(Brill Introductions To Indo-European Languages 2) Robert S. P. Beekes, Stefan Norbruis-Pre-Greek - Phonology, Morphology, Lexicon-Brill Academic Publishers (2014) PDF

Pre-Greek
Brill Introductions to
Indo-European Languages
Series Editors
Michiel de Vaan
Alexander Lubotsky
volume 2
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/iiel

Pre-Greek
Phonology, Morphology, Lexicon
By
Robert S.P. Beekes
Edited by
Stefan Norbruis
leiden | boston
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Beekes, R. S. P. (Robert Stephen Paul), author

Pre-Greek : phonology, morphology, lexicon / By Robert S.P. Beekes ; Edited by Stefan Norbruis.
p. cm. – (Brill introductions to Indo-European languages ; Volume 2)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-27938-4 ((pbk.) : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-90-04-27944-5 (e-book)
1. Greek language, Modern–Grammar. 2. Greek language, Modern–Phonology. 3. Greek language,
Modern–Morphology. 4. Greek language, Modern–Syntax. 5. Greek language, Modern–Lexicology. I.
Norbruis, Stefan, editor. II. Title.
PA1058.B44 2014
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2014027870
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Contents
Preface ix
Abbreviations x
1 Introduction 1
2 Phonology 4
1 The Phonemic System of Pre-Greek 4
2a Characteristic Phonemes and Phoneme Clusters 9
2b How to Recognize Words as Pre-Greek? 13
3 Prothetic Vowel 13
4 s-mobile 14
5 Consonant Variation 14
5.1 Voiceless / Voiced / Aspirated Stop 14
5.2 Prenasalization 14
5.3 Nasalization 14
5.4 Labial Stops / μ / u̯ 15
5.5 Stops Interchanging with σ(σ), with Stop + σ/τ or with σ +
Stop 16
5.6 Velar / Labial / Dental Stops; Labiovelars 19
5.7 Dentals / Liquids 20
5.8 Simple / Geminate 21
5.9 σ / Zero 21
5.10 Velar or Dental Stop / Zero 21
5.11 ν-, λ- / Zero 22
5.12 Metathesis, Shift of Aspiration 22
5.13 Secondary Phonetic Developments 22
5.14 Other Variation 22
6 Vowel Variation 23
6.1 Single Vowels (Timbre) 23
6.2 Long / Short 25
6.3 Single Vowel / Diphthong 25
6.4 Rising Diphthongs? 26
6.5 Secondary Vowels (or Elision) 26
3 Morphology 27
1 Reduplication 27
2 Suffixes 27
vi contents
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Survey of the Suffixes 28
2.3 The Suffixes 29
3 Word End 43
3.1 Words Ending in a Vowel 43
3.2 Words Ending in -ρ 44
3.3 Words with a Nom. in -ξ or -ψ 44
3.4 Words in -ν 44
3.5 Words Ending in -ας (ᾱ-stems) 44
4 The Unity of Pre-Greek 45
5 Pre-Greek is Non-Indo-European 46
6 The Pre-Greek Lexicon 47

1 Landscape and Natural Phenomena 47
2 Minerals 51
3 Flora 54
3.1 Trees and Shrubs (and Their Products) 54
3.2 Wild and Cultivated Vegetables, Fruits and Nuts 58
3.3 Aromatic, Medicinal and Toxic Herbs 62
3.4 Other (Useful) Plants and Flowers 66
3.5 Fungi 70
4 Fauna 71
4.1 Domesticated Animals and Their Attributes 71
4.2 Other Mammals (Also Aquatic) 73
4.3 Birds 75
4.4 Reptiles and Amphibians 79
4.5 Fish 80
4.6 Molluscs, Crustaceans, and Other (Marine) Invertebrates 84
4.7 Insects and Arthropods 87
4.8 Worms (Also Parasites) 90
5 Agriculture 90
5.1 Cereal Culture 90
5.2 Viniculture 92
6 Prepared Food 94
7 Human Physiology 97
7.1 The Human Body 97
7.2 Affections and Diseases 102
7.3 Sex 105
contents vii
8 Attire and Jewellery 106

9 Equipment and Utensils 108
9.1 Furniture 108
9.2 Containers 109
9.3 Dishware 113
9.4 Domestic and Craft Tools 114
9.5 Hunting and Fishing Equipment 117
9.6 Armor and Weaponry 117
9.7 Horse Tack 119
9.8 Means of Transport 120
9.9 Other Technical Terms 121
10 Construction 124
10.1 Architecture and Constructional Elements 124
10.2 Infrastructure 127
11 Society 128
11.1 Social Hierarchy and Administration 128
11.2 Military Expressions 130
11.3 Professions and Other Societal Appellatives 131
12 Culture 133
12.1 Contest 133
12.2 Sculpture 134
12.3 Musical Instruments, Performing Arts 135
12.4 Religious Festivals and Feasting 136
12.5 Divine and Numinous Beings, Priests and Temples 137
13 Adjectives Marking a Certain Quality 138
14 Abstract Expressions 148
15 Verbs 150
16 Adverbs 158
17 Sounds and Interjections 159
18 Theonyms, Divine Epithets, Mythical Characters 160
19 Toponyms and Ethnonyms 163
Bibliography 165
Index 170
Preface
One of Robert Beekes’ main objectives in writing his Etymological Dictionary of

Greek (edg) was to collect and analyze the Pre-Greek material contained in the
Greek lexicon, building especially on studies by F.B.J. Kuiper and E.J. Furnée,
and on his own research conducted over several decades. The present book
provides an overview of Beekes’ findings, with sections on phonology, morphol-
ogy, linguistic unity and affiliation, as well as a lexicon of Greek etyma which
in Beekes’ view are certainly of Pre-Greek origin (those marked with  pg  in
edg).
When working on this book, Beekes received assistance from Alexander
Lubotsky and Wouter Henkelman, who compiled and classified the lexicon,
respectively. Unfortunately, Beekes’ health did not allow him to complete the
book himself; he was unable to work on it after February 2010. Some parts,
especially the lexicon, were still in a rather rudimentary condition at this point.
Initial efforts to remedy this were made by Michaël Peyrot, who supplied part of
the lexicon with references to the preceding chapters. Later, I was asked to bring
the book to completion; I am grateful to Alexander Lubotsky for entrusting me
with it.
As a starting point in the creation of the lexicon, the most important textual
elements pertaining to Pre-Greek had been extracted from the corresponding
lemmas in edg. Where necessary I have reestablished cohesion, added more
information from edg or supplemented the argumentation. The practice of
adding references has been extended to the rest of the lexicon. In the first
chapters, I have corrected some inconsistencies and typographical errors, and
adapted and added a number of variations and suffixes on the basis of the
lexicon. At some points in the book I have added suggestions of my own or
adduced new material; such additions are introduced by [sn]. Finally, I have
standardized the format of the bibliographical references and compiled the
section on abbreviations, the bibliography and the index.
Stefan Norbruis
April 2014
Abbreviations
For book abbreviations, see the bibliography.
1 Languages
Aeol. Aeolic Lat. Latin

Alb. Albanian Lesb. Lesbian
Arc. Arcadian Lith. Lithuanian
Arm. Classical Armenian Locr. Locrian
Att. Attic Luw. Luwian
Berb. Berber Lyc. Lycian
Boeot. Boeotian Maced. Macedonian
Corcyr. Corcyrean Meg. Megarian
Cret. Cretan Mess. Messenian
Cypr. Cyprian MGr. Middle Greek
Dor. Doric MoE Modern English
Epid. Epidaurian MoGr. Modern Greek
Etr. Etruscan Myc. Mycenaean
gloss. in glosses ohg Old High German
Go. Gothic ORu. Old Russian
Gr. Greek Pamph. Pamphylian
Heracl. Heraclean pg Pre-Greek
Hitt. Hittite PGm. Proto-Germanic
Hurr. Hurrian Phoc. Phocian
ia Ionic-Attic pie Proto-Indo-European
ie Indo-European Rhod. Rhodian
Ion. Ionic Syrac. Syracusan
Lac. Laconian Thess. Thessalian
2 Grammar and Text
acc. accusative bc before Christ

acc. to according to c. century
adj. adjective cf. compare
adv. adverb cod. codex, manuscript
aor. aorist coll. collective
abbreviations xi
compar. comparative nom. nominative

conj. conjecture opt. optative
dat. dative ostr. ostracon, ostraca
du. dual p. page
e.g. for example p.c. personal communication
en ethnonym pap. papyrus, papyri
et al. and others perf. perfect
f. feminine pl. plural
fut. future plpf. pluperfect
gen. genitive pn personal name
hn hydronym pres. present
id. idem s.v. sub voce
i.e. that is sch. scholium
inscr. inscription(s) sg. singular
intr. intransitive subst. substantive
ipv. imperative tn toponym
litt. literature v. verb
m mountain var. variant
m. masculine vel sim. or similarly
med. middle viz. namely, to wit
ms. manuscript v.l. varia lectio
n. neuter voc. vocative
3 Authors and Works
Only the most common authors and works are mentioned here. Please refer to
lsj for a complete list.
A. Aeschylus Ath. Athenaeus

A. R. Apollonius Rhodius Call. Callimachus
ab Anecdota Graeca, v. i Com. Comedy, Comic
Ael. Aelianus Cratin. Cratinus
Alc. Alcaeus D. Demosthenes
Alcm. Alcman D. S. Diodorus Siculus
Anacr. Anacreon Dsc. Dioscorides
ap Anthologia Graeca E. Euripides
Ar. Aristophanes em Etymologicum Magnum
Archil. Archilochus Epich. Epicharmus
Arist. Aristoteles Eub. Eubulus
xii abbreviations
Eup. Eupolis Opp. Oppianus

Eust. Eustathius Paus. Pausanias
Gal. Galenus Ph. Philo
Gp. Geoponica Pherecr. Pherecrates
Gr. Grammaticus Phot. Photius
gramm. grammarians Pi. Pindarus
H. Hesychius Pl. Plato
h. Hom. Hymni Homerici Plb. Polybius
Hdn. Herodianus Plin. Pliny
Hdt. Herodotus Plu. Plutarchus
Hell. Hellenistic poet. poetica
Hes. Hesiodus Poll. Pollux
Hippon. Hipponax post-Hom. post-Homeric
Hom. Homer S. Sophocles
Hp. Hippocrates Sapph. Sappho
Il. Iliad Str. Strabo
Luc. Lucianus Suid. Suidas
lxx Septuagint Tab. Heracl. Tabulae Heracleenses
Lyc. Lycophron Th. Thucydides
lyr. lyric poetry Theoc. Theocritus
Lys. Lysias Thphr. Theophrastus
Nic. Nicander or Nicias trag. tragic, tragedy
Od. Odyssey X. Xenophon
chapter 1
Introduction
The substrate language of Greek will here be called ‘Pre-Greek’; this is a trans-
lation of the German term ‘das Vorgriechische’. No written texts exist in this
language, but it is known from a considerable number of loanwords in Greek.
The study of Pre-Greek has had an unfortunate history. In the past cen-
tury, it was called ‘Pelasgian’ and considered a dialect of Indo-European. This
idea fascinated scholars, and research concentrated on this proposal. But the
whole idea was clearly wrong. The latest attempt to defend it was Heubeck’s
‘Minoisch-Mykenisch’ (discussed by Furnée 1972: 55–66), where the material
was reduced to some ten words. The theory, which has done much harm, has
by now been tacitly abandoned and it is currently generally agreed upon that
the substrate was non-Indo-European. Therefore, the term ‘Pelasgian’ can no
longer be used. Frisk already had strong doubts about the Pelasgian theory, but
nevertheless often mentioned the proposals of its adherents in his dictionary.
Since all work following this line has turned out to be useless, I decided to make
no mention of the theory anymore.
When Frisk completed his dictionary in 1972, Furnée’s book ‘Die wichtigsten
konsonantischen Erscheinungen des Vorgriechischen’, which was his disserta-
tion written under the supervision of F.B.J. Kuiper, had just appeared. It was an
elaboration of Kuiper’s 1956 study on Greek substrate words, which opened a
new chapter in the research of the field. Furnée rejected the Pelasgian theory,
too (see especially 1972: 40–55).
Furnée’s book met with fierce criticism and was largely neglected. In my
view, this was a major mistake in Greek scholarship. True, some of his identifi-
cations are improbable, and his repeated claim that certain forms were expres-
sive leads nowhere. What remains, however, is that he studied a great number
of relevant forms and drew obvious conclusions from them. Pre-Greek words
often show a type of variation which is not found in inherited words. It is self-
evident that this variation must be studied, and this is what Furnée did. It has
turned out (as Kuiper had already shown) that this variation shows certain
recurrent patterns and can be used to recognize Pre-Greek elements.
Furnée’s book is not easy to use: every form is discussed at three or four
places, each time in a different context, so that it can be difficult to find out
what his point really is. On the other hand, his treatment is very careful, and
there are hardly any obvious mistakes. I found a number of cases which he had
not recognized (e.g. πτωχός), but this does not change the fact that his book
© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2014 | doi: 10.1163/9789004279445_002

2 chapter 1
was the best collection at the time. Furnée worked on it for twenty years, and
even now it is the only handbook on the subject. The short overview which
follows below is based on Furnée’s material and on my own research of more
than thirty years.1
Furnée went astray in two respects. First, he considered almost all variation
to be of an expressive character, which is certainly wrong: it is evident that the
variation found is due to the adaptation of words (or phonemes) of a foreign
language to Greek. We shall see below that many variants can be understood
in this way. Secondly, Furnée was sometimes overzealous in his search for
inner-Greek correspondences. Many of Furnée’s discoveries are brilliant (see
s.v. δορύκνιον in 6.3.4 for an example), but sometimes he went too far: not every
alternation necessarily points to Pre-Greek origin. The author can hardly be
blamed for his enthusiasm. He was exploring new ground, and it can only be
expected that he sometimes overplayed his hand.
Several scholars were baffled by Furnée’s proposals and hence rejected the
whole book altogether. His method, however, was sound, and I have only
filtered out the improbable suggestions. In many cases, of course, absolute
certainty cannot be attained, but this should not be an objection. Except for a
very small number of cases, Furnée’s material does consist of actual Pre-Greek
words. His index contains 4,400 words, and taking into account that many of
these words concern derivatives and variants, as well as a few Indo-European
words, I estimate that Furnée’s book discusses some 1000 Pre-Greek etyma.2
In general, I have given only a few personal names and toponyms, and no
material of this kind from outside Greece and Asia Minor. The comparison with
Basque or Caucasian languages has not been considered here, as it is beyond
my competence; it is likely that there are such connections, but I readily leave
those for other scholars to explore.
My suggested reconstructions are not essential. One may ignore them and
just consider the variation itself. These variants are often explained as inci-
dental phenomena (assimilation, influence of other words, etc.), and such
explanations may sometimes be correct. However, if the variation occurs fre-
quently, a Pre-Greek origin must be considered. The etymological dictionaries
by Chantraine and Frisk often seem to avoid the conclusion that a word is a sub-
strate element. It is remarkable that Chantraine was quite aware of the problem
1 Since Kuiper was my supervisor as well, I was acquainted with the book from the very
beginning (see my review in Lingua 36, 1975).
2 Note that Furnée often adduces new material that is not mentioned in the current etymolog-
ical dictionaries, mostly glosses from Hesychius.
introduction 3
in his Formation, but in his dictionary he often withdrew his earlier evaluation
(which in my view was the correct one). It looks as if substrate elements were
not welcome.
The relationship with Anatolian languages is a separate problem. A Greek
word is often called a loan from an Anatolian language, while it may just as well
have been borrowed from the Pre-Greek substrate. It is generally accepted, on
the basis of toponyms, that there once was a language which was spoken both
in Greece and in western Asia Minor.3 In most cases, however, it is impossible
to distinguish between substrate words and loans from Asia Minor (the latter
are from a later date). A word may have been adopted through commerce,
which must have been a regular phenomenon, or may have resulted from local
borrowing in Asia Minor, from the time when Greeks settled there, probably
as early as the 15th century. From a methodological point of view, I think it is
better to consider such words to be Pre-Greek, and to define them as loanwords
from an Anatolian language only when there is reason to do so. Still, it is
clear that we may often make mistakes here. A case in point is τολύπη ‘clew,
ball of wool ready for spinning’. This word is clearly related to Luwian and
Hitt. taluppa/i- ‘lump, clod’. The Greek word is typical of Pre-Greek words:
the structure CaC-up- (with a appearing as o before u) and the absence of
an Indo-European etymology (Melchert 1998 is not convincing) imply that
the word is Pre-Greek or Pre-Anatolian. On the other hand, a word meaning
‘clew’ is perhaps not easily brought from overseas; it is an everyday word
that the speakers of Greek and Anatolian must have picked up not far from
home. I completely agree with Furnée’s interpretation (1972: 3533) that the
word was brought to Greece by settlers from Anatolia who spoke the language
which, from another perspective, we call Pre-Greek. In other words, τολύπη
is a loan from an Anatolian language, but this (probably non-Indo-European)
language was also spoken in large parts of Greece before the Greeks (speaking
an Indo-European language) arrived there.
It is essential to realize that substrate words are a frequent if not mundane
phenomenon. Regret over this fact (from an Indo-Europeanist point of view, or
otherwise) is irrelevant, and should not keep one from accepting the evident
existence of Pre-Greek words. To me, it is fascinating that they allow us to
catch a glimpse of the oldest known language of Europe (including Anatolia),
of which we otherwise have no evidence.
3 A point for further study is to establish how far to the east such related names can be found.
It is my impression that these names can be found as far to the southeast as Cilicia.
chapter 2
Phonology
1 The Phonemic System of Pre-Greek
Voiceless, voiced and aspirated stops may interchange in Pre-Greek words,

without any apparent conditioning factors. This fact shows that voice and
aspiration were not distinctive features in Pre-Greek.1 On the other hand,
the Linear B signs (graphemes) for rjo, rja and tja show that palatalization
probably was distinctive. This is confirmed by the sign pte (e.g. in ra-pte-re
/hraptēres/ with the agent suffix -tēr-), which must go back to an earlier pye.
In the Pre-Greek material, such a phoneme may underlie examples like θάπτα.
One may wonder whether κρόσσοφθον points to py > pt which was realized
with aspiration. Further, the signs two, twe, dwo, dwe, nwa, swa, swi, point to
labialization as a distinctive feature, i.e. two, twe, dwo, dwe, nwa, swa, swi. Note that
palatal and labial forms of graphemes are found with both resonants and stops,
which is a phenomenon alien to Indo-European languages. The existence of
labiovelars is confirmed by qa-si-re-u = βασιλεύς, etc. (see further Beekes 1995/6:
12f.). We may thus posit the following system:2
p py pw
t ty tw
k ky kw
s sy sw
r ry rw
l ly lw
m my mw
n ny nw
Of course, it is possible that one or more of the posited phonemes did not occur
in Pre-Greek (e.g., my is a rare sound in the languages of the world).
1 Of course, it could be due to the fact that a different distinction was present in Pre-Greek (like
fortis / lenis, found in most Anatolian languages), but no obvious distribution pointing in this
direction can be discerned in the material.
2 Note that I distinguish between palatals of Pre-Greek origin, which are indicated by a super-
script y (e.g. ky), and palatovelars of Indo-European origin.

phonology 5
We can now use this insight in explaining the surfacing Greek forms. Thus,
δάφνη / δαυχν(α)- can be explained from a Pre-Greek form *dakwn-.3 In the
former form, the labiovelar yields a labial stop φ. In the latter, it is rendered
by -υχ-, with anticipation of the labial feature, while the labiovelar turns up as
a velar, possibly by dissimilation from ukw. Again, note that aspiration is not
phonemic in Pre-Greek. It is very important to note that we cannot predict
how a Pre-Greek form will surface in Greek: sometimes a stop turns up as an
aspirate, sometimes as a voiced or voiceless stop (e.g. αἰπύς / ἄφαρ, see 2.5.1
below). As a consequence, it may happen that there are a large number of
variants, but it may also be that there are no variants at all.
As a second example, we may understand αὐχήν / Lesb. ἄμφην from a pre-
form *ankwēn. The latter form is directly understandable, with φ from the
labiovelar. The first form went through *anwkēn or *awnkēn, giving αὐχήν with
loss of the nasal (a development known from Armenian). Perhaps, a scenario
*akwēn > αὐχήν is also possible, with a prenasalized form *ankwēn (> ἄμφην)
besides *akwēn.4 Such interpretations may be wrong in individual cases, but
this is no reason not to apply the principle as an analytical tool. Variation that
is strange from an Indo-European point of view often becomes understandable
in this way, starting as we do from a limited set of assumptions.
The existence of palatalized phonemes in Pre-Greek may explain a number
of other developments. Thus, I assume that a geminate λλ may continue Pre-
Greek *ly. We know that ie *ly gave λλ in Greek, but if a variant with single
λ coexists, we should be warned. For example, the name Ἀχιλλεύς has a vari-
ant Ἀχιλεύς with single λ. And although the latter only occurs in Homer, the
variation points to Pre-Greek origin. The variant was preserved because it was
metrically convenient, it was not created for metrical purposes. Of course, the
fact that there was more variation at an earlier date is what we expect. As far
as the other palatalized resonants are concerned, *any may have given αιν, *ary
may have given αιρ (or ειρ, with coloring of the vowel, see section 3.2 below on
the suffixes), etc. We have -αιρ-, -αιν- but no *-αιλ- in words of Pre-Greek origin.
This view is corroborated by the fact that geminate λλ is very frequent (Furnée
1972: 387), whereas geminate ρρ, νν and μμ are much less frequent, or even rare.
3 Although I assume that voice was not distinctive in Pre-Greek, I do write d- in this case,
because only δ- surfaces in Greek. We must avoid losing information present in the Greek
forms. Thus, my notation of Pre-Greek forms is heuristic to a certain degree, and not always
consistent with the phonemic system I tentatively reconstruct here.
4 On prenasalization, see 2.5.2 below. As an alternative, an Indo-European etymology starting
with the root *h2emgh- ‘to tie, betroth’, can be offered; see edg s.v. (although I prefer the
analysis given here).
6 chapter 2
In a similar fashion, *asy may have yielded either -αισ- or -ασ-, cf. κάβαι-
σος, which has a v.l. κάβασος. In rendering such a foreign word, the palataliza-
tion may have been represented at one time, and may have been neglected at
another. This phenomenon was the main cause of variation in Pre-Greek forms.
The interpretation is further confirmed by the parallel development of labial-
ized consonants. Thus, I suppose that *arw resulted in -α(υ)ρ- (see 3.2.3.32). In
this way, we may understand καλαῦροψ / κολόροβον from a pre-form *kalarw-op-.
Another form which shows the remarkable interchange α / αυ is ἀρασχάδες /
αὐροσχάς. Here one might assume a pre-form *arwask-at-. Note that the labial
element would at the same time explain the o as a variant of a in both cases.
A similar mechanism must be at the basis of the etymon ἄλοξ, αὖλαξ, ὦλαξ,
εὐλάκᾱ, which is hopeless from an Indo-European point of view. I assume that
all forms go back to Pre-Greek *alw-ak-. It gives αὐλακ- through anticipation,
ἄλοκ- through coloring. In this way, the first two forms, which are best attested,
are directly clear. Further, αυ / ευ / ω interchange frequently, which explains
ὦλαξ and εὐλάκα; ὀλοκ- is not problematic either, as both /a/’s were colored to
[o] by the labialized resonant. Only the Homeric accusative ὦλκα is problem-
atic: it is the only form that has no vowel between λ and κ, and therefore may
be due to some accident of the tradition.
I do not know whether a diphthong is allowed in suffixes of the structure
vc, cf. the forms in -αιϝος. Structurally, one could think of *-ayw-, or even
*-awy-, but such sounds are rather rare in the languages of the world. An
example of -αι- due to a palatalized consonant is ἐξαίφνης / ἐξαπίνης / ἄφνω
(a brilliant grouping by Furnée 1972: 158, etc.), which must contain *-apy- (the
palatalization was ignored in the last form). Comparable to the development
in ἐξαπίνης is κνώψ / κινώπετον, from *kyn- with ι representing palatalization,
cf. Beekes (2008). Likewise, I assume that πινυτός / πνυτός points to *pynut-.
Perhaps, we must interpret σιωπάω as *syōp- because of εὐσωπία. An interesting
case is λίμινθες· ἕλμινθες, for which I assume *lym- besides *alym- with prothetic
a (see 2.3 below on the prothetic vowel).
A palatalized consonant could color a to e. A good example is κύπαρος,
κύπαιρος, but also κύπερος, κύπειρος, where we have all possible variants due
to the palatalized consonant. Compare further Κάβαρνοι / Κάβειροι. Likewise,
we have ζακελτίς parallel to ζεκελτίς, where the interchange occurs after ζ from
earlier palatalized ty. διφθέρα / διψάρα may have had *-pty-; ἔλ(λ)οψ parallel to
ἀλ(λ)άβης goes back to *alyap-, with the common variation a / o before a labial.
A clear example is λασιτός besides λεσιτός and λάσται, λάσταυρος. It may be
interpreted as representing pg *lasyt-.
Kuiper (1968) already pointed out that the substrate language had labiove-
lars. He especially drew attention to θαλυκρός vs. ἐθάλυψα, θάλπω. I added a few
phonology 7
remarks in Beekes (1995/6: 12). From Mycenaean, we have a-to-ro-qo (ἄνθρω-

πος) and qe-to (πίθος), Mo-qo-so (Μόψος), qi-si-pe-e (the dual of ξίφος). Further
there is A-i-ti-jo-qo (gen. Αἰθίοπος), ὀφθαλμός with the variants ὄκταλλος and
ὀπτίλ(λ)ος, which cannot be explained from Indo-European. Instead of ξίφος,
we would perhaps expect **ψίφος. So the developments are largely as those of
inherited Greek, but not completely.
Pre-Greek probably had a /y/ and a /w/. Initial ya- presumably often lost its
y-, but it may sometimes be represented by ἰα- as in ἴαμβος, Ἰᾱσ́ ων. The ending
-υια may have been *-uy-a (a Pre-Greek y may have had a different development
from y in inherited words). In the same way, -αια may derive from pg *-ay-a with
a variant -εια, cf. Πηνελόπεια. Perhaps, the y disappeared in some cases, giving
γαῖα besides γᾶ (see 3.2.3.7 on the suffix -αι- / -ε(ι)-).
Initial w- was often lost (ἄναξ), but wa- may also have been rendered by
οα-, as in Ὀαξός besides Cret. ϝαξός. The same holds for Ὀῑλεύς, which has
been considered to be identical with the root of ̓̃Ιλος. We find υα- (which
became ὑα-) in ὑάκινθος, Cret. ϝάκινθος. Furnée (1972: 377) assumes a prothetic
υ- in the latter word, but this seems improbable to me. Another example may
be ὕα/ελος. The differences are probably due to the date at which the word
was borrowed and depend on whether the Greek dialect concerned still had
a ϝ at that time. Another treatment can be found in the word for ‘truffle’,
for which we find οὔιτον, οἶδνον (also -τν-), ὕδνον (also -τν-), or ἴτον. These are
probably all renderings of *wit-. Furnée (1972: 184) again assumes a prothetic
vowel, ϝιτ- / ὀϝιτ-, which does not seem to be the right solution. He further
assumes a variation *wit- / wut-, which also seems improbable to me, though
the variation ι / υ is attested. Rather, υ- is a form of οι-, with the -o- changed
under influence of the -ι- (cf. Lejeune 1972: 174, and note that Greek did not
allow -υι- before consonants; of course, οι became υ in Boeotian in the 3rd c.
bc; variation οι / υ is found in more Pre-Greek words). This case nicely shows
that variation in Pre-Greek words is due to different rendering of the sounds of
a foreign language, and therefore has to be taken seriously. βράκαλον· ῥόπαλον
(H.) probably attests a development *wrak- > βρακ- (as Furnée 1972: 147 remarks
on καλαῦροψ: “Die langläufige Etymologie ⟨connecting⟩ ῥέπω … ist wohl ohne
weiteres aufzugeben.”). σορόα· παλιούρου εἶδος ‘sorb-apple’ (H.) continues *sorw-
(cf. Lat. sorbus, Fr. sorbier, Furnée 1972: 230).
It seems that there was no initial aspiration in Pre-Greek. Furnée has a few
words with ἁ-, ἑ- (one or two with ἱ-; none with ὁ-, ἡ-, ὡ-). Several of these are
doubtful; the best is αἱμασιά (αἱμοί). One might conclude that the language
had no h. This would agree with the fact that aspiration is not a distinctive
feature in the stops. However, this conclusion is remarkable for ἥρως, Ἕλληνες
and Ἥφαιστος, which we expect to be Pre-Greek words (but note that Myc.
8 chapter 2
a-pa-i-ti-jo does not have a2-). Of course, aspiration may have been added
secondarily in Greek in individual cases, cf. the variation in ἄφθα / ἅφθα and
ἐλεδώνη / ἑλεδώνη, which is a variant of δελεδώνη. However, Ruijgh pointed
out to me that Mycenaean had toponyms (a2-ra-tu-wa) and personal names
(a2-ku-mi-jo) with initial h-; it also occurs in inlaut (pi-a2-la, ko-ri-a2-da-na); cf.
further e-ma-a2 (/Hermāhās/ ‘Hermes’).
Originally, I thought that Pre-Greek had only three vowels: a, i, u. The Greek
words concerned often have ε and ο, but this would not be surprising, as the
three vowels have a wide phonetic range, and the phoneme /a/ may have
sounded like [e] or [o] in many environments. The main reason for me to
assume this simple three-vowel system was the fact that the system of suffixes
has a, i, u, but not e, o. We have -αγ-, -ιγ-, -υγ-; prenasalized -αγγ-, -ιγγ-, -υγγ-;
likewise -αθ-, -ιθ-, -υθ-; and prenasalized -ανθ-, -ινθ-, -υνθ-, but no forms with
-εγ(γ)-, -ογ(γ)-, etc. The only cases I noticed are Ῥήσκονθος and ὄλονθος (but
as a variant of ὄλυνθος), and μηλολόνθη with a variant μηλ(ολ)άνθη.
Recently, I have become more inclined to assume a system with the usual
five vowels, because there seems to be a distinction between the two variations
α / ε and α / ο, on the one hand, and a stable, not interchanging α, on the other.
This would point to a system with a, e and o. On the other hand, it is difficult
to explain why the suffixes do not show the same variation that we find in the
root vowels.
It is essential that the palatalized and labialized consonants colored an
adjacent α to ε and ο, respectively. On the effects of palatalized consonants
see Beekes (2008: 46–55). Furnée (1972: 340) has a rule α > ο before ο, ω, υ (e.g.
καλυβός / κολυβός); this can now be understood as the o-like realization of /a/
before high rounded vowels in the following syllable (see 2.5.13.2).
So, e and o originally were variants of the phoneme /a/. It is difficult to
establish whether they had already become full phonemes in Pre-Greek. A good
illustration of the case is the name of Apollo. In Hittite, Appaliunas renders
Apollon- (see Beekes 2003c). We know that Greek originally had Ἀπελλ-, with -ε-
arising from -a- before the palatalized ly. The -o- developed only later in Greek,
but I assume that the Hittite form still shows the -a-. The Pre-Greek form was
*Apalyun-.
I have long doubted (and still doubt) whether there was phonemic vowel
length in Pre-Greek. Greek substrate words quite often only have a form with
a long vowel. Vacillation is sometimes found, as in θρινάκη / θρῖναξ (see 2.6.2),
and note ὄβριμος / βρῑμός, βρῑμ́ η. Quite a different argument is the following:
ἄχυρον and πίτῡρον both mean ‘chaff’; it is therefore probable that they contain
the same suffix -υρ-; but in the first word the u is short, while it is long in the
second.
phonology 9
Note that η often represents ᾱ (γᾱθυλλίς / γηθ-), and as our knowledge of

the relevant dialects is rather limited, we often simply do not know whether
η represents an older a or e. If we had not had Dor. σίδᾱρος, we would not
have known that it contains an old ā. Also, Λῆμνος represents Λᾶμνος. There
are well-known Pre-Greek words with η < *ē, like σπήλαιον.
I assume two diphthongs, ai and au. If there were no e and o, we do not expect
other diphthongs. A diphthong ευ is rare (Furnée 1972: 3535; I found some 12
instances in the whole of Furnée’s material); it interchanges with αυ. Furnée
(1972: 3392) calls ει “(in mehreren Fällen) nur eine Nebenform von αι”. Also οι
is rather rare, and we may find ου more often, but mostly interchanging with
other vowels (see the remark on the suffix -ουρ-). See further section 2.6.1 on
vowel variation.
Regarding the accentuation, I noted vacillation in: ἄβραμις / -μίς; αἰγώλιος /
-ιός; ἄχυρος / -ός; ἄχωρ / ἀχώρ; κόρυδος / κορυδός; κορύδαλος / κορυδαλλός; μέδι-
μνος / μεδίμνος; σίκυος / σικυός; ὕρισχος / ὑρισσός. Also note the almost identical
forms such as λυκαψός / λύκοψος. This does not imply that the language had
no clear stress: the Greeks who adopted a word could simply have been uncer-
tain about it. The phenomenon may, however, be important heuristically: such
variation is very rare in inherited words.
2a Characteristic Phonemes and Phoneme Clusters
In Pre-Greek words, we find some sounds or clusters that are rare in pie words.
I give the variants between brackets.
1 αυ
αυ does occur in pie words, but only when it derives from *h2eu (mostly in ini-
tial position) or *eh2u. pg examples: βλαῦδες, βραύκας, γραύκαλας, κάναυστρον,
κασαύρα, τραύξανα; Λαβραυνδός.
2 β
As is well known, *b was rare in pie. In Pre-Greek words, it seems to occur
relatively often. Examples: ἄβλαροι, ἀβύρβηλος, ἀρβύλη, ἀτάρβακτος, βάρβιλος,
θόρυβος, κίβαλος. It is frequently found word-initially. Of course, β may also
go back to a Pre-Greek labiovelar (i.e. labialized velar), e.g. βασιλεύς, Myc.
qa-si-re-u.
10 chapter 2
3 βδ
The cluster is possible in pie words, but it is rare (see on β sub 2 above).
Examples: ἄβδελλον, ἄβδηρα, ἄβδης, ἴβδης, αὐτο-κάβδαλος, κίβδηλος, κυβάβδα;
Κομβδιλιπια.
4 γδ
Cf. Furnée (1972: 3185). There is nothing against pie *gd, but it is infrequent. Of
course, the group is reminiscent of βδ. Examples: ἄγδυς, ἀμυγδάλη, γδουπέω (cf.
κτυπέω), ἴγδη, κρίγδανον, λύγδη.
5 γν
Example: ἰγνύς (ἰκνύς). On χν, φν, see 3.2.
6 δν
The sequence is rare in ie words. Examples: ἀκιδνός, ἀλαπαδνός, ἀράχιδνα, λεπα-
δνός (λα-), σίπυδνος; Ἀριάδνη.
7 κτ
The group is regular in pie, but in Pre-Greek it is found with variants; see 2.5.5.
Examples: ἀβίυκτον, βάκται, δίκτυ.
8 κχ
The group can hardly be of ie origin; it is not frequent. I noted βάκχαρ, λάκχα,
σάκχαρ, συκχάς; Βάκχος, Βρίακχος, Βύκχις. The group -κχ- is the geminate of χ.
Cf. below on πφ, τθ.
9 μν
The group is certainly possible in pie words, but it is also frequent in Pre-Greek.
Examples: ἀμφι-κέλεμνον, ϝεδιμνος, ἴαμνος, βασυμνιάτης, κρημνός, λάμνα, λωρυ-
μνόν, μέριμνα, ῥόδαμνος, σίγυμνον, σίδριμνον; Ἀτύμνιος.
10 ου
The diphthong is perfectly ie, but it is found several times in Pre-Greek. I do
not think that Pre-Greek had a diphthong -ou-, but it may have arisen from
e.g. -arw-, which often surfaces as -ουρ-. Examples: σενδούκη, σκίουρος, στρουθός,
τάγχουρος, τοῦφος, φάνδουρος, φοῦσκος, χλούνης.
phonology 11
11 πφ
The group can hardly be of pie origin, but it is rare in Pre-Greek words, too.
Like in the case of κχ, it is the geminate of φ. Examples: ἀρχιζάπφης (?); Σαπφώ
(Ψαπφώ).
12 ρδ
On a morpheme boundary, the group is possible in pie. Examples from Pre-
Greek: ἀγέρδα, καπαρδεῦσαι, καρδαμάλη.
13 ρκν
A rare group, perhaps there is even no reason to speak of a group. Examples:
ἄβαρκνα, βερκνίς.
14 ρν
(variants ρδ, νδ): Examples: κίσιρνις (-νδ-), ἀχέρδα (-να), σκαπέρδα. See 3.2.3.104.
15 σ
A σ occurs both word-initially and between vowels, where it has disappeared in
most inherited words. Initial: σάρυττα, σαγύριον, σάναπτιν, σάνδαλον, σαρρυφθεῖν,
σεκούα, σιβύνη, σίγυμνον. Intervocalic: ἀγασυλλίς, ἄγχουσα (ἔγχ-), αἴθουσ(σ)α,
αἱμασιά, αἴσακος, ἄλεισον, δρόσος. After resonant: ἄλσος, βάλσαμον, γελσόν, γέν-
σιμος, μάρσιππος (-υππος).
16 σβ
The group is hardly known from inherited words (σβέννυμι is problematic).
Examples: ἄσβολος, θίσβη; Ἄσβετος. -σβ- may continue Pre-Greek -sgw-: Myc.
ti-qa-jo may stand for /thisgwaios/ Θισβαῖος.
17 σγ
Again, this group is hardly known from ie words. It may sometimes continue
-tyg-, as in ἀμυσγέλᾱ, Ἀσγελάτας (see 2.5.5). Examples: ἀλισγέω, ὑσγίνη, φάσγα-
νον, ἀσγάνδης, πισγίς.
18 σκ, στ
These groups are well known from ie, but mostly in word-initial position. See
section 2.5.5. Examples: βέσκεροι, βύσταξ, κύστεροι, λασταγεῖ.
12 chapter 2
19 στλ
Though the cluster contains nothing that could not be ie, it occurs more often
in substrate words. Examples: ἄστλιγγες, στλεγγίς.
20 τθ
The group can hardly be of pie origin. In Pre-Greek, it is a variant of ττ and
σσ (see 2.5.5). Sometimes, it is clearly the geminate of θ: Ἀτθίς / Ἀθήνη. Further
examples: ἰτθέλα, κότθυβος, Πετθαλοί.
21 φθ
The cluster is possible in inherited words. pg example: νάσκαφθον.
22 χμ, χν
Rather rare in ie; Furnée (1972: 110) assumes that the nasal caused the aspira-
tion. Examples: δαυχμός, δαυχνα-, σαυχμόν.
23 ψ
Frisk gives some seventy lemmas with ψ-. Many of these words are clearly Pre-
Greek. Originally, I thought that all words with ψ- were Pre-Greek, but this
thesis cannot be maintained. ψύλλα ‘flea’ may be of ie origin, though ie did not
have *ps-. The ie word has *plus-: Indian pluši-, Armenian lu; Balto-Slavic has
*blus-ā (with problematic b-); for Albanian plesht Demiraj (1997) reconstructs
*plous-ti. The Greek word underwent metathesis. For ψήω I refer to the etymol-
ogy in edg.
24 ω
Of course, ω is perfectly ie, but it also occurs in Pre-Greek words. Examples:
ἀμακρῶτις, ἄνθρωπος, ἀνωνίς, ἀποφώλιος, ἀρρωδέω, ἀσκαλώπας, ϝασκώνδας, ἀσμω-
λεῖν, βαλλωτή, κασσωρίς, λωρυμνόν.
25 Geminates
(See also 2.5.8 on single / geminated consonants.) Indo-European had no gem-
inates. Geminates did arise in Greek, but they are not very frequent. I doubt
whether Pre-Greek had geminates, but several occur in Pre-Greek words
(Brixhe 1976: 95 states that there were no geminates in this language). As Pre-
Greek had palatalized phonemes, I suspect that ly was (often) represented by
λλ in Greek. In a similar vein, perhaps ny might be represented as νν, and ry as
ρρ, but this requires further investigation. For σσ and ττ see 2.5.5.9a. Unclear
are δδ, κκ, ππ, and μμ (palatalized my is a rare sound). Some further exam-
ples:
phonology 13
Stops:5 δδ: ἄδδαι, ἄδδιξ

κκ: ἀκκαλος, βέλεκκος, λάκκος(?)
ππ: ἄγριππος, λούππις
ττ: βίττακος, λάττα, κάττος, μάτταβος, μέττες, μίττος; Πιττακός.
Liquids: λλ: ἀλλάβης, ἀλλοπίης, ἀμίλλακαν, βαλλωτή, βδέλλα, βίλλιν, πάτελλα
μμ: κλεμμύς
νν: ἀγάννα, βλέννος, γίννος, λαχάννα; Δίκτυννα
ρρ: ἀρράβακα, βίρρη, βίρροξ, καρρόν
Sibilants σσ: αἴθουσ(σ)α, ἄφρισσα, γίσσα.
2b How to Recognize Words as Pre-Greek?
This appears to be relatively easy. A first indication is that a given word has
no Indo-European etymology. Often, there is variation which is impossible to
explain in Indo-European terms. Therefore, the discussion of these variants is
essential. Then, there are numerous suffixes that are typical for Pre-Greek (see
the list below, 3.2.3). The meaning may also provide an indication. The words
concerned are often names of plants or animals, of equipment and utensils, or
part of viniculture (see chapter 6).
If we have some of the above features, it is quite clear that we are dealing
with a Pre-Greek word. The origin of the word is then indicated  pg  in edg.
In many cases, we do not have enough data and can only suspect that the word
might be Pre-Greek (the origin is then indicated as  pg? ).
3 Prothetic Vowel
Pre-Greek had a prothetic vowel, e.g. ἀσκάλαφος / κάλαφος. In most cases, the
vowel is ἀ-. The numbers (Furnée 1972: 368ff.) are as follows: α ± 90, ο 10, ε 5, ι
3, υ o, η 6, αι 2. Note that, generally speaking, α may interchange with ο, ε, and
αι. Indeed, we have cases where prothetic ο interchanges with α, and the same
holds for ε (e.g. εἰκλ- / αἰκλ-, ἑψία / ἀψία). Although not all other cases can be
explained away, it seems that the phenomenon originally only concerned α.
Examples: ἀγασυλλίς / γηθυλλίς; ἀκιρίς / κίρρις; ἀκορνοί / κόρνοψ; ἀχραδαμύλα /
χραμαδοῖλαι; ἀναρίτης / νηρίτης; ἀσκάλαβος / (σ)καλαβώτης; ἀχύνωψ / κύνωψ.
Furnée (1972: 378, 339) thinks that in ἠπανᾷ the proth. vowel was lengthened.
5 We also have to recall the occurrences of κχ, πφ, τθ (see above).

