bank. Thus, these cheques are collect immediately at the collection centre and
the bank can transfer the surplus money, if any, to the company’s main bank. Thus,
the decentralized collection system of the company reduced the time lag in cash
remittances and collections.
iii) Lock-box method - The new device which is popular in recent past is lock-box method
which will help to reduce the time interval from the mailing of the cheque to the use of
funds by the company. Under this arrangement, the company rents lock-box from
post offices through its service area. The customer’s are instructed to mail cheques to
the lock-box. The company’s bank collects the mail from the lock-box. The company’s

ANALYSIS
bank collects the mail from the lock-box several times a day and deposit them directly
in the company’s account on the same day. This will reduce the time in mailing cheques,
deposit them in bank and these by overhead costs to the company. But one of the
serious limitations of the system is that the banks will charge additional service costs
to the company. However, this system is proved useful and economic to the firm.
b) Strategy for slowing cash outflows - In order to accelerate cash availability in the company,
finance manager must employ some devices that could slow down the speed of payments
outward in addition to accelerating collections. The methods of slowing down
disbursements are as flows:
i) Delaying outward payment - The finance manager can increase the cash turnover by
delaying the payment on bills until the due date of the no-cost period. Thus, he can
economise cash resources of the firm.
ii) Making pay roll periods less frequent - The firm can economise its cash resources by
changing the frequency of disbursing pay to its employees. For example, if the company
is presently paying wages weekly, it can effect substantial cash savings if the pay is
disbursed only once in a month.
iii) Solving disbursement by sue of drafts - A company can delay disbursement by use of
drafts on funds located elsewhere. When the firm pays the amount through drafts, the
bank will not make the payment against the draft unless the bank gets the acceptance
of the issuer firm. Thus the firm need not have balance in its bank account till the draft
is presented for acceptance. On the other hand, it will take several days for the draft to
be actually paid by the company. Thus finance manager can economixe large amounts
of cash resources for atleast a fort night. The funds saved could be invested in highly
liquid low risk assets to earn income there on.
iv) Playing the float - Float is the difference between the company’s cheque book balance
and the balance shown in the banks books of accounts. When the company writes a
cheque, it will reduce the balance in its books of accounts by the amount of cheque.
But the bank will debit the amount of its customers only when the cheques is collected.
On the other hand, the company can maximize its cash utilization by ignoring its book
blance and keep its cash invested until just before the cheques are actually presented
for payment. This technique is known as “playing the float”.
v) Centralised payment system - A firm can delay payments through centralized payment
system. Under this system, payments will be made from a single central account. This
will benefit the company.
vi) By transferring funds from one bank to another bank firm can maximize its cash
turnover.
MANAGEMENT OF RECEIVABLES :
Receivables mean the book debts or debtors and these arise, if the goods are sold on credit.
Debtors form about 30% of current assets in India. Debt involves an element of risk and bad
debts also. Hence, it calls for careful analysis and proper management. The goal of receivables

