Systems Thinking Applied

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About ASysT A
The Applied Systems Thinking ASysT Institute is an endeavor of Analytic Services Inc.
ASysT was created out of a recognized need to apply systems thinking to problems of
national significance in the fields of national and homeland security, energy, healthcare,
education and environment. As a unique educational, professional development, and
research enterprise, the ASysT Institute seeks both to advance the understanding of systems
thinking and to translate this understanding into pragmatic applications that enhance the
security of our nation. The Stevens Institute of Technology is a collaborator in ASysT.
This document is also available for download at www.asysti.org.

Systems Thinking. Applied.
A Primer

Robert Edson Version 1.1
08 October 2008

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© Copyright 2008 Analytic Services Inc.
SYSTEMS THINKING. APPLIED. A PRIMER VERSION 1.1 | 08 OCTOBER 2008
Table of Contents
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................................... i
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Purpose of this Paper................................................................................................................................ 1
Paper Structure ......................................................................................................................................... 1
Systems Thinking. Why Now?....................................................................................................................... 3
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Systems Thinking. Defined............................................................................................................................ 5
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The System in Systems Thinking ............................................................................................................... 6
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The Applied in Applied Systems Thinking ................................................................................................. 7
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System Example: Special Needs Population Evacuation in Catastrophic Events........................................ 11
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Background ............................................................................................................................................. 11
The System in Special Needs Population Evacuation ............................................................................. 12
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Systems Thinking and Viewpoints............................................................................................................... 13
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Multiple Perspectives.............................................................................................................................. 13
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Bifocal Vantage Point.............................................................................................................................. 14
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Seeing Beyond the Linear ....................................................................................................................... 14
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Detail Complexity vs. Dynamic Complexity............................................................................................. 15
Distance Viewing..................................................................................................................................... 16
The Endogenous Viewpoint .................................................................................................................... 16
Viewpoints Summary .............................................................................................................................. 16
Tools and Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 19
The Soft Systems Method ....................................................................................................................... 19
Systemigram ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Causal Loop Diagrams ............................................................................................................................. 22
Systems Dynamics/Stock and Flow Diagrams......................................................................................... 24
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Tools and Methods Summary ................................................................................................................. 24
Problem Definition: Entry Point to Applied Systems Thinking ................................................................... 27
Applied Systems Thinking Framework: The Conceptagon.......................................................................... 31
Boundary, Interior, Exterior .................................................................................................................... 32
Inputs, Outputs, Transformations........................................................................................................... 34
Wholes, Parts, Relationships................................................................................................................... 36
Structure, Function, Process ................................................................................................................... 37
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Command, Control, Communications..................................................................................................... 40
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Variety, Parsimony, Harmony ................................................................................................................. 42
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Openness, Hierarchy, Emergence........................................................................................................... 43
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Framework Summary.............................................................................................................................. 44
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Applied Systems Thinking Summary ........................................................................................................... 47
Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................................... 49
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About the Author ........................................................................................................................................ 49
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Appendix A: References .............................................................................................................................. 51
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Appendix B: Systems Thinking Definitions.................................................................................................. 55
Appendix C: Example Systems Methodologies........................................................................................... 57
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Introduction
How can we design improvement in large systems without understanding the
whole system, and if the answer is that we cannot, how is it possible to
understand the whole system? (Churchman 1968)
Systems thinking provides a way of looking at problem situations and an approach to problem solutions.
Systems thinking is not complicated. It is the simplicity of the systems approach that provides much of
its power. First, view the problem as a whole system in a larger world. Do not break the problem into
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small pieces which in fact do not reflect the actual problem situation. Second, approach problem
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investigation and assessment in a systemic way. Problem assessment and solution function as a learning
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system; the system becomes the lens through which the problem is viewed.
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Systems thinking is simple, but too rarely done, particularly in the context of the large problems facing
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the world today. Much of the world persists in machine‐age thinking, taking apart the machine to
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understand how it works. This approach no longer works in a system‐age where the individual parts do
not equate to the system; where the system’s external environment is just as important as its
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component parts.
We must approach problem situations with a new way of thinking if meaningful solutions are to be
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developed. Systems thinking is one of these new ways.
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Purpose of this Paper
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This paper provides an overview of applied systems thinking. It presents a discussion of the systems
thinking concept and a summary of principles and tools used in its execution. The paper also serves as
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the foundation to a larger e‐book, currently under development, which will explore in more detail the
application of systems thinking to problems of U.S. national significance. This future exploration will be
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conducted through the development of case studies illustrating principles and methods of systems
thinking as applied to specific problems.
This is a synthesis paper, bringing together some of the thoughts of the leading systems thinkers. The
paper is meant to serve as a primer which stands on its own, but also serves as an introduction to the
many significant works on this topic. This paper is not a literature review and does not purport to be an
exhaustive summary of all available literature on systems thinking.
Paper Structure
This exploration of systems thinking is presented in several parts. The first part of the paper (Systems
Thinking. Why now?) provides the motivation for discussing the importance of systems thinking today.
The second part of the paper presents more detail about systems thinking as a discipline: how is it
defined and what are the principles and concepts? The second section also provides an example of a
problem situation currently facing the United States. This example, evacuating special needs populations
© Copyright 2008 Analytic Services Inc. Page | 1

during disasters, is utilized throughout this paper as an illustration for concept explanation. This part
includes the following sections:
• Systems Thinking. Defined
• The System in Systems Thinking
• The Applied in Applied Systems Thinking
• System Example: Special Needs Population Evacuation in Catastrophic Events
The third section provides the concepts, tools, and methods for the systems thinking assessment.
• Systems Thinking and Viewpoints
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• Tools and Methods
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The fourth part provides a structure for systems thinking and discusses the steps of a systems
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assessment.
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• Problem Definition: Entry Point to Applied Systems Thinking
• Applied Systems Thinking Framework
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This four‐part discussion serves as an initial introduction to systems thinking. The paper also provides a
departure point for the more in‐depth systems thinking investigations to be presented in follow‐on
publications.
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Systems Thinking. Why Now?
The significant problems we face cannot be solved at the same level of thinking
we were at when we created them. (Albert Einstein)
In the early 1900’s man was still focused on building better machines. Machines could solve all problems
and make life better. Machine‐age thinking, reducing systems to their smallest parts so that these parts
and actions could be reproduced by machines, dominated man’s thought process. The pace of
technology development since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution is testimony to the importance
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and significance of this reductionism.
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Around the time of World War II, scientists, engineers, and technologists—in fact, all thinkers—began to
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realize that reductionism was not always effective. Sometimes when systems or activities were reduced
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to their smallest parts, the systems no longer existed. There was also a realization that reductionism
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trivialized the synergistic contributions of parts working together, particularly in human‐activity systems
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and systems with a strong human‐technology mix. The systems‐age came to the fore.
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The end of the 20th century included significant enhancements to the systems‐age as the internet and
globalization rose to dominance and nearly limitless access to information and intellectual resources
became possible. With increased access comes increased awareness of complexity. Problems are
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becoming more difficult and situations more chaotic.
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Humankind now has the capacity:
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• To create far more information than anyone can absorb. “Print, film, magnetic, and optical
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storage media produced about 5 exabytes of new information in 2002, equivalent in size to the
information contained in 37,000… libraries the size of the Library of Congress book collections.” 1
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New stored information has grown 30% per year between 1999 and 2002. The quantity of
scientific knowledge, if measured through scientific publications, has been doubling
approximately every 15 years since 1900.2 In June 2008, Netcraft.com noted the existence of
over 172 million web sites, up 3.9 million in one month.3 Man can no longer absorb or make
sense of this mass of information. Even worse, the sheer quantity and availability of information
has led to nations of the “distracted”, individuals unable to maintain deep, sustained, perceptive
attention as they rapidly flit from one item to the next (Jackson 2008).
• To foster far greater interdependency than anyone can manage. The world is flat (Friedman
2005). The technology delivered by an American company may have been developed and

1
Lyman, Peter and Hal R. Varian, "How Much Information?”, 2003. http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/how‐much‐info‐
2003, accessed 07 July 2008.
2
Kelly, Kevin, “The Speed of Information”,
http://www.kk.org/thetechnium/archives/2006/02/the_speed_of_in.php, accessed 07 July 2008.
3
Netcraft, June 2008 Web Server Survey, http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html, accessed
07 July 2008.

manufactured in a country half‐way around the world. If a consumer orders a custom computer
through the Hewlett‐Packard web site, it will be built in less than two weeks and delivered
directly to his front door, express mail from China. The world was flat. However, the price of fuel
is reversing a major trend in globalization, at least for physical goods. “Whether you are selling
coiled steel or cut flowers, the cost of transport is a problem.”4 The future may see a shift to
regionalism, where materials and markets are sought within a cost‐effective transport range.
For knowledge goods (e.g., software) global interrelations continue to grow. Interdependence is
here, but its nature is constantly changing.
• To accelerate change far faster than anyone’s ability to keep pace. There are 54,400,000 web
page hits in Google for the term “pace of change.”5 This is a powerful commentary on the speed
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with which humans are effecting change. Technological change and improvement are now
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occurring at an exponential rate. From the first powered, manned flight in 1890, to landing on
the moon in 1969, to discussions of manned missions to Mars today, the pace of change is
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accelerating.
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• To have unexpected impact on a global scale. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal
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and many other changes in climate have been observed (IPCC 2007). These include changes in
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arctic temperatures and ice, widespread changes in precipitation amounts, ocean salinity, wind
patterns and aspects of extreme weather including droughts, heavy precipitation, heat waves
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and the intensity of tropical cyclones. “Most of the observed increase in global average
temperatures since the mid‐20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in
anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. Discernible human influence now extends to
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other aspects of climate, including ocean warming, continental average temperatures,
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temperature extremes and wind patterns.” Impacts are not limited to the environment but
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include socio‐economic consequences as well. For example, political cartoons in Denmark led to
protests around the world, some with violence and deaths.6
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With its advancement of technology, mankind has exponentially increased the amount of new
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knowledge gained and the interconnectivity of the world. These changes, however, have also created
more complex problems and it is in this context that systems thinking must be applied.
With so much complexity, it is easy to reach a point of cognitive overload and collapse. One is
overwhelmed and unable to make a start on solving these tough problems or improving these difficult
situations. True progress can only be made through a transformation of thought—systems thinking.
Systems thinking provides the perspective and tools to address these challenges; a way to combat the
chaos.