14 chapter 2
4 s-mobile
A large number of words show an initial σ- before a consonant, which is absent

in practically identical variants. It occurs before a stop or m (so not before
r, l, n); the stop is mostly voiceless, sometimes aspirated; see Furnée (1972:
390f.). Examples: γέλενος / σχέλινος; (σ)κιδάφη; κίκερος / σκίγκος; (σ)κορδῡ́λη;
βάταλος / σπ-; πέλεθος / σπ-; φαττάγης / σπ-; θριγκός (τριγχός) / στρίγχός; τοπεῖον /
στυππεῖον; (σ)μήρινθος; (σ)μύραινα. A prothetic vowel may appear before an
s-mobile (Furnée 1972: 3908): ἀσκάλαβος / σκαλαβώτης / καλαβάς; ἀσφάραγος /
σφάραγος / φάραγξ; ἀσκάλαφος / κάλαφος.
5 Consonant Variation
5.1 Voiceless / Voiced / Aspirated Stop

Furnée’s conclusion was that ‘Pre-Greek’ was a non-Indo-European language,
with no recognizable cognates. This implies that the phonemic system may
have been different from that of Indo-European. Thus, he found that the stops
show variation between voiced, voiceless and aspirated, so that there presum-
ably was no phonemic distinction between voice and aspiration in the lan-
guage. As there is no reason to assume that this is a recent phenomenon, it
strongly suggests that the language was non-Indo-European. For example, πτω-
χός belongs to a root ptāk- / ptōk- also seen in πτώξ, -κός. Since such a variation
is hardly understandable in Indo-European terms, the word must be Pre-Greek.
Furnée’s discussion of this variation takes 86 pages (1972: 115–200). Even if we
allow for some mistakes, it is clear that there is abundant evidence for this phe-
nomenon.
5.2 Prenasalization
Before a stop, a nasal may be present or not in Pre-Greek words. Examples:
κάχρυς / κάγχρυς; κορυφή / κόρυμβος; σαλάβη / σαλάμβη, etc. The phenomenon
is extremely frequent, but its precise origin is not known (prenasalized conso-
nants?).
5.3 Nasalization
A consonant is replaced by a homorganic nasal: κιδαφεύειν / κιναφεύειν; φλη-
δῶντα / φλήναφος. Furnée did not discuss this phenomenon. Cf. the following
section.
phonology 15
5.4 Labial Stops / μ / u̯

There are three interchanges: labial stop / μ; labial stop / ϝ; μ / ϝ.
Labial stop / μ (Furnée 1972: 203–227). Examples: ἀρβύλη / ἄρμυλα; βάρβιτος /

βάρμιτος; κύμινδις / κύβινδις; λυκάβας / λυκάμας; μύσταξ / βύσταξ; σκόλυμος /
σκόλυβος; φάρμακον / φόρβαντα; σφάραγος / σμάραγος.
Furnée points to assimilational and dissimilational tendencies, but imme-
diately concludes that this would only work for “einige wenige Beispiele”, and
“[l]eider kommt man auf diesem Weg nicht weiter” (1972: 207). This way of
interpretation then is probably not the correct way. My impression is that the
phenomenon is quite general, and we must rather assume nasalization (dis-
cussed above). According to this assumption, a consonant can be replaced by
a nasal of the series to which it belongs. Thus, in the example φληδῶντα / φλή-
ναφος, we find a dental nasal. In the case of labial stops, we would expect a
(bi)labial nasal, and that is μ. Furnée (1972: 210–218) finds the process notably
for β / μ. This is in contradiction with the fact that Pre-Greek had no (separate
phoneme) β. So we must accept that the nasalisation occurred with the labial
stops in general (or even with labials in general, in view of the inclusion of ϝ;
see below). It is of course a strong confirmation of the theory that this variation
can be explained in the same way.
Labial stop / ϝ (Furnée 1972: 228–242). Examples: τέθηπα, θάπος / θαῦμα; κόβα-
λος / καυαλός; κασσαβάς / κασαύρα; κράμβος / κραῦρος.
I have no explanation, despite the remarks of Furnée and Kuiper (1956: 215 f.).
Furnée (1972: 229) assumes that the variation is expressive.
μ / ϝ (Furnée 1972: 242–247). A difficulty here is that Greek did not preserve a ϝ in
most cases, so that we often just find zero, and the ϝ can only be reconstructed.
This gives rise to a certain degree of uncertainty. The evidence includes 8 or
9 words in -μνος. Examples: βασυμνιάτης / βασυνίας; κρίμνον / κρίνον; μέδιμνος /
ϝεδιμνος; σίγυμνος / σίγῡνος (also σίγυννος).
16 chapter 2
5.5 Stops Interchanging with σ(σ), with Stop + σ/τ or with σ + Stop
This kind of variation is quite complicated. I distinguished no less than 11 (or
even 16) different types. They may be represented as follows:
a. Labials b. Velars
1. C / Ct π / πτ κ / κτ
2. C / Cs π/ψ (κ / ξ)
3. C / sC (π / σπ) κ / σκ
4. Ct / Cs πτ / ψ κτ / ξ
5. Ct / sC κτ / σκ
6. Cs / sC (ψ / σπ) (ξ / σκ)
7. Cs / ss ξ / σσ
8. sC / ss σκ / σσ
Dentals
9. t / ss τ / σσ
10. t / st τ / στ
11. ss / st σσ / στ
The analysis of these variants is not easy, and I mainly present the data here.
A question that needs to be explained is why exactly s or t are involved in the
given variation.
The most complicated instance is 5b, where we find κτ / σκ. This type also
yields most information, and can be solved best. Expected is a cluster with k,
i.e. a consonant before or after the k. One of the two expected clusters must
have undergone metathesis. As Greek did undergo a metathesis τκ > κτ (and
no metathesis of σκ or ξ), we may assume that precisely this phenomenon was
operative here. Thus, for an earlier stage we may reconstruct an interchange
σκ / τκ. This interchange can be easily explained by assuming a consonant,
probably unknown to Greek, which resulted either in σ or in τ. In my inter-
pretation, this must have been a palatalized dental, i.e. /ty/. For instance, ἀμυ-
σγέλα / ἀμυγδάλη was probably *amutygala, represented first as *amusgala or
*amudgala, the latter yielding *amugdala. A less clear example is Asclepios,
who was called Ἀ(ι)σκλαπιός or Ἀ(ι)γλαπιός. It could be that the name was
*Atyklap-, giving *A(i)sklap- or *A(i)dglap-. In the latter form, metathesis did
not operate because **Agdlap- was not tolerated in Greek; the dental was then
phonology 17
simply lost. Needless to say, it often happens that only one variant is attested.
The strange feature or phoneme may also be dismissed altogether, as in δικεῖν
besides δίσκος and δίκτυον.
One might suppose that all variants in the above group are due to a palatal-
ized dental, but this is not evident, as consonant clusters are rather rare, and as
there are very few suffixes beginning with an obstruent. We may be unable to
determine what exactly happened in each case.
Type 4 is treated by Furnée (1972: 2633). Since Pre-Greek did not distinguish
voice and aspiration in stops, these often vary; so if we speak of kt or κτ, this
also includes realization as χθ, such as in μόροχθος. If we consider the variation
with labials, as in pt / ps, it is clear that we are dealing with a labial followed
by a dental. The dental could also appear as s, so it is clear that the phoneme
concerned was a palatalized dental, which I note /ty/. This means that we are
dealing with a group pty. In the same way, with a velar we have kty.
The example διφθέρα / διψάρα is well-known and clear. Furnée further gives
γναμπτούς· χαλινούς (H.) besides γλαμψοί· χαλινοὶ στόματος (H.) and compares
πτίλον with Dor. ψίλον. His example ὀπτός ‘cooked’ besides ὄψον is less evi-
dent.
Among the forms with a velar, there is no problem with μόροχθος / μόροξος.
The best known example is Ἐρεχθεύς (also Ἐριχθεύς) besides Ερεχσες on Attic
vases. I have no opinion on Ἐριχθόνιος; it may be a Graecisized form, and, if
so, it is unimportant for Pre-Greek. See further the ethnonyms Δατύλε-πτοι,
Δηλό-πτης, Γαλη-ψοί, Λαδε-ψοί and Τρανι-ψοί. Other forms are less clear.
There may have been series with three forms, with kt / ks, pt / ps and also k or
p. I can only mention Ἄραχθος / Ἀράξης besides Ἄραγος, and perhaps, parallel
to διφθέρα / διψάρα, the verb δέφω (together with δεψ-); for both cf. Furnée (1972:
263).
Above, we assumed that a labial or a velar could be followed by a palatalized
dental /ty/. If this is right, we can also postulate that this consonant (labial
or velar) was followed by a normal dental. This logically yielded pt and kt. I
assume that the second consonant of this group (the dental) could have been
dropped, which yielded single p or k. This explains the type π(τ)όλεμος (Furnée
1972: §50) and βρόγχος (with prenasalization) besides βρόχθος (Furnée 1972:
§51).
I will briefly review the 11 (16) types (I call the labials 1a, etc., the velars 1b,
etc.).
1. a. πτ may represent a single phoneme py, as we saw in 2.1. Examples

(Furnée 1972: 315ff.): γνυπ- / γνυπτ- (γνυπετ-); κολύμβαινα / κολύβδαινα;
κίβαλος / κίβδης; λύπη / λυπτά; without variants: κρόσσοφθον, σαρρυφθεῖν.
18 chapter 2
1. b. κτ is most probably explained like 5b, discussed above. Examples

(Furnée 1972: 319ff.): ἄρακις / ἀράκτην; μογέω / μοχθέω; πελεκάν / σπέλε-
κτος; ἀκακία / κάκτος.
2. a. π / ψ, b. κ / ξ. Furnée has a whole chapter about the variation π / ψ
(1972: 323–329). I have doubts about this chapter, although some instances
remain difficult to explain otherwise. In these cases ψ may result from *pty,
or have a morphological background. There is only little evidence for κ / ξ.
Examples: δέφω / δέψω (Furnée 1972: 326); κυβέλη / κυψέλη (Furnée 1972:
327); κίκους / κίξιος.
3. a. π / σπ, b. κ / σκ: Both may represent *typ, *tyk. Examples: θίσβη /
θίβις (Furnée 1972: 2922); βέκος / βέσκεροι; ἴχλα / ἴσκλαι; μάκελλα / μάσκη
(βάσκη); μῦκος / μύσκος; φάκελον / φάσκωλος (Furnée 1972: 295 ff.).
4. a. πτ / ψ, b. κτ / ξ were discussed above and may continue *pty, *kty; they
may belong to type 2. Examples: διφθέρα / διψάρα (Furnée 1972: 2633);
χαλυβδικός / Χάλυψος (Furnée 1972: 318, 324); μόροχθος / μόροξος (Furnée
1972: 2633).
5. b. κτ / σκ was discussed above. Examples: ἀμυσγέλα / ἀμυγδάλη (Furnée
1972: 3012); δίσκος / δίκτυ(ον) (Furnée 1972: 279, 319).
6. a. ψ / σπ, b. ξ / σκ. Furnée (1972: 393) simply considered the interchange to
be due to metathesis, which, of course, is possible. *sp, *sk may represent
*typ, *tyk. Examples (Furnée 1972: 393): ἀσπίνθιον / ἀψίνθιον; ὀσφῦς / ψύαι;
ἰσχίον / ἰξύς; φοῦσκος / φοξός.
7. b. ξ / σσ. If ξ represents *kty, the k may have disappeared in other cases
(which did not give ξ) after which *ty became σσ. Examples: κριξός /
κρισσός (Furnée 1972: 13059); σίβδα / ξίμβα (Furnée 1972: 317); τραύξανα,
τρώξανον / τραύσανον (Furnée 1972: 28672); ἰξάλη / ἰσάλη (ἰσσέλα, ἰτθέλα);
for Οὐλίξης / Ὀδυσσεύς see 9a.
8. b. σκ / σσ can be explained parallel to 7b: *tyk > σκ or, with loss of the k,
*ty > σσ. Example (Furnée 1972: 300): ὕρισχος / ὑρίσσος.
9. b. τ / σσ. This is the well-known element that yielded σσ / ττ. The situation
is different here, as we are able to discern a distribution among the Greek
dialects, and attribute the different renderings of these loanwords to
dialectal developments. Still, the fact remains that a foreign element was
rendered in different ways, as with all other phenomena discussed here.
Furnée (1972: 253) has the heading τ, δ, θ / σ(σ), ζ. I think this should be
reformulated as τ (δ, θ), ττ (τθ) / σ (ζ), σσ, i.e. τ with its usual variants δ, θ;
or the geminated ττ (with its expected variant τθ, which is the Greek form
of geminated θθ), interchanging with σ or σσ. If the ζ was [sd], it does not
fit in well. As to the element’s interpretation, it could represent single *ty,
which was rendered ττ or σσ, or single σ, τ (the variant ζ would then fit in,
phonology 19
but one would also expect a variant στ6). Examples (Furnée 1972: 253 ff.):
κιττός / κισσός; κρότιον / κρόσσοφθον; μυρτίνη / μυρσίνη; τεῦτλον / σεῦτλον;
τίλφη / σίλφη; γάδος / γάζας; ἀσμωλεῖν / ἀδμωλή.
I think that the phoneme rendered by σσ, Att. ττ (called the ‘foreign
phoneme’ or ‘Fremdphonem’) was a palatalized velar, which I write as ky,
cf. Beekes (2009: 191–197). This would be parallel to the development of
inherited velar + yod, which gave σσ, Att. ττ, as in φυλάσσω, φυλάττω. This
interpretation is confirmed by θάλασσα, θάλαττα, where we have a variant
δαλάγχαν· θάλασσαν (H.). Here we see that after the nasal (prenasalization
is well known in Pre-Greek), the palatal feature of the consonant was
dropped. This resulted in a velar (here realized as an aspirate). The variant
shows that we may be dealing with a velar in cases of σσ / ττ. We can
also compare κολύμβαινα / κολύβδαινα, which had py; again we see that
the palatal feature was lost after the inserted nasal.
There may be a third representation. We know that the name of Odysseus
was Ὀλυσσευ-, Ὀλυττευ-. This means that it probably had a palatalized
velar, *ky. But we also find Οὐλιξεύς (Ibyc. apud Diom. Gr. p. 321 K, Hdn. Gr.,
Plut.), a form which was at the basis of Latin Ulixes. This form was taken
from a Western Greek dialect, probably Doric. A third representation of
the foreign phoneme may therefore be -ξ-, although this may also reflect
*kty, with σσ / ττ resulting from a simplification of this cluster (see 7b).
10. a. τ / στ may be from *tyt (cf. type 3). Examples (Furnée 1972: 301 ff.):
βαλλωτή / βαλλαύστιον; μάτρυλλος / μάστρυλλος; μύτις / μύσταξ; πατίλη /
παστίλη.
11. a. σσ / στ may also represent *tyt giving στ or, with loss of the t, *ty > σσ (cf.
type 8b). Examples: κύσθος / κυσός; φαῦσιγξ / φαῦστιγξ.
As we saw, it is very difficult to determine what exactly happened in each case;

on the other hand, it is clear that almost all variation can be understood if we
start from just a few assumptions regarding Pre-Greek.
5.6 Velar / Labial / Dental Stops; Labiovelars

There is limited evidence for variation between velar and labial, between velar
and dental, and between labial and dental, and between all three classes
(Furnée 1972: 388ff.). We find:
6 [sn]: The absence of στ would be expected if the variants σ(σ), ζ entered Greek as more
accurate renderings of pg *ty, with the usual variation in voice and aspiration, which later
developed parallel to inherited dental stop + yod (cf. Beekes 2009: 193).
20 chapter 2
κ / π, β κ / τ, δ π/τ κ/π/τ
γ/β γ/δ β/δ γ/β/δ
χ/φ φ/θ χ/φ/θ
It is remarkable that the variants mostly agree in voice / aspiration. Since

examples of this phenomenon are not particularly numerous, this may be an
indication that the words concerned are not of Pre-Greek origin, but perhaps
due to borrowing from a different substrate. Examples:
κ / π: κλάνιον / πλανίς; βράκαλον / ῥόπαλον

γ / β: γλέπω / βλέπω
χ / φ: χάλις / φαλικρόν
κ / τ: ἀσκάνδης / ἀστάνδης
γ / δ: γάλατμον / ἀδαλτόμον
π / τ: βαπαίνει / βαταίνει
β / δ: σάμβαλον / σάνδαλον
φ / θ: γνυφαί / γνύθος
κ / π / τ: τρικτύς / τριπτύς / τριττύς
γ / β / δ: γέφυρα / βέφυρα / δέφυρα.
It is tempting to assume labiovelars to explain these cases, but some cases may
have a different origin (thus, βράκαλον / ῥόπαλον could be due to dissimilation
in the first variant). On the existence of labiovelars in Pre-Greek, see above on
the phonemic system.
5.7 Dentals / Liquids

There are some instances of variation between dentals (including n) and liquids
(l, r). This variation is incidental. Examples (Furnée 1972: 387 f.):
a. δ / λ: ἄβλαρος / βδαροί (Furnée 1972: 33027); δάφνη / λάφνη; Ὀδυσσεύς / Ὀλυσ-

σεύς. Cf. Myc. gen. da-pu2-ri-to-jo (/daphurinthoio/) / λαβύρινθος; καλάμινθα /
Myc. ka-da-mi-ta. The interchange δ / λ and the fact that Linear B has signs
for da, de, di, etc. (which Lejeune explained by assuming a specific, unusual
sound đ) might point to a dental fricative.
θ / λ: θάπτα / λάττα
ν / λ: νίτρον / λίτρον
b. δ / ρ: σίβδα / ξίμβραι
ν / ρ: βλῆχνον / βλῆχρον
phonology 21
c. λ / ρ: ἀζηλίς / ἀζηρίς; κλίβανος / κρίβανος; κλῶμαξ / κρῶμαξ.
5.8 Simple / Geminate

Except for a few isolated cases, we find this interchange in ν / νν, but more
notably in λ / λλ. On τ / ττ and σ / σσ see 2.5.5.9a above. Cf. Furnée (1972: 386f.).
Examples:
ν / νν: ἄνηθον (also τ) / ἄννηθον (also τ); τημενίς / τήβεννα. In this context, note
the suffix -υνν-.
λ / λλ: βαλ(λ)ήν; θυλίς / θυλλίς; σπέλεθος / σπέλληξι dat.pl.; μακέλη / μάκελλα

(this probably derives from pg *-alya-).
Note γεῖσ(σ)ον, σάρῑσα / σάρισσα, and the case of Ἀθήνη / Ἀτθίς / Ἀττικός.
5.9 σ / Zero
We discussed σ / zero before consonant under s-mobile above, section 2.4.
An s from Pre-Greek is normally maintained. The only instances that I know
of where it may have disappeared, are (cf. Furnée 1972: 241): σύριχος, σύρισσος /
ὑριχός (also -ίσκος, -ίσχος, -ίσσος); συβάλλας / ὑβάλλης; σαγήνη / Cypr. ἀγάνα;
σιπύη / ἰπύα. Perhaps Ἑλλάς / Σελλοί belongs here, too. Another instance could
be ἄπιον, which is cognate with Lat. pirum, which points to *-pis-.
5.10 Velar or Dental Stop / Zero

There are instances where a velar or a dental stop may be absent in initial
position (Furnée 1972: 391 and 13159). Dentals may also be absent in inlaut.
Examples:
κ / zero: κάνδαρος / ἄνθραξ; καλινδέομαι / ἀλίνδω; κόγχναι / ὄγχναι; κανθήλιον /

ἀνθήλιον.
γ / zero: γίννος / ἰννός, but this form may be a late development. As an
explanation, one could think of a uvular q.
τ / zero: τάγχουρος / ἄγχουρος; τήγανον / ἤγανον; τίφυον / ἴφυον (with ῑ in lsj);
δ / zero: δελεδώνη / ἑλεδώνη (also ἐ-).
Loss of a dental in inlaut: νέτωπον / νίωπον; ἰθουλίς / ἰουλίς; ἀσίδαρος / ἀσίαρος.

22 chapter 2
5.11 ν-, λ- / Zero

ν- and λ- can also be absent (Furnée 1972: 391f.): νάφθα / ἄφθα (also ἅ-); λαι-
ψηρός / αἰψηρός; λαμπήνη / ἀπήνη; λατμενεία / ἀτμήν. Perhaps it originally con-
cerned palatalized ny-, ly-, varying with y-.
5.12 Metathesis, Shift of Aspiration

There are instances of metathesis. It mostly concerns ρ, sometimes λ. The con-
sonant jumps to the other side of the vowel or the consonant: κιρσός / κρισσός,
κριξός; τέρμινθος / τρέμιθος. Cf. Τερμίλαι / Τρεμίλαι; ἄρπιξ / ἀπρίξ; κέδροπα / κέρ-
δοπα; νάθραξ / νάρθηξ. In most cases, it cannot be determined what the original
configuration was. In a case like ἔρβως / εὔρως, where β may stand for (or con-
tinue) ϝ, I would think that the ϝ was anticipated. It may concern an original rw.
The cases of σπ / ψ and σκ / ξ are discussed in 2.5.5 above.
Shift of aspiration is found in some cases: θριγκός / τριγχός; ἀθραγένη / ἀνδρά-
χνη. In the case of φάτνη / πάθνη the metathesis seems to have occurred in the
later history of Greek (Beekes 2003b).
5.13 Secondary Phonetic Developments

1. We may assume secondary phonetic developments, either in Greek or per-
haps already in the original language. One might consider:
βδ- > βλ-: βδαροί / ἄβλαροι. For this case, cf. 2.5.7a δ / λ.
βδ > βρ: βδέλλιον / βρέλλιον (Furnée 1972: 308)
γδ- > δ-: γδοῦπος / δοῦπος
δν- > γν-: δνόφος / γνόφος
κμ- > μ-: κμέλεθρον / μέλαθρον
ψ- > σπ-: ψενδυλ- / σπονδύλη? See 2.5.5.6a above.
ψ- > σ-: ψέφας / σεῖφα; ψίττακος / σίττακος; cf. Ψαπφώ, Σαπφώ.
2. α > ο before υ in the following syllable. The a was probably pronounced a

little higher before the u, and was realized as [å], which resulted in ο. Exam-
ples: ἀξουγγία > ὀξύγγιον, καλύβη > κόλυβος, *σκαραβ- (κάραβος) > σκορόβυλος,
δορύκνιον for *δ(α)ρυκν-.
5.14 Other Variation

There are a few instances of isolated and puzzling variation. I mention just one,
the word for ‘night’, where we have ψέφας, κνέφας, δνόφος, ζόφος. I think that in
some of these cases, the solution may be found in a cluster. Carian, for example,
allows an initial cluster kbd-. Such clusters would have been simplified in Greek.
In an inherited word, we have the parallel of Lat. pecten, Gr. κτείς, which is
phonology 23
supposed to continue *pkt-. If we assume a cluster *kdn- in our example, it

may have been reduced to kn- or, with loss of the first consonant, to dn-. Thus,
the process is the same as the reduction γδ- > δ-, see 2.5.13 above. Such variant
simplifications are typical for loanwords. In this way, we could connect two of
the words; but I see no way to connect the other two.
6 Vowel Variation
6.1 Single Vowels (Timbre)

The vowels show many variants. I will discuss them in the order a, e, o; within
each of these first the short vowel, then the diphthongs, then the long vowel
(and the long diphthongs, but these hardly occur) are treated. Note that a
variation x / y is not repeated under y.
1. the vowel α.
1a. α / ε has 80 occurrences in Furnée’s material (1972: 347). Examples:
ἄγχουσα / ἔγχουσα; ἄρυσος / ἔρυσος; γάλινθοι / γέλινθοι; ζακελτίς / ζεκελτίς;
καίατα / καιέτας; κάμπος / κέμπορ; κάχρυς / κέγχρος; σάνδυξ / σενδούκη.
1b. α / ο. This interchange also occurs frequently. Furnée (1972: 339) men-
tions that he found 80 instances. Examples: ἀξουγγία / ὀξύγγιον; ἀρρωδέω /
ὀρρωδέω; γράβιον / γοβρίαι; ἠπίαλος / ἠπίολος; κάβαξ / κόβακτρα; καλύβη /
κόλυβος; λυκαψός / λύκοψος.
1c. α / αι (Furnée 1972: 336ff.). Examples: ἀκραιφνής / ἀκραπνής; ἀσύφηλος /
αἰσύφιος; λάγματα / λαίγματα. The ι here is due to the following palatalized
consonant.
1d. α / αυ (Furnée 1972: 30237). Examples: καναύστρον / κάναστρον; μνάσιον /
μναύσιον; ἄλοξ / αὖλαξ. In the last example, the υ is probably due to the
following labialized phoneme lw.
1e. α / ω: κλάδος / κλῶναξ.
1f. αι / ει (Furnée 1972: 3524, 3392). Examples: καιρία / κειρία; κύπαιρος /
κύπειρος; λαιαί / λεῖαι. Both αι and ει are due to the following palatalized
consonant.
1g. αυ / ευ (Furnée 1972: 3535). Examples: λαυκανίη / λευκανίη; πέταυρον /
πέτευρον; αὖλαξ / εὐλάκα.
1h. αυ / ω, ο (Furnée 1972: 30132). Examples: κασαύρα(ς) / κασωρίς; θαῦμα / θῶμα;
σαῦσαξ / σώσικες; βαύκαλον / βῶκος; καλαῦροψ / κολλώροβον / κολλόροβον.
1i. ᾱ / αι (Furnée 1972: 338). Examples: λήθαργος / λαίθαργος; ληκάω / λαικάζω;
πήγανον / φαίκανον.
1j. ᾳ / ᾱ. Example: λᾷδος (λῄδιον) / λᾶδος (λήδιον).
24 chapter 2
2. the vowel ε.
2a. ε / α: see under α.
2b. ε / ι (Furnée 1972: 355ff.). Examples: βλίτυξ / βλέτυες; ἐβίσκος / ἰβίσκος;
δέπας / Myc. di-pa; ἔντυβον / ἴντυβος; κελλόν / κίλλιξ; κιλλίβας / κελλίβας;
κύτεσος / κύτισος; λέσφος / λίσπος (φ). The e was not phonologically distin-
guished from i, and they were phonetically close.
2c. ε / ι / υ (Furnée 1972: 35455). Example: κεχράμος / κίχραμος (κιγκράμας) /
κύχραμος.
2d. ε / ευ (Furnée 1972: 115). Example: ἄργετος / ἄρκευθος.
2e. ει / αι: see αι.
2f. ει / η (Furnée 1972: 3392). Examples: κείθιον (χείτιον) / κήθιον; χειραμός /
χηραμός.
2g. ευ / ε: see ε / ευ.
2h. ευ / αυ: see αυ.
2i. ε / η (Furnée 1972: 35842). Examples: ἔνυστρον / ἤνυστρον; μέρμερος / μέρ-
μηρα; ψάκελον / βάκηλον; μήδεα / μέδεα (μέζεα); Πηλαγόνες / Πελαγόνες.
2j. η / ι (Furnée 1972: 171114). Examples: βλῆτον / βλίτον; σκῆνος / σκίναρ;
ψημύθιον / ψιμύθιον.
3. the vowel ο.
3a. ο / α: see α.
3b. ο / ι (Furnée 1972: 19137). Examples: ἄκονος / ἄκινος; ἰβρίκαλοι / ὀβρίκαλα;
Ὄνογλιν / ὄνιγλιν.
3c. ο / υ (Furnée 1972: 358ff.). Examples: ὄλονθος / ὄλυνθος; σκολοβρέω / σκο-
λυβρός; σκύτη / -κόττα; κυδώνιον / κοδώνεα; κυρσέας / κορσίς; πρύτανις /
πρότανις; τοπεῖον / στυππεῖον. ο and υ were phonetically very close, and
not distinguished phonologically (cf. on ε / ι).
3d. ο / ου (Furnée 1972: 359). Examples: βρόκος / βροῦκος; κολοτέα / κολούτεα
(also -λυ-, -λω-).
3e. ο / ω (Furnée 1972: 279). Examples: γνοτέρα / γνωτέρα; κολλώροβον / κολλό-
ροβον; φασίωλος / φασίολος (also -ουλος); ὤρυγγες / ὄρυξ, -γος; ὠσχοί / ὄσχη.
3f. οι / υ (Furnée 1972: 127). Example: χραμαδοῖλαι / ἀχραδαμύλα (ἀκραμύλα).
3g. οι / ου (Furnée 1972: 358). Examples: κολουτία / κολοιτία (κολοτέα); ψούδιον /
ψοίθης?
3h. ου / υ (Furnée 1972: 12029). Examples: κτύπος / γδουπέω; κροῦναι / γρῡνός.
3i. ου / ω (Furnée 1972: 133). Examples: μωκάομαι / μουκήζει; λούπης / λώβηξ
(Furnée 1972: 148).
3j. ω / η. Example: θρῶναξ / ἀνθρήνη.
3k. ω / υ (Furnée 1972: 30235). Examples: ζώγιος / ζύγγιος; ὕσσωπος / ἱσσύπος;
λωβεύω / λυβάζειν.
phonology 25
3l. ο / ε. Example: γοργυρα / γεργυρα.
4. ι / υ. There is some variation between ι and υ, but I do not know how to

interpret it. Perhaps it is due to some assimilatory and/or dissimilatory
process. Examples (Furnée 1972: 364ff.): αἰσυμνάω / αἰσιμνάω; ἀνθρίσκος /
ἄνθρυσκον; βίδην / βυδοί; βρικός / βρυκός; ζύγαστρον / σίγιστρον; κινώπετον /
κυνοῦπες; κύβεσις / κίβισις; μάρσιππος / μάρυππος.
5. υ / ε. Example: γυργαθός / γέργαθος.
The behavior of the diphthongs may be summarized as follows:
αι / ει and (vice versa) ει / αι

αυ / ευ, ω ευ / αυ
οι / υ, ου
ου / υ, οι, ω
All this variation is understandable in terms of adaptation from a three-vowel

system.
6.2 Long / Short

One may doubt whether Pre-Greek had a distinction between long and short
vowels (see 2.1). We do find η and ω, but not very often, and the second of
these has several variants. On the other hand, the variations ω / ο and η /
ε are not very frequent (although in this case the difference in timbre may
also have been important, depending on the Greek dialect). Variation between
long and short ι and υ is frequent, especially in suffixes. Examples: γήθυον /
γάθια; κίβησις / κύβεσις; θῖβις / θίβις; κρῖμνον / κρίμνον; θρῖναξ / θρινάκη; ψιμῡ́θιον /
ψημύθιον; σπονδῡ́λη / σπονδύλιον. Cf. κᾱρ́ αβος / καράμβιος (cf. κηραφίς); πηνηκίζω /
φενᾱκίζω; Ὠγην(-) / Ὠγεν(-); γνωτέρα / γνοτέρα.
There is some evidence for short vowel + CC alternating with long vowel +
C: e.g. μῦκος / μύσκος; Λάρῑσα / Λάρισσα.
6.3 Single Vowel / Diphthong

There are several instances where a diphthong alternates with a single vowel.
They can be found above (2.6.1). Most frequent is α / αι, but this is due to the
effect of a following palatalized consonant. We further find α / αυ, ε / ευ, ου / υ
and οι / υ. In two cases we find a diphthong alternating with a long vowel: αι /
ᾱ, ει / η. Examples were given above.
26 chapter 2
6.4 Rising Diphthongs?

Relatively frequent in Pre-Greek words are sequences of a more closed vowel
followed by a more open one, sequences that are not found in ie. They would
be rising diphthongs if they formed one syllable, but in fact we may have to do
with two syllables. Examples are:
-εα-: σεᾱγών (σι-, συ-)

-ια-: βατιάκη; θίασος; θρίαμβος; σίαλον; φιάλη; φιαρός. Note σιᾱγών (σε-, συ-)
-υα-: βρυαλίζων; γύαλον (γυε-); κύαμος; πύαλος; πύανον; συαγρίς
-υε-: γυέλιον (γύαλον); πύελος (πυα-)
Remarkable, too, are the sequences -ιυ- in ἰυγή, ἴυγξ and -ωυ- in πῶυ(γ)ξ, μωύς.
6.5 Secondary Vowels (or Elision)

Sometimes, words show a vowel that is absent in nearly identical forms. It
mostly concerns vowels between a stop and a resonant. It is often not clear
whether the presence or the absence of a vowel is secondary. See Furnée
(1972: 378–385). Examples: βράγχια / βαράγχια; δορύκνιον for *δρυκν- in στρυχν-;
σκέρβολος / σκέραφος; κνύζα / (σ)κόνυζα; σκόροδον / σκόρδον; τονθορύζω / τονθρύζω;
Ἀρεπυία / Ἅρπυια; Κορύβαντες / Κύρβαντες.
chapter 3
Morphology
1 Reduplication
Some forms seem to have reduplication, though we often cannot demonstrate

this. Most frequent is partial reduplication, where only the first consonant and
a vowel are repeated. The vowel is mostly ε or ι.
Examples: βέβραξ; βέ(μ)βρος; γίγαρτον; γίγγλυμος; κίκυβος; σέσυφος / Σίσυφος
(cf. σοφός); μεμαίκυλον (also μι-); νενίηλος; σέσελι(ς); σίσυρα (also -υρνα); μεμ-
βράς(?); perhaps κίκυμος; κίχραμος (also κε-, κυ-, κιγκ-); δενδρύω. Also the names
Κέκροψ; Πεπάρηθος; Τιταρήσιος; Λέλεγες. With prenasalization we find τενθρη-
δών, τενθρήνη (cf. ἀνθρηδών; θρῶναξ).
Other reduplication vowels are found in: γάγγαμον; γαγγλίον; γαγγραίνα; λάλα-
μις (cf. λαῖλαψ); κοκρύς; perhaps also γηγῆλιξ.
Intensive reduplication in: μόρμορος; μορμυραία; μαρμαρυγή.
More difficult to judge are γέλγις / ἄγλις (perhaps from *γε-γλ-, ἀ-γλ-, but cf.
s.vv. in 6.3.2) and κέρκα / ἄκρις (if from *κε-κρ-, ἀ-κρ-). Also Μεμβλίαρος besides
Βλίαρος (cf. μεμβράς); Μεμβλίς = Μέλος, also Μιμαλλίς.
A completely different type is perhaps found in ἀμάμαξυς (cf. ἀμαξίς), and
perhaps also ἀμαμιθάδες.
2 Suffixes
2.1 Introduction
It appears that most suffixes have the same structure. They contain a conso-
nant; if this is a stop, it can be prenasalized, i.e. -β- or -μβ-, -θ- or -νθ-, etc. The
stop has its usual variants, like β / π / φ, etc., although mostly one of these is
predominant. The suffix usually starts with one of the vowels of the language,
mostly α, ι, υ (only rarely do we find ε or ο, e.g. ὄλονθος / ὄλυνθος). Thus, we may
find e.g. αγγ—ιγγ—υγγ; ανθ—ινθ—υνθ, etc.
A different structure is present in suffixes containing -ν- (mostly followed by
a vowel) directly after the root-final consonant, e.g. κύδνος; πισάκνα; μόλυχνον;
φενακνίς; σαταρνίς. The groups -ρν-, -δν-, -κν-, -μν- in Pre-Greek words probably
originated in this way. In the case of -μν-, we often find a vowel again: -αμν-, -ιμν-,
-υμν-. The groups -μν- and -ρν- are especially frequent. They are very important,
as they are found in Etruscan, which for the rest shows little agreement with

28 chapter 3
Pre-Greek; -μν- is found as far as in Cappadocian (see Beekes 2003a: 51). Perhaps
the groups -ανν-, -ινν-, -υνν- arose in this way, too.
Other consonants are found in suffix-initial position, too, e.g. -ρ-, -δ-, -γ-,
rarely -λ-. Examples: ψυδρός; κύριθρα; παναγρίς; φαλακρός; σκαπέρδα; λάθαργος;
ὄνιγλιν.
It is often possible to determine to which series the Pre-Greek consonant
belonged. Thus, -αιν- could render -any-, while -aly- seems to have resulted in
-αλλ- (or -ελλ- with coloring of the vowel). Likewise, -ειρ- could represent -ary-.
This thesis would be nicely supported by the segment -αυρ-, if this represents
-arw- (e.g. αὐροσχάδες / ἀρασχάδες, if this form had *-arw-). Cf. 2.1 above.
Another type of suffix has σ followed by a dental—κάνασθον (-στρον); λαι-
στρόν—or another stop—ἔνθρυσκον; αὐροσχάς; κανναβίσκα. These forms may
have been partly adapted to Greek suffixes (-τρον). See below on the suffix -στ-.
A form such as -ευτ- is deviating; we do not often find a diphthong before
the consonant. Does it stand for *-aut- from *-atw-? Cf. -aiu̯ - in ἔλαιον, where
we may suspect ayw or awy (but it may be part of the root). See further section
2.1.
Not seldom do we find an alternation of a long and a short vowel with a suffix
(= consonant), e.g. ιθ—ῑθ, υκ—ῡκ. In the case of ῡρ, one might again think of ury
> uir, although ry is a rare phoneme (like my).
2.2 Survey of the Suffixes

In principle, we find one of the three vowels of the language followed by a
(prenasalized) consonant: a, i, u + (m)P, (n)T, (n)K. The nasal groups actually
found are (forms in brackets are rare or less frequent):
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
aNC αμβ (αντ) ανδ ανθ αγγ

iNC ινδ ινθ ιγγ
uNC υμβ (υντ) υνδ (υνθ) υγγ
The missing groups, then, are: 1. VNπ and 3. VNφ; 7. VNκ and 9. VNχ (except for
δαλάγχαν).
In the same way, we find vowel + C. The consonant may have the normal varia-
tion: plain, voiced, aspirated. A palatalized consonant could color a preceding
and/or a following /a/ to [ε], which may also appear as ει. This phenomenon is
morphology 29
often seen in languages with palatalized consonants, such as Russian and Irish.
Thus, we find -ary- represented as -αιρ- (-ειρ- is also possible). A palatalized -ly-
may be rendered as a geminate -λλ-.
If a labialized consonant followed or preceded an α, this vowel may have
been perceived as (an allophone of) /o/. For example, -arw- may be represented
as -αυρ-, with anticipation of the labial element, but also as -ουρ-, in which case
the α was colored.
The suffixal consonant may be geminated; as there is frequent variation
between single and geminated consonants in the language, there possibly was
no opposition.
Vowels could be either short or long; in suffixes, a long vowel was quite
frequent. A long ū was sometimes represented as ω.
2.3 The Suffixes

The examples are mostly taken from Furnée, to whom I refer for details. Words
can also be checked in edg. Variants are given in brackets. I added geographical
names (tn) from Fick (1905), and some more material, with references.
1 -αβ-(ο-)
(Furnée 1972: 107): ἀγράκαβος; ἀλ(λ)άβης; ἀσκάλαβος; ἀττέλε/αβος; κάνναβος;
κόλλαβος; μέσ(σ)αβον; λατραβός; μάτταβος. tn Καττάβιος (Rhodes, Fick 1905: 47);
Κάσταβος (Caria).
2 -αγ-
ἁρπαγ- (cf. Chantraine 1933: 397ff.); λάταξ; οὖραξ.
3 -αγγ-ο-
σφάραγγος.
4 -αγχ-
δαλάγχαν.
5 -αδ-
ἀρασχάδες; μεμβράς; σπυράδ-; χολ(λ)άδες.
6 -αθ-ο-
ἀσπάλαθος; γυργαθός; κάλαθος; κύαθος; ὄρκαθος; σπύραθοι; ψάμαθος, tn Ὑρνάθιον
(Epidauros).
30 chapter 3
7 -αι-/-ε(ι)- before a Vowel