management is to maximize the value of the firm by achieving a trade off between risk and
profitability. For this purpose, a finance manager has:
a. to obtain optimum (non-maximum) value of sales;
b. to control the cost of receivables, cost of collection, administrative expenses,
bad debts and opportunity cost of funds blocked in the receivables.
c. to maintain the debtors at minimum according to the credit policy offered to customers.
d. to offer cash discounts suitably depending on the cost of receivables, bank rate of interest
and opportunity cost of funds blocked in the receivables.
Costs of maintaining receivables
The costs with respect to maintenance of receivables can be identified as follows
1. Capital costs - Maintenance of accounts receivable results in blocking of the firm’s
financial resources in them. This is because there is a time lag between the sale of
goods to customers an the payments by them. The firm has, therefore, to arrange for
additional funds to meet its own obligations, such as payment to employees, suppliers
of raw materials, etc., while awaiting for payments from its customers. Additional funds
may either be raised from outside or out of profits retained in the business. In both the
case, the firm has to pay interest to the outsider while in the latter case, there is an
opportunity cost to the firm, i.e., the money which the firm could have earned otherwise
by investing the funds elsewhere.
2. Administrative costs - The firm has to incur additional administrative costs for
maintaining accounts receivable in the form of salaries to the staff kept for maintaining
accounting records relating to customers, cost of conducting investigation regarding
potential credit customers to determine their credit worthiness etc
3. Collection costs - The firm has to incur costs for collecting the payments from its credit
customers. Sometimes, additional steps may have to be taken to recover money from
defaulting customers.
4. Defaulting costs - Sometimes after making all serious efforts to collect money from
defaulting customers, the firm may not be able to recover the overdues.3 because of
the inability of the customers. Such debts are treated as bad debts and have to be
written off since they cannot be realised.
Benefits of maintaining receivables
a. Increase in Sales - Except a few monopolistic firms, most of the firms are required to sell
goods on credit, either because of trade customers or other conditions. The sales can
further be increased by liberalizing the credit terms. This will attract more customers
to the firm resulting in higher sales and growth of the firm.
b. Increase in Profits - Increase in sales will help the firm (i) to easily recover the fixed
expenses and attaining the break-even level, and (ii) increase the operating profit of
the firm. In a normal situation, there is a positive relation between the sales volume
and the profit.

ANALYSIS
c. Extra Profit - Sometimes, the firms make the credit sales at a price which is higher than
the usual cash selling price. This brings an opportunity to the firm to make extra profit
over and above the normal profit.
Factors affecting the size of receivables
The size of accounts receivable is determined by a number of factors. Some of the important
factors are as follows
1. Level of sales - This is the most important factor in determining the size of accounts
receivable. Generally in the same industry, a firm having a large volume of sales will
be having a larger level of receivables as compared to a firm with a small volume of
sales.
Sales level can also be used for forecasting change in accounts receivable. For example, if a
firm predicts that there will be an increase of 20% in its credit sales for the next period, it can
be expected that there will also be a 20% increase in the level of receivables.
2. Credit policies - The term credit policy refers to those decision variables that influence
the amount of trade credit, i.e., the investment in receivables. These variables include
the quantity of trade accounts to be accepted, the length of the credit period to be
extended, the cash discount to be given and any special terms to be offered depending
upon particular circumstances of the firm and the customer. A firm’s credit policy, as
a matter of fact, determines the amount of risk the firm is willing to undertake in its
sales activities. If a firm has a lenient or a relatively liberal credit policy, it will experience
a higher level of receivables as compared to a firm with a more rigid or stringent credit
policy. This is because of the two reasons:
i. A lenient credit policy encourages even the financially strong customers to make
delays in payment resulting in increasing the size of the accounts receivables.
ii. Lenient credit policy will result in greater defaults in payments by financially weak
customers thus resulting in increasing the size of receivables.
3. Terms of trade - The size of the receivables is also affected by terms of trade (or credit
terms) offered by the firm. The two important components of the credit terms are (i)
Credit period and (ii) Cash discount.
Credit period
The term credit period refers to the time duration for which credit is extended to the customers.
It is generally expressed in terms of “Net days”. For example, if a firm’s credit terms are “Net
15”, it means the customers are expected to pay within 15 days from the date of credit sale.
Cash discount
Most firms offer cash discount to their customers for encouraging them to pay their dues
before the expiry of the credit period. The terms of cash discount indicate the rate of discount
as well as the period for which the discount has been offered. For example, if the terms of cash
discount are changed from “Net 30” to “2/10 Net 30”, it means the credit period is of 30 days
but in case customer pays in 10 days, he would get 2% discount on the amount due by him. Of