4
Oil price crisis threatens to reverse globalization,
http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/columnists/article4107268.ece accessed 06 July 2008.
5
Google search conducted 07 July 2008.
6
Associated Press, “In Libya, 11 reportedly die in cartoon protests,” 2006,
http://www.cnn.com\2006/WORLD/africa/02/17/libya.cartons/index.html, accessed on 12 July 2008.
Systems Thinking. Defined.
It is difficult if at all possible to reduce the meaning of "systemic thinking" to a
brief definition. (Ackoff 2004)
Systems thinking is both a world view and a process; it can be used for both the development and
understanding of a system and for the approach used to solve a problem.
First, systems thinking is the view that systems and problem situations cannot be addressed through
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reducing the systems to their component parts. The uniqueness and behavior of the system is only
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present when the system is together—it is not a sum of the individual components. System behavior
comes about as a result of the interactions and relationships amongst the parts. In addition, systems
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thinking acknowledges the strong interactions between the system components, and the emergent
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behaviors and unintended consequences that may result from these interactions.
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Second, systems thinking is a process: an ordered, methodical approach to understanding problem
situations and identifying solutions to these problems. This process includes assessing the system within
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its environment, taking the external context into consideration (Senge 2006). In systems thinking one
sees and assesses both the “forest and the trees” (Richmond 1994). In the midst of the complexity and
confusion of the problem situations, systems thinking advances an understanding that solutions can be
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obtained through a learning system (Checkland 1993; Senge 2006).7
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Figure 1 provides a simplified diagram to help in the understanding of systems thinking. The figure
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comprises three elements or activities: synthesis, analysis and inquiry. These are not “steps” or
“phases”—the elements are strongly related and support each other. Synthesis and analysis reflect the
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first part of the systems thinking definition: problem situations must be assessed as systems which exist
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in a larger environment. As discussed by Ackoff (1999), synthesis and analysis are both essential,
complementary aspects of systems thinking. Synthesis is putting together, assessing the system as a
whole and understanding it in its environment. In synthesis, the “containing whole” is the point of focus.
In analysis, the system is taken apart and understood from its component parts, behavior and activities.
Analysis is the traditional, machine‐age way of thinking but remains of value in the systems age if
combined with synthesis.
[Analysis] reduces the focus of the investigator, [synthesis] expands it. (Ackoff 1999)
The third element in the diagram, inquiry, reflects the second part of the systems thinking definition:
obtaining solutions through systemic investigation. The surrounding arrows of the figure denote the
interrelationships of the elements and iterative nature of the construct. Further detail on executing

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Additional definitions for systems thinking from other schools of thought are contained in Appendix B: Systems
Thinking Definitions.

these three elements is contained in a later section which develops an applied systems thinking
framework.
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Figure 1: Systems thinking shown as three highly synergistic activities which in turn operate in an iterative manner.
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In order for systems thinking to be effectively utilized, both perspectives—the full, contextual view of
the problem and the systems approach to solutions—must be applied. These perspectives are
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synergistic and without both, one reverts to ineffective, machine‐age thinking.
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The System in Systems Thinking
One of the challenges in systems thinking is understanding the “system.”
A system is a set of two or more elements that satisfies the following three conditions.
1. The behavior of each element has an effect on the behavior of the whole.
2. The behavior of the elements and their effects on the whole are interdependent.
3. Elements of a system are so connected that independent subgroups of them cannot be
formed.
A system, therefore, is a whole that cannot be divided into independent parts. From this, two of
its most important properties derive: every part of a system has properties that it loses when
separated from the system, and every system has some properties—its essential ones—that
none of its parts do. (Ackoff 1999)

Put another way, a system comprises the interactions of its components and the interaction with its
environment.
Equally important is the concept that systems can be hardware or technology based, human activity
based, or a hybrid of the two. In fact, many of the difficult challenges faced today take the form of the
hybrid human activity‐technology systems.
The “system” can also take the form of a problem. A problem has an external context and internal
structure. It should be addressed through a process of systemic inquiry. A problem is essentially a
system with a critical value proposition attached. In fact, without a problem, it is doubtful any thinking
would be required. Throughout this paper, the term problem will be considered synonymous with the
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system that it represents.
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Finally, the “system” in systems thinking refers to the actual process of assessment. It is the path used to
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gain understanding of the problem; it is a structure for the thinking itself. All of these perspectives are
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legitimate and appropriate views of “system.” The “system” in systems thinking is a flexible construct to
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help in understanding and solution.
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The analysis and understanding of each of these aspects of the systems, and how these aspects are
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related, is critical to systems thinking. Without a clear perspective on the system of interest itself, any
systems thinking application will be likely to fall short of its potential.
The Applied in Applied Systems Thinking
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In the analysis of systems there have emerged two broad schools or approaches, loosely labeled for
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discussion here as “engineering” and “management.” The engineer seeks to understand and design
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through quantitative, well defined, or “hard” methods while the management analyst leverages more
qualitative, collaborative, or “soft” methods. The “applied” denotes an emphasis on addressing current
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problems of national significance utilizing tools and techniques that bridge the hard and soft system
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approaches.
Often there is confusion on the value or importance of hard versus soft systems methodologies in
systems thinking. This is also a point of frustration for the engineer who feels that systems thinking does
not provide meaningful, quantitative actions for problem solving. Checkland (1999) provides an
interesting perspective with his assertion that hard methods serve to design systems, while soft
methods provide a “systemic process of inquiry.” Checkland’s definitions are included in Table 1.
Table 1: Definitions of hard and soft systems methodologies (Checkland 1999).
Hard Systems Systems‐based methodology, also known as ‘system engineering’, for tackling real‐world
Methodology problems in which an objective or end‐to‐be‐achieved can be taken as given. A system is
then engineered to achieve the stated objectives.
Soft Systems Systems‐based methodology for tackling real‐world problems in which known‐to‐be‐
Methodology desirable ends cannot be taken as given. Soft systems methodology is based upon a
phenomenological stance.


The perspectives of the various practitioners are shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2: The perspective of the hard and soft systems practitioner with the applied systems thinker taking an integrated
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approach (modified from Checkland 1999). While traditional systems thinking may utilize tools from either area, applied
systems thinking emphasizes the integrations of the two approaches. The blue arrows in the figure denote the need for these
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two approaches to work together.
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This is the traditional view of hard versus soft systems. In a departure from this separation, applied
systems thinking leverages a combination of these two approaches, with the soft systems providing a
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better insight into the problem and thus allowing for a more effective hard system design and
development. This emphasis is denoted by the blue arrows in Figure 2 which imply a synergy between
the two approaches.
Another perspective on applied systems thinking is shown in Figure 3. This figure provides the emphasis
and approaches of each of the hard and soft systems communities. Both approaches fall within the
larger systems thinking construct, but applied systems thinking specifically applies to the intersection or
overlap region between the two approaches.
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Figure 3: The emphasis and approach of the hard and soft systems community and the overlap region of applied systems
thinking.
Many practitioners would agree that the soft methods provide significant insight into the problem
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definition and the stakeholder opinions, while the hard methods provide quantitative evaluations,
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solutions and metrics for success. It is not necessary to establish the precise relationship between hard
and soft systems methods, but it is important that the applied systems thinker leverages both schools in
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seeking to understand and solve the problem situation. This combination provides the power in applied
systems thinking.
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System Example: Special Needs Population Evacuation in
Catastrophic Events
The problem of evacuation and care of special needs populations during disasters is presented here as
an illustration of a problem situation and related system. This example will be used for explanation of
the applied system concepts discussed in this paper. (This example is principally taken from the analysis
of Edson et al. (2007).)
Background
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Within the general population affected by any disaster is a group with even greater vulnerabilities and
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risks–individuals with special needs. The “special needs” population can generally be described as those
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who are cognitively and/or physically disabled or frail to the point that they require routine, professional
help to complete daily life tasks. This group includes patients and residents of hospitals, nursing homes
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and mental health facilities and other individuals that need additional specialized care during a disaster
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or evacuation activity. Much of this group is made up of elderly individuals who need assistance in daily
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living activities in addition to medical care. The special needs group is particularly vulnerable during a
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disaster and special plans and resources must be in place to address this at risk population. These
populations are often disproportionately affected in disaster events and make up a significant
percentage of casualties.
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Reports from the Government Accountability Office (GAO) (e.g., Bascetta 2006; GAO 2006; GAO 2006;
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Walker 2006), American Association of Retired People (Gibson and Hayunga 2006) and other
organizations (e.g., Bea 2005) indicate that evacuation and sheltering of people with special needs
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cannot be carried out reliably by the same mechanisms used for able‐bodied persons. People with
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special needs may require immediate or full‐time access to medical or psychological care, medicines,
equipment, even service animals. Regular cars, buses, aircraft, and shelters may be inaccessible to them
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because of the need for wheelchairs or other equipment. Physical environments should be controlled to
the maximum extent possible, as their physical strength, speed, and stamina may be very limited, and
they can often be highly vulnerable to confusion and disorientation, especially in crowded, noisy
environments.
The consequences of insufficient planning and resources are clearly seen in the disasters of 2005.8 It is
clear that the problem of evacuating and caring for the special needs population during the time of a
disaster is an issue of life and death consequence. The current system must be assessed and
improvements made to address this need and provide aid to this extremely vulnerable subset of the
population.