There are words in -αια / -ε(ι)α, such as γρυμέα / γρυμεία (also γρυμεῖα) / γρυμαία
(note the hesitation in the accentuation). I suggest that the suffix was *-ay-(a),
which was pronounced as [-æya] or [-eya] (we saw that ει often varies with
αι). The speakers of Greek identified the suffix with Gr. -αι- or -ει-, but the -y-
could also be lost. In this way the three variant forms can be explained. Further
examples are κολοιτέα / κολ(ο)υτέα; κορχυρέα (κορκόδρυα in H. is probably an
error); κώδεια / κώδεα (note the short α), besides κώδυια / κωδία (these are not
entirely clear to me, but cf. Ἀμάθυια / Ἀμάθεια).
Furthermore, *-ay-a is likely to be the same suffix as -ειᾰ which makes femi-
nine names, e.g. Ἀμάλθεια; Πηνελόπεια; Ἰφιμέδεια (note that in Myc. I-pe-me-de-
ja, the -j- is preserved, cf. Ruijgh 1957: 1553). Of course, many place names end
in -εια: Καδμεία; Καλαύρεια; Κερύνεια; Μίδεια; Σκελερδεία; Λεβάδεια, etc.
The final was often adapted to -αίᾱ after the dominant type, which is derived
from the adjectives in -αῖος (see Chantraine 1933: 91): type ἀναγκαίη; cf. βρυκταία;
διρκαία; σιβαία.
We also find -εία used in nouns: δαυρεία; ζαλεία; κουλυβάτεια.
Nouns with -εο- are very rare; we find: γωλεός; εἰλεός; κολεόν; νικύλεον; συ-
φεός(?); φωλεός. It may further be found in Ὠκέανος < *-kay-an- (note the by-
forms Ὠγην, Ὠγεν-).
Parallel to -αια, -εια, we may expect thematic -αι-ο-; we find it for example
in δίρκαιον; σπήλαιον; ψιφαῖον; γραψαῖος; *σκαραβαιος (reconstructed by Furnée
1972: 169).
8 -αι(ϝ)-ο-
(Furnée 1972: 23322, 25532): partly from -αιϝο-; it is often impossible to establish
whether a form had a -ϝ- or not. See also 7 above. Examples: ἀκυλαῖον; ἀραιός;
βαγαῖος; βαλαιόν; δίρκαιον; ἔλαιον (Myc. e-ra/ra3-wo); μάταιος; μεσσαῖον; σίραιον;
Ἀχαιϝός. tn Ἀστυπάλαια (Fick 1905: 58).
9 -αιβ-ο-
tn Περραιβοί (Thess.).
10 -αιθ-
tn Σύμαιθα (Thess.); Περαιθεῖς (Arc. deme); Κελαιθεῖς (Thess. deme); Κυναιθεῖς
(Arc. deme).
11 -αιν-
(Furnée 1972: 171117): ἄκαινα, -ον; βολίταινα; γάγγραινα; κολύβδαινα (also -υμβ-);
κορύφαινα; μύραινα; σμύραινα; τρίαινα.
morphology 31
12 -αιρ-(ο-)
represents -ary-: κύπαιρος (also -ειρον, -ηρις, -ερος); μάχαιρα.
13 -ακ-
(Furnée 1972: 15864): ἀβυρτάκη; αὖλαξ; βατιάκη; δόναξ / δῶναξ / δοῦναξ; θρινάκη
(θρῖναξ); θώραξ (also -ηξ, -ᾱκος); καυνάκη; θῡλάκη; πιστάκη; φάρμακον, χάραξ. tn
Ζάρᾱξ, -ηξ (Lac.). Cf. -εκ-: βάλλεκα, πέλεκυς.
14 -ακρος
φαλακρός.
15 -αλ(λ)-ο-
(Furnée 1972: 25428, Beekes 2008): ἀρύβαλλος; αἰγίθαλ(λ)ος; κορύδαλ(λ)ος (also
-ός); πάρδαλος. tn Κασταλία (Phoc. source); Φάρσᾱλος; Στύμφᾱλος (Arc.).
16 -αμβ-ο-
(Furnée 1972: 184): δῑθύραμβος; θρίαμβος; ἴαμβος; καράμβας; σήραμβος.
17 -αμν-ο-
δίκταμνον; ῥάδαμνος; σφένδαμνος. tn Σέδαμνος (Crete).
18 -αμ-ο-
ἄρταμος. tn Κίσ(σ)αμος (Cos); Πέργαμον; Κώγαμος (Lydia); Κύαμον (Kydon.);
Ὑδραμος (Kydon.).
19 -αν-ο-
tn Ἰάρδανος (hn Crete, Elis); Ἀπιδανός (hn Thess.); Ἠριδανός (hn); Ἄνδανος
(Fick 1905: 18).
20 -ᾱν-
γεντιανή.
21 -ανδ-
ἀσγάνδης.
22 -ανδρ-
γελανδρόν. tn Τήλανδρος (Fick 1905: 51); Τύμανδ(ρ)ος (Pamph.); Μυίανδ(ρ)ος (Fick
1905: 53); Φολέγανδρος.
32 chapter 3
23 -ανθ/τ-
(Furnée 1972: 19135, 21671; -αντ- unless otherwise stated): ἀλίβας; ἀσκάνθης (σκάν-
θας); κιλλίβας (but κελλίβατ-); ὀκρίβας; φάλανθ/τος; Ἄβαντες (Fick 1905: 69, etc.);
Μέλανθ/τ-; Πείρανθ/τ-; Γίγαντες; Κορύβαντες. tn Βαβράντιον (Chios).
24 -ανν-ο-
τύραννος.
25 -αξ-
(cf. -ιξ-, -οξ-): ἅμαξα; ἀτράφαξυς; σαβάξας (also -κτ-); tn Κυρτάρπαξον (Crete).
26 -απ-ο-
(Furnée 1972: 23531): ἄρναπος; γαυσαπός; μόναπος. tn Μεσσάπιος (Crete, Fick
1905: 24).
27 -αρ
(Furnée 1972: 13475), mostly neuters: ἴκταρ; κύδαρ; νέκταρ; σκίναρ; σῦφαρ; adj.
μάκαρ; anim. ὄαρ; δάμαρ (gen. -ρτος; cf. Myc. da-ma / du-ma).
28 -αρ-
(Furnée 1972: 25736): ἄσκαρος; βασσάρα; γάδαρος; γίγγλαρος; κίσθαρος; κύσσα-
ρος; λεσχάρα; φάλαρα. Also σίδᾱρος? tn Ἄπταρα (Crete, Lycia); Πάταρα (Lycia);
Μέγαρα (Fick 1905: 75); Ἀλλαρία (Crete).
29 -ασ-α/ο-
(Furnée 1972: 15757): κάρπασος; καμασός (κάβαισος); πάγασα. tn Κύρβασα (Crete);
Πήδασα (Mess.); Παγασαί (Thess.).
30 -ασσ-ο-
tn Ῥυτιασσός (Crete); Κρυασσός (Crete); Μυκάλησσός; Ταφιασσός (Fick 1905: 32).
31 -ατ-
ἀπάτη; ἠλακάτη. tn Καίρατος (Crete); Μίλατος (Crete, Fick 1905: 27).
32 -αυρ-α/ο-
(this may continue -arw-): (ἀ)φαῦρος; φλαῦρος; (ἀ)μαυρός; ἄγλαυρος; θησαυρός;
κασαύρα (-ας); λάσταυρος; πέταυρον (ευ). tn Ἐπίδαυρος.
33 -αφ-
ψηλαφάω.
morphology 33
34 -αχ-
βότραχος; κύμβαχος; σελάχος.
35 -αψ-
λυκαψός; σκινδαψός.
36 -γδ-
perhaps ἄπριγδα.
37 -γρ-
(cf. on -ρ-): παναγρίς; συαγρίς.
38 -δν-
(cf. on -ιδνα, -υδνα): ἔχιδνα; λέπαδνον; σίπυδνος; Ἀριάδνη.
39 -εδ-
tn Τένεδος; Λέβεδος; perhaps in Λακεδαίμων.
40 -εζ-α
see below on -ισ-.
41 -ειρ-ο-
αἴγειρος; κύπειρον; σάβειρος (σαπέρδης); Κάβειροι. The suffix -ειρ-ο- may continue
-ery-, -ary-.
42 -ελ-α/ο-
ἀμυσγέλα; ἀσφόδελος; βρίκελος; δρύψελα; (ἐπι)ζάφελος; ἰτθέλα; κύβελα; perhaps
δυσπέμπελος. Cf. the next.
43 -ελλ-α/ο-
ἀκρόσπελλος; βάτελλα; βδέλλα; πάτελλα; πέλλα. Cf. -ελ-α/ο- above.
44 -εμ-ο-
ἰάλεμος; κοᾱλ́ εμος; π(τ)όλεμος (if not ie); θελεμόν. Cf. Furnée (1972: 15142).
45 -εμν-(ο-)
ἀμφι-κέλεμνον; Καρτεμνίδες. tn Σέλεμνος (Fick 1905: 95). Cf. Furnée (1972: 15144).
34 chapter 3
46 -ενν-α
τήβεννα. Cf. βλέννος. Cf. Lat. (from Etruscan) (doss-)ennus; Porsenna. It is con-
ceivable that ny gave νν.
47 -επ-
χαλεπός.
48 -ερ-α/ο-
διφθέρα; ἀσκέρα (also -ηρα); κασσίτερος. tn Ὤλερος (Crete).
49 -ετ-ο-
καιετός; καίπετος; μάσπετον; νέπετος; τηλύγετος? tn Ξυπέτη (Att.); Ταΰγετος. Cf.
Furnée (1972: 1154).
50 -ευ- as in nom. -εύς

βασιλεύς; several pns like Ἀχιλ(λ)εύς; Ὀδυσσεύς.
51 -ευρ-
πέτευρον (-αυρον). See -αυρ-α/ο-.
52 -ευτ-
βασκευταί; κρατευταί. Cf. Furnée (1972: 173, 1817).
53 -ηβ-α/ο-
κύρηβος. tn Κάνδηβα; Τένδηβα; Τορρηβός (all in Lydia).
54 -ηθ-(ο-)
tn Πεπάρηθος; Σεσάρηθος (Fick 1905: 67); Κικύνηθος (Pagas.); Πάρνης, -ηθ- (Att.).
Cf. -αθ-.
55 -ηκ-, -ηχ-
βήρηξ; δάνδηξ; λώβηξ; πήληξ; τράφηξ; φήληξ; κύμηξ / κύμηχα. Cf. Furnée (1972:
199, 24570).
56 -ηλ-ο-
ἀβρόκηλος; ἀβύρβηλος; ἀσύφηλος; βάκηλος; κάβηλος; κίβδηλος; νενίηλος; τράχηλος;
φάσηλος. Cf. Furnée (1972: 1155).
morphology 35
57 -ήν
ἀτμήν; ἀτταγήν; αὐχήν (ἄμφην); βαλ(λ)ήν; δοθιήν; ἐσσήν; καμασήν (-ασός); κυφήν;
σειρήν; σωλήν; ταγήν; τιβήν; perhaps ἀδήν. tn Θηρήν (Crete, Fick 1905: 25); Τροιζήν;
Ἀραδήν (Crete). Cf. Furnée (1972: 172118).
58 -ην-
γλαβρήνη.
59 -ηρ
σπίνθηρ; Αἰγλάηρ?
60 -ηρ-
ἄβδηρα; ἄνδηρα; αἰψηρός; ἀσκάληρον; ἀσκηρά (-έρα); ἴμβηρις; κύπηρις; λεβηρίς. tn
Ποθηρεύς (Crete); Κύθηρα. Cf. Furnée (1972: 20410).
61 -ησ(σ)-α/ο-
tn Μάρπησσα (m Paros); Μυκαλησσός (Boeotian, Fick 1905: 80); Ἀρδηττός (Att.);
Ὑμηττός (Att.). Cf. -ασσ-ο-.
62 -ητ-(ο-)
ἀλ(λ)άβης; κάνης; λέβης; μάσθλης; τάπης (Myc. te-pa). Perhaps also ἄν(ν)ητον
(also -θον, -σον)? tn Mᾱσ́ ητα (Fick 1905: 71). Cf. Furnée (1972: 172118).
63 -ηττ-
See -ησ(σ)-α/ο-.
64 -ηψ-ο-
tn Αἰδηψός (Euboea); Γαληψός (Thracia).
65 -θ-ο-
βρένθος; κανθός; σπέλεθος; μίνθος. See Chantraine (1933: 368); cf. -ανθ-, -ινθ-, -υνθ-.
66 -θρ-α/ο-
κύριθρα; μάραθρον; hn Λίβηθρα. On -αθρον see Furnée (1972: 30339): κάν(ν)αθρον;
σπάλαθρον. Cf. on -στρ-.
67 -ῑβ-
ἐρυθῑβη.
36 chapter 3
68 -ῑγ-
μαστῑγ-; πεμφῑγ-.
69 -ιγγ/κ/χ-
ἄστλιγγας; βρυτιγγοί; ἔλμιγγος; θρίγγος (also -ιγκ-, -ιγχ-); θῶμιγξ, -γγος; ὄλιγγος.
70 -ῑδ-
(cf. -ινδ-, Furnée 1972: 3247): βαλβίς; γέλγις; κηλίς; κρηπίς; σφρᾱγίς.
71 -ιδ-να
(probably a combination of two suffixes, cf. on -ν-): ἀράχιδνα (cf. ἄρακος, -χ-);
ἔχιδνα. Cf. on -δν-.
72 -ῑθ-, -ιθ-
(cf. -ινδ-): ἄγλις, -ῑθ-; αἰγίθαλος; αἴγιθος; γάλιθοι; ἠλίθιος; κάλιθος.
73 -ικ-
(cf. -ιχ-, Furnée 1972: 226102): κάλικον; κύρνικα; λέ(ί)κρικα; μυρίκη (later ῑ); νώρι-
κον; σώσικες; χοινικ-; χόλικες.
74 -ῑκ-
κόλλιξ; Φοίνικες.
75 -ιλ-, -ῑλ-
αἰγίλωψ; κονῑλ́ η; μέσπιλον; μαρίλη; μυστῑλ́ η; (σ)πατίλη (-ῑλ-) = παστίλη; στρόβῑλος.
tn Σκανδίλη (Cos).
76 -ιλλ-α/ο-
ἄργιλλος; ἅμιλλα; ἄριλλα; ἄσιλλα; ῥόβιλλος.
77 -ιμν-α/ο-
(Furnée 1972: 24671): μέδιμνος (also -ί-); μέριμνα; σίδριμνον.
78 -ιν-α/ο-
ἄκινος; ἀπόλινον; (βα)βάκινον; γοσσύπινον; κότινος; ὀξίνα. tn Μύρινα (Lemnos);
Σίκινος (Cyclades).
79 -ῑν-(ο-)
κύμινον; πυτίνη; ῥητίνη; σέλινον; φοξῖνος; φορίνη. tn Σαλαμῑν́ -.
morphology 37
80 -ινδ-
(cf. -ινθ- and -ιδ-, -ιτ-): κύβινδις; ἄλινδον. tn Κραυσίνδων (r); Πύρινδος (Caria).
81 -ινθ-(ο-)
(cf. -ινδ-): αἴγινθος; ἀσπίνθιον; λαβύρινθος; λίμινθες. tn Κήρινθος (Euboea); Κόρινθος
(Fick 1905: 74).
82 -ιξ-
κοτίξις; κυνίξεις; σόρνιξα.
83 -ῑπ-ο-
tn Εὔρῑπος.
84 -ισ-α/ο-
ἄρπισα (-εζα); κύτισος. tn Λάρισα; Κεδρισός; Κηφισός (-ῑσος = -ισσος, Fick 1905: 25,
61).
85 -ισκ-ο-
ἀλθίσκον; ἴβισκος; μαρίσκος; ὑρίσκος (and variants).
86 -ιστο-
(cf. -στ-): πλατάνιστος.
87 -ιτ-α/ο-
(cf. -ιδ-, -ιθ-, Furnée 1972: 163): βάρβιτος; βόλ(β)ιτον; πόρφιτον. tn Σύβριτα (Crete).
88 -ιχ-
(cf. -ικ-): ἄρριχος; ἄρσιχος; κόψιχος; τάρῑχος; σύριχος.
89 -κν-
(probably a combination of -ν- with a preceding consonant; see on -ν-): ἄβαρκνα;
δορύκνιον; πισάκνα; φιδάκνη.
90 -μ-
tn Λάτμος (Caria); Πάτμος.
91 -ν-
(Furnée 1972: 13265), where a preceding velar may become aspirated: ἀράχνη;
δαυχνα-; κέρκνος; κύδνος; κυλίχνιον; πελίχνη; σαταρνίς; ὕτνον / ὕδνον; ψύδνος;
Κάβαρνος. tn Κύθνος (Cyclades).
38 chapter 3
92 -οξ-
(cf. -αξ-, -ιξ-, -υξ-): μοροξός (also -χθ-).
93 -οπ-
(Furnée 1972: 107), often there is a variant with -αβ-: ἔλ(λ)οψ; καλαῦροψ, -πος
(-όφις); κόλλοψ; σκάλοψ; χέδροπα. tn Κορόπη (Thess.); Κασσιόπη (Corc.).
94 -ορ-
(see also 3.3.2b): ἄχορα (-υρα); λέπορις.
95 -οσσ-α, -οττ-α
tn Ἑρμώνοσσα (Chios); Ἀζιοττηνος (Lydia).
96 -ουλ-
φασίουλος (-ωλος)?
97 -ουρ-
(may continue -arw-): ἴνδουρος; κάβουρος; λιγγούριον (also λο-, λυ-); παλίουρος;
πάνδουρα; σάγουρον; τάγχουρος. tn Λυκόσουρα (Arc., the oldest town of all; Fick
1905: 93).
98 -ουσ(σ)-
(Furnée 1972: 19755): ἄγχουσα (also ἔ-); αἴθουσ(σ)α (also αἴδωσσα); κάδουσα. tn
Ἀκίδουσα; Κηλοῦσα (m Κήλωσσα); Μέδουσα.
99 -πν-
(this may rather be a suffix -ν- after a root in -π): θεράπνη; ὄμπνη.
100 -πτ-
(this suffix probably consisted of one phoneme py): μαρυπτόν; πέσσυ(μ)πτον;
σάναπτιν.
101 -ρ-
(Furnée 1972: 12437, 21562): βάλαγρος; γήλιγρος; σίγραι; Ἰδαγρος (= Lyc. idãkre?).
See also the suffixes -ρν-, -ργ- and -γρ-.
102 -ργ-
λάθαργος (also -αι-, -η-).
morphology 39
103 -ρδ-
tn Κύαρδα (Caria).
104 -ρν-
(Furnée 1972: 48126, 21562): ἀκαρνάν (ἀκάρναξ); κυβερνάω; λιπερνέω (also λιφ-);
σκέπαρνος. We also find variants without -ν-: σίσυρνα / σίσυρα; κυβερνάω / κυμε-
ρῆναι; σαταρνίδες / σαταρίδες; κίσιρνις / κίσσιρις. Therefore, the cluster proba-
bly arose by addition of the suffix -ν-. Note that -rn- is found in Etruscan and
already in Cappadocian (Furnée 1972: 48126). See also the suffix -ρ-. tn Φαλά-
σαρνα (Crete); Λέρνα; Ἁλίκυρνα (Aët.).
105 -σα
There are several words in -σα: δέψα; δίψα; κόψα (κοψία); κάψα (κάμψα); perhaps
λάψα.
106 -σκ-
ὑρίσκος (-χ-, -σσ-).
107 -σ-
(Furnée 1972: 25427; in several cases this does not seem to be a suffix, but rather
the end of a root; cf. on -ασ-, -ισ-, -υσ-): ἄλσος; κάβαισος (also -ασ-); μύσος; πῖσος;
φάρσος. tn Πρίανσος (Crete).
108 -σσ-
κύπασσις; κυπάρισσος; σάρισσα.
109 -στ-
(cf. -ιστο-): ἀλάβαστος; θεμιστ- (cf. Myc. te-mi-ti-ja / ti-mi-ti-ja); λεπαστή; πλατά-
νιστος. tn Κάρυστος; Φαιστός.
110 -στρ-
(cf. -θρ-): ἀλάβαστρον; δέπαστρον (also λ-); ἔνυστρον (also ἤ-); ζύγαστρον; λαι-
(σ)τρόν; σίγιστρον.
111 -τ-
ἄσφαλτος; ἄτρακτος; ἄφλαστον.
112 -ττ-
(see 2.5.5.9a on ττ / σσ): κυριττοί; προκόττα; Φερέφαττα.
40 chapter 3
113 -υβ-
ἔντυβον; θόρυβος; ἴντυβος (also -ουβ-); σίλλυβος; σκόλυβος (also -μ-); σκολύβρα
(-οβ-); cf. ὄχθοιβος.
114 -υγγ-
λάρυγξ; πῑσ́ υγγος; σπήλυγγ-; φάρυγξ (-υξ). Cf. -υγ-: κάλυγες; μαρμαρυγή; πλατυ-
γίζω.
115 -υδ-
ἀμύς, -δος; ἐμύς; κορυδός; πηλαμύς; χλαμύς.
116 -υδνα
tn Καλυδνά (Cos).
117 -υθ-, -ῡθ-

́
ἀγνῡς; λήκυθος.
118 -υι-α
ἄγυια; κώδυια; Ἅρπυια. tn Κινδυία (Crete, also Κινδύη, Fick 1905: 18, 24).
119 -υκ-
ἄμπυξ; ἴδυξ; σκαρδάμυκτος; σάνδυκ-. tn Νᾶρυξ (Locris).
120 -ῡκ-
δοῖδυξ; κῆρυξ, -υκος; καρύκ(κ)η; σάνδυξ.
121 -υλ-
(Furnée 1972: 20514): ἀρβύλη; δάκτυλος; κανθύλη; κρωβύλη; μιμαίκυλον (also με-);
σφόνδυλος (also σπ-).
122 -ῡλ-
(σ)κορδύλη; σφονδύλη (also σπ-). tn Καρδαμύλη (Mess.).
123 -υλλ-
Σίβυλλα.
124 -υμ-
γέρσυμον; γίγγλυμος; -θέλυμνος. tn Κάρυμαι (Crete).
morphology 41
125 -υμβ-
ἴθυμβος; κόλυμβος.
126 -υμν-
(cf. Furnée 1972: 24366 on -umn- in Etruscan and Cappadocian): αἰσυμνάω;
σίγυμνος. tn Ῥίτ/θυμνα (Crete); Λάρυμνα (Locr.).
127 -ῡν-
(see also -υνν-): βόθυνος; σιγύνη (cf. -υνν-); λάγυνος; κορύνη. tn Γόρτυν (Crete).
128 -υνν-
σίγυννος; Δίκτυννα. Cf. on -ῡν-.
129 -υνδ-
(cf. -υνθ/τ-): Βερεκύνδαι. tn Καμύνδιος (Rhodes).
130 -υνθ/τ-
βόλυνθον; ὄλυνθος; Βερεκύνθ/ται. tn Ζάκυνθος (Fick 1905: 88); Τίρυνς.
131 -υξ-
tn Ὀλόφυξος (Athos).
132 -υπ-
ἵσσυπος (older ὕσσωπος); μάρσυππος; οἰσύπη; τολύπη.
133 -υρ-
ἀήσυρος; ἄχυρα (also -ορα); ζέφυρος; μαυκυρόν; λάθυρος; ὀνυρίζεται; σάτυρος. tn
Ἔλυρος (Crete); Τέγυρα (Boeotia); Νίσυρος (Cos).
134 -ῡρ-
ἄγκυρα; ἀνάγυρος (also ὀνό-); γέφυρα; λάφυρον; πλημυρίς; πίτυρον.
135 -υσ-
(on -υστρον see -στρον): ἄρυσος.
136 -υτ-
πινυτός; νηπύτιος. tn Λαγινάπυτον (Crete); Κολλυτός (Crete).
137 -υττος
σάβυττος.
42 chapter 3
138 -υφ-
κέλῡφος.
139 -υχ-
βό(σ)τρυχος. tn Μόσυχλον (Lemnos).
140 -φθ-
κρόσσοφθον; λάκαφθον; μόλοφθος; νά(σ)καφθον; σαρρυφθεῖν.
141 -φ-
(on -αφ-ο- see Chantraine 1933: 263): ἀργέλοφοι (also -ιλ-); μαστροφός (also -πός);
σέριφος; σέσυφος.
142 -ωκ-
tn Κοθωκίδαι (Att., Fick 1905: 70).
143 -ωλ-
ἀποφώλιος (?); μάγδωλος; φάσκωλος. tn Κίμωλος (Cyclades).
144 -ωμ-
βάρωμος.
145 -ων-
(Furnée 1972: 30339): ἀλκυών; ἠϊών; σανδών; σινδών; σχαδών.
146 -ωπ-
(a variant is -ουπ-): θυμαλωψ; αἰγίλωπ-; κινώπετον (κυνοῦπες). tn Εὐρωπός / -α
(Crete); Κασσώπη (Epirus).
147 -ωρ-
(Furnée 1972: 21150): ἀχώρ; ἀμάνωρ; βιάτωρ; ῑχ̓ ώρ; λείτωρ. tn Πίλωρος (Chalc., Fick
1905: 22).
148 -ωσσ-
(see -ουσ(σ)-): tn Διρφωσσός (Euboea); Πιδωσσός (Caria, Fick 1905: 26).
149 -ωτ-
(Furnée 1972: 28383, 384132): ἀσκαλαβώτης; -καυδωτόν; κῑβωτός; κράμβωτον; οἰ-
σπώτη. tn Θεσπρωτοί.
morphology 43
3 Word End
Word end provides an interesting situation, as some original finals of the

Pre-Greek language may have been preserved. Of course, in order to arrive at
the Pre-Greek form, Greek endings must be removed, notably -ος, -ον. Thus, -ιον,
-υον may often continue original -ι, -υ: cf. Myc. du-ni-jo / du-ni. The words in -νθος
have replaced almost all of those in -νθ- (as in Τίρυνθ-).
3.1 Words Ending in a Vowel

a. -α. A short -α can only come from *-ya < *-ih2 in inherited Greek words. In all
other cases, we may be dealing with a Pre-Greek ending -a that was originally
short. It is often difficult to see whether -α is short or long; the material requires
further study. Examples: ἄβαρκνα; ἀγάννα; ἀγέρδα; ἄδαλτα (?); αἴκουδα; ἄβδηρα;
ἄκαρα; ἄκορνα; ἀκόστιλα; ἀκτάρα; ἄλαρα; ἀμουχρά; ἄρδα; ἀσταγάνα; ἄφθα; βρούκα;
γόδα; γόλα; δάξα; δάρδα; δαλάγχα; θάπτα; κέδροπα (also χ-); μόδα; ῥόμιξα; σάττα;
σόρνιξα; σοῦα, etc. Note forms in -υα, like ἄρυα, and in -εννα. Note, further,
σαλαμάνδρα; σκολόπενδρα.
For words ending in -σα, see 3.2.3.105 above.
b. -ι. ie words (neuters) in -ι are very rare in Greek. Examples of Pre-Greek

words in -ι: ζάκτι; κόρι; σίναπι; τάγυρι (ταγύριον); ἀκαρί. We may assume that
many words ending in -ιον, -υον originally ended in -ι, -υ. Final -ις is frequent,
too.
c. -υ. ἀβαρύ; κόνδυ; μῶλυ. For -υον, see the foregoing. Final -υς is also found several
times: ἄγδυς; ἄρπυς; ἀτράφαξυς; βίθυν; βλέτυς; -μένδυς; μίμαρκυς; μωύς; πηλαμύς;
ῥάπυς.
d. -ευς. Though the ending may also be inherited from ie, in many words
it is clearly of Pre-Greek origin, e.g. βασιλεύς (Myc. qa-si-re-u); Ἀχιλ(λ)εύς. I
withdraw my considerations in FS Kortlandt (2008: 53 f.) on this point.
e. -ω. κοθώ; κόρθω; μοτώ; τῑτώ; Γελλώ. The suffix also makes feminine names in -ώ:
Λητώ; Σαπφώ. It is usually assumed that the original inflection of all words in -ώ
derives from stems in *-oi-; I assume that Pre-Greek words secondarily joined
this inflection. Words in -ως are masculine: ἀχαρνώ(ς); ἥρως; Μίνως; Τάλως.
44 chapter 3
3.2 Words Ending in -ρ

a. -αρ. ἄσαρ(ον)?; ἀκχάνταρ; βάκαρ; ἐλίμαρ; κύδαρ; νέκταρ; νῶκαρ; σελίαρ.
b. -ορ. Examples: ἀδιγόρ; ἀκκόρ; κακκόρ; κέμμορ (also -μπ-); πίσορ.
c. -υρ. Examples: ψίθυρ (Dor.); μάρτυρ.
d. -ωρ. Examples: ἄχωρ; ἰχώρ; κέλωρ; ψόθωρ.
3.3 Words with a Nom. in -ξ or -ψ

a. -ξ (stem in -κ-) is found quite often:
-αξ: ἄβαξ; ἀκάρναξ; ἄμβαξ; ἀνδράφαξ; ἄνθραξ; βύσταξ; μάλβαξ; σαῦσαξ. ἄναξ has
a stem in -κτ-.
-ᾱξ: φέναξ; ῥάξ; σφήξ.
-ηξ: δάνδηξ; βήρηξ.
-ιξ: ἄδδιξ; ἀνθέριξ; ἀπρίξ; ἄρπιξ; κόλιξ.
-οξ: βέβροξ; βίρροξ.
-ουξ: βρούξ.
-υξ: βλίτυξ; γόρτυξ; Πνύξ; Στύξ.
Note acc. βάλλεκα; acc. βρίγκα.
b. -ψ: αἰγίποψ; ἄλιψ; γύψ; κόριψ; κόλλοψ; λάτραψ; λαῖλαψ; μέροψ; μόνωψ. Monosyl-
labic: χρέμψ.
3.4 Words in -ν
βαλλήν; καρβάν; κίνδυν; μόσσυν; ῥώθυνες; Ὠγήν.
3.5 Words Ending in -ας (ᾱ-stems)

ἀβάς; ἄβλας; ἄθρας(?); ἀμφίας; ἀσκαλώπας; ἀτταγᾶς; βαδάς (βατᾶς); βασκᾶς; βύας;
καλαβάς; κασᾶς; Ἀθάμας; Ἀσγελάτας; Ἀσκώνδας.
With a stem in -αντ-: ἀλίβας (-ντ-); λυκάβας (-ντ-) etc.; see 3.2.3.23.
With a stem in -αδ-: ἀχράς; βουνιάς; πρημνάς; see 3.2.3.5.
chapter 4
The Unity of Pre-Greek
The material itself shows that we are largely dealing with one language, or a
group of closely related dialects or languages. Of course, we cannot demon-
strate in each and every case that the words that are non-Greek belong to this
same language. The bulk of the known non-Greek words, however, seem to fit
the general picture of the Pre-Greek substrate. For example, κότθυβος / κόσυμ-
βος does not only show the element σσ / τθ, well-known from geographical
names, but also the suffix -υβ- with prenasalization. The pair κρόσσιον / κρό-
τιον also shows the element σσ / τ, but κρόσσοφθον has a suffix added that is
also typical for this language. The word δαλάγχαν / θάλασσα (-ττα) again has the
suffix σσ / ττ, but also prenasalization. ἄστλιγξ / ὄστλιγξ has both the typical
(prenasalized) suffix -ιγγ- and variation α / ο. In μήρινθος / σμήρινθος we have the
‘s-mobile’ and the well-known suffix, while μέρμις, -ιθος has the variant without
prenasalization, and σμήριγγες has a different Pre-Greek suffix. In ἄ(μ)βρυττοι /
βρύττος (βρύσσος) we have a combination of a prothetic vowel and prenasaliza-
tion.
Other languages may well have existed in the area. Thus, it is not certain
that Hieroglyphic Minoan reproduces the same language as Linear A. Further,
Eteocretan has not yet been connected with other elements and seems isolated.
Another matter is that (non-Indo-European) loanwords from old Europe
may have entered Greece, cf. Beekes (2000). Moreover, these may have already
been adopted in Pre-Greek, as is suggested by ἐρέβινθος, which has a Pre-Greek
suffix, but a root which is attested (with some variation), as a substrate word,
in other European languages. Cf. also γέλγις / ἄγλις, which shows typically
Pre-Greek features, but may ultimately be a loan from Akkadian (Kroonen
2012).
However, I think that it is methodologically more sound to start from the
assumption that non-Greek words are Pre-Greek. Only when there is reason to
do so should we assume that they have a different origin.

chapter 5
Pre-Greek is Non-Indo-European
Our knowledge of Indo-European has expanded so much, especially in the

last thirty years (notably because of the laryngeal theory) that in some cases
we can say almost with certainty that an Indo-European reconstruction is
impossible. A good example is the word γνάθος. In order to explain the -a-
of this word, we need to introduce a h2. However, a preform *gnh2dh- would
have given Gr. *γνᾱθ-. One might think that assuming *h2e would remedy
the problem, but *gnh2edh- would yield *γαναθ-. The conclusion is that no
Indo-European proto-form can be reconstructed, and that the word cannot be
of Indo-European origin. Another example is the word κρημνός ‘overhanging
bank’, for which a connection with κρέμαμαι ‘to hang (up)’ used to be evident.
However, we now know that most long vowels go back to a short vowel plus
a laryngeal, and that long vowels cannot be postulated at random. In this
particular case, there are simply no conceivable formations that would contain
a long root vowel. This morphological objection is strengthened by the fact that
there is no trace of the expected root-final -α- < *-h2- (as in κρέμαμαι < *kremh2-).
Positively, one can say that landscape terms are frequently borrowed from a
substrate language. The inevitable conclusion is that the word is Pre-Greek.

chapter 6
The Pre-Greek Lexicon
In my edg, I marked with  pg  all words which, in my view, were of Pre-Greek

origin. I found 1106 words. On the criteria see 2.2b. I here present the whole
evidence, with a short indication why the words are considered Pre-Greek. For
a full discussion of their etymology, I refer the reader to edg. The material is
presented in a semantic classification.
The largest categories are Flora (178) and Fauna (180). This does not really
come as a surprise; together with the Landscape and Natural Phenomena (37)
and the Minerals (27), they form the previously unknown natural elements of
the new ‘home’ where the Greeks arrived.
An important segment refers to Agriculture (38). Many terms in this sec-
tion pertain to Viniculture (20), which is one of the few categories that seems
rather unexpected, but there is nothing against the assumption that the origi-
nal inhabitants knew and widely practiced the technique of wine-making, per-
haps with more advanced methods than the newcomers. Many words refer to
Human Physiology (81). To everyday-life belong the terms related to Attire and
Jewellery (21) and the many words referring to Equipment and Utensils (154).
Well represented is Construction (34). The category Culture (51) includes terms
referring to Musical Instruments and Performing Arts (18), Religious Festivals
and Feasting (8), and Divine and Numinous Beings, Priests and Temples (12).
To these we may add the Theonyms, Divine Epithets, Mythical Characters (26).
In the edg, I have introduced a special category  pg? . This category com-
prises words without a good etymology, for which I nevertheless could not find
positive indications for Pre-Greek. I have not included these forms here, but
they can be easily found in the edg. It may be worthwhile to investigate these
words (more than 780) more closely, since the indications for Pre-Greek origin
may turn up at some point.
1 Landscape and Natural Phenomena
ἄναυρος [m.] ‘torrent’ (Mosch.); also a river name in Thessaly (Hes. Sc. 477) and
Acarnania. No doubt, the word is non-Greek, and probably non-ie; note the
suffix -αυρ-ο- (see 3.2.3.32).
ἀστεροπή [f.] ‘lightning’ (Il.). στεροπή (Il.); ἀστραπή (Hdt.); στροπά· ἀστραπή.
Πάφιοι ‘lightning (Paphian)’, στορπάν (cod. -τιάν)· τὴν ἀστραπήν ‘id.’ and στρο-