course, allowing cash discount results in a loss to the firm because of recovery of less amount
than what is due from the customer but it reduces the volume of receivables and puts extra
funds at the disposal of the firm for alternative profitable investment. The amount of loss thus
suffered is, therefore, compensated by the income otherwise earned by the firm.
Optimum size of receivables
The optimum investment in receivables will be at a level where there is a trade-off between
costs and profitability. When the firm resorts to a liberal credit policy, the profitability of the
firm increases on account of higher sales. However, such a policy results in increased
investment in receivables, increased chances of bad debts and more collection costs. The total
investment in receivables increases and, thus, the problem of liquidity is created. On the
other hand, a stringent credit policy reduces the profitability but increases the liquidity of the
firm. Thus, optimum credit policy occurs at a point where there is a “Trade-off” between
liquidity and profitability as shown in the chart below.
Cost & Benefits
Profitability
Liquidity
Tight ← Credit
Tight Credit Policy → Loose
Policy Loose
Determinants of credit policy

The following are the aspects of credit policy:
1. Level of credit sales required to optimise the profit.
2. Credit period i.e. duration of credit, whether it may be 15 days or 30 or 45 days etc.
3. Cash discount, discount period and seasonal offers.
4. Credit standard of a customer : 5 C’s of credit :
a. Character of the customer i.e. willingness to pay.
b. Capacity——ability to pay.
c. Capital——financial resources of a customer.
d. Conditions——special conditions for extension of credit to doubtful customers
and prevailing economic and market conditions and;
e. Collateral security.
5. Profits.
6. Market and economic conditions.

ANALYSIS
7. Collection policy.
8. Paying habits of customers.
9. Billing efficiency, record-keeping etc.
10. Grant of credit——size and age of receivables.
Optimum credit policy
A firm should establish receivables policies after carefully considering both benefits and costs
of different policies. These policies relate to:
(i). Credit Standards, (ii) Credit Terms, and (iii) Collection Procedures.
Each of these have been explained below:
i. Credit Standards - The term credit standards represent the basic criteria for extension
of credit to customers. The levels of sales and receivables are likely to be high if the
credit standards are relatively loose, as compared to a situation when they are relatively
tight. The firm’s credit standards are generally determined by the five “C’s”. Character,
Capacity, Capital, Collateral and Conditions. Character denotes the integrity of the
customer, i.e. his willingness to pay for the goods purchased. Capacity denotes his
ability to manage the business. Capital denotes his financial soundness. Collateral
refers to the assets which the customer can offer by way of security. Conditions refer
to the impact of general economic trends on the firm or to special developments in
certain areas of economy that may affect the customer’s ability to meet his obligations.
Information about the five C’s can be collected both from internal as well as external sources.
Internal sources include the firm’s previous experience with the customer supplemented by
its own well developed information system. External resources include customer’s references,
trade associations and credit rating organisations such as Don & Brad Street Inc. of USA. This
Organisation has more than hundred years experience in the field of credit reporting. It
publishes a reference book six times a year containing information about important business
firms region wise. It also supplies credit reports about different firms on request.
An individual firm can translate its credit information into risk classes or groups according to
the probability of loss associated with each class. On the basis of this information, the firm can
decide whether it will be advisable for it to extend credit to a particular class of customers.
ii. Credit terms
It refers to the terms under which a firm sells goods on credit to its customers. As
stated earlier, the two components of the credit terms are (a) Credit Period and (b)
Cash Discount. The approach to be adopted by the firm in respect of each of these
components is discussed below:
(a) Credit period - Extending the credit period stimulates sales but increases the cost on account
of more tying up of funds in receivables. Similarly, shortening the credit period reduces
the profit on account of reduced sales, but also reduces the cost of typing up of funds in
receivables. Determining the optimal credit period, therefore, involves locating the period
where the marginal profits on increased sales are exactly offset by the cost of carrying the
higher amount of accounts receivable.