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Further information on the need for an improved special needs evacuation system and the assessment of the
Katrina and Rita disasters can be found in Edson, R., L. John, et al. (2007). A Systems Analysis of Special Needs
Population Evacuation during Catastrophic Events. SDOE 800 Project Report, Stevens Institute of Technology and
Analytic Services Inc., available at www.asysti.org/reportspapers.aspx.

The System in Special Needs Population Evacuation
An initial assessment of the special needs evacuation system provides the impression that the system
should be relatively simple in concept and execution. Essentially, it must take an individual with medical
or assistance needs from a facility in an affected area and deliver the person to a facility in a safe area.
However, even at the most abstract level, a special needs evacuation system is extremely complex.
The concepts and methods of applied systems thinking will be advanced while discussing this problem
situation and the related system in more detail.
Utilizing the special needs population system example, this paper now progresses through the concepts
and tools inherent in an applied systems thinking assessment. First, the necessity and power of
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viewpoints will be discussed, followed by a high level overview of tools and methods. The viewpoints
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and methods are utilized throughout the systems thinking assessment. Second, problem definition will
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be discussed and a framework for assessment presented. This progression of information provides the
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tools needed for systems thinking and enable problem understanding and solution.
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Systems Thinking and Viewpoints
…rationality means looking at the same world through many different
viewpoints. (Churchman 1968)
As the system practitioner moves from problem definition through the systems thinking analytical
framework, multiple viewpoints are essential to understanding the problem situation and solution.
Much of the power of systems thinking is actually derived from the understanding and application of
multiple perspectives to the situation being analyzed. Just as importantly, there is an acknowledgement
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that there is validity and value to these many viewpoints. Multiple viewpoints is an essential underlying
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principle which permeates the entire systems thinking process and therefore is presented first.
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Viewpoints may arise from the different perspectives of the various stakeholders or from alternate
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views employed by the systems practitioner himself. Several of these viewpoint techniques are
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discussed below.
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Multiple Perspectives
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The simplest viewing technique to apply is to consider the many stakeholder perspectives of the
problem assessment. Again, the systems thinker acknowledges that each of these viewpoints has value.
The systems practitioner should be perspective neutral, working to see and understand all stakeholder
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perspectives and attitudes about the problem.
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Multiple perspectives are easy to tabulate and assess when the stakeholder community is available for
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interviews and focus groups, but this is not always the case. When interactions with the stakeholder
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community are limited or not possible, mental role playing and consulting with subject matter experts
are possible alternatives. The systems thinker places himself in the role of each stakeholder and assesses
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the problem considering the particular stakeholders’ concerns and needs.
An alternative technique is to approach problem analysis from the perspective of different disciplines.
Churchman (1968; 1979) discusses this approach in several of his works. Though his context is
predominately philosophical, there is still value in this technique in practical problem assessment. One
may choose to the view the problem from the perspective of the scientist, the technologist, the
businessman, and the social worker, for example. While somewhat artificial, this approach forces the
systems practitioner to expand his point of view and address the problem situation from a fresh angle.
Example
In the special needs population evacuation system multiple perspectives are derived from the various
stakeholders in the system. For example, the special needs population itself, hospital staff, medical
personnel, nursing home workers, local, state, and federal agencies, first responders and recipient
facilities are all active stakeholders in the system. The systems practitioner should understand these
very different perspectives and work to incorporate them into his analysis.

Bifocal Vantage Point
The bifocal vantage point implies seeing both near and far, but it means much more than this.
People employing systems thinking position themselves so that they can see both the forest and
the trees (one eye on each). The positioning has both structural and behavioral implications.
Structurally, systems thinkers see both the generic and the specific, not just the latter.
Behaviorally, they see both the pattern and the event, not just the latter. (Richmond 1994)
The implications for the systems thinker are dramatic. The systems practitioner must assess and
understand the extremes, the opposites, and the opposing concepts. This is supported in the
juxtaposition of synthesis and analysis in the systems thinking framework.
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As an analytical construct, this viewpoint technique is powerful. When the systems thinker is
comfortable with his understanding of one aspect of a problem situation, he should turn his attention to
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the opposite aspect (e.g., static to dynamic, inputs to outputs, human dimensions to the technical).
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Contrasting these elements adds depth and completeness to the assessment.
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Example
The special needs population evacuation system presents several examples of contrasting
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considerations. For example, this system is often viewed as a technology or service based challenge. The
system needs to ensure that transportation and adequate medical care is available. Databases for
records must be developed and communications maintained. However, there is also the very strong
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human and social side to the problem. Family and support members need to understand their
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responsibilities in the system. People need to work to limit the impact on their personal situation with
proactive and mitigating activities. Other examples are the contrasts between pre‐event and post‐event
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actions, as well as the plans and programs from the local hospital to the supporting infrastructure at the
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federal level. In all cases, both ends of the spectrum must be viewed and considered.
Seeing Beyond the Linear
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Seeing interrelationships rather than linear cause‐effect chains is an integral and mandatory part of
systems thinking. Often the linear chains are a result of different viewpoints; sometimes they are a
result of lack of closure on the problem. The systems thinking approach understands when two
viewpoints are not independent linear events, but rather are related and feedback on each other,
reinforcing the problem situation.
Example
Within the special needs population evacuation system, a simple example illustrates the nonlinear
nature of the system. From the state government point of view, increased danger from a disaster
necessitates an evacuation order which leads to people on the roads. The local population may see
crowded roads as leading to slow transport, which may result in limited movement, increased exposure,
and additional danger. However, these two cause‐effect chains feed into each other producing the
nonlinear affects seen in Figure 4.
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Figure 4: Linear cause and effect thinking versus the non‐linear feedback understanding of systems thinking.
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Detail Complexity vs. Dynamic Complexity
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When assessing today’s problem situations, it is easy to be overwhelmed by complexity. Accordingly, the
systems thinker feels compelled to provide solutions of more and more complexity. It is important to
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resist this temptation and instead seek to reduce the problem situation to its simplest, tractable form. It
is also important to differentiate between detail complexity and dynamic complexity (Senge 2006).
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Detail complexity is the airplane with many parts or the machine assembly with many steps. Detail
complexity is trivial. One needs to know nothing of the system or its behavior; you just start at the
beginning and work through to the end. Dynamic complexity is the complexity related to the system
behavior and how the system interacts with its environment. It is the complexity of the system
components working together, their relationships and emergent behaviors. Dynamic complexity is not
trivial and understanding this aspect is essential to the system assessment.
Example
Detail versus dynamic complexity is easy to see in a disaster response system. Managing the system
logistics and effecting the evacuation has considerable detail complexity; there are many requirements
and moving parts to coordinate. But since the impact and evolution of the disaster event is uncertain,
there is considerable dynamic complexity as well. The evacuation system must be robust and flexible
enough to account for road outages, increased need and geographic extent and other disaster related

unknowns. Thus extreme detail in the operations protocol does not necessarily equate to satisfactory
coverage of the dynamic complexity required in the response.
Distance Viewing
Distance viewing provides the big picture. All systems and problem situations must be viewed from a
distance—in both time and space—to see all the components and relationships which comprise the
system (Richmond 1994). By focusing in too narrowly, the assessment may miss aspects of the system
that are pivotal to its behavior.
Example
Much of the emphasis in the special needs population system is on the coordination and execution of
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the evacuation activities at the time of the disaster. In stepping back, however, and viewing the whole
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life cycle of emergency management activities, it is clear that planning and exercises are essential to an
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effective evacuation system. In addition, planning and activities at the local level are insufficient for
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solving this problem since most disasters span multiple regions in both their impact and their resource
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requirements. A restricted focus in either space or time would significantly affect solution of this
problem situation.
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The Endogenous Viewpoint
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If a problem is resistant to change then the common solution or the underlying system itself could well
be part of the problem. This is one of the simplest concepts in systems thinking. The endogenous
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viewpoint is essentially system‐as‐cause thinking. The systems thinker views the structure of a system as
the cause of the problem behaviors it is experiencing rather than seeing these behaviors as being foisted
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upon the system by outside agents (Richmond 1994).
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Example
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While much work has been done to improve the special needs population evacuation system, it may be
that the real problem is conducting an evacuation of any type. In other words, the system under
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investigation, evacuation, is actually the cause of the problem, increased morbidity and mortality. It is
possible that morbidity and mortality could be reduced by simply not evacuating the population. The
actual contribution of evacuating to the special needs population problem must be assessed in the
overall analysis. There are at least two alternatives to evacuation: sheltering in place and locating special
need facilities outside disaster impact regions. Neither alternative may be a viable option, but they are
worth noting and investigating. In fact, sheltering in place contributed significantly to problems in
Hurricane Katrina, because the shelters themselves were unprepared.
Viewpoints Summary
Multiple viewpoints are an essential part of the systems thinking process. In order to have a solid
understanding of a problem situation, the systems thinker must understand as many stakeholder
perspectives as possible. It is imperative that the systems thinking practitioner look at the problem
situation in multiple ways and through multiple lenses. These insights are critical to developing a
solution which will generally be accepted by, and meet the needs of, all stakeholders in the system.