48 chapter 6
φαί· ἀστραπαί (H.). This word must be Pre-Greek because of the vocalic inter-
changes. See Beekes (1987).
βάραθρον [n.] ‘cleft, abyss’. Variants are βέρεθρον and βέθρον, the latter probably
shortened from the former, and Arc. ζέρεθρον (representing δ-; cf. ζέλλω =
δέλλω). The variations βε- / ζε- and α / ε point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.6
and 2.6.1.1a).
βυθός [m.] ‘depth (of the sea)’ (A.). ἄβυσσος ‘bottomless’, further βυσσός [m.]
‘depth of the sea’. The variation θ / σσ points to Pre-Greek *-ty- (see 2.5.5.9a).
γῆ [f.] ‘earth’ (Il.). Dor. γᾶ. Probably related to γαῖα ‘id.’. Both may go back to
Pre-Greek *gaya- (cf. 3.2.3.7 on the suffix -ay-a-). Another variant *δᾶ (with
γ / δ, see 2.5.6) may be found in Δημήτηρ (Dor. Δα-) and Ποσειδᾱ́ων, but in
these cases the meaning ‘earth’ cannot be ascertained.
γουνός [m.] ‘hill’ (Il.), acc. to em and Orion = ὑψηλὸς τόπος ‘elevated place’. The
variants γῶνος and χῶνος prove Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.3i).
δνόφος [m.] ‘darkness’ (Simon.). The group δν- seems to point to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.2a.6). Cf. κνέφας below.
δρόσος [f.] ‘dew’, often of several fluids; pl. also ‘young animals’. The word is
probably of Pre-Greek origin; note the intervocalic -σ- (see 2.2a.15).
εἱαμενή [f.] ‘lowlands, humid pasture’ (Il.), also ἴαμνοι [pl.] ‘id.’. The word is
probably Pre-Greek, given the variation -μεν- / -μν-, which could not occur
in a participle. Cf. 3.2.3.17 on the suffix -αμν-ο-.
Εὔρῑπος [m.] ‘straits, narrows’ (X., Arist.); especially the straits between Euboea
and Boeotia (h. Ap. 222, Hdt.); later also ‘canal’ in general (D. H.); ‘ventilator,
fan’ (Gal. 10, 649) is probably a homonym, derived from ῥιπή in the sense
‘blow’. The word may well be Pre-Greek, cf. Ruijgh (1967a: 172374). Note that
the long ῑ in this position is typical for Pre-Greek forms, cf. 3.2.3 s.v. -ῑβ-, -ῑγ-,
-ῑδ-, -ῑθ-, -ῑν-.
θάλασσα [f.] ‘sea’ (Il.). δαλάγχαν· θάλασσαν (H.). The word, with its prenasalized
variant, is typically Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2). The variation -σσ- / -ττ- / -χ- points
to Pre-Greek *-ky- (see 2.5.5.9a).
ῑδ̓́ η [f.] ‘wood, wooded hill’ (Hdt., Theoc.). As a tn Ἴδη, wooded hill in western
Mysia (Il.) and on Crete (D. P., Paus.). A Pre-Greek word without further
etymology.
ἶρις, -ιδος [f.] ‘rainbow’ (Il.), also of the halo of the moon, etc. (Arist., Thphr.,
Gal.), as a plant name ‘purple Iris’, etc. (Arist., Thphr.), see Strömberg (1940:
49); also name of a stone (Plin.). As a pn, Ἶρις, -ιδος, -ιν daughter of Thaumas
and Elektra, messenger of the gods (Il., Hes.). Furnée (1972: 356) compares
ἔριδας· τὰς ἐν οὐρανῷ ἴριδας (H.), and concludes to Pre-Greek origin, in view
of the variation ε / ι (see 2.6.1.2b).
καιάδᾱς [m.] ‘pit or cavern at Sparta, into which people sentenced to death (or
the pre-greek lexicon 49
their bodies) were thrown’ (Th. 1, 134, Paus. 4, 18,4, D. Chr. 80, 9). Also καιάτας,
-έτας, with the variations τ / δ (2.5.1), α / ε (2.6.1.1a) and the suffix -ατ- (3.2.3.31).
A pre-form *kawyat- would probably give *καιϝα/ετ-, where the ε is from a
after a palatalized consonant. Cf. κητώεσσαν (directly below).
κητώεσσαν [adj.] epithet of κοίλην Λακεδαίμονα (B 581, δ 1; verse-final), generally
taken as ‘full of crevices, abysses’, later said of the wooden horse (Q. S. 12,
314) and, by confusion with κήτειος, κῆτος, said of πώεα, φάλαγξ (Nonn.). It
seems evident to connect καιέτας, καιάδας ‘crevice in Sparta’. Furnée (1972:
1806) points to the gloss ἄμυσσος· κῆτος. Λάκωνες (H.), which shows that a
crevice could be called κῆτος. For the variation αια / η, cf. γῆ above.
κῆχος [?] only in the question ποῖ κῆχος, which according to some grammar-
ians stands for ποῖ γῆς, according to others for ποῖ δή (Ar. Fr. 656, Pherecr.
165). Also κῆγχος, κηγχός. The prenasalization clearly shows the Pre-Greek
character of the words (see 2.5.2).
κνέφας [n.] ‘evening twilight, dusk, morning twilight’ (Il., X.). Cf. δνόφος (this
section, above). The word is no doubt Pre-Greek, but the variation is not
known from other examples. See 2.5.14.
κολοφών, -ῶνος [m.] ‘summit, top, pinnacle’, only metaph. (Pl., Com. Adesp.,
Str.), acc. to H. also = κολιός ‘green woodpecker’ (i.e. κελεός, see section 4.3
below) and ἰχθῦς θαλάσσιος ‘sea fish’. Also a tn, town in Ionia. This Anatolian
toponym points to substrate origin. Also note the suffix -ων- (see 3.2.3.145).
κρύσταλλος [m.] ‘ice’ (Il.), also ‘rock-crystal’ [f.] (Str., D. S.), with gender after
λίθος. κρόσταλλος· εἶδος ὑέλου (H.). As Kuiper (1956: 21516) remarked, the word
is Pre-Greek because of the suffix -αλλο- (see 3.2.3.15). See Beekes (2008).
νῆσος [f.] ‘island’ (Il.); also ‘(flooded) land near a river, alluvial land’ (Tab. Her-
acl., pap.). Dor. νᾶσος (Rhod. νᾶσσος). νῆσος is probably an Aegean loan.
Furnée (1972: 387), who points to the variation between single σ and gem-
inate (see 2.5.8), also assumes a Pre-Greek loan.
πέτρᾱ, -η [f.] ‘rock, rocky mountain range, cliff, ridge; rock cavern, cave’ (Il.),
‘boulder, stone’ (Hell.). No etymology. The word is probably Pre-Greek; see
Furnée (1972: 272 etc.). Note the suffix -ρ- (see 3.2.3.101).
πῆλυξ [?] · ῥαγάς ‘fissure in the soil, crevice’ (H.). See σπήλαιον (this section,
below).
ῥαθάμιγξ, -ιγγος [f.], mostly [pl.] ‘drop’ (Λ 536 = Υ 501, Hes., Pi.); also ‘dust parti-
cle’ (κονίης ῥ. Ψ 502), ‘spot’ (Opp.). ῥαθαμίζω [v.] ‘to besprinkle’. Variants are
ῥαθμίζεσθαι· ῥαίνεσθαι ‘to be besprinkled’ (H.); ῥαθαίνεται· ῥαίνεται, βρέχεται
‘is besprinkled, gets wet’ (H.); ῥαθασσόμενοι· ῥαινόμενοι (H., Phot.). ῥαθάμιγξ is
clearly Pre-Greek, if only because of the suffix (see 3.2.3.69).
ῥόθος [m.] ‘roar (of waves, of oars)’, metaphorically ‘noise’ in general (Hes., A.,
Opp.); ‘path, trail’ (Nic.; Boeot. acc. to Plu. in Hes. 13). In view of the variation
50 chapter 6
α / ο attested in the gloss ῥάθαγος = ῥόθος (sch. Nic. Th. 194, H.) and ῥαθα- =
ῥοθο-πυγίζω, we have to assume that ῥόθος is a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.1b).
ῥοῖβδος [m.] ‘buzzing, whistling, hissing noise’, of arrows, winds (S., Ar.). As the
-βδ- in the suffix is certainly not of Indo-European origin (see 2.2a.3), the
word is probably Pre-Greek. Cf. also ῥοῖζος (below).
ῥοῖζος [m.] ‘buzzing, rushing, humming’, of arrows, wings, water, etc. (epic Π
361, Hell.). Similar to ῥοῖβδος (above). If related to it, ῥοῖζος is certainly of
Pre-Greek origin, but even if it is unrelated, such an origin may still be
considered.
σάλος [m.] ‘turbulent movement of the sea, flushing of the waves; anchorage,
roads (as opposed to a protected harbor)’ (S., E., Lys., Hell.), metaphorically
of an earthquake (E. it 46), ‘turbulent emotion’ (lxx, Gal., Max. Tyr.). σάλαξ,
-ακος [m.] ‘large sieve of mineworkers’, also an Att. name of a potter; σάλαγξ·
μεταλλικὸν σκεῦος ‘metallic vessel or implement’ (H.); σαλάσσω [v.] ‘to shake’,
σαλαγέω ‘id.’. Already the velar suffixes, and especially the variation they
display, prove Pre-Greek origin for this word: -αγ-, -ακ-, -αγκ- (with γ /
κ and prenasalization, see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2); cf. σηλαγγεύς (see section 11.3
below).
σάμος [f.] ‘hill’ (Str. 8, 3, 19; 10, 2, 17); also the island names Σάμος, Σάμη. Without
a doubt Pre-Greek (for σV-, see 2.2a.15), as argued by Fick (1905: 54 and
112). Likewise, but with a different interpretation (connected to ἀσάμινθος),
Alessio (1943: 121ff.).
σπέος [n.] ‘cavern, cave’ (epic Il., also Cypr. inscr.). Cf. σπήλαιον directly below.
The word is no doubt Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972: 123).
σπήλαιον [n.] ‘cave, cavern’ (Pl., lxx, nt et al.). Also σπῆλυγξ, -υγγος [f.] ‘id.’.
Furnée (1972: 123) reconstructs a Gr. form *σπῆλυξ, -ῡκος, from Lat. *spēlūca.
He further adduces πῆλυξ = ῥαγάς ‘fissure’ (H., Phot.) and refers to Etr. śpel(a)
‘cave, tomb’. The word is no doubt Pre-Greek: note the s-mobile (see 2.4), the
prenasalization (see 2.5.2) and the suffix -υγγ- (see 3.2.3.114).
σπιλάς [f.] ‘storm, squall’ (Plu.). Furnée (1972: 373) connects ἄσπιλος· χείμαρρος
ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων ‘torrent (Maced.)’ (H.); the word is Pre-Greek in view of the
prothetic vowel (see 2.3).
στόνυξ, -υχος [m.] ‘peak of a rock, of a fang, of a claw, etc.’ (E. Cycl. 401, codd.
γ’ὄνυξ, A. R., Opp., ap), στόνυχας· τὰ εἰς ὀξὺ λήγοντα καὶ τὰ ἄκρα τῶν ὀνύχων
‘which ends in a sharp point, and the tips of claws’, στόνυξι· κέρασι ‘horns’
(H.). Pre-Greek, in view of the suffix (see 3.2.3.139).
στράγξ, -γγός [f.] ‘squeezed out drop’ (Arist., Thphr., Men., ap et al.). στραγγ-ός
(also -γ-) ‘flowing drop by drop’. Probably Pre-Greek in view of the prenasal-
ization (see 2.5.2).
φάραγξ, -αγγος [f.] ‘gully, chasm, deep trench, abyss’ (Alcm.). Also σφάραγγες (H.
sine expl.); ἀσφάραγος (Il.). Furnée (1972: 227) compares μάραγοι· οἱ ἀπόκρη-
μνοι τόποι ‘overhanging places’ (H.). The word is of Pre-Greek origin because
of the alternations in the initial (see 2.3 on the prothetic vowel and 2.4 on
the s-mobile) and because of the (prenasalized) suffix (see 3.2.3.3). Cf. s.v.
ἀσφάραγος (section 7.1 below).
χηραμός [f.] ‘hole, cleft, slit’ (epic poet. Φ 495, also Arist. and late prose). χηραμύς,
-ύδος [f.] ‘scallop-shell’, used as a measure of content (Xanth., Hp. [v.l. -μίς],
Str.), χηραμύδες· τὰ κοῖλα καὶ ἔχοντα κενώματα ‘hollow places, having cavities’
(H.). Cf. χέραβος· χάσμα γῆς (H.), χηράμβη [f.] ‘kind of scallop’, χαραμός· ἡ τῆς
γῆς διάστασις, οἷον χηραμός (H.), χηλαμός (Eust.), χειραμός (em). We clearly
have a Pre-Greek form with several variants. The variations include ει / η
(2.6.1.2f), λ / ρ (2.5.7c), β / μ (2.5.4). Further, -υδ- is known as a Pre-Greek
suffix (see 3.2.3.115).
ψακάς [f.] ‘drop’, especially of rain; collective ‘drizzle’ (Hdt.). Also ψεκάς, -άδος.
Further ψάκαλον [n.], -ος [m.] ‘new-born animal’ (Ar. Byz., H.). The variation
α / ε points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1a). Beside ψάκαλον, Furnée (1972:
339) cites a form ψαίκαλον· ἔμβρυον, βρέφος ‘new-born, cub’ (H.), with an
interchange -α- / -αι- typical for Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1c). Also note the suffixes
-αδ- and -αλ- (see 3.2.3.5 and 3.2.3.15).
ψέφας [n.] ‘gloom, darkness’ (Pi. Fr. 324, H.). Also ψέφος (H.). Cf. ψάφα· κνέφας
and σεῖφα· σκοτία. Κρῆτες (H.). Furnée takes σεῖφα as a shortened from of
*ψειφ- (see 2.5.13). The variations ε / α and ε / ει point to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.6.1.1a and 2.6.2). See also 2.5.14.
2 Minerals
ἄνθραξ, -ᾰκος [m.] ‘charcoal’ (Ar.), metaph. ‘carbuncle’ (Arist.). Furnée (1972:
197, 393) compares ἀνδράχλη ‘warming-pan, brazier’ (Eust.) (cf. ἀνθράκιον
‘brazier’), and further (1972: 391) κάνδαρος· ἄνθραξ (H.), with the interchange
κ / zero (see 2.5.10). Also note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13). Therefore, a
substrate origin is clear.
ἄσβολος [f., m.] ‘soot’ (Hippon.). A variant is σποδός ‘soot’ (cf. s.v. below; for the
variation δ / λ, see 2.5.7a); this means that ἄσβολος has a Pre-Greek prothetic
vowel (see 2.2).
βάλλεκα [?] · ψῆφον ‘pebble’ (H.). The word contains a suffix -εκ-, which is very
rare (compare ἀλώπηξ); therefore, we opt for Pre-Greek origin (cf. 3.3.3a).
[sn]: Probably -εκ- represents the frequent Pre-Greek suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13)
with α > ε due to a neighboring *ly (> -λλ-).
θυμάλωψ, -ωπος [m.] probably ‘piece of firewood, charcoal’ (com., Luc. Lex. 24).
52 chapter 6
We are probably dealing with a Pre-Greek suffix -λωψ (cf. ἀγχίλωψ in section
7.2 below).
ἰκνύς, -ύος [f.] ‘dust, ashes’ (Cyrene). Furnée (1972: 118) compares λιγνύς ‘smoke,
soot’, but without referring to his p. 391 on the alternation λ / zero. The
variation (also κ / γ, see 2.5.1) proves a Pre-Greek word. The cluster κν / γν
(cf. 2.2a.5) probably contains the suffix -ν- (see 3.2.3.91).
κάνδαρος [m.?] · ἄνθραξ ‘charcoal, coal’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 391) connects κάν-
δαρος with ἄνθραξ (with alternation κ- / zero), which is not evident. Still,
Pre-Greek origin seems certain. Note the suffix -αρ- (see 3.2.3.28).
κασσίτερος [m.] ‘tin’ (Il.). Att. καττίτερος. The group σσ / ττ is typically Pre-Greek,
probably continuing *ky (see 2.5.5.9a).
κάχληξ, -ηκος [m.] ‘small stones, gravel in a river-bed’, also collective (Th., Str.,
J.). Also κόχλαξ, -ᾱκος (lxx); ἄχλαξ· κάχληξ (Suid.). The alternations κ- / zero
and α / ο point to a Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.10 and 2.6.1.1b). Also note the
suffix -ᾱκ-/-ηκ- (see 3.2.3.13, 3.2.3.55 and 3.3.3a).
κίσηρις [f.] ‘pumice stone’ (Ar., Arist., Thphr.). The variant κίσηλις shows an
alternation ρ / λ, which suggests Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.7c).
κλῶμαξ, -ᾰκος [m.] ‘heap of stones, rock’ (Lyc. 653). By-forms κρῶμαξ ‘id.’, κρω-
μακόεις· κρημνώδης ‘precipitous’ (H.). The form with ρ could show Pre-Greek
variation ρ / λ as well (see 2.5.7c). Further note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
μαρίλη [f.] ‘glowing ashes’, opposed to ἄνθραξ ‘glowing coals’ and σποδός, -ιά
‘ashes’ (ia). Arist. also has a variant σμ-, which suggests Pre-Greek origin (see
2.4).
μέταλλον [n.] ‘mine, quarry’ (Hdt., Th., X., Att. inscr.), late also ‘mineral, metal’
(Nonn., ap). The word contains the Pre-Greek suffix -αλλ-ο- (see 3.2.3.15).
μίλτος [f.] ‘ruddle, red earth, red color, cinnabar, vermillion, red lead’ (Hdt.),
also ‘rust’ in plants = ἐρυσίβη (Paus. Gr.), and a taboo for ‘blood’ (PMag.). The
word is unmistakably Pre-Greek; cf. Schwyzer (1939: 503).
μύδρος [m.] ‘metal or iron mass roasted in fire, glowing stones (of a volcano)’,
etc. (Ion., A., S., Antiph., Arist.). Because of the variant σμύδρος· διάπυρος
σίδηρος ‘red-hot iron’ (H.), we have to assume Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4).
πέλλα [f.] · λίθος ‘stone’ (H.). The noun could be identical to the Macedonian
town Πέλλα. Furnée (1972: 161f.) further compares φελλεύς ‘stony ground’,
which shows a different anlauting consonant, and therefore points to Pre-
Greek origin (see 2.5.1).
σῆραγξ, -γγος [f., m.] ‘cave hollowed out by water, hollow rock’ (S., Pl., Arist.), also
used of cavities and pores of the body (medic.), metaph. = ἐπιθυμία ‘desire’
(H.). A Pre-Greek word, in view of the suffix (see 3.2.3.3).
σκῦρος [m.] ‘stone-chippings, rubble’ (Epid. iva, H.). Furnée (1972: 366) takes the
word to be a variant of σκῖρος ‘induration, callus, hard tumor’ (see section 7.2
below) and concludes that it is Pre-Greek, in view of the variation υ / ι (see

2.6.1.4).
σμύρις, -ιδος, -εως [f.] ‘emery-powder for abrading and polishing’ (Dsc.). Also σμί-
ρις, σμιριεῖα [n.pl.] (spelled ζμιρριεια). Furnée (1972: 366) takes the variation
υ / ι (2.6.1.4) as proof of Pre-Greek origin, which is the most likely option.
σποδός [f.] ‘ash, ember, metal ashes, dust’ (Ion. ι 375, trag., etc.). Furnée (1972:
154) convincingly connects ἄσβολος ‘soot, dust of coals’ and *σπολός in σπο-
λεύς (according to Frisk s.v. σπολάς, wrong for *σποδεύς). The word would
then be Pre-Greek, with a prothetic vowel (2.3) and the variations π / β (2.5.1)
and δ / λ (2.5.7a). Cf. further ψοῖθος and ψόλος below.
σῶρι [n.] name of an ore, perhaps ‘ferrous sulfate, melanterite’ (Dsc.). Also σῶρυ.
The variation ι / υ points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.4).
τάγχουρος [m.] ‘gold’ (sch. Theoc.). Also ἄγχουρος (Besant.), τάγχαρας (Cosmas).
The variation indicates that the word is Pre-Greek. For τ- / zero, see 2.5.10.
The suffix may have been *-arw-, see 3.2.3.97.
τοπάζιον [n.] ‘topaz’, probably also of chrysolite and of other stones (lxx, Str., D.
S., Apoc.). The form ταβάσιος, -ις (PHolm.) presents another variant. Furnée
(1972: 155, 344) assumes that the variation ταβάσ- / τοπάζ- points to a Pre-
Greek word. Note α / ο before a labial (2.6.1.1b), π / β (2.5.1) and σ / ζ (2.5.5.9a).
ὕαλος [f., m.] ‘transparent stone, e.g. alabaster, crystal, amber’ (ia), ‘glass’ (Pl.).
It may have had palatal ly, cf. the variant ὕελλος. A palatal ly would explain
both λ / λλ (2.5.8) and α / ε (2.6.1.1a). Also note the sequence ὑα- (see 2.6.4).
χέραδος [n.] ‘debris, gravel, rubble’ (Φ 319, Sapph. 145, Alc. Fr. 344 L.P., A. R. 1,
1123). Gen. also χαράδεος (Tab. Heracl. 1, 60). χαράδρα [f.] ‘dry bed of a moun-
tain river, torrent, ravine, etc.’; also χάραδρος [m.] ‘id.’. Since the variation
between χεραδ- and χαραδ- cannot be explained in ie terms, the word is prob-
ably Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1a). Also note the suffix -αδ- (see 3.2.3.5).
́
ψῐμυθος [m.] ‘white lead’ (Ar., Pl., X., Hell.; Delos [301a], ap). Often -ύθιον, later
also -ίθιον (pap.), rarely -μμ-; also ψημύθιον [n.]. The variations η / ι (2.6.1.2j),
υ / ι (2.6.1.4) and μ / μμ (2.5.8) point to Pre-Greek origin, as does the suffix
-υθ- (3.2.3.117).
ψοῖθος [m.] = σποδός ‘ashes’. See Furnée (1972: 197), and compare ψόλος (directly
below), which proves Pre-Greek origin.
ψόλος [m.] ‘soot, smoke, fume’. Besides ψελός· αἰθαλός ‘soot’ (for -όεις?) (H.).
Furnée (1972: 388) compares ψόθος ‘dirt’ (section 14 below) and also (p. 393)
σποδός, ἄ-σβολος (for both see this section, above). In view of the prothetic
vowel (2.3) and the variations ψ / σπ / σβ (2.5.1, 2.5.5.6a), ο / ε (2.6.1.3l) and δ /
θ / λ (2.5.7a), the word is most probably Pre-Greek.
54 chapter 6
3 Flora
3.1 Trees and Shrubs (and Their Products)

ἄβλαροι [m.] · ξύλα ‘wood’ (H.). The variant βδαροί· δρύες (H.) points to Pre-
Greek origin, in view of the prothetic vowel and the variation λ / δ (see 2.3
and 2.5.7a).
ἄγριππος [m.] Laconian name for the wild olive (Zen.). The variant ἄγριφος
proves Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
αἴγειρος [f.] ‘black poplar’ (Il.). This word must be Pre-Greek because of the vari-
ation displayed by αἴγερος, and because of the suffix in which the variation
occurs (see 3.2.3.41 and cf. s.v. κύπειρον in section 3.4 below).
αἴσακος [?] · ὁ τῆς δάφνης κλάδος, ὅν κατέχοντες ὕμνουν τοὺς θεούς ‘the branch of
the sweet bay; while grasping these, they praised the gods’ (H.). Cf. Plu. Mor.
615b. Acc. to em 38, 49, it indicates the bird ἐρίθακος. The initial αἰ-, intervo-
calic -σ- (2.2a.15), and the suffix -ακ- (3.2.3.13) suggest Pre-Greek origin; see
also αἰσάλων (section 4.3 below).
ἀκακία [f.] name of a tree or plant, ‘acacia’ or ‘Genista acanthoclada’ (Dsc.).
Probably a substrate word. Furnée (1972: 321) compares κάκτος, in which case
we would have a prothetic vowel (2.3) and the variation κ / κτ (2.5.5.1b). Cf.
also ἀκακαλίς (section 3.4 below).
ἄκαστος [m.] · ἡ σφένδαμνος ‘maple’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 371) compares κάστον·
ξύλον (H.). The prothetic vowel points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3).
ἀκρεμών, -όνος [m.] ‘bough, branch’. Furnée (1972: 115) adduces ἀγρεμών· κάμαξ,
λαμπάς, δόρυ ‘pole, torch, shaft’ (H.), which shows that it is a substrate word
(see 2.5.1).
ἀμιχθαλόεσσα [adj.] ‘rich in almonds’, epithet of Lemnos (Ω 753). Doederlein
plausibly identified the form with ἀμύγδαλον ‘almond’, a connection that sug-
gests Pre-Greek origin because of the vocalic and consonantal alternations:
ι / υ (2.6.1.4) and χθ / γδ (2.5.1). See ἀμυγδάλη and μύκηρος (section 3.2 below).
ἀσκηρά [f.] · εἶδός τι τῶν καστανίων ‘kind of chestnut’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 13159)
compares Arm. kask ‘chestnut’; for the alternation κ / zero, see 2.5.10.
ἀτάλυμνος [f.] = κοκκυμηλέα, ‘plum tree’ (Nic.). No doubt a substrate word, in
view of the suffix -υμνος (see 3.2.3.126).
ἄχερδος [f.] ‘wild pear, Pyrus amygdaliformis’ (Od.). Probably Pre-Greek be-
cause of the variant ἀγέρδα (cod. -αα)· ἄπιος, ὄγχνη ‘pear-tree, pear’ (H.), with
χ / γ (see 2.5.1). Cf. ἀχράς below.
ἀχράς, -άδος [f.] ‘the wild pear and its fruit, Pyrus amygdaliformis’ (com., Arist.).
One connects ἄχερδος (see directly above). Probably of Pre-Greek origin,
with ἀ-χερδ- beside ἀ-χραδ- with metathesis (2.5.12; cf. Furnée 1972: 392) and
α / ε (2.6.1.1a).
δάφνη [f.] ‘laurel’ (Od.). The variants λάφνη· δάφνη, δαύχνα and δαυχμός leave
no doubt that this is in origin a Pre-Greek word (see e.g. 2.5.7a). The variants
δάφ-ν- / δαυκ/χ-(ν/μ)- can be explained by assuming a proto-form *dakw-(n-),
see 2.1. See further δαῦκος (section 3.4 below).
ἐλαία [f.] ‘the olive (tree)’ (Od.), rare ἔλαιος [m.] ‘(wild) olive’ (Pi. Fr. 46, S. Tr.
1197). Myc. e-ra-wa, -wo /elaiwa/, /-won/. The word is no doubt Pre-Greek;
note the suffix -αι(ϝ)- (see 3.2.3.8).
ἐρῑνεός [m.] ‘wild fig-tree, Ficus caprificus’ (Il., Hes., Arist.), opposed to συκῆ.
Note the suffix -ῑν- (see 3.2.3.79). Words with similar meanings also seem to
be of substrate origin, cf. e.g. ὄλυνθος ‘wild fig’ and σῦκον ‘fig’ in 3.2 below,
further κότινος ‘wild olive’.
θάμνος [m.] ‘bush, shrub’ (Il.). With its -αμν(ος), the word seems Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.17); also, its meaning fits Pre-Greek origin rather well.
κήλαστρος [f.] ‘holly, Ilex aquifolium’ (Thphr.). The suffix looks Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.110).
κίσθος [m.] ‘cistus’, family of low shrubs, of which the separate types often
produce the resin-like substance λήδανον (Dsc.). The word is probably Pre-
Greek, in view of the variants κισθός and κίστος, κίσθαρος [m.]. The suffix of
κίσθαρος may be compared with κόμαρος, κίσσαρος, and other plant names
(see 3.2.3.28).
κολοιτία [f.] tree that grew on the Liparian islands ‘Cytisus aeolicus’, also ‘sal-
low, Salix cinerea’ (Thphr.). Because of the many vocalic variants certainly
Pre-Greek: κολουτέα, κολυτέα [f.] ‘Colutea arborescens’ (Thphr.), in H. also
κολοιτέα, κολωτέα, κοιλωτέα· δένδρον τι ‘a tree’.
κολύμφατος [?] · φλοιός, λεπίδιον ‘bark, capsule’ (H.). The gloss must be identical
with κολύμβατος, name of a plant (Gp.), with the well-known Pre-Greek
variation of φ / β (see 2.5.1). Also note the suffixes -υμβ/φ- (3.2.3.125) and -ατ-
(3.2.3.15).
κόμαρος [f., m.] ‘strawberry tree, Arbutus unedo’. Because of the variant κύμαρος
(H.), this etymon is probably Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.3c).
κρούναι [f.pl.]? · τὰ ἄφορα δένδρα ‘barren trees’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 120) compares
γρυνός ‘faggot, firebrand’ and γρουνός ‘dry wood, torch’, so the word is clearly
Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.3h).
κυπάρισσος [f.] ‘cypress’ (ε 64). Att. -ιττος. κυφαρισσινος (inscr. Aegina); also
Κυπαρίσσιος epithet of Apollo (Cos), Κυφαρισσία of Artemis (Lacon., ig 5(1),
977), Κυφαρισσίτας of Pan (Crete). Clearly a Pre-Greek word, because of the
‘foreign phoneme’ -σσ-/-ττ- (see 2.5.5.9a), and notably the variant Κυφ- in
the toponym and the epithets (see 2.5.1), as well as the suffix -ισσ- (see
3.2.3.108).
κύτισος [m., f.] ‘cytisus, Medicago arborea’ (ia). Myc. ku-te-so /kutesos/. The
56 chapter 6
variation e / i (2.6.1.2b) shows that it is Pre-Greek. Also note the suffix -ισ-
(3.2.3.84).
κῶνος [m.] ‘fruit of the pine cone, cone’ also ‘pine’ [f.], ‘top’. Pre-Greek origin
is confirmed by the variants adduced in Furnée (1972: 121), most notably
ἀκόνῑτον, the poisonous plant ‘Aconitum’, with a prothetic vowel (2.3) and
the variation ω / ο (2.6.1.3e). See also κώνειον in section 3.3 below.
μύξα [f.] ‘kind of plum-tree’. Furnée (1972: 12952, 393) compares μύσκλον ‘id.’,
which would prove Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.6b).
μύρτος [f.] ‘myrtle, twig or spray of myrtle’ (Pi., Simon.). μύρτον [n.] ‘myrtleberry’,
also = μυρσίνη ‘myrtle’ (Archil. acc. to em 324, 14). The variation μυρτ- / μυρσ-
points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.9a).
νικύλεον [n.] ‘a fig’ in Crete (Hermonax). The Mycenaean sign ⟨ni⟩ looks like a
fig-tree. Note the suffixes -υλ- (3.2.3.121) and -εο- (3.2.3.6).
ὀρόδαμνος [m.] ‘branch, twig’ (Thphr., Call., Nic., ap). Probably for Aeol. ϝρόδα-
μνος = ῥάδαμνος (see s.v. below), with ὀ- as a graphic indication for ϝ.
ὅρπηξ [m.] ‘sprig, twig, (shaft of a) spear’ (Φ 38, Hes. Op. 468). Also ὄ-; Dor. Aeol.
-ᾱξ, -κος. It must be a Pre-Greek word, given the suffix -ᾱκ- (see 3.2.3.13).
ὀστρύα, -ύη [f.] name of a tree with hard, white wood, ‘hop hornbeam, Ostrya
carpinifolia’ (Thphr., Plin.). Also ὀστρύς, -ύος (or -υς, -υος?), and ὀστρυΐς, -ίδος.
Already Heubeck (1961: 37) and Neumann (1958: 110 f.) considered ὄστρυς
to be Pre-Greek. Indeed, the enlargements -ύς, -ύα, -υίς are typical for an
adapted foreign word.
πτελέα [f.] ‘elm tree’ (Il.). Ion. -έη, Epid. πελέα, Myc. pte-re-wa. Arm. t‘ełi ‘elm’
may have been borrowed from πτελέα or both may have been borrowed
from a common source, like Lat. tilia ‘linden, lime-tree’. Furnée (1972: 226)
assumes that it is a variant of μελίη ‘ash’; he concludes that the word is
Pre-Greek (cf. 2.5.4 on the variation labial stop / μ). For πτ- / π-, see 2.5.5.1a.
ῥάδαμνος [m.] ‘branch, twig, shoot’ (lxx). Also ῥόδαμνος (H.) and ῥάδαμον· καυ-
λόν, βλαστόν ‘stalk, shoot’ (conj. Nic. Al. 92). ῥαδαμεῖ· βλαστάνει ‘sprouts’ (H.).
Cf. also ὀρόδαμνος ‘branch, twig’ above. In view of the alternation α / ο (see
2.6.1.1b), the word is no doubt Pre-Greek. Also note the suffix -αμν- (see
3.2.3.17).
ῥᾱδ́ ιξ, -ῑκος [m.] ‘branch, twig’ (Nic.), ‘palm leaf’ (D. S.). A formal match is Lat.
rādīx ‘root’. Cf. also ῥάδαμνος above. The pre-form *wrad-/wrād-, suggested
by these forms, is probably non-Indo-European. Als note the suffix -ῑκ- (see
3.2.3.74).
ῥητῑν́ η [f.] ‘resin, fir resin’ (Hp., Arist., Thphr.). Lat. rēsīna gives proof of a
dialectal Greek by-form *ῥησίνα; the variation attested by this form shows
that it is a Pre-Greek word (cf. Furnée 1972: 261; see 2.5.5.9a above).
σανδαράκη [f.] ‘sandarac, red arsenic sulphide, realgar, red orpiment’ (Hp.,
Arist., Thphr. etc.), ‘bee-bread’ (Arist.). Also -άχη. lsj mentions Assyr. šindu
arḳu ‘green paint’, ‘yellow sulphide of arsenic’. The variation κ / χ (2.5.1) could
also point to Pre-Greek origin. Also note the suffixes -αρ- (3.2.3.28) and -ακ-
(3.2.3.13). Cf. also σάνδυξ, designation of a bright red colorant, a bright red
mineral color, a red transparent fabric, etc.
σαρωνίς, -ίδος [f.] ‘old hollow oak’ (Call. Jov. 22 etc., H.), also with -ο- in the first
syllable: σορωνίς· ἐλάτη παλαιά ‘old silver fir’ (H.); cf. δρυμὸς Σόρων (Paus. 8,
23, 8). Because of the vowel alternation (see 2.6.1.1b), we have to assume
Pre-Greek origin for this word.
́
σῐδη [f.] ‘pomegranate (tree)’ (Emp.; Nic. also ῑ by metrical lengthening); also the
name of a Boeotian water-plant = νυμφαία (Thphr., Nic.). ξίμβαι· ῥοιαί. Αἰολεῖς
‘pomegranates (Aeolian)’ (H.). σίβδη (Call., H.), σίλβια· σίδια ‘pomegranate
peels’ (H.). Furnée (1972: index) accepts all forms as real, including ξίμβρα
(p. 286). Analyzing σίβδη as < *σιϝδ-, he argues that the group is Pre-Greek.
The gloss ῥίμβαι· ῥοιαὶ μεγάλαι. ἄμεινον δὲ διὰ τοῦ ξ· ξίμβαι (H.) is unclear.
σμῖλαξ [f., m.] ‘Taxus baccata, common yew tree’, also the name of an ivy-like
weed and a leguminous plant (Att., Hell.), in Arcadia the name of an oak,
‘Quercus ilex’ (Thphr.). OAtt. μῖλαξ, -ακος; also μῖλος (Cratin., Thphr.), σμῖλος
(Call., Nic., Dsc.) [m.] ‘taxus’. The variation σμ- / μ- proves Pre-Greek origin
for this word (Furnée 1972: 390; see 2.4 above). Also note the suffix -ακ- (see
3.2.3.13).
σφάγνος [m.] name of a bush, = ἐλελίσφακον, ἀσπάλαθος (Diocl. Fr., Dsc.). Furnée
(1972: 124) compares σφάκος ‘sage-apple, salvia; tree-moss’ and φάγνος ‘salvia’
(gloss.) and φάσκον ‘kind of moss’. Given these variants, the word is Pre-
Greek. See 2.4 (s-mobile), 2.5.1 (κ / γ), 2.5.5.5b (κ / σκ) and 3.2.3.91 (-ν-).
σφένδαμνος [f.] ‘maple, Acer monspessulanum’ (Thphr., Dicaearch.). Note the
variant σπένδαμνον· ξύλον ‘wood’ (H.), which suggests Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.1), as does the suffix (see 3.2.3.17).
τέρμινθος [f.] ‘turpentine tree, Pistacia Terebinthus’ (Hp.). Also τερέβινθος, τρέμι-
θος. The word is Pre-Greek because of the alternations (see 2.5.2, 2.5.4, 2.5.12
and 2.6.5) and its suffix -ινθος (see 3.2.3.81).
τέρχνος [n.] ‘sprout, twig’ (Max., ap, H.). Also τρέχνος. Cypr. te-re-ki-ni-ja ‘fruit’,
if this stands for τέρχνια. In τέρχνεα = ἐντάφια ‘ptng. to burial’ (H.), we may
be dealing with a specialization of the meaning ‘fruits’, i.e. fruits as offerings.
Furnée (1972: 351) compares ταρχάνιον· ἐντάφιον (H.), and therefore suggests
a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.1a). Cf. ταρχύω (section 15 below).
τραύξανα [n.pl.] ‘dry wood, brushwood’ (Pherer.). Also τρώξανα, τραύσανον. The
variations αυ / ω (2.6.1.1h) and ξ / σ (2.5.5.7b) betray a Pre-Greek word (Furnée
1972: 286).
ὕσγη [f.] name of a shrub, probably ‘kermes oak, Quercus coccifera’ (Suid., also
58 chapter 6
Paus. 10, 36, 1 [conj.]). In view of the variants ἰσγένη (Edict. Diocl. 24, 9–12) and
ἰσγίνη (ibid. 19, 8), Pre-Greek origin can be considered (see 2.6.1.2b, 2.6.1.4 and
3.2.3.78).
φήληξ, -ηκος [m.] ‘wild fig’ (S. Fr. 781[?], Ar. Pax 1165). An evident Pre-Greek
word in -ηξ (cf. Furnée 1972: 24570; see also 3.2.3.55).
3.2 Wild and Cultivated Vegetables, Fruits and Nuts