(b) Cash discount - The effect of allowing cash discount can also be analysed on the same
pattern as that of the credit period. Attractive cash discount terms reduce the average
collection period resulting in reduced investment in accounts receivable. Thus, there is a
saving in capital costs. On the other hand, cash discount itself is a loss to the firm. Optimal
discount is established at the point where the cost and benefit are exactly offsetting.
iii. Collection procedures
A stringent collection procedure is expensive for the firm because of high out-of-pocket costs
and loss of goodwill of the firm among its customers. However, it minimises the loss on
account of bad debts as well as increases savings in terms of lower capital costs on account of
reduction in the size of receivables. A balance has therefore to be stuck between the costs and
benefits of different collection procedures or policies.
Credit evaluation of customer
Credit evaluation of the customer involves the following 5 stages
i. Gathering credit information of the customer through:
a. financial statements of a firm,
b. bank references,
c. references from Trade and Chamber of Commerce,
d. reports of credit rating agencies,
e. credit bureau reports,
f. firm’s own records (Past experience),
g. other sources such as trade journals, Income-tax returns, wealth tax returns,
sales tax returns, Court cases, Gazette notifications etc.
ii. Credit analysis - After gathering the above information about the customer, the credit-
worthiness of the applicant is to be analysed by a detailed study of 5 C’s of credit as
mentioned above.
iii. Credit decision - After the credit analysis, the next step is the decision to extend the credit
facility to potential customer. If the analysis of the applicant is not upto the standard, he
may be offered cash on delivery (COD) terms even by extending trade discount, if
necessary, instead of rejecting the credit to the customerk.
iv. Credit limit - If the decision is to extend the credit facility to the potential customer, a limit
may be prescribed by the financial manager, say, Rs. 25,000 or Rs. 1,00,000 or so, depending
upon the credit analysis and credit-worthiness of the customer.
v. Collection procedure - A suitable and clear-cut collection procedure is to be established by
a firm and the same is to be intimated to every customer while granting credit facility.
Cash discounts may also be offered for the early payment of dues. This facilities faster
recovery.

2.5 Working Capital: Fianancial Management & International Finance

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2.

Definition and classification of working capital

Fianancial Management & international finance 203

Working Capital may be classified in two ways

Concept based Time based

Gross Working Net Working Negative Working Permanent or Temporary or

Concepts of working capital

204 Fianancial Management & international finance

Permanent of Fixed Working Capital

Permanent of Fixed Working Capital

Fianancial Management & international finance 205

Debtors & Bills

In case of trading concerns, the operating cycle will be:

206 Fianancial Management & international finance

DETERMINANTS OF WORKING CAPITAL :

Fianancial Management & international finance 207

5. Growth and expansion of business

II. External Factors

208 Fianancial Management & international finance

Fianancial Management & international finance 209

210 Fianancial Management & international finance

Fianancial Management & international finance 211

212 Fianancial Management & international finance

Fianancial Management & international finance 213

214 Fianancial Management & international finance

Fianancial Management & international finance 215

216 Fianancial Management & international finance

Seasonal Current Assets ⎧

Working Capital Policies

Seasonal Working Capital

Permanent Working Capital

Fianancial Management & international finance 217

Types of Funds Working capital requirement

218 Fianancial Management & international finance

A Trade off between Profitability and liquidity

MANAGEMENT OF WORKING CAPITAL:

Working Capital Management involves management of different components of working

Fianancial Management & international finance 219

A good inventory management is important to the successful operations of most organisaions,

Inventory management refers to an optimum investment in inventories. It should neither be

Techniques of Inventory Control

The following are the various measures of selective control of inventory:

A. Economic Ordering Quantity (EOQ)

220 Fianancial Management & international finance

Cost Total Cost

Quantity per order

2 × Annual usage × Buying Cost

Fianancial Management & international finance 221

5. Storage space available, cost of storage and insurance.

222 Fianancial Management & international finance

Quantity Value Average values Rs.

Fianancial Management & international finance 223

Percentage of Consumption Value

224 Fianancial Management & international finance

Fianancial Management & international finance 225

Cost of goods sold

Raw material on order

Average raw material inventory at cost

Average finished goods insntory at cost