Viewpoints are presented first because it is an indispensible part of all tools, problem definition and
assessment framework that are presented in the following sections.
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Tools and Methods
I keep six honest working men
(They taught me all I knew)
Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who.
(Rudyard Kipling, “The elephant’s child”, Just So Stories)

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Systems thinking provides a framework for utilizing tools from multiple areas including:
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• Operations Research
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• Systems Engineering
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• Systems Dynamics
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• Decision Analysis
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• Management Sciences
• Business Process Reengineering
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These methods and tools span the spectrum of hard and soft systems tools. Example hard system tools
comprise: the Pugh Matrix; Quality, Function, Deployment Diagrams—House of Quality; functional
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decomposition; Integrated Definition (IDEF); Functional Flow Block Diagram; N2 diagrams; Systems
Modeling Language (SysML); Universal Modeling Language (UML); and a broad range of modeling and
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statistical tools.
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Soft systems methods include: Checkland’s Soft System Methodology (1993); the array of systems
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analysis methods presented in Appendix C: Example Systems Methodologies; and traditional
management analysis tools such as the Responsibility, Accountability, Consulting, Informed (RACI)
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Matrix and swim lane charts. Mingers and Rosenhead (2001) and Pidd (2003; 2004) provide excellent
summaries of several systems thinking analytical methods and include examples of their application.
While all of these tools are valuable, four particular methods and tools are used extensively in the
systems thinking process and are discussed in more detail below: the soft systems method,
systemigrams, causal loop diagrams and stock and flow diagrams.
The Soft Systems Method
Checkland’s Soft Systems Methodology (1993) (Figure 5) provides a logical flow for assessment and
improvement of human activity systems in particular, but the process can also be applied to technology
and hybrid systems as well.
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Figure 5: Checkland's Soft System Methodology (Checkland 1993).
Checkland’s soft systems methodology (1999) has three basic phases:
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1. Develop an understanding of the operational picture of the system to gain insight into the
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problem. This would include understanding system constraints and goals.
2. Utilize systems tools to determine potential solutions to the problem. Multiple potential
solutions should be developed, so that they can be compared to determine the best possible
solution.
3. Bring solutions into the as‐is space to determine their feasibility within the system’s operational
constraints and desired end state.
Checkland’s soft system method is invaluable in gaining an understanding of the interaction between
the problem or situation being assessed and the larger external context. It is important to ensure that
the external context, political, social and otherwise, is continually considered in the problem assessment
and solution development. Otherwise, an excellent solution which solves the problem may be
developed but not accepted due to political and social exigencies.
Example
The special needs population evacuation system goal has thus far been defined in terms of its
stakeholder and critical requirement. There are, however, external constraints on the system. The

system must be compliant with the National Incident Management System (NIMS), the National
Response Framework (NRF), the Stafford Act (which provides guidance for federal disaster relief and
emergency assistance), and additional applicable policies and plans. In addition, the system is complex
due to the many types of entities which must interact including government, private industry and non‐
governmental organizations, as well as private citizens. (For example see Figure 15 presented later in the
paper) Each of these entities has its own operational rules and requirements. The special needs
population evacuation system must be flexible enough to ensure that each of these players can
participate; however, it must also be firm enough to ensure against gross changes in process and
function. In this context, it is extremely important to understand the ‘as‐is’ not only in terms of system
requirements but also in terms of environmental constraints. Therefore, an expanded view of Steps 5
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and 6 in Checkland’s Methodology (Figure 5), in which potential solutions are compared not only with
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the obvious problem, but also with the system practitioner’s understanding of the external
environment, is critical. Checkland’s Soft System Methodology provides a construct for understanding
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these constraints, ensuring that they are considered and working with the stakeholders for meaningful
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improvement.
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Systemigram
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Developed by Boardman (Boardman 1994; Boardman and Cole 1996), systemigrams provide a powerful
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tool for the analysis of systems first described in written form. One first takes lengthy documentation
and distills it down to “concentrated” prose covering all the salient points of the system. This reduced
narrative represents a description of the problem situation. A visual systemigram is then constructed,
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decomposing the prose into the individual, but related, threads, showing the flow of information,
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resources, and actions. Systemigrams are powerful constructs to facilitate complete understanding of a
system and to provide a common foundation for group discussions. However, it should be noted that
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the power of the systemigram is in the storytelling. It is difficult to utilize this tool in a static context.
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Such use is possible, however, through breaking the larger diagram into its component threads. A more
thorough discussion of the evolution of systemigrams and the methodology is found in Blair et al. (2007)
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and Boardman and Sauser (2008).
Example
Figure 6 provides a systemigram for the structure and function of a portion of the special needs
population evacuation system. Since the system is already in place and is being assessed for
improvement, the figure provides the “As Designed” federal structure for one phase of the emergency
management process.
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Figure 6: Systemigram of the "As Design" federal planning and preparation phase for the special needs evacuation system (at
of the time of analysis, 2006).
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This particular systemigram illustrates the structure, function and process of the special needs
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evacuation system. These characteristics will be discussed later in Applied Systems Thinking Framework
section.
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Causal Loop Diagrams
Causal loops assist in seeing beyond the linear to understanding feedback and control loops. Senge
(2006) provides an illustration of the underlying construct of feedback loops in the simple act of filling a
glass of water. The linear perspective is simply “I am filling the glass.” The nonlinear, causal loop
perspective as shown in Figure 7 includes five variables organized in a loop, or feedback process. The
initial faucet position results in a specific rate of water flow. This flow starts to fill the glass and our eye
measures the current water level. We evaluate the current level against the desired water level and
calculate a perceived gap. This gap leads to an adjustment in the faucet position, a change in the flow,
and so on.
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Figure 7: A simple example of causal loop, nonlinear, feedback thinking. Filling the glass is actually a five variable feedback
loop.
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Without the causal loop, the complexity of the system and the influence or leverage points are not
known or understood. Real change and problem solution is unlikely.
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Example
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Transportation is a critical component of the special needs population evacuation system. Any analysis
of the system must take transportation resources and control into consideration. Figure 8 provides a
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causal loop diagram showing the key variables and considerations in the transportation component of
the system. The “+” and “–”signs denote whether the variables vary in the same or opposite directions.
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The minus symbol in the middle of each loop denotes that the loops are balancing. The special needs
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population requiring evacuation drives the transportation requirements, which must always be
compared to the available transportation resources. This simple depiction starts to build a larger model
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of the system and provides insight into one of the system’s primary control loops.
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Figure 8: Causal loop diagram illustrating the feedback in the transportation component of the system.

Systems Dynamics/Stock and Flow Diagrams
Systems dynamics modeling and stock and flow diagrams arose out of the systems dynamics community
and the work of Jay Forrester (Forrester 1961). Systems dynamics is used for studying and managing
complex systems with feedback loops, making this method and process particularly appropriate for large
problems of national significance.
Stock and flow diagrams are a powerful tool for understanding the system through a representation of
the problem situation using stocks or levels, and flows or rates which cause the stocks to change. The
stock and flow diagrams and related analysis are also used to develop models for predicting and
comparing downstream consequences of alternative policies.
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While stock and flow diagrams are a first step to computer simulations, they are also excellent tools for
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system understanding when used as static diagrams. The diagrams help define the important variables
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in the system and can also be used to reduce confusion and distracting complexity.
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Example
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When assessing the special needs population evacuation system, the logistics challenges often dominate
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the analysis and solution development. How can more air and ground transportation be assembled? Are
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more doctors available to assist the special needs population? It is instructive however, to simplify the
problem as a high level stock and flow diagram. Figure 9 provides a very simple representation of the
special needs population evacuation system and immediately highlights that there are two ways to
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address the problem situation. The system contains a “stock” of special needs population needing
evacuation. This stock increases through inflow as the population is endangered, and decreases through
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the actual evacuation process. Therefore, there are two ways to improve the system. The evacuation
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process can be improved and the outflow increased, or the inflow, the rate of the special needs
population becoming endangered, can be reduced.
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Figure 9: A simple stock and flow diagram of the special needs evacuation system illustrating the two ways that the problem
situation can be improved.
Reducing or slowing the inflow can be achieved through two of the techniques mentioned earlier,
sheltering in place or limiting the at risk population through facility placement. Thus, this simple diagram
reminds the systems thinker that there is more than one way to improve the evacuation problem
situation.
Tools and Methods Summary
All tools of the hard and soft systems communities have value in applied systems thinking. Four specific
methods are presented here, but any of the quantitative tools such as mathematical modeling or
statistics, or more qualitative tools such as brainstorming or consensus building, can be used within the

various stages of applied systems thinking. The applied systems thinker will leverage a variety of these
tools throughout the problem assessment and solution development. These tools and methods, along
with the viewpoints previously presented, are instruments for completing the problem definition and
assessment framework which are discussed in the following sections.
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Problem Definition: Entry Point to Applied Systems Thinking
There is an old saying that a problem well put is half solved. This much is obvious.
What is not so obvious is how to put a problem well. (Churchman, Ackoff et al.
1957)
The applied systems thinking framework begins with problem definition. Figure 10, derived from Ackoff
(1974) and Pidd (2003; 2004), illustrates the continuum of problems addressed with the associated
formulation and solution space. The spectrum starts with tame problems or puzzles. These problems are
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well understood and well defined. The method for solving these problems is well known and the
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solution obvious.
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In the middle ground of the spectrum are the common, but significant, problems one is challenged with
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on a regular basis. These problem situations are defined, but the solution is not obvious, either in
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process or endpoint.
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The final area on the spectrum is filled with wicked problems and messes. Wicked problems were first
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described by Rittel and Webber (1973) in their discussion of public planning. Wicked problems cannot
be definitively described; responses cannot be meaningfully correct or false; and there is no solution in
the sense of definitive and objective answers.
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Figure 10: Problem spectrum denoting the degree of problem formulation and the understanding of the solution. (After
Ackoff (1974) and Pidd (2003, 2004))
This spectrum and these distinctions are important because they help direct the systems practitioner
towards a better understanding of the problem situation and the approach towards its solution. The
scale also helps to direct the systems practitioner to tools appropriate for the problem situation. In