ἄγλῑς, -ῑθος [f.] ‘clove of garlic’ (Ar.), probably Pre-Greek because of the variant
ἀγλίδια· σκόροδα ‘garlic’ (H.), with interchange θ / δ (Furnée 1972: 194; see also
2.5.1 above). Further note the suffix -ῑθ- (see 3.2.3.72). See also γέλγις (this
section, below).
ἄδρυα · πλοῖα μονόξυλα. Κύπριοι ‘ships made out of one piece of wood (Cypr.)’.
Λέγονται δὲ καὶ οἱ ἐν τῷ ἀρότρῳ στῦλοι ‘the poles in the plough’. Σικελοὶ δὲ
ἄδρυα λέγουσι τὰ μῆλα ‘apples’. παρὰ δὲ Ἀττικοῖς ἀκρόδρυα ‘fruits grown on
upper branches of trees (Att.)’ (H.). Whereas the first two meanings allow
for an ie interpretation, the meanings ‘apples’ and ‘fruit’ may be compared
with μάδρυα ‘plums, sloes’. ἄδρυα could represent *ϝάδρυα; for the variation
μ / ϝ, see 2.5.4. See further μάδρυα below.
ἄκυλος [m., f.] the edible acorn of the Quercus ilex (κ 242). Also ἀκυλαῖον, with
the suffix -αι- (see 3.2.3.7). A substrate word (Furnée 1972: 25532); -υλ- is a
frequent Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.121).
ἀμυγδάλη [f.] ‘almond’ (Hp.) with the variant ἀμυσγέλα, -ύλα (Cyrene). Note
-γδ-, which interchanges with -σγ-, which suggests Pre-Greek origin (see
2.2a.4 and 2.5.5.5b). Another variant is found in ἀμιχθαλόεις ‘rich in almonds’
(section 3.1 above). See further μύκηρος below.
ἀνδράχνη [f.] plant name ‘Portulaca oleracea’, also ‘Sedum stellatum’ (Thphr.).
Also ἀνδράχλη (Thphr.), ἄνδραχνος [f.] (Paus.). Furnée (1972: 288) compares
ἀθραγένη, which is formally quite acceptable, i.e. *(a)ntrak(V )n/l-, with
metathesis of aspiration (1972: 1972, 393), variation n / l (1972: 388; cf. 2.5.7a
above), the common phenomenon of prenasalization (2.5.2), and anaptyxis
of ε (2.6.5). All of these phenomena clearly suggest substrate origin.
ἄρακος [m.] wild chickling, ‘Lathyrus annuus’ (Ar.). Cf. ἄρακοι· ὄσπριόν τι, τὸ δὲ
αὐτὸ καὶ λάθυρον ‘a pulse, the same as λ.’ (H.). Also a consonant stem ἄραξ
(pap.). Also ἄραχος (Gal.), ἀράχιδνα (Thphr.). The interchange κ / χ (see 2.5.1)
and the suffixes -ακ- and -ιδνα (see 3.2.3.13 and 3.2.3.71) clearly prove substrate
origin.
ἀσφάραγος 2 [m.] ‘asparagus, young shoots’ (Cratin.), Pre-Greek because of the
variant ἀσπάραγος (see 2.5.1).
ἀτράφαξυς, -υος [f.] ‘orach, Atriplex rosea’ (Hp.), Pre-Greek because of the vari-
ants ἀδράφαξυς (ἁδρ-) and ἀνδράφαξυς (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2).
βαλαύστιον [n.] ‘flower of the wild pomegranate’ (Dsc., Gal.) with the variant
βαλώστιον. The variation αυ / ω is typical of Pre-Greek words (see 2.6.1.1h).
γάλινθοι [m.pl.] · ἐρέβινθοι. οἱ δὲ γάλιθοι ‘chick-peas’ (H.). Because of the vocalic
alternation shown by the variant γέλινθοι· ἐρέβινθοι (H.), Pre-Greek origin
can be considered (see 2.6.1.1a). Also note the suffix -ινθ-, and the variant -ιθ-
without prenasalization (see 2.5.2, 3.2.3.72, 3.2.3.81).
γέλγις, -ῑδος, -ῑθος [f.] ‘garlic’, or its cloves (Thphr.), obviously related to the
synonym ἄγλις (this section, above), which suggests that γέλγις is to be
analysed as a reduplicated *γε-γλις (see 3.1). Furnée (1972: 123, 127, etc.) also
adduces σκελλίς, -ίδος (Plu.; also σκελίς Alex. Trall.) with the same meaning.
These variants point to a Pre-Greek origin (see especially 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5.1).
The suffix, too, with a long vowel ῑ, is typically Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.70 and
3.2.3.72). Kroonen (2012) argues that γελγ- and ἀγλ- reflect *gedl- and *a-gdl-,
respectively, showing a morphological alternation of a full stem and an
a-prefixed reduced stem, which has a number of parallels in Italic, Celtic
and Germanic (Schrijver 1997). He further considers pg *gedl- to be a loan
from Akkadian giddil / gidlu ‘string (of onions or garlic)’.
γηθυλλίς, -ίδος [f.] name of an onion (Epich.). Because of the variants γήθυον,
γήτειον, κητίον, and γαιθυλλάδαι, Pre-Greek origin is almost certain (see 2.5.1
and 2.6.1.1i). See also ἀγασυλλίς (section 3.3 below). Note the suffix -υλλ- (see
3.2.3.123).
ἐρέβινθος [m.] ‘chickpea’ (Il.). Related to ὄροβος ‘id.’ (see s.v. below) with the
Pre-Greek suffix -ινθος (see 3.2.3.81).
ζεκελτίδες [m./f.] Aeol. for γογγυλίδες ‘turnips’ or κολοκύνται ‘gourds’ (Nic., apud
Ath. 9, 369a). The vocalic variant ζακελτίδες· κολοκύνται, ἢ γογγυλίδες (H.)
and the suffix variant ζακυνθίδες· κολοκύνται (H.) prove Pre-Greek origin (see
2.6.1.1a and 3.2.3.130).
θρίδαξ, -ακος [f.] ‘lettuce’ (Epich., Ion., Hell.). According to Nehring (1925: 181)
this word is Pre-Greek, which is further corroborated by the variants θίδραξ,
θρύδαξ, θρόδαξ (H.), and θοδράκιον (see 2.5.12, 2.6.1.3b, 2.6.1.4). Also note the
suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
κάρυον [n.] ‘nut’ (Epich., Ar., Thphr.). Beside κάρυον, we find ἄρυα· τὰ Ἡρακλεω-
τικὰ κάρυα (H.), which points to a Pre-Greek word (interchange κ- / zero, see
2.5.10).
κασκάνδιξ [?] · ἡ γηθυλλίς ‘kind of onion’ (H.). It has been connected with
σκάνδιξ, -ῑκος ‘chervil’ and its variant σκάνδυξ, -ῡκος. The word is Pre-Greek,
in view of the a-vocalism and the suffixation (see 3.2.3.74 and 3.2.3.120).
κέλῡφος [n.] ‘husk or skin of fruit, skin of an onion, eggshell’. The variant
κολύφανον· φλοιός, λεπύριον ‘bark; husk, skin, etc.’ (H.) suggests Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.6.1.3l).
60 chapter 6
κῑκ́ ᾰμα [acc.pl.n.] name of a plant, according to H. (cod. κικαμία) similar to the
καυκαλίς (Nic. Th. 841). No doubt Pre-Greek. Note the suffix -αμ- (see 3.2.3.18).
κικριβιντίς · ἀνδράχνη ‘purslane’ (H.). Cf. Lat. cicirbita, a plant. The prenasaliza-
tion points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2).
κολοκύνθη [f.] ‘round gourd, Lagenaria vulgaris’ (Hp., com., Arist., pap.). Att.
-τη, later -υνθᾰ, -υντᾰ, late also -υνθος (-υντος, -ιντος) [m.]. The suffix -υνθος,
-ινθος, frequent in plant names, points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.81 and
3.2.3.130).
κύαμος [m.] ‘bean’ (Il.), ‘lot’, in which those who drew white beans won (Att.),
metaph. ‘swelling of the paps’ (Ruf., Poll.), ‘woodlouse’ (Gal.), name of a
coin (Taurom. ia). Variants are πύανος (H.) and κύμηχα· κύαμον (H.). Furnée
remarks that the variation between κυ-αμ- and κυμ-ηχ/κ- proves the Pre-
Greek character of the word (see 2.5.4, 3.2.3.18, 3.2.3.55). Also note the
sequence -υα- (see 2.6.4). On the variation π- / κ-, see Furnée (1972: 388) and
2.5.6 above.
κυδώνια (μᾶλα) [n.pl.] ‘quinces’ (Stesich., Alcm., com.). Folk-etymologically
adapted from an older Anatolian word still retained in κοδύ-μαλον. Cf. the
town Κυτώνιον on the Lydian border. H. has κοδώνεα· σῦκα χειμερινά. καὶ
καρύων εἶδος Περσικῶν ‘winter-figs; kind of Persian nut’. Lat. cotōneum
‘quince’ also belongs here, but probably as an independent loan.
κύτινος [m.] a flower, properly the calyx of the pomegranate (Thphr., Dsc.,
Gal.) also ‘Cytinus hypocisthis’ (Dsc. 1, 97), because of the similarity with
the flower of the granate. Furnée (1972: 182) compares κύταρον· ζωμήρυσις
‘spoon’ (H.), κύδαρος, -ον ‘small ship’, κύτταρος ‘cell of a honeycomb’, as well
as ‘calyx of the Egyptian bean’ (Thphr.), ‘calyx of an acorn’ (Thphr.), κυττοί
‘receptacles’, κύστεροι = ἀγγεῖα τῶν μελισσῶν ‘honeycomb’ (H.). The variation
τ / δ / ττ etc. points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
λαμψάνη [f.] ‘kind of cabbage, Brassica arvensis’ (Dsc., Gal.; pap.). For the initial
syllable we also find λαψ-, λεψ-, and see further the variants λαψάνη· τῶν
ἀγρίων λαχάνων ἐσθιομένη ‘edible wild vegetable’ (H.) and λάψα· γογγυλίς.
Περγαῖοι ‘turnip’ (H.). All this variation taken together makes substrate origin
very likely (see 2.5.2 and 2.6.1.1a). Also note the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
λάπαθον [n.] ‘monk’s rhubarb, Rumex acetosa’ (Epich., Thphr.). Because of the
formation (cf. ἄνηθον), foreign origin is suspected (for the suffix, see 3.2.3.6).
The gloss as βοτάνη κενωτική ‘purgative plant’ (sch. Theoc.), with λάπαθα [pl.]
‘faeces’ (sch. Gen. E 166), recalls λαπάσσω ‘to weaken, hollow out, empty’, also
‘destroy’, for which cf. ἀλαπάζω (section 15 below).
μάδρυα [n.pl.] = κοκκύμηλα, βράβυλα ‘plums, sloes’ (Seleuc. apud Ath. 2, 50a). As
variants we find ἁμάδρυα· κοκκύμηλα and ἄδρυα, in Σικελοὶ δὲ ἄδρυα λέγουσι
τὰ μῆλα. παρὰ δὲ Ἀττικοῖς ἀκρόδρυα (H.). Maybe also βάδρυα (but see Furnée
1972: 221). If the latter is reliable, we would also have variation μ / β, to which
ϝ may be added in order to explain ἄδρυα (see 2.5.4). See also s.v. ἄδρυα above.
μαντία [f.] ‘raspberry’ (Dsc. 4, 37). Furnée (1972: 209, 272) states that βάτος
‘bramble, Rubus ulmifolius’ cannot be separated from this word, which, if
correct, proves substrate origin, in view of the variation β / μ (2.5.4) and the
prenasalization (2.5.2).
μάνυζα [f.] · μονοκέφαλον σκόροδον ‘garlic’ (H.). No doubt a Pre-Greek plant
name. For -ζα (with short -α, see 3.3.1a), cf. κόνυζα (section 3.4 below).
μιμαίκυλον [n.] ‘fruit of the κόμαρος’ (com.). Also μεμαίκυλος (Gal.), μιμάκυλος
(H.). In view of the variations ε / ι (2.6.1.2b) and α / αι (2.6.1.1c), the word will
be Pre-Greek. Also note the suffix -υλ- (3.2.3.121).
μότα [n.pl.] · Σαρδιᾶναι βάλανοι ‘acorns’ (Dsc. 1, 106). Furnée (1972: 304) compares
μόστηνα κάρυα (a nut-bearing tree, Ath. 2, 52b) and further ἄμωτον = καστά-
νειον ‘chestnut’. Thus, an interchange μο(σ)τ- / ἀ-μωτ- is found, which points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3, 2.5.5.10a and 2.6.1.3e).
μύκηρος [m.] ‘almond, kind of nut’ (Ath. 2, 52c and 53b, H.). Variants are Lacon.
μούκηρος, ἀμιχθαλόεις, and further ἄμυκτον· γλυκύ ‘sweet’. οἱ δὲ ἄμικτον (H.)
and ἀμυκλίς· γλυκύς, ἡδύς ‘id.’ (H.), see Furnée (1972: 140). Further related to
ἀμυγδάλη (this section, above). The variants show that the word is Pre-Greek;
note ἀ- / zero (2.3), υ / ι (2.6.1.4), κτ / γδ / χθ (2.5.1), δ / θ / λ (2.5.7a), etc.
μώλυζα [f.] name of a kind of garlic (Hp.). As the ending can hardly be explained
in ie terms, it must be Pre-Greek. It could represent /-dya/ or /-tya/ (cf. also
μάνυζα above and κόνυζα in section 3.4 below; further 3.3.1a on short -α).
ὀδόλυνθοι [m.]? · ἐρέβινθοι ‘chick-peas’ (H.). Clearly a Pre-Greek word in view of
the suffix (see 3.2.3.130); cf. ὄλυνθος (directly below).
ὄλυνθος [m.] ‘wild, unripe fig’ (Hes. Fr. 160) with its variant ὄλονθος is clearly
Pre-Greek; note the variation ο / υ and the suffix -υνθ- (see 2.6.1.3c and
3.2.3.130).
ὀπιτίων [m.] a plant with a bulb, perhaps ‘Bunium ferulaceum’ (Thphr.). Furnée
(1972: 240) compares οὔιτον ‘an Egyptian truffle’; οὔιτον τὸ ὑπ’ ἐνίων οἰτόν (H.)
beside ἴτον, a Thracian mushroom (Ath. 2, 62a v.l. οἰτόν; iton Plin.), which
he analyses as pointing to (ὀ)ϝιτον. He further connects ὕδνον and οἴδνα. The
variations point to a Pre-Greek word. See ἴτον and ὕδνον in section 3.5 below.
ὄροβος [m.] ‘chickpea, Vicia Ervilia’, plur. ‘chickpea seeds’ (Hp., D., Arist.,
Thphr.). Cf. ἐρέβινθος ‘id.’ (above). An old substrate word, as is shown by the
vocalic variation (2.6.1.3l) and the suffix -ινθ- (3.2.3.81).
ῥάφανος [f.] ‘cabbage, Brassica cretica’ (Att., etc.), ‘radish, Raphanus sativus’
(Arist., pap.). In view of the variation attested with ῥάφυς, ῥάπυς ‘turnip’
and ῥέφανος, the word may originally be of Pre-Greek stock. Apart from the
variations π / φ (2.5.1) and α / ε (2.6.1.1a), note the suffix -αν- (3.2.3.19).
62 chapter 6
σαύσαξ [m.] a leguminous plant (Com. Adesp.). Furnée (1972: 30132) is without
a doubt correct in connecting σώσικες· οἱ ἑφθοί κύαμοι ‘cooked beans’ (H.),
which shows that the word is Pre-Greek (interchange ω / αυ, see 2.6.1.1h).
σικύα [f.] ‘bottle-gourd, Lagenaria vulgaris’ (Hp., Arist., Thphr., etc.), metaph.
‘bleeding cup’ (Hp., com., Pl., etc.). In view of the large number of variants,
viz. Ion. -ύη, σεκούα· σικύα, (H.), σίκυς [f.] ‘id.’, συκύα = σικύα (Edict. Diocl., cf.
Furnée 1972: 367), tn Σικυών (Σεκυ-), -ῶνος [m., f.], κύκυον· τὸν σικυόν (H.), and
κυκύϊζα· γλυκεῖα κολόκυντα ‘sweet round gourd’ (H.), we seem to be dealing
with a substrate word, which may also be found in Lat. cucumis ‘cucum-
ber’ and ORu. tyky ‘pumpkin’, and in Semitic, e.g. Hebr. qiššuʾā ‘cucum-
ber’.
σκαλίας [m.] ‘fruit shell of the κάκτος’ (Thphr.). Furnée (1972: 373) adduces
ἀσκαλία, ἀσκάληρον ‘fruit of the artichoke’, which would point to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.3).
σκόλυμος [m.] name of a kind of thistle with an edible flower base, ‘Scolymus
hispanicus, artichoke, Cynara scolymus’ (Hes., Alc., Arist., etc.). A variant is
σκόλυβος· ὁ ἐσθιόμενος βολβός ‘edible onion’ (H.). The interchange of β / μ is a
well-known Pre-Greek phenomenon (see 2.5.4).
σόρνιξα [?] · εὔζωμον ‘rocket, Eruca sativa’ (H.). After Furnée (1972: 360), this
word is Pre-Greek. Note the suffix -ιξ- and final -α (see 3.2.3.82 and 3.3.1a).
σῦκον [n.] ‘fig’, also metaphorically ‘wart, swelling, vagina’ (η 121). Boeot. (Stratt.)
τῦκον. Like Lat. fīcus and Arm. t‘uz ‘fig’, a loanword from a Mediterranean or
Anatolian source. This source may well have been Pre-Greek: the variation in
initial consonantism probably reflects an original *tyuk-, with a palatalized
/ty/ (see 2.5.5.9a).
τεῦτλον [n.] ‘beet, Beta maritima’ (Hp., com., Thphr., pap.). The word is Pre-
Greek because of the variant Ion. Hell. σεῦτλον (see 2.5.5.9a).
φιβάλεως [f.] ‘a fig suitable for curing’, also metaphorically of thin people (com.);
acc. to sch. Ar. Ach. 802, a place in Megaris or Attica. φίβαλις = γένος συκῆς
‘kind of fig’, with the plur. φιβάλεις = οἱ ἰσχνοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων; in em 793, 26
(acc. to Apolloph.) φιβάλεα = τὰ σῦκα, -λέαι = ἰσχάδες. This etymon must be
Pre-Greek because of the variation. Also note the suffix -αλ- (see 3.2.3.15).
χέδροπα (-πά) [n.pl.] ‘leguminous fruits’ (Hp.), χέδροψ· πᾶν ὄσπριον, σπέρμα (H.),
also χεδρία [f.] ‘id.’ (pap. iv–vip). The variants κέδροπα (Erot., H.) and κέρδοπα
(H.) show that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.12). Cf. χῖδρον (section
5.1 below).
3.3 Aromatic, Medicinal and Toxic Herbs

ἀγασυλλίς [f.] plant that produces ἀμμωνιακόν (Dsc.), cf. γηθυλλίς (section 3.2
above), with a prothetic vowel (2.3) and the variation θ / σ (2.5.5.9a).
ἄκινος [m.] ‘wild basil, Calamintha graveolens’ (Dsc. 3, 43). Also ἄκονος. The
interchange of vowels, though rare, may point to a substrate word; see Fur-
née (1972: 191) and 2.6.1.3b above. See also ὤκιμον ‘basil, Ocimum Basilicum’
below.
ἄνηθον [n.] ‘dill, Anethum Graveolens’ (Aeol., Att.). Variants ἄννηθον; ἄνητον,
ἄννητον. Furnée (1972: 254) compares ἄννησον (this section, below). The vari-
ation ν / νν (2.5.8) and τ / θ / σ (2.5.5.9a) points to Pre-Greek origin.
ἄνθρυσκον [n.] ‘chervil, Scandix australis’ (Sapph.); also ἔνθρυσκον. Further ἀνθρί-
σκος [m.] (Pollux 6, 106); ἀνθρίσκιον· λάχανον ἔχον ἄνθος, ὡς ἄνηθον, ἢ τὸ ἄννησον
‘garden herbs, such as dill’ (H.). Because of the variations α / ε (2.6.1.1a) and
ι / υ (2.6.1.4), a substrate origin seems certain. In view of its prickly fruits, it
may be further connected with ἀθήρ ‘awn’ (section 5.1 below).
ἄννησον [n.] ‘anise, Pimpinella Anisum’ (Hp.); also ἄνησον (v.l. in codd.); ἄνησσον;
prob. identical with ἄνηθον (above). At any rate, the variation between simple
and geminate ν and σ suggests substrate origin (see 2.5.8).
ἄσκυρον [n., m.] ‘St. John’s wort, Hypericum perforatum’. Also σκύρον. The pro-
thetic vowel points to a substrate word (see 2.3).
βλήχων, -ωνος [f.] ‘pennyroyal’, ‘Mentha pulegium’ (h. Cer.). Ion. γλήχων, Dor.
γλᾱ́χων. The variation β- / γ- was explained as resulting from dissimilation
by Schwyzer (1939: 299). But since the word has no etymology, and since the
stem formation is strange, we are rather dealing with a Pre-Greek word. See
2.5.6 on the variation β / γ and 3.2.3.145 on the suffix -ων-.
δίκταμνον [n.] plant name, ‘Origanum Dictamnus’ (Arist.). Also δίκταμον. For-
mation like σφένδαμνος, κάρδαμον, etc. (Schwyzer 1939: 524 and 494), and
therefore Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.17–18).
ἑλλέβορος [m.] ‘hellebore, Helleborus, Veratrum album’. The double -λλ- may
represent the phoneme -ly-, which at the same time explains the two first
ε’s: /a/ was pronounced [ä] in contact with the palatalized l, and [ä] is
represented by ε; after the β, it may have been realized as ο, which gives us a
pre-form /alyabar-/.
θρυαλλίς [f.] ‘wick’, also the plant name ‘plantain, Plantago crassifolia’ (Thphr.,
Nic.), the leaves of which were used to make wicks (hence it was also called
λυχνῖτις, Strömberg 1940: 78 and 106). The suffix occurs mostly with plants or
birds, so the word is probably Pre-Greek (cf. 3.2.3.15). Cf. θρύον (section 3.4
below).
θύμβρᾱ [f.] name of a sweet-scented plant, ‘savory, Satureia Thymbra’ (com.,
Thphr., Dsc.). Also θυμβραία (Hp. apud Gal.), θρύμβη (Gp.). Clearly a non-ie
plant name, probably Pre-Greek. Note the metathesis and the suffix -αια (see
2.5.12 and 3.2.3.7). Niedermann (1931: 14) recalls Anatolian tns like Θύμβρη,
Θύμβριον, and on the other hand Τυφρηστός (southern spur of the Pindos,
64 chapter 6
named after θύμβρα?). These could stem from a language related to Pre-
Greek.
ἴφυον [n.] kind of lavender, ‘Lavandula Spica’ (Ar.). Furnée (1972: 391) connects
τίφυον [n.] with ἴφυον as a variant without τ-, for which there are only few
parallels (see 2.5.10). Nevertheless, a Pre-Greek word is probable a priori.
καιέτα [f.] · καλαμίνθη. Βοιωτοί ‘mint’ (H.). Also καίατα(ς). The variation α / ε
(2.6.1.1a) points to Pre-Greek origin.
καλαμίνθη [f.] name of an odoriferous plant (Hp., Ar., Arist.). A Pre-Greek word
is most probable because of the suffix (see 3.2.3.81) and the meaning.
κάρπασον [n.] name of a plant with poisonous sap: ‘white hellebore, Veratrum
album’ (med., Orph.). Myc. women’s names Ka-pa-si-ja, Ka-pa-ti-ja. A form
with a dental is also found in the name of the island Κάρπαθος, which was
named after the plant. The variation θ / σ is typical for Pre-Greek and points
to a palatalized phoneme -ty- (see 2.5.5.9a).
κιρκαία [f.] scil. ῥίζα, ‘black swallowwort, Vincetoxicum nigrum’ (Dsc., Apollod.)
= διρκαία. Note the variation κ / δ and the suffix -αία (see 2.5.6 and 3.2.3.7).
κονῑλ́ η [f.] a kind of aromatic plant, ‘Origanum, marjoram’. Furnée (1972: 361)
assumes a Greek variant *κυνῑλ́ η on the basis of Lat. cunīla, which would
show the variation ο / υ (see 2.6.1.3c). He further compares γονώνη· ὀρίγανος
(H.) (1972: 120), and perhaps γονής, κώνητες· θύρσοι (H.) (1972: 121), with
variation γ / κ (see 2.5.1). On -ῑλ- as a Pre-Greek suffix, see 3.2.3.75.
κορίαννον [n.] ‘coriander, Coriandrum sativum’ (Anacr., com., Thphr.). Also κορί-
ανδρον (gloss.), dissimilated κολίανδρον (Gp., sch.); κορίαμβλον (H.); shortened
κόριον; Myc. ko-ri-ja-do-no, ko-ri-a2-da-na /korihadnon, -na/. The cluster -dn-
and the variation δ / β point to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.2a.6 and 2.5.6). It
is possible that pg *koriandro- dissimilated to *koriandno-, with subsequent
(post-Mycenaean) assimilation -ndn- > -nn- in the classical form.
κόρχορος [m.] plant name, ‘blue pimpernel, ἀναγαλλὶς ἡ κυανῆ, Anagallis caeru-
lea’. Var. κόρκορος (Ar.). The variation κ / χ (2.5.1) shows that it is a Pre-Greek
formation, apparently with reduplication (3.1).
κώνειον [n.] ‘hemlock, Conium maculatum, hemlock drink, poisonous drink’
(ia). Furnée (1972: 121) connects not only κῶνος ‘fruit of the pine cone, cone’
(section 3.1 above), but also κονή ‘murder’ and ἀκόνῑτον, the poisonous plant
‘Aconitum’. The prothetic vowel (2.3) and the variation ω / ο (2.6.1.3e) show
that it is a Pre-Greek word. Further note the suffixes -ει-ο- (3.2.3.7) and -ιτ-ο-
(3.2.3.87).
μίνθη [f.] ‘mint’ (ia, Thphr., Plu.), also μίνθα. It is undoubtedly Pre-Greek, be-
cause of the variant ending -ᾰ (see 3.3.1a).
ὅρμῑνον [n.] ‘sage, Salvia Horminum’ (Thphr.). The word is no doubt Pre-Greek,
just like the other words with a suffix -ῑν- (see 3.2.3.79).
ὀρόντιον [n.] ‘cuckoo-pint’, name of a plant used as a remedy against jaundice

(Archig. apud Gal.). Furnée (1972: 345) refers to Gams (dkp 1: 602f.), who
connects it with ἄρον ‘Natterwurz’, a kind of shore-weed, with the variation
α / ο (see 2.6.1.1b).
πήγανον [n.] ‘rue, Ruta graveolens’ (Diocl. Fr., com., Thphr.). φαίκανον· πήγανον
‘id.’ (H.). The variations π / φ (2.5.1) and η / αι (2.6.1.1i) point to Pre-Greek
origin.
σίλφιον [n.] a plant known especially from Cyrene, ‘silphium’. σέλπον· σίλφιον
(H.). The variants σίλφιον, σέλπον, together with Lat. sirpe ‘id.’, point to a
loanword of unknown origin (see 2.5.1, 2.5.7c, 2.6.1.2b).
σίνᾱπι [n.] ‘mustard, mustard plaster’. A variant is νᾶπυ. The words can be best
explained from a Pre-Greek form *synāpi. Pre-consonantal palatalized con-
sonants yielded both Cι and C (e.g. κνώψ : κινώπετον < *kyn-, λασιτός : λάσται
< *lasyt-, see s.vv. in section 4.4 and 11.3, respectively); cf. Beekes (2008). In
this case, *synāpV yielded both σίνᾱπ- and *σνᾱπ-. In initial position, *σν-
regularly yielded Gr. ν-.
σκαμ(μ)ωνία [f.] kind of scammony, ‘Convulvulus scammonia’ (Eub., Arist.).
Also ἀσκαμωνία (Gp.), κάμων (Nic.). The variants point to a Pre-Greek origin,
with a prothetic vowel (2.3), an s-mobile (2.4) and μ / μμ (2.5.8).
σκύρον [n.] = ἄσκυρον ‘St. John’s wort’ (Nic. Th. 74). See ἄσκυρον (this section,
above).
στρύχνον [n.] name of several plants, e.g. ‘nightshade, Withania somnifera’
(Thphr., Dsc. et al.). Also τρύχνον. The s-mobile points to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.4). Furnée (1972: 135) compares δορύκνιον (Dsc., Plu.), a plant which
may be similar to the στρύχνον. See s.v. (section 3.4 below) for further com-
ments.
σφάκος [m.] ‘sage’ (com., Thphr.). See σφάγνος (section 3.1 above).
τιθύμαλλος [m.] ‘milkweed, Euphorbia Peplus’ (com., Thphr., Dsc.). All words
in -αλλος are Pre-Greek (see Beekes 2008: 49 ff.; for examples see 3.2.3.15
above).
τόρδῡλον [n.] name of an umbelliferous plant, ‘hartwort, Tordylium officinale’
(Ruf. apud Orib., Gal., Plin.). Variants are -ύλιον (Dsc.), -ῑλον (Nic. [-ει-], Dsc.),
-ίλιον (Dsc. v.l.), with υ / ι (see 2.6.1.4). Furnée (1972: 367) compares ὄρδειλον,
which is perhaps better taken as a mistake for τ- rather than as an old variant
without τ-, pace Furnée (1972: 391).
φαίκανον [n.] = πήγανον ‘rue, Ruta graveolens’ (H.). The word is probably Pre-
Greek, see πήγανον above.
φάρμακον [n.] ‘healing or harmful medicine, healing or poisonous herb, drug,
poisonous potion, magic (potion), dye, raw material for physical or chem-
ical processing’ (Il.). φαρμάσσω, Att. -ττω ‘to treat with φ., to heal, poison,
66 chapter 6
enchant’ (ι 393). Furnée (1972: 220) compares φόρβαντα· ἰατρικὰ φάρμακα (H.),
φόρβια· φάρμακα, οἱ δὲ φόρβα (H.). Note the variations α / ο and μ / β, well-
known from Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1b and 2.5.4). Also note the suffix -ακ- (see
3.2.3.13). Foreign origin is already pleaded for by Chantraine (1933: 384) and
Schwyzer (1939: 497).
φλόμος [m.] ‘mullein, Verbascum sinuatum’ (Cratin. [lyr.], Eup. [anap.]). Also
φλόνος (Ps.-Dsc.). The variation φ- / π- shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see
2.5.1).
ὤκιμον [n.] ‘basil, Ocimum Basilicum’ (com., Thphr.). ἄκινος, ἄκονος [m.] ‘wild
basil, Calamintha graveolens’ (Dsc.). The variants suggest a Pre-Greek origin,
with α / ω (2.6.1.1e) and ι / ο (2.6.1.3b).
3.4 Other (Useful) Plants and Flowers

ἄγχουσα [f.] a plant, ‘Anchusa tinctoria’ (Thphr.), with the variant ἔγχουσα.
Apart from the variation α / ε (2.6.1.1a), note the suffix -ουσα (3.2.3.98).
ἀθραγένη [f.] a plant, ‘Clematis vitalba’ (Thphr.), with the variant ἀνδράχνη,
which shows prenasalization (see 2.5.2).
ἀκακαλίς, -ίδος [f.] name of several plants (Dsc.), also ἀκακαλλίς and κακαλίς. A
further variant is κάγκανον = κακ(κ)αλία. The prothetic vowel and prenasal-
ization prove a Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3 and 2.5.2).
ἄκορνα [f.] ‘fish thistle, Cnicus Acarna’ (Thphr.) with the variants κόρνος· κεντρο-
μυρσίνη ‘butcher’s broom, Ruscus aculeatus’ and σκόρνος· κόρνος, μυρσίνη τὸ
φυτόν ‘myrtle’ (H.). The variation ἀ- / σ- / zero, the cluster -ρν- and the short
-α all point to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.2a.14, 2.3, 2.4 and 3.3.1a).
ἀπολάντιον [n.] probably a herb, in σπάρτα ἀπολαντίου (PMag. Lond. 1, 121,
209 [iiip]). Furnée (1972: 344) compares παλλάντιον, a kind of grass, which
suggests that the words are Pre-Greek, in view of the variations ἀ- / zero (2.3),
α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and λ / λλ (2.5.8).
ἄρπιξ [f.]? · εἶδος ἀκάνθης ‘kind of thorny plant’ (H.). ἀπρίξ ‘id.’ (em), also [adj.]
‘fast, tight’; cf. ἄπριγδα [adv.] ‘fast, tight’. The variation with -γδα and the form
itself suggest pg origin (see 3.2.1, 3.3.1a and 3.3.3a). Cf. ἄρπεζα (section 10.2
below).
ἀσφόδελος [m.] ‘asphodel, Asphodelus ramosus’ (Hes.) with the variants σφόδε-
λος (H.), σφοδελός (Ar.), and σποδελός (see 2.3 and 2.5.1).
ἀφάκη [f.] ‘vetch, Vicia angustifolia’ (Pherecr.). Also ἄφακος. Furnée (1972: 373)
takes ἀ- as a prothetic vowel and considers the word to be a substrate word
(note the change of inflection -ος : -η). Also note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
ἄφρισσα [f.] a plant = ἀσκληπιάς (Apul. Herb. 15). Furnée (1972: 330) connects
ἀφία ‘lesser celandine, Ranunculus ficaria’; the suffix -ισσ- suggests a Pre-
Greek word anyhow (see 3.2.3.108).
ἀψίνθιον [n.] ‘wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium’ (Hp.). The suffix -νθ- proves
Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.81).
βλῆχνον [n.] ‘male fern, Aspidium Filix-mas’. Also βλῆχρον (Dsc.), βλήχρα (H.),
βλᾶχνον (Phan. Hist.), βλᾶχρον (H.). The alternation ρ / ν does not derive from
an r/n-stem, but points to Pre-Greek origin (see Furnée 1972: 388, and 2.5.7b
above).
βούπτινον [m.]/[n.]? · βοτάνη, λεγομένη τρίφυλλον ‘a plant called clover’ (H.).
Furnée (1972: 318) thinks that the word is Pre-Greek because of the group
πτ, which is quite possible. Also note the suffix -ιν- (see 3.2.3.78).
γέλενος [?] · ἀσπόδελος, νάρκισσος ‘asphodelus, narcissus’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 138)
compares σχέλινος· ἀγρία κυπάρισσος (H.). If correct, this comparison would
prove an alternation γέλε- / σχέλι-, which would be a strong indication of
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4, 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.2b).
γλαβρήνη [f.] Cretan plant name (unknown poet iiip). Probably a local name,
i.e. Pre-Greek. Note the suffix -ην- (see 3.2.3.58).
δαῦκος [m.] name of several Umbellates (Athamanta Cretensis, Peucedanum
Cervaria, Daucus Carota). Also δαῦχος, δαυχμός ‘Cretensis’ (Nic.). Cf. δαυχμόν·
εὔκαυστον ξύλον δάφνης ‘well-burning wood of the laurel’ (H.). Under δάφνη
(section 3.1 above), it is argued that these forms represent one and the same
word, viz. pg *dakw-(n-); in addition, δαῦκος and δαῦχος are actually identi-
cal, too: δαύκου· τὸ μέντοι δαύκου καὶ δαύχου γράφεται, ἐπί τινων δὲ καὶ γλύκου
(sch. Nic.). The variation κ / χ seems to be due to the suffix -ν- (see 2.5.1 and
3.2.3.91).
δίλαξ · ἡ ἀρία, τὸ φυτὸν. Λάκωνες (H.). MoGr. (Cret.) αζίλακας ‘Quercus ilex’, with
a prothetic vowel (see 2.3).
δόναξ [m.] ‘pole-reed, what is made of it, shaft of an arrow, pipe’ (Il.). Also δῶναξ,
δοῦναξ, gen. -ακος. The variation ο / ου / ω (2.6.1.3d, 2.6.1.3i) and the suffix -αξ
(3.2.3.13) suggest Pre-Greek origin.
δορύκνιον [n.] plant name, ‘Convolvulus oleifolius’, etc. (Dsc.). Furnée (1972: 183)
compares στρύχνον, τρύχνον (section 3.3 above); he assumes that this word
stands for *δρυκ(χ?)νιον. The s-mobile (2.4) and the variations τ / δ (2.5.1)
and ο / zero (2.6.5) show that the word is Pre-Greek. Also note the suffix -κν-
(see 3.2.3.89).
ἤρυγγος 1 [f.] name of a thistle-like plant, ‘Eryngium’ (Nic. et al.). Clearly a
Pre-Greek word in view of the suffix -υγγ- (see 3.2.3.114).
θρύον [n.] ‘reed, rush’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 135) adduces the variants θρύσιος (em
456, 31) and θρύσις (sch. Φ 351), which point to a Pre-Greek word. See also
θρυαλλίς (section 3.3 above).
θύαρος [m.] ‘darnell, Lolium temulentum’ (Ps.-Dsc.). The suffix -αρος points to a
Pre-Greek word (see 3.2.3.28; for the sequence -υαρ-, cf. 2.6.4).
ἰβίσκος [m.] a kind of mallow, ‘marsh mallow = ἀλθαία’. Also ἐβ-. Furnée (1972:
68 chapter 6
355) thinks the word is of Pre-Greek origin, where ε / ι is frequent (see

2.6.1.2b). Also note the suffix -ισκ- (see 3.2.3.85).
κάννα [f.] ‘reed, Arundo donax, reed-fence, -mat’. Ion. κάννη. As a first member
in κανη-φόρος [f.] ‘female carrying a basket’ (Ar.), κανηφορ-έω, -ία, -ικός. The
variation ν / νν and the short -α point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.8 and 3.3.1a).
It is probable that κάνναθρον, κανών and κάναβος are derivations of κάννα, see
s.vv. (sections 9.8, 9.9 and 12.2, respectively). Of these, κανών further has the
variant Myc. ko-no-ni-pi /konōni-phi/, with variation α / ο, another sign of
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1b).
κισσός [m.] ‘ivy, Hedera helix’ (ia). Att. κιττός. Furnée (1972: 256) compares
κιθάρα in the sense of ‘ivy’ (Ps.-Dsc.). We may reconstruct a form pg *kity-
(see 2.5.5.9a).
κλύβατις [f.] plant name = ἑλξίνη, ‘bindweed, Convulvulus arvensis and Smilax
aspera’ (Nic., Dsc.). By-form κουλυβάτεια [f.] (Nic.), perhaps for *κολυβατεια?
See Furnée (1972: 181). Cf. also κολύμβατος [f.] a plant (Gp.) and κολυμβάς,
-άδος = στοιβή (Gal. 14, 18). The Pre-Greek origin is clear in view of the
prenasalization (2.5.2) and the formal variations ο / zero (2.6.5) and τ / δ
(2.5.1). Further note the suffixes -ατ/δ- (3.2.3.5, 3.2.3.31) and -εια (3.2.3.7). The
inserted -ο- may derive from pg *a, i.e. a pre-form *k(a)lu(m)p-at-.
κλών, -ωνός [m.] ‘sprout’ (Att.). Cf. κλῶναξ = κλάδος (H.). Kuiper (1956: 221 f.)
connected the word with κλάδος ‘branch’, with nasalization (replacement
of a stop by the nasal of that series, see 2.5.3) of the δ and variation α / ω
(2.6.1.1e). Further note the suffix of κλῶναξ (3.2.3.13).
κόνυζα [f.] name of a plant with a strong scent, ‘fleabane, Inula (viscosa, grave-
olens, britannica)’. Also σκόνυζα (Pherecr.) and κνύζα (Theoc.). The s-mobile
(2.4), the variation ο / zero (2.6.5) and the short -α (3.3.1a) all point to Pre-
Greek origin. The formation is similar to that of other plant names, cf. e.g.
μώλυζα and μάνυζα in section 3.2 above.
κύπειρον [n.] name of a meadow-plant with an aromatic root, ‘galingale, Cype-
rus longus, rotundus’ (Φ 351, δ 603, Thphr.), cf. Strömberg (1937: 79f.). Var.
κύπερος [m.] (Ion.), κύπαιρος (Alcm.), κύπερα· τὰ σχοινία ἐκ κυπείρου πεπλεγ-
μένα ‘the cords plaited from the galingale’ (H.). The word probably reflects
*kupary-, which explains the variants κυπα(ι)ρο- and κυπε(ι)ρο-; the *a was
phonetically colored to ε before a palatal consonant, which also explains the
lack or presence of ι.
κώδεια [f.] ‘poppyhead, capsule of the grape hyacinth, etc.’ (Ξ 499, Nic.), also
other plants and comparable objects. The variants κώδεα, -υια, -ύᾱ, -ία point
to Pre-Greek origin. Cf. 3.2.3.7 on the suffix -ε(ι)- and 3.3.1a on short -α.
λείριον [n.] ‘lily, Lilium candidum’ (h. Cer. 427, Hp., A. R., Thphr., Dsc.; λείριον
ἄνθεμον Pi.), also ‘narciss’ (Thphr., Dsc.). Like Lat. līlium, the word comes from
an eastern Mediterranean language. A comparable word for ‘lily’ is found in

Coptic: hrêri, hlêli (Eg. ḥrr-t). We also find several similar words for ‘flower’,
Berb. ilili, alili, Alb. lule, Hitt. alil-, alēl.
μαλάχη [f.] ‘mallow’ (Hes.). Also μολόχη, μολάχη (vase inscr. Naples), μάλβακα
[acc.] (Orac. apud Luc. Alex. 25), with variation α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and κ / χ (2.5.1).
Also note the suffix -ακ/χ- (3.2.3.13, 3.2.3.34). We may assume a Pre-Greek
form *malwak-.
μαρίσκος [m.] ‘bog-rush, Cladium mariscus’ (Plin. hn 21, 112). The suffix -ίσκος
probably points to a Pre-Greek word (see 3.2.3.85).
μῆριγξ [?] · ἄκανθα γινομένη ἐν τοῖς ἐρίοις τῶν προβάτων ‘thorns which grow in the
fleece of cattle’, i.e. ‘bristles’? (H.). Var. σμῆριγξ· πόα, καὶ εἶδος ἀκάνθης ‘grass,
also a kind of thorn’ (H.), σμήριγγες· πλεκταί, σειραί, βόστρυχοι ‘braids, cords,
curls of hair’ (H.). The s-mobile (2.4) and the suffix -ιγγ- (3.2.3.69) point to
Pre-Greek origin. Cf. μήρινθος ‘cord, thread’ (section 9.9 below).
νάρθηξ, -ηκος [m.] ‘giant fennel, Ferula communis’, also denoting its hollow
stalk, which was used as a thyrsos and splint, among other things (Hes.);
also ‘capsule, cupboard’ (Str.). The variant νάθραξ· νάρθηξ (H.), as well as
the tn Ναρθάκιον, point to original -ᾱκ-, which is a Pre-Greek suffix (see
3.2.3.13). See Furnée (1972: 199), who compares νάρδος ‘spikenard, Indian
narde, Nardostachys Jatamansi’, which seems to be of Semitic (Phoenician)
origin; cf. Semitic forms like Hebr. nērd, Aram. nirda, and Babyl. lardu.
νάρκισσος [m.(f.)] ‘narcissus’ (h. Cer.). The suffix clearly points to a Pre-Greek
word (see 3.2.3.108).
νήθουσα [f.] plant name (PMag. Par.). Probably a Pre-Greek word; see Furnée
(1972: 19755). Note the suffix -ουσ- (see 3.2.3.98).
ξίρις [f.] ‘Iris foetidissima’ (Thphr.). Variants σῖρις or σίρις, ξυρίς, ξειρίς. The
variations ι / υ (2.6.1.4) and ξ / σ (2.5.5.7b) point to Pre-Greek origin.
ὄνωνις [f.] plantname, ‘restharrow, Ononis antiquorum’ (Thphr.). Furnée (1972:
340f.) compares ἀνωνίς (Dsc.), with variation α / ο (2.6.1.1b), so it is probably
a Pre-Greek word.
σάμαξ, -ᾰκος [m.] ‘bulrush, mat of bulrush’ (com. va). The suffix is Pre-Greek
(see 3.2.3.13).
σκάνδιξ, -ῑκος [f.] ‘wild chervil, Scandix pecten Veneris’ (Ar., And., Thphr., Dsc.).
Also σκάνδυξ. Clearly of Pre-Greek origin, in view of the suffix (3.2.3.74) and
the variation displayed by the suffix. Cf. also κασκάνδιξ, a kind of onion,
which could well be a variant of it.
σόγκος, σόγχος [m.] ‘sow thistle, Sonchus aspera’ (Antiph., Thphr., etc.). Consid-
ering the variation, clearly a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.1).
σχοῖνος [m., f.] ‘rush, reed, rope plaited of rush’ (ε 463), also as an (Egyptian) land
measure (Hdt. 2, 6, Hero, pap.). Furnée (1972: 391) compares κοίνα· χόρτος
70 chapter 6
‘fence’ (H.); because of the variations σ / zero and κ / χ, the word is Pre-Greek
(see 2.4 and 2.5.1).
τίφυον [n.] ‘Scilla autumnalis, squill’ (Thphr.). Cf. ἴφυον (section 3.3 above). The
variation in τίφυον / ἴφυον points to Pre-Greek origin (Furnée 1972: 391; see
2.5.10 above).
ὑάκινθος [m., f.] ‘hyacinth’ (Ξ 348, Sapph.); designation of a blue cloth or a
blue color (lxx, Ph., J., pap.); also of a precious stone (late). Cret. ϝακ-, βακ-.
An evidently Pre-Greek word, cf. Furnée (1972: 242, 377; though not with a
prothetic u-, as he argues, but with pg *w-). Also note the suffix -ινθ- (see
3.2.3.81).
3.5 Fungi
́
ἐρυσῑβη [f.] ‘rust in plants’ (Pl., X., Arist.; long ī in Orph. L. 600). Ἐρεθίβιος,
Ἐρεθῑμ́ ιος, Ἐρεδῑμ́ ιος. The word is Pre-Greek because of the alternations of
dental stop (θ, δ) with σ and β / μ (see 2.5.5.9a and 2.5.4). The long ῑ is also
typical for Pre-Greek word formation (see the suffixes -ῑβ-, -ῑγ-, -ῑδ-, -ῑθ-, -ῑκ-,
-ῑν- in 3.2.3).
ἴσκαι [f.pl.] ‘fungus growing on oaks and walnut-trees’. ὕσκαι, uncertain reading.
If the variant is reliable, the variation ι / υ (2.6.1.4) would point to a Pre-Greek
word.
ἴτον [n.] Thracian name for a kind of mushroom. οὐιτόν· τὸ ὑπ’ ἐνίων οἰτόν (H.).
Probably ϝιτόν (thus delg). Furnée (1972: 110, 184) connects it with ὕδνον,
ὕτνον ‘truffle’ (below), also οἶδνον, -τν-. The initial variation could go back to
pg *wit-. Further note τ / δ (2.5.1) and the suffix -ν- (3.2.3.91). See also ὀπιτίων
(section 3.2 above).
μύκης, -ητος [m.] ‘mushroom’, also metaph., e.g. ‘mushroom-like protuberance,
any knob or rounded body, cab or cap at the end of a scabbard, snuff of a
lamp-wick, membrum virile’ (ia). Gurméa connects the word with μύσκλοι·
οἱ πυθμένες τῶν ξηρῶν σύκων ‘stalks of dried-up fig trees’ (H.), which implies
that the word is Pre-Greek (interchange κ / σκ, see 2.5.5.3b).
ὕδνον [n.] name of a mushroom, ‘truffle’ (Hell. and late). Under ἴτον (above), I
have argued that we must assume a Pre-Greek word, in view of the variants
ὕτνον, οἶδνον, οἶτνον, adduced by Furnée (1972: 110, 184), which point to pg
*wit-(n-). The υ- is probably a form of οι- (see 6.1.3f), with the -o- changed
under influence of the -ι-, which was itself lost because Greek did not allow
-υι- before consonants.
4 Fauna
4.1 Domesticated Animals and Their Attributes

βόλβιτον [n.] ‘cow dung’ (see Rohlfs 1937: 54f.). Also -ος [m.] (Thphr.), βόλβιθος.
βόλβιτα· ἀφόδευμα βοός ‘cow dung’ (H.) (i.e. βόλβις), followed by βόλβυθον· τὸ
αὐτό. The alternations τ / θ and ι / υ are typical for Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.4). The variation between β and zero is perhaps best explained from a
labialized lateral, i.e. *balw-it-. For the suffix, see 3.2.3.87.
διφθέρα [f.] ‘prepared skin, hide, leather’, also of leather objects (ia). διψάρα·
δέλτος, οἱ δὲ διφθέρα ‘writing-tablet; piece of leather’ (H.). The variation φθ /
ψ and ε / α point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.4a and 2.6.1.1a). Further note
the suffix -ερ- (see 3.2.3.48). See also δέφω in section 15.
ἤρυγγος 2 [m.] ‘goat’s beard’ (Arist. ha 610b 29). Although the meaning ‘goat’s
beard’ is unexplained beside those of ἤρυγγος 1 name of a thistle-like plant,
‘Eryngium’ (section 3.4 above), the word is clearly Pre-Greek; see 3.2.3.114 on
the suffix -υγγ-.
ἴξαλος [m.] ‘(castrated) he-goat’ (Δ 105, ap; on the mg. see Maaß 1925: 464f.).
Cf. ἰσχαλωμέναι· δεδερματωμέναι ‘skinned?’ (H.), and ἴσκλαι· αἱ αἴγειαι μηλω-
ταί ‘goatskins’ (H.); further ἰξαλῆ [f.] ‘goatskin’ (Hp. Fract. 29) with several
variants: ἰσάλη (sch. Ar. Nu. 72), ἰτθέλη (Poll.), ἰττέλη (Poll.), ἰσσέλη (Thgn.),
ἰσσέλα, ἰσθλῆ, ἰτθέλα (H.), etc. I suggest that the Pre-Greek word was *iktyal-
with a palatalized ty as its second consonant (see 2.5.5.7b).
κάδυρος [m.] · κάπρος ἄνορχις ‘boar without testicles’ (H.). The element -υρ-
points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.133).
κίλλιξ 2 [?] · βοῦς τὸ ἓν κέρας ἔχων διεστραμμένον ‘cow with one twisted
horn’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 356) connects it with κελλόν· στρεβλόν. πλάγιον
‘twisted, athwart’ (H.), with variation ε / ι (2.6.1.2b). Further note the suffix
-ιξ (3.2.3.73).
κινάβρα [f.] ‘smell of a (male) goat’ (Luc., Poll.). Perhaps related to κενέβρειος
‘carcase of an animal, carrion’ (doubts in Schwyzer 1939: 350). At any rate,
the structure of the word points to Pre-Greek origin; note the suffixes -αβ-
(3.2.3.1) and -ρ- (3.2.3.101).
μαράσσαι [f.pl.] · κύνες, ὄρνιθες ‘dogs, birds’ (H.). Also ἀμαράσαι· αἱ σῦς. οἱ δὲ κύνας
‘swine, others: bitches’ (H.), see Furnée (1972: 372). The word is Pre-Greek
in view of the prothetic vowel (see 2.3). Perhaps further related to μαρίν· τὴν
σῦν. Κρῆτες ‘swine (Cret.)’ (H.).
νάκη [f.] ‘woolen skin, fleece’, especially of sheep and goats (ξ 530, Lyc., Paus.).
More common is νάκος [n.]. Cf. νακύριον· δέρμα ‘skin, hide’ (H.). A Pre-Greek
word, see Furnée (1972: 294, 305). The suffixation of νακύριον points in the
same direction (see 3.2.3.133).
72 chapter 6
οἰσπώτη [f.] ‘greasy dirt of unshorn sheep’s wool, especially on the buttocks’,
also ‘sheep droppings’ (Cratin., Ar., D. C., Poll.). Also οἴσπη (v.l. Hdt. 4, 187,
Gal.), οἶσπαι· προβάτων κόπρος, ῥύπος ‘sheep droppings, filth’ (H.), see οἰσύπη
(directly below). The word is probably Pre-Greek; cf. the suffix -ωτ-
(3.2.3.149). See Furnée (1972: 188, 384, and οἰσύπη below).
οἰσύπη [f.] ‘the greasy extract of sheep’s wool’ (Hdt. 4, 187, Hp.); cf. Dsc. 2, 74 with
an extensive description of the preparation; acc. to H. it is ὁ τῆς οἰὸς ῥύπος
‘sheep’s ordure’. There is clear evidence for the variant οἴσπη (see οἰσπώτη
above). The word is most probably Pre-Greek (the meaning also speaks for
this). One might think of a labialized s, thus *oiswp-.
πτίλον [n.] ‘fluff, down, insect wing’, metaphorically ‘leaf, etc.’ (ia). Dor. ψίλον
(Paus. 3, 19, 6). Furnée (1972: 263) takes the alternation πτίλον / ψίλον as
evidence for a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.5.4a).
σίαλος [m.] ‘fat pig, porker’, also appositive to σῦς ‘id.’ (Hom., Q. S., Thphr. apud
Porph.); metaph. ‘fat, grease’ (Hp. Acut. [Sp.] 37). Myc. si-a2-ro. The word is
probably of Pre-Greek origin; cf. the initial σ- and the suffix -αλ- (see 2.2a.15
and 3.2.3.15).
σπέλεθος [m.] ‘dung’ (Ar. Ec. 595). Also πέλεθος. Cf. σπέλληξι· σπελέθοις, πελλία·
σπέλεθοι (H.). The s-mobile and the geminate -λλ- in the variants may point
to Pre-Greek origin, in which case the root could reflect *(s)paly- (see 2.4 and
2.5.8). Further note the suffixes -θ- (3.2.3.65) and -ηκ- (3.2.3.55).
τιθασός [adj.] ‘tamed, domestic, cultivated, mild’ (A. Eu. 356 [lyr.]). Words in
-ασος generally have Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.29).
τολύπη [f.] ‘a clew of wool or yarn’, also metaphorically of onion bulbs, pump-
kins, ball-shaped cakes (Ar. Lys. 586, Eub., S. Fr. 1102, lxx, ap, etc.). The struc-
ture CaC-up- is typical of Pre-Greek words, with a appearing as o before u
and the suffix -up- (see 2.5.13.2, 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.132). Furnée (1972: 340) com-
pares Luw. taluppi ‘clump of dough’. (A language cognate to) Pre-Greek must
have been spoken in large parts of Anatolia as well, which may explain why
a similar word is found in Anatolian.
φάζαινα [f.] a disease of horses (Hippiatr.). Clearly a Pre-Greek word in -αινα
(see Furnée 1972: 172117 and 3.2.3.11 above).
φορῑν́ η [f.] ‘hard and rough skin’, especially ‘swine’s hide’ (Hp.). Variant φορίνη·
ἡ παρ’ ἐνίοις πυρίνη (H.). The variant πυρίνη shows that the word is Pre-Greek
(see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.3c). Also note the suffix -ῑν- (see 3.2.3.79).
4.2 Other Mammals (Also Aquatic)

ἀσπάλαξ, -ακος [m.] ‘mole, Sphalax typhus’ (Arist.). Also σπάλαξ [m., f.], ἀσφάλαξ
[m.] and σφάλαξ. The variations (prothetic vowel, π / φ) in combination with
the suffix -ακ- virtually ascertain substrate origin (see 2.3, 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.13).
The synonym σκάλοψ may be a variant, or a recent metathesis.
βόλινθος [m.] ‘aurochs, the European bison’, = βόνασος (Arist.). Probably Pre-
Greek; note the suffix -ινθ- (see 3.2.3.81).
γη(γ)γήλιξ [?] · ὁ ἄγριος μῦς ‘wild mouse’ (H.). Cf. γήλιγρος. γηγγ- shows typically
Pre-Greek prenasalization and reduplication (see 2.5.2 and 3.1). Likewise, a
suffix -ρ(ο)-, as seen in the variant γήλιγρος, is well-known from Pre-Greek
(see 3.2.3.101).
ἴνδουρος [m.] · ἀσπάλαξ ‘mole’ (H.). Note the suffix -ουρ- (see 3.2.3.97).
κῆβος [m.] ‘monkey with a long tail’ (Arist., Str., Gal.). Also κῆπος, κεῖπος and
*κηφος because of Lat. cephus. The variants point to a Pre-Greek word (see
2.5.1 and 2.6.1.2f).
κίδαφος [?] = ἀλώπηξ ‘fox’ (H.). Fem. κιδάφη; also κινδάφη, κι(ν)δάφιος; further
σκίνδαφος [f.] (Ael.), σκιδάφη (Arc. Gr.). Another variant is κίραφος, which
is an extended form of κίρα (see directly below). The variations show the
Pre-Greek character of the word: s-mobile (2.4), prenasalization (2.5.2) and
δ / ρ (2.5.7b); further note the suffix -αφ- (3.2.3.33).
κίρα [?] · ἀλώπηξ. Λάκωνες ‘fox (Lacon.)’ (H.). κίραφος· ἀλώπηξ (H.). κίραφος has
the Pre-Greek suffix -αφ- (3.2.3.33); see further κίδαφος above.
κνώδαλον [n.] ‘wild or harmful animal’ (ρ 317). Cf. κνώδων, -οντος, plur. ‘teeth
of a sword or a javelin’, sing. ‘sword’, perhaps also κνώδᾱξ, -ᾱκος ‘pin, pivot’,
also ‘sockets for an axe’. The glosses κάναδοι· σιαγόνες, γνάθοι ‘jaws’, κναδάλλε-
ται· κνήθεται ‘gnaws’ (H.) belong here, too. Maybe further related to γνάθος
‘jaw’ (see γναθμός, section 7.1 below) and κνῆν ‘to scratch, itch’. No doubt
Pre-Greek, since κναδ- cannot continue an ie pre-form. Further note the vari-
ation α / ω (2.6.1.1e), the epenthetic α of κάναδοι (2.6.5), and the suffix -αλ-
(3.2.3.15).
λάταξ 2, -αγος [f.] name of a quadruped that lives in the water, perhaps ‘beaver’
(Arist. ha). Probably Pre-Greek, in view of the suffix -αγ- (see 3.2.3.2).
μόναπος [m.] Paeonic word for βόνασος, βόλινθος ‘aurochs’ (Arist.). Also μόναι-
πος, μόνωψ, -ωπος. Furnée (1972: 207, etc.) further derives μόνωτος (Antig. Mir.
53 cod.) from *μοναϝτος < *μοναπτος; both μόναιπος and *μοναπτος may con-
tinue a Pre-Greek pre-form *monapy-. Other variants could be βόλινθος and
βόνασ(σ)ος (with β / μ and λ / ν, see 2.5.4 and 2.5.7a).
ὄβρια [n.pl.] ‘cubs of wild animals’ (E. Fr. 616); cf. ἰβρίκαλοι· χοῖροι ‘young pigs’
(H.). Further, ὀβρικάλοισι, ὀβρίχοισι. Furnée (1972: 19137) assumes Pre-Greek
origin with interchange ὀ- / ἰ- (see 2.6.1.3b). Although this is a rare inter-
74 chapter 6
change, the variation in the suffixes -κ- and -χ- seems to confirm this (see
2.5.1).
σαθέριον [n.] a marine quadruped, not further defined (Arist. ha 594b). Also
σαθρίον (v.l.). Furnée (1972: 190) supposes that the word denotes a beaver, and
compares σατύριον, probably ‘sorex moschatus’ (Arist. ha 32). The variation
points to Pre-Greek origin.
σίγραι · τῶν ἀγρίων συῶν οἱ βραχεῖς καὶ σιμοί ‘small and snub-noised wild swine’
(H.). Pre-Greek, in view of the gloss σίκα· ὗς. Λάκωνες ‘swine (Laconian)’ (H.),
which shows the variation κ / γ (2.5.1) and proves -ρ- to be a suffix (3.2.3.101).
σκίναξ, -ᾰκος [m.] designation or epithet of the hare, λαγωός (Nic.). Often com-
pared with κίνδαξ· εὐκίνητος ‘easily moved’ (H.) (see section 13 below), al-
though this is semantically rather gratuitous (the meaning of σκίναξ is
unclear). If connected, the variation between σκιν- / κινδ- further confirms
a Pre-Greek origin, which is already suggested by the presence of the suffix
-ακ- (see 2.4 and 3.2.3.13).
σμίνθος [m.] ‘mouse’ (A. Fr. 227 = 380 M., Lyc., Str., ap); σμίνθα· ἡ κατοικίδιος
μῦς ‘domestic mouse’ (H.). A Mysian word, according to sch. A 39. Probably
Pre-Greek, as the suffix and the final -α of σμίνθα suggest (see 3.2.3.81 and
3.3.1a). It may be somehow connected with Etr. isminθians, an epithet of
Mars; cf. Σμινθεύς, an epithet of Apollo.
σπάλαξ, -ακος [f., m.] ‘mole’ (Arist. etc.), also as a plant name ‘meadow saf-
fron, Colchicum parnassicum’ (Thphr.). Also ἀσπάλαξ, σφάλαξ, ἀσφάλαξ. The
variation and the suffix betray a Pre-Greek word; see ἀσπάλαξ (this section,
above).
ὕραξ, -ακος [m.] ‘shrew-mouse’ (Nic. Al. 37). The suffix -αξ is Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.13), like (probably) the word itself. The word is close in form to Lat.
sōrex, -icis [m.] ‘id.’, which may come from the same source.
ὕστριξ, -ιχος [m., f.] ‘porcupine, hedgehog’ (Hdt., Arist., Ael.), plur. metaphori-
cally ‘swine-breasts’ (Pl. Com.). Gen.pl. ὑστρ-ίγγων. To my mind, the prenasal-
ization proves Pre-Greek origin; see 2.5.2. Further note the variation χ / γ and
the suffix (see 2.5.1, 3.2.3.69, 3.2.3.88).
φάλλαινα [f.] ‘whale’ (A. Fr. 464 M., Arist., Str., Nonn., etc.), of a monster (Ar. V.
35, 39, Lyc. 841); also ‘moth’ (Nic. Th. 760; Rhodian acc. to sch.). Codd. often
φάλαινα, but the length of the syllable is metrically ascertained. The word
will be of Pre-Greek origin; note the variation between single and geminate
λ (see 2.5.8) and the suffix -αινα (see Furnée 1972: 171177 and 3.2.3.11 above).
φαττάγης [m.] ‘scaly ant-eater’ (Ael.). Also σπατάγγης (Sophr.), πατάγγης (Poll.).
The variants show that the word is Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972: 164, 281), with
σ- / zero (2.4), π / φ (2.5.1), τ / ττ (2.5.8) and prenasalization (2.5.2). Also note
the suffix -α(γ)γ- (3.2.3.2–3).
φωλεός [m.] ‘lair, hole of wild animals’ (Arist., Hell.+). The ending -εος looks
Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.7).
ὤρυγγες [m.pl.] ‘striped or piebald horses, including zebras’ (Opp. K. 1, 317). The
prenasalized suffix -υ(γ)γ- points to a Pre-Greek word (see 3.2.3.114).
4.3 Birds
αἴγιθος [m.] ‘titmouse (Parus)’ (Ar.). Also αἴγινθος, αἰγίοθος (for *αἴγισθος?), αἰγί-
θαλλος, -θᾱλος. A typical substrate word, discernible from its prenasalization
and the suffix -αλ(λ)- with variation λ / λλ (see 2.5.2, 2.5.8 and 3.2.3.15).
αἰγυπιός [m.] ‘vulture’ (Il.). αἰγίποψ· ἀετός ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων ‘eagle (Maced.)’ (em
28, 19). Variation between ι and υ is well-attested in substrate words (see
2.6.1.4), and -οπ- is a Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.93). γύψ itself is no doubt a
substrate word as well (see s.v. below); it may be a variant of *(a)gyup-, which
also gives αἰγυπ-, with prothetic vowel and palatalized /g’/.
αἰσάλων [m.] kind of falcon (Arist.); see Thompson (1895). Cf. αἰσάρων· εἶδος
ἱέρακος ‘id.’ (H.), with variation λ / ρ (see 2.5.7c).
ἄπαφος [m.] · ἔποψ τὸ ὄρνεον ‘hoopoe, Upupa epops’ (H.). The variation with
ἔποψ, -πος suggests a substrate word, with α / ε (2.6.1.1a), α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and
π / φ (2.5.1). Further note the suffix -αφ-/-οπ- (3.2.3.33, 3.2.3.93).
ἀσκάλαφος [m.] name of an unknown bird, perhaps an owl (Arist.), see Thomp-
son (1895 s.v.). Also κάλαφος· ἀσκάλαφος. Μάγνητες (H.). Clearly a subtrate
word, as appears from the prothetic vowel (2.3), the s-mobile (2.4), and the
suffix -αφ- (3.2.3.33).
ἀσκαλώπας [m.] ‘woodcock, Scolopax rusticola’ (Arist.). Probably identical with
σκολόπαξ, name of a bird. A substrate word with the typical variations ἀ- /
zero, α / ο and ο / ω (see 2.3, 2.6.1.1b and 2.6.1.3e) and the typical suffix -αξ
(see 3.2.3.13).
βαῖβυξ, -υκος [m.] ‘pelican’ (Hdn. Gr., H. ex Philet., Choerob.). βαυβυκᾶνες· πελε-
κᾶνες (H.). A typical Pre-Greek word. Note the suffix -υκ- (see 3.2.3.119).
βασκᾶς [m.] kind of duck. Also βοσκάς, -άδος and φασκάς, -άδος. The variations
β / φ and α / ο clearly point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.1b). Further
note the suffix -αδ- (see 3.2.3.5).
γύψ [m.] ‘vulture’ (Il.). The word is no doubt Pre-Greek. Perhaps it represents
*(a)gyup-; see αἰγυπιός above.
γῶπας [acc.pl.] · κολοιούς. Μακεδόνες ‘jackdaw (Maced.)’ (H.). γώψ· κολοιός ‘id.’
(H.). Cf. σκώψ, κώψ ‘owl’ below (Furnée 1972: 110). The variations σ- / zero and
γ / κ point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4 and 2.5.1).
ἴυγξ, -γγος [f.] name of a bird, ‘Iynx torquilla’ (Arist., Ael.), which was bound
to a turning wheel during incantations to win back a lost love; thence the
meaning ‘spell, charm’ (Pi., Ar., X., cf. Gow 1934: 1 ff.; and Theocr. 2, 41). The
76 chapter 6
suffix -υγγ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.114). Probably related to

(folk-etymologically adapted after?) ἰύζω ‘to cry aloud, howl’ (see section 15
below).
κάλανδρος [m.] ‘kind of lark’ (Dionys. Av. 3, 15). The suffix -ανδρ- points to
καύαξ · λάρος (H.), name of a sea-bird, perhaps ‘seamew, tern’ (see Thompson
1895 s.v.). Also καύηξ, κήξ and and κῆϋξ. The suffix -αξ and the variants point
to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.13). Perhaps further related to κῶβαξ ‘the large
cicala’ (see section 4.7 below).
κελεός [m.] ‘green woodpecker, Picus viridis’ (Arist.). The variae lectiones καλιός,
κολιός, etc. are a sign of Pre-Greek origin.
κέπφος [m.] name of an unknown water-bird, mostly identified with the stormy
petrel, Thalassidroma pelagica, but without sufficient reason (Arist., Thphr.,
Lyc., Nic.); also metaph. of a simple man who can easily be deceived (Ar.,
Call.). A by-form is κεμπός· κοῦφος, ἐλαφρὸς ἄνθρωπος ‘stupid person’ (H.). The
prenasalization shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2). Also note the
variation π / πφ (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
κίγκλος [m.] ‘dabchick’, acc. to H. ὄρνεον πυκνῶς τὴν οὐρὰν κινοῦν ‘a bird often
wagging its tail’ (com., Arist.); details in Thompson (1895 s.v.). Also as a
fish name κίγκαλος. The variation κί(γ)χλος, κίγκαλος, κέγκλος, etc. in the
tradition shows that the word is Pre-Greek, with the variations κ / χ (2.5.1),
ε / ι (2.6.1.2b), α / zero (2.6.5) and prenasalization (2.5.2).
κίσιρνις [?] · ὄρνις ποιός ‘kind of bird’ (H.), also κίσινδις (Latte s.v.). Cf. κίσσιρις·
εἶδος ὀρνέου ‘kind of bird’ (Suid.). The variation σ / σσ (see 2.5.8) and the suffix
-ρν- and its variants (see 2.2a.14 and 3.2.3.104) point to Pre-Greek origin.
κίχλη [f.] ‘thrush’ (χ 468); also name of a fish, a kind of wrasse (Epich., Arist.),
because it changes its color with the seasons, like the thrush; see Ström-
berg (1943: 116). Dor. κιχήλα. Cf. ἴχλα· κίχλα (H.) (section 4.5 below) and
ἴσκλαι = κίχλαι (H.). Various variations, notably κ- / zero (2.5.10) and χ / σκ
(2.5.5.3b).
κολοιός [m.] ‘jackdaw, Corvus monedula’ (Il., Pi., Ar., Arist.). κολῳάω ‘to cry (like
a jackdaw)’. An explanation of the notation with -ῳ- (in ἐκολῴα B 212) has
not been found. Cf. also κολουᾶν· θορυβεῖν ‘to make noise’ (H.). These variants
may be of Pre-Greek origin (cf. 2.6.1.3d, 2.6.1.3e).
κόλυμβος [m.] ‘little grebe, Podiceps minor’ (Ar.), see Thompson (1895: 158).
Denominative κολυμβάω ‘to dive, submerge, jump into the water, swim’, also
κολυμφάω. Apart from the suffix -υμβ- (see 3.2.3.125), the variant κολυμφάω
proves that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1). The variation μβ / βδ is most
easily explained from *py, the palatal feature of which was lost after prenasal-
ization, giving μβ (see 2.5.2 and 2.5.5.1a).
κόμβα [f.] · κορώνη. Πολυρρήνιοι ‘shearwater, crow (Polyrrhenian)’ (H.). It has

been compared with κόμπος ‘loud noise, bragging’, which would attest to a
variation π / β (2.5.1). κομβακεύεται· κόμπους λέγει ‘brags, boasts’ (H.) further
contains the Pre-Greek element -ακ- (3.2.3.13). If the bird name κύμβη (in
πτεροβάμοσι κύμβαις, Emp. 20, 7) is related, it is yet another variant, with ο /
υ (2.6.1.3c).
κόρυδος [m., f.] ‘(crested) lark, Alauda cristata’ (Ar., Pl., Arist.). Also κορύ-
δαλ(λ)ος. With different vocalism κάρυδοι· καρύδαλοι (H.). Variation α / ο
(2.6.1.1b). Further note the suffixes -υδ- (3.2.3.115) and -αλ(λ)-, which is the
Pre-Greek suffix *-aly- (3.2.3.15).
κύμινδις, -ιος, -ιδος [f., m.] name of an unknown bird (Ξ 291, Ar. Av. 1181, Arist.).
Var. κύβινδις, v.l. κόμινδις (Procl.), with μ / β and ο / υ (see 2.5.4 and 2.6.1.3c).
Also note the suffix -ινδ- (see 3.2.3.80).
κύχραμος [m.] name of an unknown migratory bird, which accompanies the
quail (Arist.); see Thompson (1895 s.v.). Also κέ-, κί- (v.ll.); κιγκράμας· ὄρνεον
(H.). For the vocalic variation, see 2.6.1.2c. Pre-Greek origin is further con-
firmed by the variation κ / χ and the prenasalization (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2).
λώβηξ, -ηκος [m.] · γύψ ‘vulture’ (Cyran. 28). λούπης = ἰκτῖνος ‘kite, Milvus regalis’
(Hierocl.), λούππις ‘milvus’ (gloss.). The variations ω / ου (2.6.1.3i) and π / β /
ππ (2.5.1, 2.5.8), as well as the suffix -ηξ (3.2.3.55), suggest Pre-Greek origin.
Cf. further Lat. lupiō ‘to cry, of the kite’ (Suet. Fr. p. 251).
μέρμνος [m.] ‘kind of falcon’ (Call., Ael.). Fauth (1968: 257) recalls the pns
Μάρμαξ (Paus.) and Βάρβαξ, and μόρφνος (epithet of αἰετός ‘eagle’, meaning
unclear). The last connection could show that the word is Pre-Greek (alter-
nation μ / φ, see 2.5.4).
οὖραξ, -αγος [f.] Att. name of the bird τέτριξ (Arist.). The suffix is Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.2); the word has nothing to do with οὐρά ‘tail’.
πελεκάν, -ᾶνος [m.] ‘pelican’ (Anaxandr. Com., Arist.). Derived from πέλεκυς
‘axe’ (see section 9.6 below) because of the functional and/or formal simi-
larity with an axe. Furnée (1972: 320) compares σπέλεκτος· πελεκάν (H.), with
an s-mobile (see 2.4). Further note the suffix -ᾱν- (see 3.2.3.20).
πέρδιξ, -ῑκ̆ ος [m., f.] ‘partridge’ (Archil.). The suffix is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.73–
74).
πηνέλοψ, -οπος [m.] ‘duck or wild goose with colored neck’ (Alc.). Aeol., Dor.
πᾱν-. Formation like other animal names in -οψ. Because of this suffix, the
word may be Pre-Greek in origin (see 3.2.3.93). The bird may have served as
the base for the pn Πηνελόπεια (for the suffix -εια, see 3.2.3.7). The stem is
also found in Πηνέλ-εως [m.], name of a Boeotian leader (Il.).
πίφιγξ [?] name of an unknown bird (Arist., Ant. Lib., em), acc. to H. = κορυδαλ-
λός ‘lark’; also πιφαλλίς (after κορυ-δαλλίς?) (H.). Also -φιξ, -φηξ. The suffix -ιξ
78 chapter 6
and its prenasalized variant -ιγξ strongly point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2,
3.2.3.69 and 3.2.3.73). The other suffixes are Pre-Greek as well (see 3.2.3.15
and 3.2.3.55).
πῶυξ [f.] name of an unknown bird, cf. πῶυξ· ποιὸς ὄρνις. ὁ Ἀριστοτέλης ἐν τῷ περὶ
ζῴων (H.); attempts at an identification in Thompson (1895 s.v. φῶυξ). Also
φῶυξ (Arist.), πῶυγξ, plur. -υγγες (Ant. Lib., em). The word must be Pre-Greek
in view of the variation π / φ in the initial, the variation γ / γγ in the suffix,
and the suffix -υγγ- itself (see 2.5.1, 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.114).
ῥάμφος [n.] ‘(hooked) bird beak’ (com.). Further ῥαμψόν· καμπύλον, βλαισόν
‘crooked or bent, distorted’; ῥαμψὰ γόνατα· βλαισὰ γόνατα, τὸ δὲ αὐτὸ καὶ ῥαιβά
‘curved knees’ (H.). Next to ῥάμφος and ῥαμφή́ ‘crooked knife’, we find ῥέμφος·
τό στόμα, ἢ ῥίς ‘mouth or nose’ (H.). The variation between β and ψ points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.2a), as does the α-vocalism. Moreover, ῥαιβός
‘crooked, bent inward’ (section 13 below) is also clearly a variant (see Furnée
1972: 286, 335, 338). This means that ῥάμφος has prenasalization (2.5.2),
beside ῥαιβός with the frequent variation α / αι (2.6.1.1c), where ι is from a
following palatalized consonant.
σκαλίδρις [f.] a speckled water-bird, probably ‘redshank, Scolopax calidris’
(Arist. ha 593b). Also καλίδρις (v.l.). The variation σκ- / κ- may point to a Pre-
Greek origin (see 2.4).
σκώψ, σκωπός [m.] ‘little horned owl’ (ε 66, Epich., Arist., Theoc. et al.); metaph.
as a fish name (Nic. Fr. 18), probably after the colors (Strömberg 1943: 114);
name of a dance (Ael., Poll.), with in the same mg. also σκώπευμα (A. Fr. 70 =
20 M.) and σκωπίας (Poll.); as a name of a dance also connected with σκοπεῖν
(Ath., H.). Also κώψ. Further γῶπας· κολοιούς. Μακεδόνες ‘jackdaw (Maced.)’
(H.). Given these variations, the word is probably Pre-Greek (see 2.4 and
2.5.1).
σμάρδικον [n.] · στρουθίον ‘sparrow; lewd person’; σμαρδικοπῶλαι· οἱ τοὺς στρου-
θοὺς πωλοῦντες ‘those who sell sparrows’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 226) compares
σπαράσιον = ὄρνεον ἐμφερὲς στρουθῷ ‘bird resembling a sparrow’ (H.) (see
below). If σμορδοῦν· συνουσιάζειν ‘to keep company, have intercourse with’
(H.) is related, as per Grošelj (1957: 228), the interchange α / ο would also
point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1b).
σπαράσιον [n.] ὄρνεον ἐμφερὲς στρουθῷ ‘bird resembling a sparrow’ (H.). If from
*σπαρϝ-άσιον, σπαράσιον may be compared with a widespread Germanic
name of the sparrow, e.g. Go. sparwa, ohg sparo, on spǫrr < PGm.
*sparu̯ a(n)-. Furnée (1972: 226) compares σμάρδικον· στρουθίον (H.) (directly
above), which would give us a typically Pre-Greek variation between π and
μ (see 2.5.4).
στρί(γ)ξ [f.] ‘owl’ (Carm. Pop., Theognost.); cf. στρίγλος· … οἱ δὲ νυκτοκόρακα
‘night-raven (vel sim.)’ (H.). Also στλίξ, acc. στρίγγα. Its facultative nasal
points to substrate origin, as does the variation ρ / λ (see 2.5.2 and 2.5.7c).
χελῑδών, -όνος [f.] ‘swallow’ (Od.), often metaph., e.g. of a flying fish (middle
com., Arist.), see Strömberg (1943: 117f.), Thompson (1947 s.v.). Contains the
Pre-Greek suffix -ῑδ- (see 3.2.3.70). Furnée (1972: 272, 355) assumes Mediter-
ranean origin (also for Lat. hirundō ‘id.’).
4.4 Reptiles and Amphibians

ἀμύς, -ύδος [f.] ‘freshwater turtle’, χελώνη λιμναία; cf. var. ἐμύς. The variation α /
ε and the suffix -υδ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1a and 3.2.3.115).
ἀσκάλαβος [m.] ‘lizard, gecko’. Also ἀσκαλαβώτης, σκαλαβώτης, καλαβώτης.
καλαβάς· καλαβώτης (H.). The prothetic vowel, the s-mobile and the suffixes
-αβ- and -ωτ- are typical for substrate words (see 2.3, 2.4, 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.149).
βάτραχος [m.] ‘frog’ (Hdt.). Also name of a fish, ‘Lophius piscatorius’ (Arist.), see
Strömberg (1943: 92f.). Ion. βάθρακος; further βότραχος, βρόταχος; βρατάχους·
βατράχους (H.); βρούχετος· … βάτραχον δὲ Κύπριοι (H.); βύρθακος· βάτραχος
(H.); βρύτιχοι· βάτραχοι μικροὶ ἔχοντες οὐράς ‘frogs having small tails’ (H.);
βριαγχόνην· βάτραχον. Φωκεῖς (H.); βρόγχος· βάτραχος (H.). A priori, a local
(i.e. Pre-Greek) form is to be expected for all of these forms; the variation
α / ο points to this (see 2.6.1.1b). This holds for βαρδακος as well (see 2.5.1), if
this is what must be read in H. for βαρακος· βάτραχος (Furnée 1972: 1842; see
Latte). The form may in origin have been onomatopoeic βρατ-αχ- (cf. Grošelj
1956: 235), with which compare βρεκεκεξ; or even *brt-ak-, from which the
forms with -υ- may have originated (βύρθακος, βρύτιχος). The hopeless forms
βριαγχόνη, βρόγχος (is this form to be read for βρούχετος?) contain a (misread)
prenasalized *(βρατ)αγχος, which would also point to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.2).
ζιγνίς, -ίδος [f.] a kind of lizard (Arist. ha 604b 24). V.ll. ζίγνης, ζιγνύς, διγνύς;
δειμνύς may be a mistake for *διμνύς or διγνύς. The form with δ- may be a
(real, spoken) simplification of original *dyign- (see 2.5.5.9a). In view of the
variation, clearly a Pre-Greek word.
κινώπετον [n.] ‘venomous animal, especially a snake’ (Call. Jov. 25, Nic. Th. 27
and 195). Probably related to κνώψ ‘venomous animal’ (thus Persson 1891:
177), cf. s.v. below. Cf. also κινωπηστής, -οῦ [m.] ‘id.’. The vocalism points to
Pre-Greek origin. The initial variation probably represents Pre-Greek *kyn-;
cf. on πινυτός (section 13 below).
κλεμμύς, -ύος [f.] ‘turtle’ (Ant. Lib. 32, 2, H.). Furnée (1972: 131) compares κρέμυς
‘a fish with a hard head’ and χρέμυς· ὁ ὀνίσκος ἰχθύς ‘kind of gadus or cod’
(H.); these variants confirm that the word is Pre-Greek. For κ / χ, see 2.5.1.
On geminates in substrate words, see Furnée (1972: 387), and 2.5.8 above.
80 chapter 6
κνώψ, κνωπός [m.] a wild animal, of snakes, etc. (Nic. Th.). κνωπεύς· ἄρκτος.
ἔνιοι κνουπεύς ‘bear’ (H.); also κυνοῦπες· ἄρκτος (for -οι?). Μακεδόνες ‘bear
(Maced.)’ (H.). Further also κινώπετον ‘poisonous animal, snake’ (Call., Nic.),
with anaptyctic vowel. The variant forms point to a Pre-Greek word. See
2.6.1.3i on ου / ω and κινώπετον above on κιν- / κν-.
λεβηρίς, -ίδος [f.] ‘skin or slough of serpents’ (Hp., J.), acc. to H. also = τὸ λέπος
τοῦ κυάμου ‘skin of a bean’; proverbially of empty or thin objects (com.), cf.
H. τινὲς δὲ ἄνδρα λέβηριν γενέσθαι πτωχόν ‘beggar’. The suffix -ηρίς suggests
σαύρα [f.] ‘lizard’ (A. Fr. 92 M., Hdt., Arist., Theoc.), also = σαλαμάνδρα (Thphr.),
metaphorically as a plant name = κάρδαμον (Nic.), ‘penis of a boy’ (ap),
‘plaited case made of palm bark, used in setting dislocated fingers’ (medic.).
Also σαῦρος [m.] ‘id.’ (Hdt. [v.l.], Hp., Epich., Arist., Nic.); metaphorically as a
fish name = τράχουρος (Alex., Arist., Gal.), after the color (cf. Strömberg 1943:
121). As the animal was not a part of the pie world, the word must be of local,
i.e. of Pre-Greek origin. For initial σ-, see 2.2a.15. [sn]: σαύρα may be related to
σαλαμάνδρα, with the variations α / αυ (2.6.1.1d) and λ / ρ (2.5.7c), which point
to pg lw / rw (cf. s.v. κασαλβάς in section 11.3), and the suffixes -αμ- (3.2.3.18)
and -ανδρ- (3.2.3.22).
σκίγγος [m.] a lizard found in Asia Minor that is used as medicine (Dsc. 2, 66
Welm.). Also σκίγκος and κίκερος = κροκόδειλος χερσαῖος ‘a land lizard’ (H.);
see Furnée (1972: 277). The variations point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4, 2.5.1
and 2.5.2).
φρύνη [f.] ‘toad, frog’ (Arist.). φρῦνος [m., f.], also φροῦνος (PMag. Osl.). The
variation between φρυν- and φρουν- points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.3h).
χελῡ́νη 2 [f.] ‘land turtle’ (Nic. Al. 555, 558 v.l.). Aeol. χελύννα [f.] ‘lyre’ (Sapph.),
‘game of turtles’. Also χέλυμνα (Babr. 115, 5). Further χέλους· μουσικὸν ὄργανον
‘musical instrument’ (H.), perhaps Boeotian? With a different stem χελώνη
[f.] ‘tortoise (shell)’. Furnée (1972: 247) points out that the form χέλυμνα is
real, and that it yielded *χελυϝνα > χελῡ́νη, χελύννα (with interchange μ / ϝ,
see 2.5.4), like in σίγυμνος, σίγῡνος. This strongly suggests Pre-Greek origin.
The explanation of χελώνη from a long diphthong is an interpretation which
has long since been given up; -ων- is a Pre-Greek suffix (see Furnée 1972: 30339
and 3.2.3.145 above), as is -ῡν-/-υμν- (see 3.2.3.126–127).
4.5 Fish
ἀχαρνώς, -ώ [m.] a sea fish, = ὀρφώς, perhaps ‘bass’ (Callias Com. 3). Also ἄχαρνος;
ἀχάρνᾱς. Comparable forms: ἀχάρνα· εἶδος ἰχθύος ‘kind of fish’ (H.), ἀχέρνα
(cod. -λα)· ἰχθὺς ποιός ‘id.’ (H.); ἀκαρνάν (Ath.), ἀκάρναξ· λάβραξ ‘bass’ (H.). The
variations χ / κ and α / ε and the ending -ω(ς) point to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.1, 2.6.1.1a and 3.3.1e); the group -ρν- is also frequent in Pre-Greek words
(see 2.2a.14 and 3.2.3.104).
βάλαγρος [m.] a freshwater fish, kind of carp (Arist.). Also βάλ(λ)ερος, βαλλιρός,
βαλῖνος (βαρῖνος). The word is certainly Pre-Greek because of the variants.
For λ / λλ, see 2.5.8.
βατίς [f.] ‘skate, ray’ (Epich.); also a bird, ‘stone chat’? (Arist.); also ‘samphire,
Crithmum maritimum’ (Plin.). If the word is identical with βότις· βόλτιον,
a fish or plant (H.), the vowel interchange points to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.6.1.1b), which is to be expected for a fish name anyhow.
γάδος [m.] name of a fish, also called ὄνος (Dorio apud Ath. 7, 315 f.). γάδαρος
(Diogenian) = γαϊδάριον (pap. vi–viip), MoGr. γαϊδουρόψαρο. Furnée (1972:
3393, 254) adds γάζας· ἰχθὺς ποιός ‘a fish’ (H.), assuming Pre-Greek origin. The
variation δ / ζ / ιδ may represent *dy (see 2.5.5.9a). Further note the suffix -αρ-
(see 3.2.3.28). [sn]: There are various other names for the ὄνος-fish: γαλίας,
γαλλερίας, καλλαρίς, χελλαρίης, etc. (Strömberg 1943: 130f.); if these are related,
they add further evidence for Pre-Greek origin, with the variations κ / γ / χ
(2.5.1), α / ε (2.6.1.1a) and λ / λλ (2.5.8). The last two variations point to a *ly,
which may be a variant of *dy (cf. 2.5.7a on δ / λ). See also καλλαρίας and
χελλών below.
γνοτέρα [f.] the fish βαλλωτή, Ballota nigra (Ps.-Dsc. 3, 103). Also γνωτέρα, with
ο / ω (see 2.6.1.3e). Furnée (1972: 370) further compares ἀγνωτίδιον = μύλλος,
an edible sea-fish, a variant with a prothetic vowel (see 2.3).
ἔγχελυς, -υος [f.] ‘eel’ (Il.). Recalls other words for ‘eel’, like Lat. anguilla, Lith.
ungurỹs, etc., but no ie pre-form can be reconstructed. Note Lesb. ἴμβηρις·
ἔγχελυς. Μηθυμναῖοι (H.), beside which there is λεβηρίς ‘skin of a snake’. If
one assumes interchange initial λ- / zero (2.5.11), ε / ι (2.6.1.2b), as well as
prenasalization (2.5.2), the latter two could be identical. They may be related
to ἔγχελυς with the additional variation β / χ, which points to a labiovelar (see
2.5.6; cf. Lat. anguilla). The elements -ελ- and -ηρ- are Pre-Greek suffixes (see
3.2.3.42 and 3.2.3.60).
ἔλλοψ, -οπος [m.] 1. poetical epithet of ἰχθῦς (Hes. Sc. 212), in this function also
ἔλλοπος (Emp. 117) and ἐλλός (S. Aj. 1297, Ath. 277d); also of κούρα (Theoc.
Syrinx 18); 2. poetical for ‘fish’ in general (Lyc.); 3. name of a large, rare
and expensive fish, which is compared (and identified) with the sturgeon
(Arist.); in this mg. usually written ἔλοψ (Epich., Archestr., Plu.), Lat. (h)elops;
4. name of a snake (Nic. Th. 490). The interchange λ / λλ is frequent in
Pre-Greek (see 2.5.8); further, we find ε / α and π / β in ἀλ(λ)άβης ‘Nile
fish, Labeo Niloticus’ (Str. 17, 2, 4; Ath. 7, 312b; PTeb.) and ἔλαψ (Gp.) (see
2.6.1.1a and 2.5.1). An interchange of the suffix -αβ- (3.2.3.1) / -οπ- (3.2.3.93)
is well known in Pre-Greek; see Furnée (1972: 107). ἀλλοπίης, epithet of τρά-
82 chapter 6
χουρος (Numen. apud Ath. 7, 326a), can be understood in a similar way.