some cases, tools for decision making are appropriate, where in other cases tools for thinking should be
applied.
In problems and systems where the behavior is well understood, where there is strong regularity and
reproducibility, decision support tools and models can be developed. In this category are many of the
rigorous mathematical system models and simulations. At the other end of the scale, the tools serve to
provide information about the problem or system itself, and do not necessarily provide a decision
directly. Thinking tools help to better define the problem and to communicate amongst diverse
stakeholders. Such tools include the systemigram and soft systems method discussed earlier in the Tools
and Methods section, but they also include more mathematical models, for example, when they are
used for better problem understanding and consensus building.
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In the case of the tame problem there may be recipes and techniques readily available to support a
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complete understanding of the problem and a rapid solution. For the middle ground, “regular”
problems, the practitioner may want to look for patterns and relationships from other problems that
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will help to guide the solution. In the final case, wicked problems, solution is not obvious and in fact may
not even be possible. This distinction is important to know. The system practitioner must be willing to
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embark on solutions to the wicked problems with the understanding that these solutions will not be
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complete and will have to be continually adjusted as more becomes known about the problem and
acceptable compromises.
Example
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The problem definition in special needs population evacuation should be simple: the system must take
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an individual with medical or assistance needs from a facility in an affected area and deliver the person
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to a facility in a safe area. However, when actual problem definition occurs, it becomes obvious that the
system is much more complex. Figure 11 provides a system diagram of the simplified special needs
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evacuation system.
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First, there are numerous originating facilities including hospitals, nursing homes, mental health
facilities, assisted living homes, and private residences—all with different capabilities, needs,
requirements, planning, preparation, and oversight. More importantly, these facilities have different
methods for entry and access to the existing evacuation infrastructure. There are both federal and non‐
federal transportation mechanisms for moving this population. Regardless of the sponsor, the
transporter must identity safe and appropriate transportation vehicles/methods. For example, a school
bus may be insufficient; a bus with a wheel chair lift and medical care capability may be required. The
entire transportation process must be coordinated with medical care providers and resources. The
destination facilities must be identified and surveyed for specialized equipment and care. Through this
whole process, appropriate records must be kept of patient movement and treatment. Families and
friends separated from the affected population must be able to track their loved ones and have
sufficient information to rejoin them later. Patient/victim medical records must also be maintained in an
appropriate, secure manner. Finally, once the impacted area is secured and recovery is sufficiently
advanced, the patients/victims must be repatriated to their original homes or facilities, or some other
new residence that meets their needs. Even when simplified, this is a complex system.
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Figure 11: Special needs evacuation system diagram. The blue lines represent transport from the impacted area to safe
facilities. The red lines represent the path back to appropriate facilities after event recovery.
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This problem certainly is not tame or easy; nor does it appear to be wicked. The need is clear—to reduce
morbidity and mortality amongst the special needs population during a catastrophic event. The solution,
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however, is not clear. The problem is at the midpoint of the problem spectrum and the systems
practitioner should look for patterns and examples to help guide his activities. Both decision and
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thinking tools are appropriate for this problem.
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It is worth noting that the act of defining the system may determine how it falls on this spectrum. If for
example, the evacuation system is defined to include terrorist attacks, or if all individuals with special
needs (regardless of whether they are known to authorities in advance) are included, this system might
become a “wicked” problem. Problems generally become easier when the scope is reduced, but in doing
so, the systems thinker must accept that the value of the solution may be limited.
Using multiple viewpoints and a variety of tools, the applied systems thinker begins the problem
assessment and solution by first defining the problem. This is the context for the analysis that follows
and the first step in the understanding necessary for the problem solution. However, problem definition
is not done once and then never considered again. While it is the entry point to applied systems thinking
and the first step in the more complete assessment discussed in the framework of the next section,
problem definition may be refined as the assessment progresses. The systems thinker must understand
that problem definition may change as a more complete understanding of the system is obtained
through application of different viewpoints and tools, and through the completion of the various actions
of the applied systems thinking framework noted in the following sections.
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Applied Systems Thinking Framework: The Conceptagon
Systems thinking derives its power from the discipline and order of its approach. Returning to the two‐
part definition of system thinking, this approach includes both an assessment of the problem situation
as a system (synthesis and analysis) and the problem solving method as a systemic process of inquiry.
This approach is facilitated through the use of the Conceptagon (Boardman and Sauser 2008) to assess
the system or problem situation, its context, and solution development.
The Conceptagon is an analytical framework for ordered thinking about the system and problem
situation. The Conceptagon provides seven triplets of system characteristics which are useful for
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assessment and understanding of the system or problem and its solution. This seven‐sided framework
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(Figure 12) assures a complete assessment of the system with aspects that address synthesis, analysis,
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and inquiry.
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Figure 12: The Conceptagon analytical framework for system assessment (modified from Boardman and Sauser 2008).
Each of the triplets will be addressed in turn, with explanation provided in the context of the special
needs population evacuation system example. The triplets are presented here in an order that generally
follows a progression of gaining knowledge about the system from the outside in. However, the triplets
are usually assessed in a concurrent, iterative matter. They are also not mutually exclusive to one area
(i.e., synthesis, analysis, or inquiry), but are related to and build upon each other.

Boundary, Interior, Exterior
We can define a whole by simply constructing a boundary, wherein lies the
totality of parts, and we are free to choose the precise locus of this boundary in a
way and according to a particular view (weltanschauung) that takes our interest.
(Boardman 1995)
Setting the boundary of the system or problem of interest is one of the most important aspects of the
systems thinking assessment. This triple is a pivotal part of synthesis since it denotes the interface and
separation from the outside environment. While this is addressed separately from problem definition,
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they are linked and are done together in an iterative fashion. The boundary defines what is within the
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system, the interior, and what is outside, the exterior; it defines the system of interest. The boundary
helps to define the interface between the system and its environment. The boundary is often
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permeable, allowing for resource inputs and product outputs. Finally, the boundary can be in space and
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time, as well as other dimensions, such as organizational. It is important not to limit one's consideration
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to just the systems analog of the “fence around a yard.”
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The boundary provides further definition of the system by the interior and exterior of the problem
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situation. The interior contains those parts of the problem that the solution system can and must
address. It also contains the resources under the control of the system. The exterior has the systems and
resources outside the system’s control, but which are important for the system of interest. Just as
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importantly, the exterior contains those problems or issues that will be excluded from the current
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problem solution.
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The boundary is specific to the problem situation or system and its location can dramatically change the
system under consideration. When setting the boundary, the systems thinker must consider two
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seemingly contradictory constraints:
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1. The boundary should be set narrowly enough as to make the problem being assessed tractable.
2. The boundary should be set broadly enough to capture all the salient components and
relationships.
Sometimes the compromise between these two constraints is simple, sometimes complex. The novice
systems thinker is tempted to set the boundary broadly to ensure that nothing is missed, but this often
makes the problem so large and ill‐defined that it is impossible to assess and solve. Care should be taken
in setting the boundary and the systems practitioner must be willing to readdress the boundary location
and change it if necessary as more information is obtained on the problem situation.
“The systems practitioner must respect the system boundary, where it lies, how it is shaped,
what it encloses and with what consequences, what it omits and to what effect, what it permits
to cross and what it disallows.” (Pidd 2003)

Example
For the example of the special needs population, there are several ways to set the boundary, all of
which must be considered. First, the definition of the “special needs population” must be established.
For this analysis a special needs individual is anyone falling into several groups as noted below:
• Inpatient and resident populations of hospitals, nursing homes, and mental health care facilities.
• Elderly/disabled populations living outside institutional care facilities, but that require
professional care in daily life activities or for medical care.
• Elderly/disabled persons in assisted living communities.
• Elderly/disabled persons either self‐identified or identified by a third party through some formal
effort.
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These individuals are inside the system and the system must address their needs. Note that
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elderly/disabled persons in home residences who receive regular care/assistance from family or through
informal channels, but who are not identified to authorities, are not in the system. In addition,
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individuals with transportation problems, but who are healthy, are outside the boundary and not
considered as part of the system. These distinctions will have significant impact on the solution design
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and implementation.
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Second, the catastrophic events must be bounded. Our system of interest will consider natural disasters,
technological disasters, and major transportation accidents. Due to the unique nature of terrorism
events, these will not be considered within the system of interest and are outside the boundary.
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Third, the system of interest will include only evacuation of the special needs population. Evacuation is
safe movement of special needs individuals from their home facility to a medically appropriate and
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secure facility outside the area of event impact. This includes safe transport and appropriate medical
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care en route. It will not consider other options for special needs population care such as sheltering in
place or more permanent options such as risk assessments associated with facility site placement.
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Finally, it is important to set a temporal boundary. Evacuation activities take place through all four
phases of emergency management (Figure 13). However, repatriation is significantly different than the
initial evacuation activities, takes different resources and systems and is highly dependent on the long
term damage to the impacted area. Therefore, repatriation is not considered part of the system of
interest. (The red arrows that are shown in Figure 11 are therefore not part of the system.) The
temporal boundaries are set as the evacuation activities that occur between mitigation and post‐impact
evacuation.
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Figure 13: Setting the temporal boundary, this figure illustrates the phases of emergency management with associated
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special needs evacuation activities. For this study, repatriation of evacuated individuals is not considered.
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There are other important factors which should be considered in setting the boundary for the example
problem, but these provide examples of the importance and complexity of defining the system bounds.
Inputs, Outputs, Transformations
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This triple also supports synthesis; it speaks to what the system is taking in from and returning to the
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outside and is also the outward manifestation or purpose of the system. Both the engineer and the
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scientist understand input, output, and transformation. Energy or resources transfer into the system, a
transformation occurs, and products or byproducts move out. Both the inputs and outputs exist outside
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the system boundary, again illustrating the importance of where the boundary is set.
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What if the system under consideration does not produce things, or if it is a social system? The concept
of transformation is now more difficult to grasp. Take for example the U.S. Congress, which is a
legislative system. One interpretation is that societal problems and needs are inputs to the Congress
system, a transformation occurs through problem study and analysis and legislative activity, and the
output is laws and regulations to guide societal actions and resource allocation. Thus, the
transformation can be considered analogous to the system purpose. The input becomes the current
situation and the transformation results in the new situation, or output.
Understanding the inputs and outputs is essential, as these are the resources and goals of the system.
Understanding the transformation is critical—it relates to system actions and purpose. Understanding of
the complete transformation helps to direct the development of system requirements and helps provide
metrics for evaluation of system success.