Therefore, we probably have a Pre-Greek word for a great fish, of the shape
*alya/op-.
θύμαλλος [m.] name of a fish, ‘Thymallus vulgaris, Salmo thymallus’ (Ael.). As
the suffix is Pre-Greek, so is the word (see 3.2.3.15).
θύννος [m.] ‘tunnyfish’ (Orac. apud Hdt. 1, 62, A. Pers. 424, Arist.). Fem. θύννᾰ;
the fem. in short -α could point to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.3.1a).
ἴκταρ [m.] name of a small worthless fish (Call. Fr. 38, Eust.). Also κτάρα· ἰχθῦς
βραχύτερος πάντων ‘shortest fish of all’ (H.), ἀκτάρα. Given the variants, the
word is clearly Pre-Greek. Further note the suffix -αρ (see 3.2.3.27).
ἴχλα [f.] name of a sea-fish. κίχλα, κίχλη (bch 60, 28 [Boeotia iia], H.); cf. ἰχάλη =
ἐσκευασμένος ἰχθῦς. ἢ κίχλη τὸ ὄρνεον ‘a prepared fish; thrush’, and ἴχλα· κίχλα
(H.), also ἴσκλαι = κίχλαι ‘thrushes’ (H.). Nasalized κίγκλος. The variants show
that the word is Pre-Greek; see κίγκλος and κίχλη (section 4.3 above).
ἴωψ, -ωπος [m.] name of a small fish. Boeot. ϝίωψ. No doubt a local word for small
useless fishes, i.e. a Pre-Greek word (cf. ἴκταρ above). I think that it started
with *wy-, like e.g. ἰύζω (section 15 below). Note the suffix -ωπ- (see 3.2.3.146).
καλλαρίας [m.] a kind of cod-fish (Archestr., Opp., H. s.v. λαζίνης). γαλ(λ)αρίας·
ἰχθύς, ὁ ὀνίσκος ‘cod-fish’ (H.), γαλλερίας, γελαρίης (Dorion) and χελλαρίης =
ὀνίσκος. The variants clearly point to a Pre-Greek word; the two variants with
ε’s and the geminate -λλ- suggest a pre-form *kalyar-. See also γάδος above
and χελλών below.
κάμπη [f.] ‘sea monster’. Furnée (1972: 119) mentions κέμμορ· μέγα κῆτος (<
*κεμπορ?) and γεμπός· κοῖτος, γεμπύλους τοὺς ἰχθῦς, τὰς πηλαμύδας ‘tunnies’
(H.); this would show that the word is Pre-Greek, with the variations κ / γ
and α / ε (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.1a).
κόλλουρος [m.] name of an unknown fish (Marc. Sid. 22). Probably Pre-Greek,
given the geminate -λλ- (which is not a sign of expressiveness) and the suffix
-ουρ(ος) (see 3.2.3.97).
κόρδυλος · θαλάσσιος ἰχθύς. ἔνιοι κορδύλη ‘a sea fish’ (H.). The suffix -υλ- (3.2.3.121)
and the meaning make Pre-Greek origin plausible.
κραπαταλ(λ)ός [m.] name of a worthless fish (Hdn., H.); also metaph. = μωρός
‘dull’ (H.), see Strömberg (1943: 952), and as a name of a coin (= δραχμή)
in Hades (Pherecr. apud Poll. 9, 83). κραπαταλίας· ἀνεμώδης καὶ ἀσθενής.
καὶ ἀνίσχυρα λέγων, ἄμεινον δὲ ληρώδης ‘vain or idle and weak; speaking
without foundation, or better: frivolously’ (H.). A formation in -αλ(λ)ός with
variation λ / λλ; therefore, clearly a Pre-Greek word in -aly- (see 2.5.8 and
3.2.3.15).
κυπρῖνος [m.] ‘carp’ (Arist., Opp.). The suffix -ῑν- is well-known in Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.79).
μαρῖνος [m.] an unknown fish; perhaps a kind of barbel (Arist., H.), cf. Thomp-
son (1947 s.v.). H. glosses it κίθαρος ‘chest’, a kind of flatfish, ἰχθῦς θαλάσσιος
‘seafish’, καὶ ὄνομα κύριον ‘an ordinary name’. The suffix -ῖνος is Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.79).
μεμβράς, -άδος [f.] ‘kind of sprat’. μεμβρ-αφύα [f.] ‘kind of anchovy’ (com.), cf. the
gloss ἀφύα· μεμβράς (H.). Also βεμβράς, βαμβραδών. Cf. βεβράδα· ἀθερίνην ‘kind
of smelt’ (H.). A Pre-Greek word, as is shown by the variations β / μ (2.5.4)
and α / ε (2.6.1.1a), the prenasalization (2.5.2), and the suffix -αδ- (3.2.3.5). The
word also seems to have reduplication (3.1).
ὅρκῡς, -ῡνος [m.] ‘tuna’ (middle com., Arist.). Also ὁρκύαλος. Probably Pre-Greek;
note the suffixes -ῡν- and -αλ- (3.2.3.127 and 3.2.3.15) and the meaning.
πηλαμύς, -ύδος [f.] ‘(young) tuna’ (S. Fr. 503, Phryn. Com.). Also παλαμίς (Cyran.).
The word is no doubt Pre-Greek; note the variations η / α and ι / υ (see 2.6.2
and 2.6.1.4) and the suffix -υδ- (see 3.2.3.115).
πλάταξ, -ακος [m.] Alexandrian name of the fish κορακῖνος, ‘Sciaena nigra,
brown meagre’ (Ath. 7, 309a). Probably Pre-Greek, as the suffix -αξ indicates
(see 3.2.3.13).
σάλπη [f.] sea fish, ‘Box salpa’ (Epich., Arist., etc.). Also σάρπη, σάλπιγξ. The
variation λ / ρ and the suffix -ιγξ are typical for Pre-Greek (see 2.5.7c and
3.2.3.69).
σαπέρδης, -ου [m.] name of a fish that is identified with the κορακῖνος and
the πλατίστακος, which is thought to originate from the Nile and the Black
Sea, but also from other waters (Hp., com., etc.). Furnée (1972: 153) adduces
σάβειρος· κόραξ ‘tub-fish’ (H.) as a variant, with variation π / β (see 2.5.1). Also
note the suffixes -ειρ- and -ρδ- (see 3.2.3.41 and 3.2.3.103).
σίλουρος [m.] a big river fish, probably ‘catfish’ or ‘sturgeon’, Lat. silūrus (mid.
com., Hell. pap., Str., etc.). The word is formed with the Pre-Greek suffix
-ουρος (see 3.2.3.97).
σμαρίς, -ίδος [f.] name of a small fish resembling the μαινίς, ‘Sparus smaris’
(Epich.), see Thompson (1947 s.v.). Furnée (1972: 226) convincingly com-
pares σπάρος ‘a small sea-fish, a kind of bream’ (directly below), which
proves Pre-Greek origin for this word in view of the variation μ / π (see
2.5.4).
σπάρος [m.] ‘lesser sea bream, Sargus annularis’ (Epich., Matro, Arist.). Furnée
(1972: 226) compares σμαρίς ‘a small worthless seafish’; see s.v. above.
συαγρίς [f.] ‘a fish with teeth(?)’ (Epich. 69, Arist., H.). Furnée (1972: 123f.)
starts from σύαξ, -κος, συάκιον [n.] (Suid.); συάκιν (gloss.) ‘kind of flatfish’.
The variation κ / γ points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1). Further note the
sequence -υα- and the suffix -(γ)ρ- (see 2.6.4 and 3.2.3.37).
φάγρος [m.] name of a fish, perhaps ‘sea bream, Pagrus vulgaris’ (Hp., com.,
84 chapter 6
Arist., etc.). Variants πάγρος; φάγωρος· ἰχθῦς ποιός (H.); φαγρώριος (Str.), with
secondary r. Also πάγουρος ‘crab’ (section 4.6 below)? The variants with π- /
φ- (2.5.1) and -ρος / -ωρος (3.2.3.101, 3.2.3.147) show that the word is Pre-Greek
(Furnée 1972: 165).
χάννα [f.] ‘kind of sea bass, Serranus (cabrilla)’ (Epich., Arist., Numen. apud Ath.,
pap. ip, etc.). Furnée (1972: 351) compares χέννιον, a kind of fish (H.), which
makes Pre-Greek origin probable (α / ε, see 2.6.1.1a). Also note the final short
-α (3.3.1).
χελλών, -ῶνος [m.] a kind of mullet, ‘Mugil chelo’ (Arist., Hikes. and Diph.
apud Ath., H.); also as a pn (Ephesus iva), see Bechtel (1917a: 48). Also
-λ-. Derivative χελλαρίης = ὀνίσκος fishname (Dorio apud Ath.), with which
Furnée (1972: 140) connects καλλαρίας, γαλαρίας (H.) and γαλλερίας, γελαρίης
(Dorio and Euthydem. apud Ath. 7, 315f.). The variation shows that these
words are Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1, 2.5.8 and 2.6.1.1a). See also γάδος and καλλαρίας
above.
χρέμυς · ὁ ὀνίσκος ἰχθύς ‘kind of gadus or cod’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 131) connects
κρέμυς ‘a fish with a hard head’ (Arist.), see on κλεμμύς (section 4.4 above),
and considers the word to be Pre-Greek.
4.6 Molluscs, Crustaceans, and Other (Marine) Invertebrates

ἀβρυτοί [m.] · ἐχίνων θαλασσίων εἶδος ‘kind of sea urchin’ (H.). Also ἄμβρυττοι
(H.), βρύττος (Ar.), βρύσσος (Arist.) (see s.v. below). The formal variation
(prothetic vowel, prenasalization, τ / ττ / σσ) is typical of Pre-Greek substrate
words (see 2.3, 2.5.2, 2.5.5.9a).
ἀστακός [m.] 1. ‘the smooth lobster’, 2. ‘hollow of the ear’. ὀστακός (Attic acc.
to Ath.). We are dealing with a substrate word, with variation ἀ- / ὀ- (see
2.6.1.1b). See also ὄστρακον (this section) and ἀστράγαλος (section 7.1).
ἀχραδάμυλα [?] · ὁ κοχλίας ‘snail’ (H.). Cf. ἀκραμύλα· κοχλίας, and χραμαδοῖλαι·
χελῶναι ‘tortoises’ (H.). The variations ἀ- / zero, κ / χ and οι / υ are well known
in Pre-Greek words (see 2.3, 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.3f). The analysis will be *(a)krad-
am-ul-a, with well-known Pre-Greek suffixes (see 3.2.3.18 and 3.2.3.121). The
word closely resembles the town Καρδαμύλη (Il.) on the Peloponnesus, also
on Chios; for the metathesis see 2.5.12.
βρύσσος [m.] a kind of sea urchin (Arist.). ἄμβρυττοι· εἶδος ἐχίνου θαλασσίου,
Ἀριστοτέλης αὐτοὺς δὲ βρύττους καλεῖ; βρύττος· εἶδος ἐχίνου πελαγίου (H.). The
variation proves that this is a Pre-Greek word; see ἀβρυτοί above.
γραψαῖος [m.] = κᾱρ́ αβος ‘crab’ (Diph. Siph. apud Ath. 3, 106d). Cf. κάραβος
(Epich.) (see s.v. below), Lat. scarabaeus, which presupposes *σκαραβαῖος,
σκορόβυλος, and σκορπίος (for the latter two, see section 4.7 below). So we
have an s-mobile (2.4) and the variations α / ο (2.6.1.1b), β / π / ψ (2.5.1,
2.5.5.2a). All of these point to Pre-Greek origin. See κάραβος below for more
variants.
ἑλεδώνη [f.] a kind of octopus. Cf. δελεδώνη· ὁ μύλλος ἰχθύς ‘the fish Sciaena
umbra’ (H.), with the variation δ- / zero (see 2.5.10).
κάβουρος [m.] ‘crab’. The word is no doubt Pre-Greek; note the suffix -ουρ- (see
3.2.3.97).
καγκύλας [acc.pl.] · κηκῖδας. Αἰολεῖς ‘oozes (of blood, purple, pitch, fat); oak galls
(Aeol.)’ (H.); cf. κογχύλαι· κηκῖδες (H.) and κογχύλια· τὰ ὄστρεα. καὶ πορφύραι
‘oysters; purple-fishes’ (H.). The variations κ / χ, α / ο and the suffix -υλ- point
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1, 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.121). Cf. also κηκίς (section 7.1
below).
κάμμαρος [m.] ‘kind of crab’. Cf. κομμάραι ἢ κομάραι· καρίδες. Μακεδόνες ‘shrimps
(Maced.)’ (H.). The variation α / ο points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.1b).
Also note the suffix -αρ- (see 3.2.3.28).
κᾱρ́ αβος [m.] 1. ‘a prickly crustacean’ (Epich., Ar., Arist.; cf. Thompson 1947 s.v.),
metaph. a light canoe (em); 2. ‘a horned beetle’ (Arist.). σκορόβυλος· κάνθαρος
‘kind of beetle’ (H.). The form σκορόβυλος perhaps continues *σκαραβ-υλ-,
where both α’s turned to -ο- before the -υ- in the following syllable (see
2.5.13.2 and 2.6.1.1b). Furnée (1972: index) further posits *σκαραβαῖος on the
basis of Lat. scarabaeus, which seems unavoidable. He also connects the
synonyms καράμβιος, καραβίδες, καρβάρεοι· κάραβοι (H.); further κηραφίς, a
kind of locust, κεράμβυξ ‘longicorn beetle’, κεράμβηλον· κάνθαρος ‘beetle’ (H.),
which would add the interchange ε / α and prenasalization (see 2.6.1.1a
and 2.5.2). All forms can easily be reduced to a structure *(s)kara(m)p-. The
various suffixes are also clearly Pre-Greek: -αβ- (3.2.3.1), -αι-/-ε(ι)- (3.2.3.7),
-αρ- (3.2.3.28), -ηλ- (3.2.3.56), -υκ- (3.2.3.119), -υλ- (3.2.3.121). See also γραψαῖος
above and σκορπίος in section 4.7 below.
καρκίνος [m.] ‘crab’ (Epich., ia), metaph. ‘ulcer, pair of pincers, kind of shoe, etc.’,
also name of a constellation (Scherer 1953: 167f.). On the mg. also Thompson
(1947 s.v.). Furnée (1972: 129) connects it with κάρχαι· καρκίνοι, καὶ ⟨κ⟩όχλοι.
Σικελοί ‘crabs, snails’ (H.). The interchange κ / χ proves Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.1). The suffix -ινο- can also be Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.79).
κικίβαλος [m.] a kind of shell-fish (Epich. 42); reading uncertain. Cf. κικοβαυ-
λιτιδες· κογχυλίου τι γένος μέλαν ‘species of dark mollusk’ (H.). The variants
point to *kikVbalw-it-.
κοκ(κ)άλια [n.pl.] ‘small crustacaeans’ (Arist. ha 528a 9). Also κωκ-. The vari-
ations κ / κκ, ο / ω and the suffix -αλ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.8,
2.6.1.3e and 3.2.3.15). Other variants are κόχλος ‘sea-snail, land-snail’ (see s.v.
below) and κόγχη ‘mussel, cockle’, which add the variation κ / χ and prenasal-
ization (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2).
86 chapter 6
κολύβδαινα [f.] ‘kind of crab’ (Epich. 57). Cf. κολύμβαινα ‘id.’. A typically Pre-
Greek word, with prenasalization and interchange βδ / β (see 2.5.2 and
2.5.5.1a).
κόχλος [m., f.] shell-fish with a spiral-shaped shell, ‘sea-snail, land-snail’, also
‘purple-snail, kohl’ (E., Arist., Theoc.). Variants κόχλᾱξ, κάχληξ. Clearly cog-
nate with κόγχη ‘mussel, cockle’, which suggests that the forms are Pre-Greek
(prenasalization, see 2.5.2); this is confirmed by the variants κοκάλια, v.ll. -κκ-
and κωκάλια (Arist. ha), see s.v. above.
ὄστρακον [n.] ‘hard shell of snails, mussels, turtles, etc.’ (h. Merc., A., Hp., Arist.),
‘earthen potsherd (for writing on, e.g. at a vote), earthen vessel’ (Hp., Att.).
The suffix -ακο- (3.2.3.13) is also seen in ἀστακός ‘smooth lobster; hollow of
the ear’ (this section, above), which may be related as a Pre-Greek word,
displaying typical variations (notably α / ο, see 2.6.1.1b). The same holds for
ἀστράγαλος (section 7.1 below).
ὄστρειον, -εον [n.] ‘oyster, mussel, sea-snail; purple dye’ (A., Epich., Att.). I as-
sume that -ε(ι)- continues a Pre-Greek suffix -ay- (3.2.3.7). For a word with
this meaning, substrate origin is most likely in any case.
πάγουρος [m.] ‘(edible) crab, Cancer pagurus’ (Ar., Arist.). Furnée (1972: 165 and
331) connects φάγρος, φάγωρος ‘kind of fish’ (H.) (see s.v. in section 4.5 above),
so that πάγουρος is likely to be a Pre-Greek word. For the suffix -ουρ-, see
3.2.3.97.
πίνη [f.] ‘pen shell’, late also ‘pearl shell, pearl’ (com., Arist., pap.). Younger πῖνα
(codd. predominantly have -νν-). Probably Pre-Greek in view of the variation
ν / νν (see 2.5.8).
πώλυπος (-ύπος) [m.] ‘sea polyp, cuttlefish’, metaphorically ‘nose polyp’ (Hp.,
Thphr., etc.). Also πῶλυψ, -υπος. The suffix points to Pre-Greek origin (see
3.2.3.132).
σπατάγγης, -ου [m.] ‘kind of sea urchin’ (Sophr. 102). Also πάταγγας [acc.pl.] ‘id.’.
Note also φατάγγης ‘pangolin’ (Ael.). Pre-Greek in view of the s-mobile and
the variation π / φ (see 2.4 and 2.5.1). Further note the suffix -αγγ- (3.2.3.3).
τελλίνη [f.] name of a testacean, ‘ξιφύδριον’ (Hp., Dsc.). Also τέλλιν [acc.] (Epich.
43; uncertain 114). Clearly a Pre-Greek formation, with palatal ly and the
suffix -ιν (see 3.2.3.78).
τήθεα [n.pl.] designation of a sea-animal, probably a ‘sea-squirt, ascidia’ (P 747).
Also τήθυον. Starting from the form τήθυον, Kalén (1918: 20 ff., 98 ff.) assumes
earlier *θή-θυον and connects the word with θῆσθαι ‘to suck’ and *θύον ‘bag’
(whence θύλακος ‘id.’). This explanation is nonsensical and typical of older
Greek etymologies. Probably a Pre-Greek word, with variation υ / ε (see
2.6.1.5).
χηράμβη [f.] a kind of mussel (Archil. Fr. 285 W, Sophr.). Also χηραμύς, see χηρα-
μός (section 1 above). Furnée (1972: 221, 287) assumes a Pre-Greek pre-form
*χηραβυς, with variation μ / β (see 2.5.4), in order to explain the prenasal-
ized form. The prenasalization and the suffixes -αμβ-, -αμ- and -υδ- point to
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2, 3.2.3.16, 3.2.3.18, 3.2.3.115).
4.7 Insects and Arthropods

ἀκρίς, -ίδος [f.] ‘grasshopper’ (Il.). Var. κέρκα· ἀκρίς (H.). Perhaps to be analysed
as ἀ-κρ- / κε-ρκ- < *κε-κρ- (see 3.1). Cf. ἄγλις, γέλγις (section 3.2).
ἀνθρηδών, -όνος [f.] ‘hornet’ (D. S.). Cf. τενθρηδών [f.], πεμφρηδών [f.] ‘kind of
wasp’; further θρῶναξ· κηφήν. Λάκωνες ‘drone (Lacon.)’ (H.). There are several
forms which lack the first nasal: τεθρηνιώδης, ἀθρήνη, and forms without
reduplication or initial ἀ-, e.g. θρήνη and θρηνώδης. We have a root θρη/ων-
with a prothetic vowel (2.3) or reduplication (3.1) (cf. ἀκρίς above), and
prenasalization (2.5.2); see Kuiper (1956: 221f.). For the interchange ν / δ,
see 2.5.3. Πεμφρηδών could show that the word had a labiovelar (see Beekes
1995/6: 12f., and 2.5.6 above).
ἀττέλαβος [m.] an edible locust (Hdt.). Also ἀττέλεβος. Variation α / ε (2.6.1.1a)
and the suffix -αβ- (3.2.3.1).
βλέτυες [pl.] · αἱ βδέλλαι ‘leeches’ (H.). *βλίτυξ (ms. βαιτυξ)· βδέλλα (H.); the
correction by Latte seems evident, but is not mentioned by delg. Variation
ε / ι (2.6.1.2b) and suffix -υκ- (3.2.3.119). For -υς beside -υξ, cf. Furnée (1972:
218) on μῆρυξ.
βόμβυξ, -υκος [m.] ‘silkworm’ (Arist.). We may compare several words for ‘cot-
ton’ (cf. βαμβάκιον ‘coton’), of which Osman. pambuk ‘cotton’ is the best
match. The word may derive from an original *p/bamb-ūk- (with suffix -uk-,
see 3.2.3.120; the quantity of the υ is unknown, but it was probably long).
βροῦκος [m.] ‘locust’ (Thphr.). βροῦχος (lxx, Ph.), βρούκα (Cypr., H.); βραῦκος
(Cret.), βραύκη (ab, H.), βρε⟨ῦ⟩κος· ἡ μικρὰ ἀκρίς, ὑπὸ Κρητῶν ‘small locust
(Cret.)’ (H.), βρύκος (H.), βρόκοι· ἀττέλεβοι, ἀκρίδες ‘locusts’ (H.). No doubt a
Pre-Greek word, as is confirmed by the consonantal and vocalic variation.
θάπτα [f.] · μυῖα, Κρῆτες ‘fly (Cretan)’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 388, etc.) compares
λάττα < *λαπτα (glossed as μυῖα by H.), with variation θ / λ (see 2.5.7a).
κάνθαρος [m.] ‘kind of (dung-)beetle, Scarabaeus pilularius’, also metaph. of a
drinking cup, canoe, fish (Strömberg 1943: 123f.), and a women’s ornament
(ia). delg s.v. points out that there are anthroponyms (Bechtel 1917b: 582 and
589) as well as toponyms like Κάνθαρος, a port of Piraeus, and concludes from
this that the term may be from Pre-Greek, which is likely. Note the suffix -αρ-
(see 3.2.3.28).
κάρον [n.] · μεγάλη ἀκρίς ‘big locust’ (H.). Also κάρνος. Furnée (1972: 341) com-
pares ἀκορνός = ὀκορνός (H.), and further πάρνοψ (see s.v. below). In view of
88 chapter 6
the variations ἀ- / zero (2.3), κ / π (2.5.6) and α / ο (2.6.1.1b), the word is clearly
Pre-Greek. Also note the suffix -ν- (3.2.3.91).
κεράμβυξ, -υκος [m.] ‘longicorn beetle’ (Nic. Fr. 39, H.); on the mg. see Goossens
(1948: 263ff.). Cf. κεράμβηλον, glossed as κάνθαρος ‘beetle’ by H. and others. If
the word has prenasalization, which seems probable, it is of Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.2). Moreover, -ηλ(ο)- and -υκ- are Pre-Greek suffixes (see 3.2.3.56
and 3.2.3.119). Furnée (1972: passim) further compares κάραβος, καρά(μ)βιος,
and καραβίδες, as well as *σκαραβαῖος (all names of beetles); see s.v. κάραβος
κηφήν, -ῆνος [m.] ‘drone’, often metaph. ‘lazy vagabond’ (Hes.), also used for
Asiatic peoples by the Anatolian Greeks, e.g. for the Persians (Hdt. 7, 61); cf.
Slavic némec ‘German’, originally ‘mute, dumb’. Also καφάν (H.). The chances
are high that the word is Pre-Greek; note the suffix -ᾱν- (see 3.2.3.20).
κίκους [?] · ὁ νέος τέττιξ ‘the young cicala’; κίξιος· τέττιξ ‘cicala’ (H.). The variation
κ / ξ points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.2b).
κορδύλος [m.] probably ‘water-newt, Triton palustris’ (Arist.). Also κουρῠ́λος.
Probably Pre-Greek, in view of the variation ο / ου (2.6.1.3d) and the suffix
-υλ- (3.2.3.121).
κῶβαξ [m.] · ὁ μέγας τέττιξ ‘the large cicada’ (H.). According to Gil (1957: 321 f.), it
belongs to καύαξ, etc. (section 4.3 above) with β for ϝ (see 2.5.4). In any case,
it is a Pre-Greek word. Note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
κώνωψ, -ωπος [m.] ‘gnat, mosquito’ (A., Hdt., Arist.). Since there is no good
etymology, and since the suffix -ωπ- is frequent in Pre-Greek words (see
3.2.3.146), substrate origin is the only plausible option.
μέμβραξ, -ακος [m.] ‘kind of cicada’ (Ael.). According to Gil (1957: 322f.), the
word is Pre-Greek, which must be correct in view of the suffix (see 3.2.3.13)
and the meaning.
νεκύδαλ(λ)ος [m.] ‘the cocoon of the silkworm’ (Arist., Ath., Clem. Al.). The word
is clearly Pre-Greek (on -αλ(λ)ος, see Beekes 2008 and 3.2.3.15 above).
πάρνοψ [m.] ‘grasshopper’ (Ar.). Aeol. Boeot. (Str. 13, 1, 64) πόρνοψ, also κόρνοψ
(Str. l.c.), gen. -οπος. We also find the variants πρανώ· ἀκρίδος εἶδος ‘kind of
grasshopper’ (see below), and κάρνος· μεγάλη ἀκρίς ‘big grasshopper’ (see s.v.
κάρον above). -οπ- is a Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.93). Probably the word had
an initial labiovelar stop in Pre-Greek (see 2.5.6), the labial element of which
could be lost before ο. The ο itself may reflect α after a labiovelar.
πρανώ [?] · ἀκρίδος εἶδος ‘kind of locust’ (H.). Gil Fernández (1959) adduces
πάρνοψ (directly above). This means that the word is Pre-Greek; see Furnée
(1972: 344, 392).
σαλαμίνθη [f.] ‘spider’ (Byzant.). The suffix -ινθη is clearly Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.81).
σέρφος [m.] ‘small winged insect, gnat, winged ant’ (Ar. et al.). Also σύρφος·
θηρίδιον μικρόν, ὁποῖον ἐμπίς ‘small animal, a kind of gnat’ (H.), σέριφος [m.],
-ίφη [f.] ‘a kind of locust’ (Zen.). The variation in forms points to a Pre-Greek
origin (Furnée 1972: 384). The variation ρ / ρι could reflect pg *ry. For the
suffix -φ-, see 3.2.3.141. See also σίλφη below.
σήραμβος [?] · εἶδος κανθάρου ‘a kind of beetle’ (H.). Strömberg (1944: 23) con-
sidered this to be Laconian for θήραφος ‘spider’. In view of the connection
with θήραφος the word could be of Pre-Greek origin; note the variations β /
φ (2.5.1), μ / zero (2.5.2) and the suffix -αμβ-/-αφ- (3.2.3.16, 3.2.3.33).
σίλφη [f.] an insect, ‘cockroach, carrion beetle’ (Arist.). The variant τίλφη in
Luc. could be an artificial Atticism or show a Pre-Greek alternation τ- / σ-
(2.5.5.9a). Furnée (1972: 167, etc.) also connects Lat. delpa (an insect), which
would confirm the variation. The form further formally and semantically
resembles σέρφος, a small winged insect, ‘gnat, winged ant’ (cf. s.v. above).
σκολόπενδρα [f.] ‘millipede, sowbug’; also name of an animal of the sea (Arist.,
etc.). Probably a Pre-Greek word. Note the short -α (3.3.1a) and the suffix -οπ-
(3.2.3.93); for -ενδρ- cf. -ανδρ- (3.2.3.22).
σκορόβυλος [m.] · κάνθαρος ‘dung-beetle’ (H.). Clearly connected with κάρα-
βος (see s.v. in section 4.6 above). The word therefore seems to continue
*σκαρ(α)β-υλ- (with the suffix -υλ-, see 3.2.3.121), with ο from α before υ in
the next syllable (see 2.5.13.2).
σκορπίος [m.] ‘scorpion’ (A. Fr. 169 = 368 M.); often metaph. as epithet of a fish
(com., Arist. et al.), after the poisonous stings, see Strömberg (1943: 124 f.),
Thompson (1947 s.v.); also σκόρπ-αινα, -ίς; of a plant (Thphr.), see Strömberg
(1937: 50f.); of a constellation (Cleostrat., Hell.), see Scherer (1953: 170); a war
machine for firing arrows (Hero et al.), whence σκορπίζω ‘to scatter’; of a
stone (Orph.), also σκορπῖτις, -ίτης. The Indo-Europeans, whose homeland
was probably located to the North of the Black Sea, did not have a word for
the scorpion, and the Greeks must therefore have adopted it from a different
language when they arrived in the Mediterranean. The word seems to be
related to the group of κάραβος; see s.v. in section 4.6 above.
σφονδῡ́λη [f.] ‘kind of beetle which lives on the roots of plants and emits a strong
smell when attacked’ (Ar., Arist. [v.l. σπονδ-], Thphr.). The word contains the
Pre-Greek suffix -υλ- (see 3.2.3.122).
τενθρηδών, -όνος [f.] ‘wasp, forest-bee’ (Arist.). Also τενθρήνη. A prenasalized and
reduplicated Pre-Greek formation (see 2.5.2 and 3.1); see ἀνθρηδών above.
τρωξαλλίς [f.] ‘locust’ (Alex., Dsc., Plin. et al.). Also τροξαλλίς and τριξέλλας. In
Beekes (2008), I demonstrated that all words in -αλλ- are of Pre-Greek origin
(with λλ from palatalized l, i.e. ly; see 3.2.3.15); thus the word is Pre-Greek.
Also note the vocalic variations ο / ω (2.6.1.3e), ο / ι (2.6.1.3b) and α / ε (2.6.1.1a).
90 chapter 6
4.8 Worms (Also Parasites)

ἕλμις [f.] ‘intestinal worm, parasitic worm’. Also ἕλμινς. Gen. ἕλμινθος, ἕλμιγγος;
further acc. ἕλμιθα (Epid.). Cf. λίμινθες· ἕλμινθες. Πάφιοι (H.) (below). The
suffixes -ι(ν)θ- and -ιγγ- and the prenasalization they display are typical of
Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2, 3.2.3.69, 3.2.3.72 and 3.2.3.81). The variant λίμινθες also
suggests Pre-Greek origin. Was it *lymi(n)t-, with prothetic vowel a- which
became e- before the palatal l (see Beekes 2008)? Note that the MoGr. forms
λεβίθα, -ίδες confirm the vowel after the l.
ῑψ̓́ , ῑπ̓ ός [m.] name of a worm that eats horn and wood, notably vines (φ 395,
Thphr., Str.). Most probably, ἴξ and ἴψ reflect one and the same Pre-Greek
word *ikw-, which was adapted in two different ways (see 2.5.6).
λίμινθες [?] · ἕλμινθες. Πάφιοι ‘intestinal worms’ (H.). A variant of ἕλμινθες; see
s.v. ἕλμις above for the idea that λιμ- goes back to a Pre-Greek sequence
*lym-.
5 Agriculture
See also 3.2 above.
5.1 Cereal Culture

ἀθήρ, -έρος [m.] ‘awn’, plur. ‘chaff, barb of a weapon, spine or prickle of a fish’,
also ‘edge of a weapon’ (Hes.). Also ἀνθέριξ, ἀνθερίσκος, with prenasalization
and the interchange σκ / κ (see 2.5.2 and 2.5.5.3b).
ἀκτή [f.] ‘corn’ (Il.), often Δημήτερος or ἀλφίτου ἀκτή, for which reason it cannot
mean ‘flour’, as delg rightly points out. Cf. ἀκτή· τροφή ‘nourishment’ (H.).
Furnée (1972: 127) compares εὔ-οχθος, perhaps ‘rich, luxuriant, fruitful’ (see
s.v. in section 13 below). The variations α / ο and κτ / χθ point to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.6.1.1b and 2.5.1).
ἄλοξ, -κος [f.] ‘furrow’ (trag., com.). Also αὖλαξ (Hes.), ὦλκα [acc.sg.], -ας [acc.pl.]
(Hom.), Dor. ὦλαξ (em 625, 37), also in ὁμ-ώλακες (A. R. 2, 396). Further
εὐλάκᾱ ‘plough’, with Lacon. εὐλαξεῖν [inf.fut.] (Orac. apud Th. 5, 16); αὐλάχα·
ἡ ὕννις ‘plowshare’ (H.) and *ὄλοκες (cod. ὀλοκεύς)· αὔλακες ‘furrows’ (H.). The
variants are strongly reminiscent of substrate words. Variation of prothetic
ε / α / ο / αυ / ευ, and also that of κ and χ (αὐλάχα), are what one often
finds in substrate words, so Pre-Greek origin is most probable. The Home-
ric form is the only one without a vowel between λ and κ, and therefore it
is suspect. A reconstruction *alw-ak- can explain all the different variants:
αὖλαξ (by anticipation of the labial feature), which gives ὦλαξ by contraction
(for αυ / ω, see 2.6.1.1h); ἄλοξ (coloring of the second vowel by the labial-
ized liquid), ὀλοκ- (influence on both vowels; I see no reason not to take the
gloss seriously). The interchange of initial α / ε (which gave εὐλακ-) is dif-
ficult to understand phonetically, but it may be related to plain α / ε (cf.
2.6.1.1a and 2.6.1.1g). Apart from the vocalic variation, note the suffix -αξ
(3.2.3.13).
ἄσταχυς [m.] ‘ear of corn’ (Il.), ‘bandage’ (Gal.). Also στάχυς (Il.+), -ῡς (E.) (see
below). Undoubtedly a substrate word in view of the prothetic vowel (see
2.3).
ἄχνη [f.] ‘foam, froth; chaff’ (Il., poet., Hp.). The variant ἄχυρον ‘chaff’ (directly
below) shows that it is a Pre-Greek word; note the suffixes -ν- and -υρ-
(3.2.3.91 and 3.2.3.133). Cf. also ἄχωρ ‘scurf, dandruff’ in section 7.2 below.
ἄχυρα [n.pl.] ‘chaff’ (com.). Note ἄχορα· τὰ πίτυρα. ἔνιοι δὲ κρανίον ‘chaff, skull;
head’ (H.), with variation ο / υ (2.6.1.3c). See further ἄχνη above and ἄχωρ in
section 7.2 below.
βρόμος [m.] ‘oats’ (Thphr.). Also βόρμος. Probably Pre-Greek on account of the
variation (see 2.5.12).
κάχρυς [f.] ‘parched barley’ (ia), ‘winter-bud’ (Thphr.). Furnée (1972: 277) points
to the variant κάγχρυς (also -ύδιον, -υδίας) found in the mss. This would
point to *kankru- (with prenasalization, see 2.5.2). May be further related
to κάγκανος ‘arid, barren’ (section 13 below), with the variation κ / χ (see
2.5.1).
κώμυς, -ῡθος [f.] ‘bundle, truss of hay’ (Cratin., Theoc.), also = δάφνη, ἥν ἱστῶσι
⟨πρὸ⟩ τῶν πυλῶν ‘laurel, which is put in front of the gate’ (H.), ‘place where
the reed is closely grown with the roots’ (Thphr.). The formation with the
suffix -ῡθ- clearly points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.117).
λέκιθος [m.] ‘gruel or pulse of cereals’ (Hp., Gal., com.), fem. ‘yolk’ (Hp., Arist.).
delg recalls the tn Λεκίθη. Because of the suffix and the meaning, the word
is clearly of Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.72).
μέδιμνος [m.] corn measure (ia), a “bushel” = 48 χοίνικες, which was about 52
1/2 liters in Athens. Also -ίμνος. Also ϝεδιμνος (Gortyn), with ϝ / μ (see 2.5.4).
Pre-Greek origin is further suggested by the suffix -μν- (see 3.2.3.77).
ὄλυραι [f.pl.] kind of grain like ζειαί, usually translated as ‘(corn) of spelt’, also as
‘durra’ (Egypt) (Il.). The suffix points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.134).
ὄμπνη [f.] ‘food, corn’, plur. ‘cake of flour and honey, honeycombs’ (Call.). Also
ὄμπη, which shows that -ν- is a suffix (see 3.2.3.91). According to Furnée (1972:
161), ὀμφύνειν· αὔξειν, σεμνύνειν, ἐντιμότερον ποιεῖν ‘to strengthen, respect,
honor’ (H.) further attests to a variant ὀμφυν-.
οὐλαί [f.pl.] ‘(unground) barley corns, roasted and sprinkled between the horns
of the sacrificial animal’ (Ion. since γ 441); Lat. mola salsa. Also ὀλαί (Att.),
ὀλοαί (Arc. iia). Cf. ὄλπα· χόνδρου τις ἕψησις. ἔδεσμά τι ‘cooking of groats, a
92 chapter 6
dish’. ἤ ὄλβος ‘wealth, blessed state’ (H.). Also ὀλβ-άχνιον [n.] ‘basket for the
ὀλαί’, ὀλβάχιον· κανοῦν. ὀλβακήϊα ‘id.’, with ὀλβ- / ὀλϝ-. The second ο in Arc.
ὀλοαί may also stand for ϝ. Thus, we obtain a basic form ὀλϝαί. Furnée (1972:
155 and 240) further connects the gloss ὄλπα with ὄλβος (section 14 below),
assuming an original meaning ‘Nährung, Getreide’. The variation π / β / ϝ
points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.4).
σιρός [m.] ‘pit for keeping corn, silo’ (Att. inscr. va,), also (metaph.) ‘pitfall’
(Longus) and = δεσμωτήριον ‘prison’ (H.). The quantity of -ι- is unstable:
usually short. Also σειρός. The variation σῐρ-, σῑρ-, σειρ- is hard to explain from
an ie point of view, and points to Pre-Greek origin.
στάχυς, -υος [m.] ‘ear (of corn)’ (Ψ 598), metaphorically ‘offshoot’ (poet.), as a
plant name (Dsc. et al.), ‘surgical bandage’ (medic.). The variant ἄσταχυς (see
s.v. above) shows that the Greek word is of substrate origin (see also Furnée
1972: 373).
χῖδρον [n.] ‘dish of fresh barley-corns or other crops’ (Alcm.). Also χέδρα (v.l.
Ph. 1, 180); κίδναι· αἱ ἐγχώριοι (codd.; ἐφώροι) πεφρυγμένοι κριθαί (H.). Cf. also
χέδροπα [n.pl.] ‘leguminous fruits’ (section 3.2 above). The various variations,
notably κ / χ (2.5.1) and ε / ι (2.6.1.2b), show that the word is Pre-Greek (cf.
Furnée 1972: 135f.).
χοῖνιξ, -ικος [f.] corn-measure = 4 κοτύλαι (since τ 28), metaph. a kind of fetter
(Ar., D.), also of the socket of a door-hinge (Hell. pap.). The fact that no
origin can be proposed for this technical expression, means that it is almost
certainly Pre-Greek; note the suffix -ικ- (see 3.2.3.73).
5.2 Viniculture
ἀγερρακάβος [m.] · σταφυλή ‘bunch of grapes’ (H.). Variants: ἀγγεράκομον, ἀγρά-
καβος (both H.). Note the element -αβ- (see 3.2.3.1). The -ε- is a prop vowel
(see 2.6.5); variation β / μ and α / ο are also well-known in Pre-Greek (see
2.5.4 and 2.5.5.1b); the γγ may represent a prenasalized consonant, one of
the clearest characteristics of Pre-Greek words (see 2.5.2).
ἀμάμαξυς, -υος [f.] ‘vine trained on two poles’. Furnée (1972: 212) compares
ἀμαξίς· γένος σταφυλῆς ἀπὸ ἀναδενδράδος (H.), which must be correct. It is a
typical substrate word, showing reduplication and the suffix -αξ- (see 3.1 and
3.2.3.25).
ἀρασχάδες [m./f.pl.] · τὰ περυσινὰ κλήματα ‘last year’s vinetwigs’ (H.). Cf. ἀρέ-
σχαι· κλήματα, βότρυες ‘vinetwigs, bunches of grapes’ (H.), ὀρεσχάς· τὸ σὺν τοῖς
βότρυσιν ἀφαιρεθὲν κλῆμα ‘twig with bunches of grapes taken off’ (H.) (cf. s.v.
below), αὐροσχάς, name of a vine, also = τὸ κατὰ βότρυν κλῆμα (Eratosth. 37),
ὄλοσχος ‘pedicle of the pomegranate’ (Nic. Th. 870). I reconstruct *arw-ask-
at-, which explains the interchanges α- / αυ- / ο- and -ρα- / -ρο-.
ἀσταφίς, -ίδος [f.] ‘dried grapes, raisins’ (Hdt., ia, inscr. Tegea [va]); σταφὶς ἀγρία
‘stavesacre, Delphinium Staphisagria’ (Hp.). Also ὀσταφίς (Cratin.), σταφίς
(Hp.). A typical substrate word, with prothetic vowel and variation α / ο (see
2.3 and 2.6.1.1b). See also σταφυλή below.
βωληνή [f.] ἄμπελος ‘grape-vine’, growing in Bithynia. The suffix -ην- is Pre-Greek
(3.2.3.58). Furnée (1972: 219) compares μῶλαξ, a Lydian name for wine, with
variation β / μ (2.5.4) and the Pre-Greek suffix -ακ- (3.2.3.13).
ἕλῐνος [m., f.] ‘tendril, vine’ (Hell.). ἐλενοί· κλήματα τὰ τῶν ἀμπέλων ‘twigs of
vines’ (H.). The interchange ε / ι points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.2b).
Also note the suffix -ιν- (see 3.2.3.78).
κάδουσα [f.] · εἶδος σταφυλῆς ‘a kind of vine’ (H.). The word is most probably
Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972: 17555). Note the suffix -ουσ- (3.2.3.98).
κάμαξ, -ακος [f., m.] ‘pole to support the vine, bar, shaft of a spear’. Furnée (1972:
221) compares ἀμάκιον· κάμαξ (H.), with alternation κ / zero (see 2.5.10). The
suffix -ακ- is highly frequent in Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.13).
λάμπη [f.] ‘foam’, e.g. on the surface of wine, ‘phlegm, mucus’; metaph. ‘filth,
decay’, of the underworld (A.). Also λάπη. Furnée (1972: 316) adduces λαπτής·
λαπτὴν ἔλεγον τὸν παχὺν ἀφρόν ‘thick foam’ (H.). λα(μ)πώδης (also -ππ-) ‘cov-
ered with foam’, λαμπηρός ‘id.’. Forms with and without a nasal, which points
to prenasalization (see 2.5.2). See also λέμφος ‘mucous discharge from the
nostrils’ (section 7.2 below).
λᾰ́ταξ 1, -αγος [f.] ‘drop of wine, dregs of wine (also in the game of kottabos)’
(Alc.). The word is probably Pre-Greek, in view of the suffix -αγ- (3.2.3.2) and
the semantic field.
ὄμφαξ, -ᾰκος [f.] ‘unripe grape’ (η 125), also of olives (Poll.); metaph. of a young
girl, an undeveloped nipple, etc. (poet.). Furnée (1972: 341) connects ἀμφίας ‘a
bad Sicilian wine’ and ἀμφής· οἴνου ἄνθος ‘wine blossom’. οἱ δὲ μέλανα οἶνον ‘red
wine’ (H.). The variation α / ο would point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1b);
note that the suffix -αξ is also typically Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.13).
ὀρεσχάς, -άδος [f.] ‘vine with grapes’, = ὄσχη, -ος (Harp., H.). The word is evidently
related to ἀρασχάδες (see s.v. above), and as variants, both are of Pre-Greek
origin (Furnée 1972: 348).
ὄρχος [m.] ‘row of vines or fruit trees’ (η 127, ω 341). The connection of the
tns Ὀρχομενός (also Ἐρχ-; cf. Schwyzer 1939: 255) and Illyrian Ὀργομεναί is
commonly accepted. It seems probable that the word is Pre-Greek; note the
agricultural meaning and the variations χ / γ and ο / ε in the tn (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.3l).
ὄσχη [f.] in ὄσχαι· κλήματα βοτρύων γέμοντα ‘branches full of bunches of grapes’
(H., similar Harp.; unclear Nic. Al. 109). Also ὤσχη· κληματίς ‘vine-branch’
(em, Suid., H.); msc. plur. ὠσχοί· τὰ νέα κλήματα σὺν αὐτοῖς τοῖς βότρυσι ‘young
94 chapter 6
branches, with the bunches themselves’ (H.). The variation of the initial
vowel shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.3e).
ῥᾱξ́ , ῥᾱγός [f.] ‘winegrape, -berry’, secondarily also ‘berry’ in general, metaph.
‘kind of spider’, plur. ‘fingertips’ (Att.). lxx also [m.]. Also ῥώξ, ῥωγός (Archil.,
lxx, Nic.). It is most probable that ῥάξ is of Pre-Greek origin (Furnée 1972:
126); ῥώξ would then be a Pre-Greek variant with α / ω (see 2.6.1.1e).
σταφυλή [f.] ‘grape’ (Il.), metaphorically ‘swollen uvula, uvula inflammation’
(Hp., Arist., etc.), also σταφύλη (accent after κοτύλη, κανθύλη?) ‘lead in the
balance, plummet of a level’ (B 765). Clearly connected with στέμφυλα [n.pl.]
(rarely sg.) ‘squeezed olives or grapes, mass of olives or grapes’ and ἀσταφίς
‘dried grapes, raisins’ (and its variants; see s.v. above), which points to Pre-
Greek origin; note the prothetic vowel (2.3), the variation α / ε (2.6.1.1a), the
prenasalization (2.5.2) and the suffix -υλ- (3.2.3.121).
τάργανον [n.] ‘sick wine, vinegar’ (Phoen. [iiia]). The structure of the word is
Pre-Greek; note the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
φιδάκνη [f.] ‘wine-jar’ (A., D., Thphr.). Late πιθάκνη (Thasos va); Dor. πισάκνα
(H.). The group of suffixes -ακ-ν- is typical for Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.13 and
3.2.3.91). For the shift of aspiration, compare φάτνη (section 9.4 below). See
Furnée (1972: 197, 393). Cf. πίθος (section 9.2 below).
χάλις, -ιν [m.] ‘unblended wine’ (Hippon. 73 = 67 Masson, epigr. Cyrene ip).
Furnée (1972: 389) compares φαλικρόν· ἄκρατον ‘unmixed’ (H.; see s.v. in sec-
tion 13 below), which would point to a Pre-Greek labiovelar (see 2.5.6). The
gloss also shows a form in -κρος (see 3.2.3.101), like in compar. χαλικρότερος
‘unmixed’.
ψίθιος [adj.] epithet of οἶνος, σταφυλή, ἕλινος (com. iva, Cyrene iva, Nic., Dsc.),
so a kind of grape. Lat. psithia (vitis, uva), psythium, scil. vinum (Verg., Plin.,
etc.). Also ψύθιος, with ι / υ (see 2.6.1.4).
6 Prepared Food
αἶκλον [n.] ‘evening meal at Sparta’. Cf. εἶκλον· δεῖπνον (H.), ἰκνείαν· τροφεῖα
‘nourishment’ (H.) and ἰκνεῖος· τροφεύς. Ῥόδιοι ‘feeder (Rhod.)’ (H.). May be
reconstructed as pg *(a)wikl/n-, with a prothetic vowel (2.3) which shows
the variation α / ε (2.6.1.1a).
ἄμιθα [f.] · ἔδεσμα ποιόν, καὶ ἄρτυμα ὡς Ἀνακρέων ‘kind of meat, condiment’ (H.);
for Anacr. see 467 Page. Cf. ἀμαμιθάδες· ἥδυσμά τι σκευαστὸν διὰ κρεῶν εἰς μικρὰ
κεκομμένων δι’ ἀρτυμάτων (Photius 86 R.). The variant with reduplication is
typical of substrate words (see 3.1). Also note the suffix -ιθ- (see 3.2.3.72).
βάραξ, -κος [m.] a kind of cake (Epil.). βήρηξ (Ath.; H. also βήραξ); πάραξ (Test.
Epict.); βάρακες· τὰ προφυράματα τῆς μάζης ‘dough kneaded in advance for