Example
One of the inputs to the evacuation system is the special needs population itself. (One could posit that
pre‐existing infrastructure, planning, level and type of damage, and applicable law/policy are also inputs
into the system.) The output from the system is a special needs individual, in the same or better health
than when he entered, and now residing in a safe and supportive location in an unaffected area. This is
fairly intuitive and easy to understand. But what is the system transformation? On the surface, it
appears the transformation is simply transportation from the impacted area to an unaffected region.
However, the transformation is actually more complex. The system maintains the health of and reduces
deaths in the special needs population through movement of the patient/resident out of the affected
area, utilizing safe and appropriate transport, while providing required medical care; and delivers them
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to safety at an appropriate facility outside the impact zone (Figure 14).
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Figure 14: The concept of input, output and transformations in the system. The middle figure illustrates the simplified, but
incomplete transformation for the special needs population evacuation system. The bottom figure provides a more complete
transformation.
An incomplete understanding of the required transformation would have resulted in an inadequate
system which did not produce the desired output. An individual in worse condition than at the start,
even if removed from the impacted area, is not a success.

Wholes, Parts, Relationships
The wholes, parts, relationships triple addresses analysis, and to a lesser extent, synthesis as the whole
manifests outward. The systems thinker is looking into the system seeking to understand its component
parts and how they relate. He also seeks to understand the relationships between the parts and the
whole. There are several important observations associated with the wholes, parts, relationships triplet.
First, when a system is taken apart it loses its essential properties. However, though the whole is greater
than the sum of the parts, the parts do exist and it is the relationships between the parts that make the
whole so much greater. The systems thinker must understand the parts, their relationship to the whole,
and their relationship with each other to make the system whole successful.
An additional observation on the whole system: maximum efficiency of the independent parts does not
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equate to maximum system effectiveness. “If each part of a system, considered separately, is made to
operate as efficiently as possible, the system as a whole will not operate as effectively as possible”
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(Ackoff 1999). A corollary to this principle is specific realization that “the performance of a system
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depends more on how its parts interact than on how they act independently of each other” (Ackoff
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1999). Thus the systems thinker must also understand the compromises necessary at the part level to
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make the system perform optimally.
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Example
The special needs population evacuation system can be broken into several types, or categories, of
parts, such as planning, exercises, transportation, medical care, record keeping, labor, etc. For this
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example, however, it is instructive to note that the evacuation system comprises several organizational
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parts: the care industry, local agencies, state agencies, disaster response non‐governmental
organizations, and federal departments (Figure 15). Each of these organizations has its own mission and
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mandate, exists on its own, and normally operates independently outside the evacuation system. The
interaction of these parts, in terms of both number and scale of involvement, depends on the
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magnitude and type of disaster event. As the event escalates in intensity and/or extent, the overall
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evacuation system “spirals outward” to involve more and more of these organizational parts and their
resources. This system transitions from one form or state of the evacuation system to another as the
system progresses through the response.
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Figure 15: Component organizational parts making up the special needs population evacuation system.
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It takes all of these organizational parts working together to produce a successful evacuation system.
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The interface and relations between these organizations dictate success in the larger system. As a
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systems thinker assessing the system and its improvement, an obvious area of emphasis should be the
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interfaces and relations between these parts.
Structure, Function, Process
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Structure defines components and their relationships… Function defines the
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outcome or behaviors... Process… defines the sequence of activities… required to
produce the function given the structure. Thus these three define the whole given
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a knowledge of the whole’s purpose or context. (Boardman and Sauser 2008)
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Structure, function and process are inherently an analytical construct, how is the system put together
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and how does it work. In many ways, this triplet equates most strongly to classic systems engineering
and the related hard systems methodologies. The systems thinker must develop physical, functional,
and process architectures, which together provide a complete understanding of the system.
Significant thinking is required with this triplet. Many structures can produce the same function and one
structure can have many functions. What is the optimal configuration for the system purpose? What is
the most elegant solution to the problem? Wasted effort is neither appreciated nor credited. This
relates strongly to a consideration of the whole and parts and the compromise that has to be made
there to get an effective system. It is easy to see the dependencies between structure, function, and
process, and the tension in the design and solution that results.
This triplet also brings to the analysis a sense of the various levels, or scales, within the system. The
structure, function, and the related processes may differ at different levels in the system, particularly as
various components are aggregated and integrated. Attention must be paid to these factors: “scale,

moving across scale, and discovering new behaviors as we go higher in scales” (Boardman and Sauser
2008).
There are a variety of ways to illustrate and assess structure, function, and process. Most architecting
and business process reengineering tools work well in these areas. In many cases, the traditional process
flow chart is the best mechanism for system assessment and design.
Example
For the special needs population evacuation system two tools were utilized. The first was a systemigram
shown earlier in Figure 6. An alternate view of the structure and function is provided by a “modified
swim‐lane” chart. This chart (Figure 16) shows various organizations that make up the structure of the
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special needs population evacuation system. It also shows relationships and very high level function and
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process.
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The special needs evacuation system represents a difficult problem situation to solve. While the system
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has been highly inefficient and ineffective in the past, it is unlikely that the structure can be significantly
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changed. The system is comprised of a large number of organizations and components that are part of
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the federal and state systems. Reengineering the entire system from the ground up with a new structure
would require too much change at both the statutory and organizational level. Therefore, there is need
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for increased emphasis on function and process when considering the solution to this problem situation.
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Figure 16: Swim‐lane chart of the layers of organization in the "As Designed" planning and preparation phase federal special
needs evacuation system. The chart also contains major relationships and process flows.

Command, Control, Communications
This triple actually addresses two aspects of the systems thinking construct: analysis of the system and
how it operates, and systemic inquiry into the system and the reasons for the problem situation.
Command, control and communication are perhaps the easiest triplet for the traditional systems
engineer to understand; on the surface, this triple fits the machine‐age. There are actually two
implications inherent in this set of terms. First there is the traditional process consistent with the
military perspective. There is a command structure within the system which exerts control on the
system through communication. This command structure can be a central computer, distributed
intelligence of a hardware system, or the hierarchy or collaborative structure of social systems. The
governance structure for the system needs to be clearly understood and consideration given to a
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hierarchical control structure versus a decentralized, distributed structure. The decentralized
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organization, management and operation, with its ability to survive strong perturbations, may have
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advantages over the strong control of the centrally management system.
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Second, there is the concept of control or feedback loops. This last concept is important to systems
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thinking. Processes within the system are not linear; there are relationships within the processes that
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lead to control, and change both positive and negative. These feedback loops must be identified and
understood so that meaningful change can be effected.
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Therefore, this triplet speaks to two related, but distinct issues. First the governance and command
structure of the system must be well designed and appropriately architected, and second the control
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loops in the system must be understood and accounted for. An understanding of the traditional
command structure in the system as well as the control loops is imperative to understanding the system
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and improving the problem situation.
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Example
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Traditional command, control, and communication during disasters is defined in the U.S. by disaster
response legislation, such as the Stafford Act (which outlines federal disaster response), and plans such
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as the National Response Framework (NRF). For example, the NRF designates a lead agency for a specific
type of incident (e.g. biological) or a specific type of support (e.g. shelter). This agency is in command of
that function and communicates with supporting agencies to control the response. Likewise, federal
disaster legislation indicates that the governors are still in command of the overall response within their
state. Therefore, lead agencies for a specific function must still communicate and coordinate with state
authorities. In this way, there is a balance of control between state, local, and federal resources. Actions
at one level feed into the overall system and determine what may or may not occur.
A simple illustration of this interaction which would affect evacuation of special needs populations may
be the decision of whether or not to activate contraflow. Contraflow is the act of controlling traffic such
that all major roads operate in only one direction—out of the affected area. This decision lies with the
local and state government officials. Communication between the federal, state, and local entities will
be critical if contraflow is utilized. If it is enacted too early, federal resources may not be able to enter
the affected area in a timely manner. If it is enacted too late, or not at all, evacuation of people and local
movement of resources may be hampered. Other situations which require defined understanding of

command, control, and communication may include whether or not to instate mandatory evacuation of
medical facilities or the general public.
A portion of the federal command structure for special needs population evacuation (at the time of the
study 2006‐2007) is shown in Figure 17. This is just one piece of the system structure, and additional
parts, including state, local, and other non‐federal agencies, are shown in the systemigram, Figure 6. As
is evidenced from the figures, the special needs population evacuation system has a complex
hierarchical structure, yet relies on components from outside its control. As the chart indicates, on the
federal side alone, there are a large number of agencies involved in the system, specifically the
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Department of Defense (DOD), Department of Health and
Human Services (DHHS), and the Veterans Administration (VA). The lead role in several of the major
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components of the special needs evacuation system varies amongst the agencies, as do ownership and
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management of resources and infrastructure. This organizational complexity results in significant
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coordination and ownership issues. The special needs population evacuation system is a system that has
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either multiple owners, or none, depending on one’s perspective.
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Figure 17: Organizational structure of the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) in 2006. This system represents a
portion of the federal structure supporting special needs population evacuation.
There are several important operational aspects of National Disaster Medical System (NDMS) that
should be noted. First, the hospital beds are provided through voluntary agreement with NDMS. They
are identified during non‐emergency periods, but availability must be validated during the actual event,
as it varies with conditions and the hospitals are not bound to the original agreement. Second, the

Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT) are made up of volunteer, non‐dedicated individuals. These
individuals must leave regular occupations on short notice and travel to the disaster location. Third, the
NDMS system and related evacuation deals only with hospitals and medical emergencies. Nursing
homes, mental health facilities, and elderly or disabled in home care and assisted living are specifically
not covered. Destination nursing or long term care facilities are not identified prior to events. Finally,
NDMS evacuation is a complex process—a “human activity system” supported by a variety of
information and mechanical systems. It is subject to all of the variability and internal conflicts inherent
in the former.
The control structure of the special needs population evacuation system was cited by the GAO as a
significant weakness in the system. The need to determine the requirement and methodologies to
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improve the training of leaders at all levels in the improvisation skills required to manage fluid, fast
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changing situations, including the ability to (GAO 2006): adequately anticipate requirements for needed
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goods and services; clearly communicate responsibilities across agencies and jurisdictions; and deploy
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sufficient numbers of personnel to provide contractor oversight. “Improvisation skills” denotes a need
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to make the system control structure more flexible and distributed. The requirement to improve
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command and control, especially for patient movement operations out of the disaster area was also
noted (NDMS 2006).
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An analysis of existing documentation and after action reports from the Hurricane Katrina response
showed a significant number of issues dealing with command, control and communication (Table 2).
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Table 2: Distribution of issues tabulated from Hurricane Katrina special needs population evacuation system after action
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reports. Categories listed are those that impact on the system command, control, and communication.
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Statutes Doctrine Policy Organization Leadership Personnel Process
32 56 80 24 14 13 83
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No causal loop or feedback analysis was conducted in the initial study but should be done for a thorough
analysis of the problem situation and its solution. Given the large number of resource requirements and
coordination activities, policy and control implications must be modeled and assessed.
Variety, Parsimony, Harmony
Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler. (Albert Einstein)
Variety, parsimony, and harmony provide guidance and considerations for the inquiry process. This
triplet speaks to the elegance of the possible problem solutions and system design. There should be
sufficient variety to cover all cases and possible needs, yet not so many options and paths that resources
are wasted and confusion arises. Just as important, all options and paths must exist in accord or
harmony, working together towards problem resolution. Ashby’s Law of Requisite Variety should always
guide design activities: “the variety in the control system must be equal to or larger than the variety of
the perturbations in order to achieve control.”

Example
Variety, parsimony, and harmony manifest themselves in a very pragmatic way within the special needs
population evacuation system. Due to the nature and differences in disasters, e.g., hurricanes,
earthquakes, forest fires, etc., significant variety in evacuation methods is necessary. Ground, air, and
water transport of the appropriate type must all be incorporated into the system. The constraint,
however, is that each of these methods requires resource allocations. Many methods increase the
control and coordination requirements. Many options lead to confusion on the ground where the action
is actually taking place. But in this case, adequate variety is essential to save lives.
One method for enabling both variety and parsimony is not to allow for all possible cases, but instead
identifying the most likely cases and focusing resources accordingly. For example, assume that analysis
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indicated that it was most likely that in a disaster land and air transportation would be used in 95% of
cases, and rail and water transportation in only 5% of cases. The systems practitioner may determine
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that, based on probability, more resources should be utilized on air and land transportation than rail or
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water. This does, however, require the practitioner to identify and accept the possible risks involved in
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this type of decision, which may include development of use case scenarios to determine effects of this
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type of action. For example, thousands were rescued in Hurricane Katrina through the use of watercraft.
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The Katrina disaster also provided another example. Local transportation from the impacted facility to
the mobilization area for evacuation was one of the most significant deficiencies in the special needs
population evacuation system. Local transportation was often simply not available. Local agencies
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contracted for services well in advance, but when the disaster hit, the contracted resources were
destroyed, over‐subscribed, or the federal or state governments had commandeered the vehicles. The
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link between the impacted facility and the mobilization area is a major weakness in the existing system.
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Sufficient variety must be provided to account for all reasonable and/or identifiable possibilities. (There
are always the unknown problems that can impact the system. Risk management is required to address
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these unknowns.) It is also obvious that the local, state, and federal components of this system were not
working harmoniously together.
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Openness, Hierarchy, Emergence
This triple is perhaps one of the most difficult to grasp, but the most important to consider. It combines
aspects of inquiry and synthesis, presenting both a way to think about systems and an understanding of
the system’s interactions with the external environment. Openness speaks to the solidity of the system
boundaries and the level of interaction the system has with the external environment. As mentioned
above, all systems exist to perform a transformation, whether it is the solution of a problem or the
creation of a product. This necessitates that the system be open to the environment. The porosity of the
boundary and the freedom of movement into and out of the system is a measure of system openness.
Openness may be more than this, however. Does the boundary move or flex as the system operates? Do
only consumables or problem situations enter the system, or do new system components also come and
go, effectively allowing the system to restructure itself as needed? What is the strength of the
relationship and communication with the outside? One observation from biology: a closed system is a
dead one.

Hierarchy encompasses the structure and organization of the system components and the system itself
to the outside world. In some respects, this is also strongly related to command, control, and
communication as discussed below. The relationships can be highly structured, top‐down or bottom‐up.
They can also be flat and equalitarian in nature. The organizational structure, whether dictated or self‐
motivated, also relates to the flexibility of the system and its ability to adapt and change.
As the hierarchy and openness is established in the system, behaviors start to emerge that were not
previously in evidence. In particular, different behaviors and properties emerge as one moves up the
hierarchical scale both within and outside the system. Emergence is a major attribute of today’s more
complex systems. Behaviors and properties not readily identifiable through component analysis emerge
and define the system and problem solution. These emergent characteristics become even more
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complex when dealing with human‐activity systems, and the power and the unanticipated actions of
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groups (e.g., (Surowiecki 2004)). The system thinker must identify, account for, and adapt to such
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behaviors. He must be aware of emergence and the important role it plays in complex systems.
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Example
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The special needs population evacuation system is open to both new components and resources
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entering and to changes in the boundary and how the system is configured. While the Katrina disaster
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illustrates this characteristic as a reflection of desperate need, it is also something that should be
designed into the system. Hospital beds and medical resources are actually provided through
contributions and volunteers at the time of a disaster. These system components are assessed prior to
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the event, but the specific beds and medical personnel move into the system during the event and as
they are required. In addition, during the Katrina disaster, government and military air medical
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evacuation resources were insufficient and private industry voluntarily participated in the response. The
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system must be designed to expand and accept these new components seamlessly.
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Emergent behavior was also seen throughout the response. The most obvious example was the heroic
actions of the hospital staff that stayed behind to assist patients and prepared them for transport after
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the impact of the storm. This behavior was not planned for as the situation was not anticipated, but the
structure of the system allowed for its emergence when needed. Spontaneous volunteers and their
activities are another emergent behavior within this system.
The solution to this problem situation must account for the flux of system components into and out of
the system, the change in the hierarchy within the system as the response changes and shifts, and the
power and strength of behaviors and properties that emerge as needed.
Framework Summary
The seven triads of the Conceptagon guide the systems thinker through the three aspects of systems
thinking: synthesis, analysis, and inquiry. Through the Conceptagon framework, a complete
understanding of the system, problem situation and solution space is possible. The example discussed
was for illustration purposes and a complete problem solution was not developed. In an actual analysis,
the viewpoints and tools would be coupled with the problem definition and this framework to gain a
complete picture of the problem. An “As Is” systems depiction and solution options would be developed

in the context of the external environment. The solution options would be socialized and refined
through soft systems methods and the selected solution advanced.
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Applied Systems Thinking Summary
Any fool can make things bigger, more complex, and more violent. It takes a
touch of genius—and a lot of courage—to move in the opposite direction. (Albert
Einstein)
The world is an increasingly complicated and overwhelming place. Systems are getting larger, more
interconnected and more complex. Systems thinking provides the tools to make sense of the chaos and
to understand and solve the tough problems through the combination of synthesis, analysis and inquiry.
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This discipline assesses the problem as a whole system in a larger world and approaches problem
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investigation and assessment in a systemic way.
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This paper has presented a set of systems thinking concepts and principles, including the concept of
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problem definition and the importance of multiple viewpoints. The broad range of applicable tools is
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also discussed, with several specific tools and methods presented in detail. The Conceptagon is
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presented as an analytical framework for system assessment. These concepts, methods, and framework
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provide an approach to system and problem assessment and solution.
Application of systems thinking to problems of U.S. national significance is essential.
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[To fix world problems] transformations are required, two kinds. First a transformation of the
way nations and international institutions handle global affairs and second, a transformation in
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the way systems thinkers collectively conduct the systems movement. The second must come
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first if we hope to have any effect on the global mess. (Ackoff 2004)
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The second transformation Ackoff alludes to is that of systems thinkers applying their analytical skills to
problems of national significance and, most importantly, working to effect change in public policy.
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Systems thinking can be utilized in all areas including national security, homeland security, energy,
environment, education, healthcare, and business. It is particularly important that policy analysis and
support be addressed though systems thinking. This need was expressly seen in the example of special
needs population evacuation in a disaster which has been carried through this paper as an illustration of
the utility of systems thinking.
In today’s world of interconnectivity, interdependence, and globalization, traditional, reductionist
approaches to problem solving are inadequate, driving solutions in wrong directions, costing millions,
and potentially causing critical unforeseen damages. If the U.S. is to adequately address problems
spanning from border protection to environmental protection, food safety to appropriate healthcare
delivery, counterterrorism to “No Child Left Behind” education, then our problem‐solving approach
must change. Systems thinking provides one such change.
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Acknowledgements
A paper like this is never the product of one author, and many thanks are due my colleagues, friends and
family. First, thanks to Drs. Mike McGrath and Ruth David for their extensive reviews and insightful
comments. Thanks also to Steve Hopkins for covering my other activities, providing meaningful input,
and serving as an excellent sounding board. Special gratitude to Nicole Hutchison (aka Nicole Long) for
editing the paper a “million” times, an unenviable task. Most importantly, my thanks and love to Leesa,
for her wisdom, support and patience during the long creative process.
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About the Author
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Robert Edson is Deputy Director of the Applied Systems Thinking Institute (ASysT), a collaborative
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endeavor of Analytic Services Inc. He is also Chief, Corporate Research and a Fellow within Analytic
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Services Inc. responsible for the corporate research and knowledge management activities and technical
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workforce shaping. Mr. Edson has 25 years of systems thinking, program management and scientific
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research experience including direct science/environmental program management experience with the
US Navy and Department of Defense.
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Beer, S. (1989). "The Viable System Model: Its Provenance, Development, Methodology and Pathology."
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R. Espejo and R. Harnden. Chichester, Wiley: 407‐439.
Blair, C. D., J. T. Boardman, et al. (2007). "Communicating Strategic Intent with Systemigrams:
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Application to the Network‐Enabled Challenge." Systems Engineering 10(4): 309‐321.
Boardman, J. T. (1994). "A Process Model for Unifying Systems Engineering and Project Management."
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Engineering Management Journal: 25‐35.
_______. (1995). "Wholes and Parts—A Systems Approach." IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and
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Cybernetics 25: 1150‐1161.
Boardman, J. T. and A. J. Cole (1996). "Integrated Process Improvement in Design Manufacturing Using a
Systems Approach." IEE Process‐Control Theory Applications 143: 171‐185.
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Boardman, J. T. and B. J. Sauser (2008). Systems Thinking: Coping with 21st Century Problems. Boca
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Checkland, P. (1993). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, Sussex; New York City, Wiley.
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_______. (1999). Soft Systems Methodology: A 30‐Year Retrospective. Chichester, Sussex; New York
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Churchman, C. W. (1968). Challenge to Reason. New York City, McGraw‐Hill.
_______. (1979). The Systems Approach. New York City, Dell.
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Sons, Inc.
Conklin, J. (2006). Dialog Mapping: Building Shared Understanding of Wicked Problems. Chichester,
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Senior Systems Engineers." Systems Engineering 11(1): 1‐14.
Eden, C. and F. Ackermann (2001). "SODA—The Principles." In Rational Analysis for a Problematic World
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Rosenhead and J. Mingers. Chichester, Wiley: 43‐60.
Edson, R., L. John, et al. (2007). "A Systems Analysis of Special Needs Population Evacuation during
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Forrester, J. W. (1961). Industrial Dynamics. Cambridge, M.I.T. Press.
_______. (1969). Principles of Systems. Cambridge, Wright‐Allen Press.
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Friedman, T. L. (2005). The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty‐First Century. New York City,
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_______ (2006). "Disaster Preparedness: Limitations in Federal Evacuation Assistance for Health
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in Disasters. Washington, DC, AARP.
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Policymakers), edited by S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, et al. Cambridge, Cambridge
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University Press.
Jackson, M. (2008). Distracted: The Erosion of Attention and the Coming Dark Age. Amherst, NY,
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Prometheus Books.
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Jackson, M. and P. Keys (1984). "Towards a System of Systems Methodology." Journal of the Operations
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Research Society 35: 473‐486.
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Mason, R. O. and I. I. Mitroff (1981). Challenging Strategic Planning Assumptions: Theory, Cases, and
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Midgley, G. (1997). "Developing the Methodology of TSI: From Oblique Use of Methods to Creative
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Pidd, M. (2003). Tools for Thinking: Modelling in Management Science. Chichester, England; Hoboken,
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_______. (2004). Systems Modelling: Theory and Practice. Chichester, England; Hoboken, NJ, Wiley.
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Review 10(2‐3): 135‐157.
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Walker, D. M. (2006). "Hurricane Katrina—GAO's Preliminary Observations Regarding Preparedness,
Response, and Recovery."
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Appendix B: Systems Thinking Definitions
One of the challenges in discussing systems thinking is actually defining the concept. In a study on the
application of systems thinking to accelerate development of systems engineers, Davidz and Nightingale
(2008) surveyed 205 engineers from ten companies and asked each for the accepted definition of
systems thinking. They received 205 uniquely different definitions. Davidz and Nightingale used this
input to develop their own definition, as shown in Table 3. Their integrated definition is highly
mechanistic and structured, and further illustrates the challenge of providing a definition for systems
thinking. Table 3 provides a summary of several systems thinking definitions that have appeared over
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the past decades.
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Table 3: Systems thinking definitions.
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[Systems thinking is] an epistemology which, when applied (Checkland 1993)
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to human activity is based upon the four basic ideas:
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emergence, hierarchy, communication, and control as
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characteristics of systems. When applied to natural or
designed systems the crucial characteristic is the emergent
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properties of the whole.
Systems thinking is the art and science of making reliable (Richmond 1994)
inferences about behavior by developing an increasingly
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deep understanding of underlying structure.
Synthesis, or putting things together, is the key to systems (Ackoff 1999)
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thinking just as analysis, or taking them apart, was the key
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to Machine‐Age thinking… the differences between
Systems‐Age and Machine‐Age thinking derives not from
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the fact that one synthesizes and the other analyses, but
from the fact that systems thinking combines the two in a
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new way.
Systems thinking is a discipline for seeing wholes. It is a (Senge 2006)
framework for seeing interrelationships rather than things,
for seeing patterns of change rather than static snapshots…
Systems thinking is a discipline for seeing the “structures”
that underlie complex situations, and for discerning high
and low leverage change
…Systems thinking can be thought of in two ways. First...is (Boardman and Sauser 2008)
to think about systems... A second [way] is to think from
systems… in order to focus our thinking…
Systems thinking is utilizing modal elements to consider the (Davidz and Nightingale 2008)
componential, relational, contextual, and dynamic elements
of the system of interest.

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Appendix C: Example Systems Methodologies
Example systems methodologies in practice (from Blair et al. 2008)
Methodology Description Reference

Strategic Options Framework for design of problem interventions (Eden and Ackermann
Development and using cognitive mapping techniques 2001)
Analysis (SODA) (a.k.a.
Journey Making)
Strategic Choice Collaborative decision making approach iterating (Friend and Hickling
Approach (SCA) about 4 modes: shaping, designing, comparing, 1987)
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choosing
Soft Systems Approach to address complex human activity (Checkland 1993)
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Methodology (SSM) systems by modeling of interpretive, appreciative
learning systems
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Boardman Soft Systems Application of SSM using a particular systemic (Boardman 1994;
Methodology (BSSM) diagramming method Boardman and Cole
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1996)
Robustness Analysis Problem structuring technique focused on (Rosenhead and
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incremental decision making and planning so as to Mingers 2001)
maintain maximum flexibility
Drama Theory (Meta‐ Method based on game theory using acting to (Rosenhead and
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games, Hyper‐Games) resolve conflict and/or identify actions Mingers 2001)
Dialog Mapping Technique using hypertext diagramming to capture (Conklin 2006)
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Methodology (DMM) group communications
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Viable Systems Model Descriptive, diagnostic modeling technique based (Beer 1989)
(VSM) on cybernetic principles used to promote
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organizational viability
Interpretive Structural Diagraph modeling technique used to form (Warfield 1974)
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Modeling/Interactive interpretable patterns for complex problem
Management surfacing
Interactive Planning Five‐phase systemic process for the planning of (Ackoff 1981)
desirable futures based on participation, continuity,
and holism
Strategic Assumptions A 5‐phase group‐oriented decision making process (Mason and Mitroff
Surfacing and Testing based on intra‐ and inter‐group dialectical debate 1981)
(SAST)
Strengths, Weaknesses, A process for determining internal and external (Weirich 1982)
Opportunities, and factors key to achieving a chosen objective
Threats (SWOT)
Scenario Planning Method using scenario thinking and simulations for (Schoemaker 1998)
strategic planning
Socio‐Technical Joint optimization of social and technical (Trist and Murray 1993)
Systems Approach dimensions of open systems (organizations)

Methodology Description Reference
System Dynamics Approach to understanding complex systems (Forrester 1961;
through causal loop diagramming Forrester 1969;
Forrester 1969;
Forrester 1971)
Decision Conferencing Working group modeling and analysis of participant (Phillips 1989)
judgments to develop shared understanding and
agreement on problem approach
Critical System A framework for systems thinking based on a (Ulrich 1994)
Heuristics (CSH) systematic process of boundary critique
Total Systems A metamethodology used to select appropriate (Midgley 1997)
Intervention (TSI) methodologies for a problem intervention
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System of Systems A metamethodology linking problem contexts to (Jackson and Keys
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Methodology (SoSM) systems methodologies; often used as tool in the 1984)
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creativity phase of TSI

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About ASysT
The Applied Systems Thinking ASysT Institute is an endeavor of Analytic Services Inc.
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ASysT was created out of a recognized need to apply systems thinking to problems of
national significance in the fields of national and homeland security, energy, healthcare,
education and environment. As a unique educational, professional development, and
research enterprise, the ASysT Institute seeks both to advance the understanding of systems
thinking and to translate this understanding into pragmatic applications that enhance the
security of our nation. The Stevens Institute of Technology is a collaborator in ASysT.
This document is also available for download at www.asysti.org.
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Methodology Description Reference

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