a cake’. Ἀττικοί δὲ βήρηκας· δηλοῖ δὲ καὶ τὴν τολύπην ‘it also designates the
ball-shaped cake’ (H.). Typically Pre-Greek: variation β / π, suffix -ακ- (see
2.5.1 and 3.2.3.13).
βασυνίας [m.] kind of sacrificial cake, from the island Hecate near Delos (Semos
3). Furnée (1972: 245) addudes the variant βασυμνιάτης ‘baker of β.’, which
proves Pre-Greek origin; note the suffix -υν- / -υμν- (see 3.2.3.124 and 3.2.3.126)
and the variation it displays (see 2.5.4).
γάθια [f.] · ἀλλαντία ‘small sausage’ (H.). Furnée (1972: index) connects the word
with γηθυλλίς, name of an onion (see s.v. in section 3.2 above), ἀγαθίς, a
mixture of sesame-seeds, roasted and pounded with honey. The prothetic
vowel and the variation in vowel length point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3
and 2.6.2).
γοῦρος [m.] a cake (Sol. 38, 3). Cf. ἄγγουρος· εἶδος πλακοῦντος ‘kind of cake’ (H.),
with a prothetic vowel and prenasalization (see 2.3 and 2.5.2).
ἔλπος [n.]? · ἔλαιον, στέαρ, εὐθηνία ‘olive oil, rendered fat, abundance’; ἔλφος·
βούτυρον. Κύπριοι ‘butter (Cypr.)’ (H.), with π / φ (see 2.5.1).
κᾰρῡ́κη [f.] name of a Lydian ‘soup of blood and spices’. Also -ύκκη. The varia-
tion points to a Pre-Greek (= Pre-Anatolian) word (see 2.5.8). The structure
καρ-υκ- fits the picture of Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.120).
κόλλαβος [m.] a kind of bread or cake (Ar., Philyll.); also = κόλλοψ (Luc., Iamb.,
H.). Certainly Pre-Greek in view of the suffix -αβ- (3.2.3.1). See also κόλλοψ
(section 12.3 below).
κόλλιξ, -ῑκος [m.] ‘round, coarse bread’ (Hippon., com.), ‘tablet’ (medic.). The
word is no doubt Pre-Greek, because of the suffix -ῑκ- (3.2.3.74).
κολλῡ́ρα mg. uncertain, probably ‘cake, tablet’ (Ar., Thphr., lxx, pap.), cf. κόλλιξ
and κόλλαβος above. Also κολλούρα. Like other words in -ῡρα, probably Pre-
Greek (see 3.2.3.134). If the variation υ / ου is old, this also points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.6.1.3d).
λαίγματα [n.pl.] · πέμματα, οἱ δέ σπέρματα, ἱερὰ ἀπάργματα ‘cakes, others: seeds,
holy firstlings’ (H.); λαῖγμα· τὸ ἱερόν (Theognost. Can. 9). Cf. λάγματα (Cyr.,
Phot.), λαῖτμα· θῦμα ‘sacrifice’ (H.). The variation λα- / λαι- points to a Pre-
Greek word (see 2.6.1.1c).
ματτύη [f.] name of a sweet dish, which is made of all kinds of ingredients,
like minced meat, poultry, aromatic spices; it is ascribed to the Thessalians
and the Macedonians (middle and new com.). Furnée (1972: 386) compares
ματύλλη ‘id.’ (Poll. 6, 70). The a-vocalism in the root and the alternation τ(τ)
point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.8).
μίμαρκυς, -υος [f.] ‘hare-soup, jugged hare’, from the intestines with their blood
(com.). The reduplication is clearly Pre-Greek (see 3.1).
96 chapter 6
μυστῑλ́ η [f.] ‘piece of bread, scooped out as a spoon’ (com., Ath., Aret., Poll.). A
Pre-Greek word because of its suffix -ῑλ- (see 3.2.3.75).
μυττωτός [m.] ‘dish, kind of paste’, made of cheese, honey, garlic, etc. (Hippon.).
Also -σσ-, -σ-. In view of the variation -ττ- / -σσ- / -σ-, the word is Pre-Greek
(see 2.5.5.9a). Also note the suffix -ωτ- (see 3.2.3.149).
παλάθη [f.] ‘cake made of preserved fruits’ (Hdt. 4, 23). Furnée (1972: 259) cites
παλάσια· τὰ συγκεκομμένα σῦκα. καὶ διὰ τοῦ θ παλάθια ‘harvested figs, also
παλάθια with -θ-’ (H.). The variation θ / σ points to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.5.9a). Also note the suffix -αθ- (see 3.2.3.6).
πλάθανον [n.] ‘cake mold or form’ (Theoc., Nic.). Related to πλάσσω ‘to knead,
form, mold, shape (a soft mass); to think up, imagine, pretend’. The root
πλαθ- is anomalous from an ie point of view; -αν- is a Pre-Greek suffix (see
3.2.3.19).
σάρδα [f.] ‘salted and corned fish’ (Diph. Siph. apud Ath. 3, 120 f.). Probably
originally ‘the Sardian fish’, derived from Σαρδώ = Sardinia, named after the
place of origin. Note the initial σ- and the final -α (see 2.2a.15 and 3.3.1a).
σκύβαλον [n.] ‘waste, offal, refuse, muck’ (Hell. and late). Also *σκύβλον as in
σκυβλίζω? Furnée (1972: 148) compares κύπελλα· τὰ τῆς μάζης καὶ τῶν ἄρτων
ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης καταλείμματα ‘whatever dough and bread is left over on
the table’ (Philet. apud Ath. 11, 483a); if correct, the s-mobile (2.4) and the
variations β / π (2.5.1), α / ε (2.6.1.1a) and λ / λλ (2.5.8) point to Pre-Greek
origin. At any rate, the suffix -αλ(λ)- is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.15). See delg
Supp.
σφίδες · χορδαὶ μαγειρικαί ‘tripe fit for cookery’ (H.). Reminiscent of Lat. fidēs
‘cords of a lyre’; they were probably borrowed from the same Mediterranean
language (cf. e-m s.v.).
σχελίς [f.] mg. instable, ‘rib of beef, thigh-bone, side of bacon’ vel sim. Acc. to H.
= τὸ ἀπὸ τῆς ῥάχεως ἕως τοῦ ὑπογαστρίου ‘the part from the spine down to the
lower belly’, also = κρέα ἐπιμήκη τετμημένα ‘longish or oblong cut of meat’.
Also σκελίς, with variation κ / χ (see 2.5.1).
τάμισος [f.] ‘rennet’ (Hp.). Pre-Greek because of the suffix -ισ- (see 3.2.3.84).
τάρῑχος [m.] and [n.] ‘fish or meat conserved by salting, smoking or drying’ (ia,
etc.), also ‘mummy’ (Hdt. 9, 120, S. Fr. 646). The word is probably Pre-Greek,
in view of the meaning, the -α-, and the suffix (see 3.2.3.88).
7 Human Physiology
7.1 The Human Body

ἀλίβας, -αντος [m.] ‘corpse, dead person’ (Pl. Resp. 387c, H.), also of the Styx (S.
Fr. 790) and metaph. of wine-vinegar (Hippon.). The deviant shape of the
word, as well as the suffix -αντ- (see 3.2.3.23), clearly point to a substrate
origin.
ἀστράγαλος [m.] ‘one of the neck vertebrae; anklebone; knuckle-bones (used
as dice); dice’ (Il.). Also στράγαλος. The prothetic vowel and the suffix -αλ-
point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3 and 3.2.3.15). See also ἀστακός and ὄστρακον
ἀσφάραγος 1 [m.] ‘throat, gullet’ (X 328, Plu.). σφάραγγος (σφάραγος Latte)· βρόγ-
χος, τράχηλος, λαιμός, ψόφος ‘windpipe, neck, throat, noise’ (H.); σφάραγος
= φάρυγξ ‘throat’ (Apion apud Phot.). Furnée (1972: 227) connects φάραγξ,
-γγος ‘gorge’ (see s.v. in section 1 above) and compares σφάραγγες (codd. -ές)
sine expl. (H.). [sn]: We may further connect φάρυγξ (below; cf. Furnée 1972:
281) and ἀσφάραγγος = λάρυγξ (Psell.). The prothetic vowel (2.3), the s-mobile
(2.4), the prenasalization (2.5.2) and the suffix -αγ-/-αγγ- (3.2.3.2–3) prove
substrate origin.
βαλμός [m.] ([n.]?) · στῆθος ‘breast’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 172, 178) compares φαλὸν·
τὸ στερεὸν κύκλωμα τοῦ στέρνου ‘the solid circle of the breast’ (H.). The
variation between βαλμ- and φαλ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and
3.2.3.90).
βίλλος · τὸ ἀνδρεῖον μόριον τὸ κοινῶς βιλλίν ‘the lot of a man, commonly βιλ-
λίν’ (Hdn. i, 158). Furnée (1972: 325) compares ἀβίλλιον· ἀνδρεῖον (H.). The
prothetic vowel may point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3), which is expected
anyway. For βιλλίν, if this is a nom., cf. the Pre-Greek words in -ν (see 3.3.4).
βλέννᾰ [f.] ‘mucous discharge, μύξα’ (Hp.). Cf. πλένναι· μύξαι (H.). βλένα· μύξα. οἱ
δὲ δία τοῦ π πλένα καὶ πλέννα τὰ ἀσθενῆ καὶ δυσκίνητα (H.). πλεννεραί· μυξώδεις
(Hp.). The variations π / β, νν / ν prove Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
Further note the final short -α (see 3.3.1a).
βρόγχος [m.] ‘windpipe, throat’ (Hp.). Connected with βρόξαι ‘to gulp down,
swallow (again)’ (section 15 below) and βρόχθος ‘throat, gullet’ (Hp.). The
nasal infix can be easily understood as Pre-Greek prenasalization (2.5.2). It
is conceivable that βροχθ- is not a suffixal derivation from this word, but
just another form of the root, with variation χ / χθ (2.5.5.1b). Further cf.
βράγχος ‘hoarseness, angina’ (section 7.2 below), with the typical variation
α / ο (2.6.1.1b).
βύσταξ [m.] ‘moustache’ (Antiph. 44.4 apud Ath. 4, 143a). Evidently cognate
with μύσταξ ‘upper lip, moustache’ (see s.v. below), the words being of Pre-
Greek origin because of the alternation β / μ (see 2.5.4).
98 chapter 6
βύττος [m.]? · γυναικὸς αἰδοῖον ‘female genitals’ (H.). Cf. μυττός· τὸ γυναικεῖον
αἰδοῖον ‘id.’ (H.). The variation β / μ shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see
2.5.4).
γλήνη [f.] ‘eyeball’ (Hom.; also in a reviling sense Θ 164), also ‘pupil of the
eye’ (Ruf. Onom., H.), metaph. ‘socket of a joint’ (Gal.), ‘honeycomb’ (ab,
H.). If γλαινοί· τὰ λαμπρύσματα τῶν περικεφαλαιῶν, οἷον ἀστέρες ‘ornaments of
headbands, like stars’ (H.) is related, the variation ᾱ / αι points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.6.1.1i).
γναθμός [m.] ‘jaw’ (Hom.). Also γνάθος. The Lithuanian word žándas ‘id.’, with
its entirely different structure, cannot be cognate. Actually, -νᾰ- cannot be
derived from any other pie form either, and the word must therefore be
non-ie, i.e. Pre-Greek. A variant may be κάναδοι· σιαγόνες, γνάθοι ‘jaws’ (see
s.v. κνώδαλον, section 4.2 above), with the variations κ / γ, δ / θ, α / zero (see
2.5.1 and 2.6.5).
δάκτυλος [m.] ‘finger’ (also as a measure, etc.), ‘toe’ (ia). It is perhaps from
*δάτκυλος. A form *δατκ-υλ- looks perfectly Pre-Greek: cluster -κτ- (< -τκ-,
see 2.5.5) and a suffix -υλ- (see 3.2.3.121).
ἰξῡς, -ῠ́ος [f.] ‘waist, loins’ (ε 231 = κ 544, Hp., Hell. poetry). Furnée (1972: 393)
́
proposed to connect ἰσχίον ‘hip’ (see directly below); if correct, the word is
Pre-Greek because of the variation (see 2.5.5.6b).
ἰσχίον [n.] ‘hip-joint, haunches’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 393) connects it with ἰξῡ́ς
(above), which seems quite possible if one assumes consonant metathesis in
ἰσχίον. One might assume a Pre-Greek pre-form *ikty-; cf. on ἴξαλος (section
4.1 above). Pre-Greek had several words ending in -ι (see 3.3.1b), which is very
rare in inherited Greek.
κάλυγες [?] · τὰ ἔμβρυα ‘embryos’ (H.). The structure of the word (καλ-υγ-) is
typically Pre-Greek (see 3.2.2, 3.2.3.114).
κανθός [m.] ‘corner of the eye’ (Arist., Nic., Gal.); poet. ‘eye’ (Hell.); acc. to H.
also ‘opening in the roof for the smoke, funnel, καπνοδόκη’ and ‘pot, kettle,
χυτρόπους’ (Sicilian). Since there is no ie etymology, and since an ie pre-form
is impossible (*kh2ndh- would have given *καθ-), the conclusion must be that
the word is Pre-Greek.
κηκίς, -ῖδος [f.] ‘anything gushing forth, ooze’, of blood, purple, pitch, fat (A., S.),
‘dye from oak gall, oak gall’ (Hp., D., Thphr.). Dor. κακίς. κακίω· ἱδροῦν ἄρχομαι
‘begin to sweat (Lac.)’ (H.). καγκύλας· κηκῖδας. Αἰολεῖς (section 4.6 above).
The prenasalization and the suffix -ῑδ- show that the word is Pre-Greek (see
2.5.2 and 3.2.3.70).
κίκιννος [m.] ‘curly hair, lock of hair’ (com., Theoc., ap). Furnée (1972: 278) is
probably right in assuming a prenasalized form *κιγκιννος as a source for the
Latin word cincinnus. Pre-Greek origin must be assumed (see 2.5.2).
κόνδῠλος [m.] ‘knuckle, joint, bony knob, clenched fist, swelling of the gum,
etc.’ (ia). The word is probably Pre-Greek because of its structure, κονδ-υλ- <
*kant-ul-; note the suffix -υλ- (see 3.2.3.121). Moreover, the gloss κανθύλας· τὰς
ἀνοιδήσεις. Αἰσχύλος Σαλαμινίαις (Fr. 220) ‘swellings’ (H.), may show variation
α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and δ / θ (2.5.1) (Van Beek p.c.).
κορυφή [f.] ‘top, skull’, also metaph. (Il.). Cf. κόρυμβος (section 9.8 below). Long
recognized as Pre-Greek, due to the alternation of κορυφ- with prenasal-
ized κορυμβ-. Apart from the prenasalization (2.5.2) and the variation φ /
β (2.5.1) displayed by the suffix, the suffix itself also points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 3.2.3.125 and 3.2.3.138). See also κόρυς ‘helmet’ (section 9.6 be-
low).
κύλα [n.pl.] ‘the parts under the eyes’ (Hp., Sor.), cf. κύλα· τὰ ὑποκάτω τῶν
βλεφάρων κοιλώματα. τὰ ὑπὸ τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς μῆλα. τὰ ὑπώπια ‘the cavities
under the eyelids; the swellings under the eyes; the parts of the face under
the eyes’ (H.). Var. lectio κοιλ-. Also κύλλια· ὑπώπια μέλανα ‘black eyes’ (H.).
κύλλαβοι· ὑπώπια ‘parts of the face under the eyes’ (H.). The variants with
κυλλ- show that the word is from Pre-Greek *kuly- (see 2.5.8). Further note
the Pre-Greek suffix -αβ- in κύλλαβοι (see 3.2.3.1).
κύμβη 2 [f.] = κύβη ‘κεφαλή’ (only em 545, 27). The prenasalization in the pair
κύμβη / κύβη proves Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2). Of course, κύμβαχος ‘head
first’ (section 13 below) belongs here, too.
κύσθος [m.] ‘pudenda muliebra’ (Eup., Ar.). κυσός· ἡ πυγή. ἢ γυναικεῖον αἰδοῖον
‘buttocks; pudenda muliebra’ (H.). The alternation of κύσθο- with κυσό- sug-
gests a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.5.11a).
κῠ́φελλα [n.pl.] ‘hollows of the ears’ (Lyc.), ‘clouds of mist’ (Lyc., Call.). Probably
the same Pre-Greek word as κύπελλον (see section 9.3 below); variation π / φ
(2.5.1), suffix -ελλ- (3.2.3.43).
λαιμός [m.] ‘throat, gullet’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 225) compares λαιμός ‘gefrässig’
with λαιφός ‘impudent’ and λαιφάσσω ‘to swallow, gulp down’ (section 15
below), with variation μ / φ (2.5.4), which proves Pre-Greek origin.
λάρυγξ, -υγγος [m.] ‘upper part of the windpipe’ (Hp.). λαρυγγός· ματαιολόγος
‘talking idle’ (H.). The suffix -υγγ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.114).
This is confirmed by the variant λάρυγος [gen.] (em 788, 37).
λαυκανίη [f.] ‘throat’ (Il.). Later usually λευ-. λαυχάνη· γλῶσσα ‘tongue, language’
(H.). The variations κ / χ and αυ / ευ point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.1g).
μαστός [m.] ‘nipple, motherbreast, breast’, metaph. ‘hill, height’, also name of a
cup (Apollod. Cyren. apud Ath. 11, 487b, Oropos, Delos). Epic Ion. poet. μαζός,
Dor. (Theoc.) μασδός, Hell. also μασθός. The variation στ / ζ [zd] / σθ points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1).
100 chapter 6
μασχάλη [f.] ‘armpit’ (h. Merc.), metaph. ‘axil, branch’ (Thphr.), ‘bay’ (Str.), etc.
No doubt a Pre-Greek word; note the suffix -αλ- (see 3.2.3.15).
μήδεα [n.pl.] ‘male genitals’, of φωτός (Od., Androm. apud Gal., Call., also Ant.
Lib.), μέζεα (Hes. Op. 512, Lyc.); μέδεα (Archil. 138); metaph. ‘urine’ in Opp.
(Cyn. 4, 441); μέζος· αἰδοῖον ‘private parts’ (H.). The variation between μήδεα,
μέζεα and μέδεα clearly points to a Pre-Greek word: interchange ε / η (2.6.1.2i),
δ / ζ (2.5.5.9a).
μῆνιγξ, -ιγγος [f.] ‘skin, cuticle’, especially ‘cerebral membrane’ (Hp., Arist., Gal.),
also ‘cuticle in the eye’ (Emp., Arist.), ‘drum of the ear’ (Arist.). The suffix -ιγγ-
clearly points to a Pre-Greek word (see 3.2.3.69).
μύσταξ, -ακος [m.] ‘upper lip, moustache’ (Stratt., Eub., Theoc., lxx), a Doric and
Laconian word (cf. Arist. Fr. 539). Var. μύττακες· μυκαί (cod. μύκαι) Σικελοί.
Ἴωνες (leg. Λάκ-) πώγωνα ‘beard’ (H.), βύσταξ ‘moustache’ (see above). Both
the variation μ- / β- and the variant μύττακες point to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.4 and 2.5.5.10a). Also note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
μυττός [?] · τὸ γυναικεῖον ‘female genitals’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 218) compares
βύττος· τὸ γυναικαῖον αἰδοῖον ‘id.’ (H.) (see above), which proves Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.5.4).
ὄστλιγξ, -ιγγος [f.] ‘lock of hair, tendril, vine, curling flames, tentacle of an
octopus’ (Thphr., Call., A. R., Nic., Hdn. Gr.). Also ἄστλιγγ- (Hdn. Gr., H.),
ἄστριγγ- (H., em), ἄστριγ- (em). The word is Pre-Greek, as is shown by
the varying anlaut and the suffix -ι(γ)γ- (see 2.5.2, 2.5.7c, 2.6.1.1b and
3.2.3.69).
ὀσφῦς, -ύος [f.] ‘hips, loin(s)’ (ia). Furnée (1972: 375) adduces φύς = ὀσφύς (ab
1096), with Doric loss of initial σ- before φ, pointing to a Pre-Greek prothetic
vowel (see 2.3), with ὀ- instead of ἀ- before υ in the following syllable (see
2.5.13.2). Furnée (1972: 393) also accepts the connection with ψύαι ‘loin-
muscles’ and ψόαι (see s.v. below), which is too obvious to be discarded (see
2.5.5.6a).
οὔλαφος [m.] · νεκρός ‘corpse’ (H.). The suffix seems to point to a Pre-Greek word
(see 3.2.3.33).
ὀφθαλμός [m.] ‘eye’ (Il.). Boeot. ὄκταλλος, Epid. Lacon. ὀπτίλ(λ)ος. Not only is
it impossible to explain the variation from Indo-European; the rise of a
suffix -αλ(λ)- would be incomprehensible as well. The suffix is Pre-Greek
(see 3.2.3.15, and 3.2.3.90 on -μ-). The word can be reconstructed as pg
*okwt-aly-(m-). Here the labiovelar could become a labial, but the labial
element could also be ignored, which yielded ὀκτ- (see 2.5.6). Aspiration was
not phonemic in Pre-Greek, hence the variant ὀφθ- is unproblematic on this
account (see 2.5.1). In ὀπτίλ(λ)ος, *a apparently became i by influence of the
following palatalized consonant. The fact that pg *okwt- strongly resembles
ie *h3ekw- is a mere coincidence, and such accidents may be expected to

occur every now and then.
παλαστή [f.] ‘surface of the hand, breadth of four fingers’ (ia). -αιστή (Hp.).
παλα(ι)στ-ιαῖος ‘measuring a handbreadth’. The word must be Pre-Greek
because of the variation σ / ισ (which probably points to a palatal *sy); cf.
Furnée (1972: 296) and 2.6.1.1c above.
πόσθη [f.] ‘penis’ (Ar. Nu. 1014), also ‘foreskin’ (medic.). ἀκρο-ποσθ-ία [f.] (Hp.,
Arist.) ‘foreskin’, also ἀκροβυστία [f.] ‘id.’, coll. ‘the uncircumcized people’ =
‘heathendom’ (lxx, nt). The variations suggest Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1
and 2.6.1.3c). This explanation is increasingly attractive in view of the seman-
tic field.
πρυμνός [adj.] ‘utmost, hindmost, undermost’, of the part of a body part that
is closest to the torso, vel sim.; also of the undermost part of a tree, a rock,
etc. (epic poet. Il.). The most promising etymology consists of a connection
with πρέμνον ‘tree-stump, trunk, stub’, also ‘bole’, metaph. of a column, etc.
The interchange ε / υ points to a Pre-Greek origin (cf. Furnée 1972: 65270 and
2.6.1.2c above).
ῥάχις, -ιος [f., m.] ‘spine, back’, often metaphorically ‘ridge, etc.’ (I 208). Cf. ῥαχός
(also ῥᾶχος), Ion. ῥηχός [f.] ‘briar, thorn hedge, (thorny) sprig’; ὀρήχου· τῆς
αἱμασιᾶς ‘wall’ (H.). The forms point to *ϝρᾰχ-/ϝρᾱχ-, which cannot be derived
from an ie form. Rather, the variation is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.2).
σιᾱγών [f.] ‘jawbone, jaw, cheek’ (Hp.). Since ie origin is formally hardly possi-
ble, the word could well be of Pre-Greek origin, possibly reflecting *syāg- (cf.
Beekes 2008: 52).
σκύτη [f.] · κεφαλή ‘head’; σκύτα· τὸν τράχηλον. Σικελοί ‘neck, throat (Sicilian)’
(H.), see further lsj s.v. about the attestations. Furnée (1972: 359, 362) com-
pares κοτ(τ)ίς, (προ)-κόττα ‘head’, with s-mobile, ο / υ and τ / ττ (see 2.4,
2.6.1.3c and 2.5.8), and assumes Pre-Greek origin.
σπάκελος [m.] ‘middle finger’ (sch. Pl. Ti. 84 β). Also σφάκηλος and φ-. Pre-Greek
in view of the variations σ- / zero, π / φ and ε / η (see 2.4, 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.3i).
Also note the suffix -ε/ηλ- (see 3.2.3.42 and 3.2.3.56).
στόρθυγξ, -υγγος [m., f.] ‘cusp, tine (of an antler), fang, cape, etc.’ (S., Com. Adesp.,
Lyc., ap et al.). στόρθη· τὸ ὀξὺ τοῦ δόρατος, καὶ ἐπιδορατίς ‘the sharp [point] of
a spear, tip of a lance or spear’ (H.). The suffix points to Pre-Greek origin (see
3.2.3.114).
σφόνδῠλος [m.] ‘(cervical) vertebra’, metaph. ‘a tambour in a column, spindle-
whorl’ (Ar., Pl., Arist., inscr., etc.). Also (non-Att.) σπόνδυλος. The variation
σπ- / σφ- and the suffix -υλ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.121).
φαλά [?] · μικρὰ κάρα (H., Furnée 1972: 172 reads φάλα). Also φάλαι· ὅροι, σκοπιαί
(H.). Furnée (1972: 172) connects βαλόν· οὐρανόν (H.), and further φάλος,
102 chapter 6
helmet ornament or part of the helmet. The variation φ / β would point to

Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1).
φαλακρός [adj.] ‘bald-headed’, also φάλανθος, φάλᾱρος ‘having a patch of white’,
φάληρος ‘id.’, φαλιός ‘id.’, etc. Derived with various Pre-Greek suffixes (see
3.2.3.14, 3.2.3.23, 3.2.3.28 and 3.2.3.60) from φαλός ‘white’ (see s.v. in section
13 below).
φαλλός [m.] ‘membrum virile’ (Hdt.). Also φάλης, -ητος (Sophr.) and βαλλίον
(Herod. 6, 69). The variations φ / β (2.5.1) and λ / λλ (2.5.8) clearly point to
Pre-Greek origin, see Furnée (1972: 172). Further note the suffix -ητ- (3.2.3.62).
φάρυγξ [f., m.] ‘throat, gorge, larynx, windpipe’ (Od.), also ‘throat disease’ (Hp.).
Also -υξ, gen. -υγος, -υγγος, acc. -υγγα. The prenasalized suffix -υ(γ)γ- shows
that the word is of Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.114). Cf. ἀσφάραγος
above.
χελύνη 1 [f.] ‘lip’ (Ar. V. 1083, Poll. 2, 89, H.), ‘jaw’ (Ael.). The variants σχελυνάζει·
φλυαρεῖ ‘talks nonsense’, ἐσχελύνασεν· ἐφλυάρησεν (H.) point to a Pre-Greek
origin, as does the structure of the word; note the s-mobile and the suffix
-ῡν- (see 2.4 and 3.2.3.127).
ψόαι [f.pl.] ‘psoas muscle, muscles of the loins’ (Hp.). Also ψοιαί, ψύαι, ψυαί.
ψοΐτης μυελός ‘lumbar part of the spinal chord’ (Gal.), ψυαδικός ‘suffering
from lumbago’ (Orib.). Cf. ψειαί· ἀλώπεκες ‘(foxes,) psoas muscles’ (H.), ψίαι·
ἀλώπεκες (H.); φοῦαι· ἀλώπεκες (H.), φύλλες· ἀλώπεκες (H.). The variations
cannot be understood in ie terms. The connection with ὀσφῦς (see s.v. above)
is quite possible. The word is clearly Pre-Greek.
ὠλίγγη [f.] ‘wrinkle, small furrow, crow’s-feet in the corner of the eye’ (Poll., em,
ab), also ‘short nap, short moment, instant’. Also ὦλιγξ? ὠλιγγία (H.). ὠλίγγιον·
ὀλίγον ‘few’ (em, ab). The word is clearly of Pre-Greek origin in view of the
prenasalized suffix -ι(γ)γ- (see 3.2.3.69).
7.2 Affections and Diseases

ἀγχίλωψ [f.] ‘swelling which obstructs the lacrymal duct’ (Gal. 19, 438). Also
αἰγίλωψ. The synonym points to a Pre-Greek origin, in view of the variations
α / αι (2.6.1.1c) and γ / χ (2.5.1) and prenasalization (2.5.2). Note that αι before
NC is not tolerated in Greek; perhaps the first i derives from a palatalized
/g’/. The analysis in terms of Pre-Greek is *a(n)gy-ilōp-. Note the suffixes -ιλ-
(3.2.3.75) and -ωπ- (3.2.3.146).
ἀδαγμός [m.] · κνησμός ‘itch’ (H.). Also ὀδαγμός. The vocalic variation points to
pg origin (see 2.6.1.1b). Cf. ὀδάξ (section 17 below).
ἄχωρ, -ορος [m.] ‘scurf, dandruff’. Cf ἀχῶρα· τὸν ἀχῶρα. εἴρηται δὲ τὸ πιτυρῶδες
τῆς κεφαλῆς ‘the scurf of the head’ (H.) and ἄχορα· τὰ πίτυρα. ἔνιοι δὲ κρα-
νίον ‘chaff, skull; head’ (H.). The vocalic interchange points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.6.1.3e). Further related to ἄχυρα ‘chaff’ (see s.v. in section 5.1
above).
βράγχος [m.] ‘hoarseness, angina’ (Hp.). Also βάραγχος (Hippon.), βράγχη
(Xenocr.). Variation -α- / zero (see 2.6.5). Furnée (1972: 128, 276) further con-
nects the word with βραχώδης· τραχύς ‘rough, harsh’ (H.), βρακίας· τραχεῖς
τόπους ‘rough places’ (H.), and βαρακινῇσιν· ἀκάνθαις. σκόλοψι ‘thorns, pal-
isade’ (H.). Thus, we arrive at a set of variants βρακ- / βραχ- / βραγχ-, which
are typical of Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2). Further cf. βρόγχος ‘windpipe,
throat’ (section 7.1 above).
δίψᾰ, -ης [f.] ‘thirst’ (Il.). διψάς [f.] ‘thirsty, dry’ (Thphr.), also name of a snake,
whose bite caused a strong thirst (cf. Chantraine 1933: 354 f.). Cf. δίφας ‘a
kind of snake’ (Artemid. 2, 13), δίφατον· ὄφιν Κρῆτες ‘serpent (Cret.)’ (H. cod.;
δίφα⟨ν⟩· τὸν ὄφιν Salm.), δίβαν· ὄφιν. Κρῆτες (H.). Under an analysis δίπ-σα, the
final element can hardly be ie. Therefore, it is probably a Pre-Greek word
with the suffix -σα (see 3.2.3.105), which is further confirmed by the variants
with φ and β (see 2.5.1).
δοθιήν, -ῆνος [m.] ‘small abscess’ (Hp.). Furnée (1972: 172118) points out that -ην is
frequent in Pre-Greek words (see 3.2.3.57), and plausibly compares δολεών· ὁ
δοθιήν (H.), as a variant deriving from *δοδ- (see 2.5.7a).
ἐρυσίπελας, -τος [n.] name of a skin disease, ‘Erysipelas’. Likely to be of Pre-
Greek origin. The first element may be compared with ἐρυσῑβ́ η ‘rust in plants’
(cf. s.v. in section 3.5 above). Further note the suffixes -ελ- (3.2.3.42) and -ατ-
(3.2.3.31).
ἠπίαλος [m.] ‘ague, ague from fever’ (Thgn., Ar., Hp., etc.; on the meaning
Strömberg 1944: 82ff.); ‘nightmare’. Cf. ἠπίολος ‘moth’. In folklore, butterflies,
etc. bring fever (Frisk). Given the variation α / ο and the suffix -αλ-, it is
probably a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.15).
κανθύλη [f.] ‘swelling, tumor’, only in κανθύλας· τὰς ἀνοιδήσεις. Αἰσχύλος Σαλα-
μινίαις (Fr. 220) ‘swellings’ (H., at an alphabetically incorrect place). Also
κονθηλαί· αἱ ἀνοιδήσεις (H.). The variation α / ο is clearly Pre-Greek, as is the
suffixation (see 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.122). Cf. κόνδυλος (section 7.1 above).
κιρσός [m.] ‘varicocele’ (Hp., Philostr.). Also κρισσός (Hippiatr., H.), κριξός. The
variation σ(σ) / ξ shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.5.7b). Also note
the metathesis (see 2.5.12).
κορδῡ́λη [f.] ‘tumor, swelling’ (Semon. 35, em); name of a hairdo = Att. κρωβύλος
(Creon apud sch. Ar. Nu. 10, em); ‘club, κορύνη, ῥόπαλον’ (H.). Frisk notes that
the mg. is the same as that of τύλη. Also σκορδύλη (Arist.) and κορύδῡλις
(Numen. apud Ath.). The prothetic σ- (2.4), the suffix -ῡλ- (3.2.3.122), and the
anaptyctic υ (2.6.5) point to Pre-Greek origin. The form κορδ- might be from
*kard- with ο < *a before *u (see 2.5.13.2).
104 chapter 6
λέμφος [m., n.] ‘mucous discharge from the nostrils, κόρυζα, μύξα’ (Lib., Moer.,
H., Tz.); plur. also ‘putrescent carcasses’ (Phot., Eust.), metonymic ‘simple
man’ (Men.). Furnée (1972: 160) recognized that it is the same word as λάμπη
‘foam, phlegm, mucus’, with the variations π / φ and ε / α (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.1a); see also s.v. in section 5.2 above.
λήθαργος [m., f.] ‘lethargy, lethargic fever’ (Hp.), as an adjective also ‘forgetful’
(Men., ap). Cf. λαίθαργος ‘guileful, treacherous’ (section 13 below). The vari-
ation η / αι shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1i).
μάλκη [f.] ‘numbness from cold’ in hands and feet, plur. ‘chilblain’ (Nic.); μάλ-
κην· τὸ ἐπικόπανον. Πάριοι ‘chopping-block’ (H.). μαλκόν· μαλακόν (H.). De-
nominative μαλκίω [v.] ‘to become numb with cold, freeze’, often written
μαλακίω. A form μαλκ- can hardly be explained in ie terms. The variant
spelling μαλακίω may indicate that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.5).
μώλωψ, -ωπος [m.] ‘stripe, wale, weal, bruise’ (Hyp., Arist., lxx, medic.). Words
of this structure contain a suffix -ωψ (see 3.2.3.146) and are certainly of
Pre-Greek origin.
νυκτάλωψ, -ωπος [m., f.] ‘seeing in the night’ = ‘day-blind’, as a msc. substantive
‘day-blindness’, secondary ‘night-blind, night-blindness’ (Hp., Arist., Gal.).
On the Pre-Greek suffix -ωπ-, see 3.2.3.146. The connection with νύξ must
be folk-etymological.
νῶκαρ, -αρος [n.] ‘lethargy, coma’ (Nic., Hdn.); the latter explains it as στέρησις
τῆς ψυχῆς ‘absence of the soul’; it is also translated as νύσταξις ‘slumbering’.
Furnée (1972: 133) convincingly connects νῶκαρ with νωχελής ‘slow, dull,
sluggish’ (section 13 below), with the variation κ / χ (see 2.5.1). For Pre-Greek
words in -αρ, see Furnée (1972: 13475) and 3.2.3.27 and 3.3.2a above.
ῥώδιγγες [?] · πληγαὶ ὕφαιμοι διακεκομμέναι. οἱ δὲ μώλωπες ‘spots bloodshot by
hitting; bruises’ (H.). Also ῥώτιγγες. The variation δ / τ and the suffix -ιγγ-
point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.69).
σκῖρος [m.] ‘induration, callus, hard tumor’ (medic.), ‘hard, scrubby ground,
scrub’ (Tab. Heracl.). Also -ρρ-, σκῦρ-. Also σκίρρα. σκιρρίτης [m.] ‘gypsum-
worker’. Furnée (1972: 387) suggests that the word is Pre-Greek. This seems
quite probable in view of the variations ρ / ρρ and ι / υ (see 2.5.8 and 2.6.1.4).
σμῶδιξ [f.] ‘bloodshot bruise, bloody weal’ (B 267, Ψ 716, Opp. H. 2, 428). Plur.
-ιγγες. Also μῶδιξ· φλέψ, φλυκτίς ‘blood vessel, boil’ (H.). A Pre-Greek word;
note initial σ- / zero and the prenasalized suffix -ι(γ)γ- (see 2.4, 2.5.2 and
3.2.3.69).
φαῦσιγξ [f.] ‘blister from burns, blister’ (Ar. Fr. 883, H.). Also φαῦστιγξ, plur.
-ιγγες. The word is clearly Pre-Greek in view of the prenasalized suffix
(3.2.3.69), the intervocalic -σ- (2.2a.15), and the alternation σ / στ (see
2.5.5.11a).
φλύκταινα [f.] ‘blister, pustule’ (Hp.). Also φλυκτίς, -ίδος and φλυζάκιον. Forma-
tion in -αινα (see 3.2.3.11) from a stem φλυκτ-, with the typical Pre-Greek
cluster velar + t (see Furnée 1972: 319ff.; cf. 2.2a.7 above). Further cf. ὀλοφλυ-
κτίς [f.] ‘bladder, pustule with blood and water’ (Hp.) and its variants -φυκτίς
(H.), ὀλοφυγδών (Theoc. 9, 30) and -φύγγων (H.), with the variation γ / κτ / γδ
and prenasalization (see 2.5.1, 2.5.2 and 2.5.5.1b).
ψιάς [f.] ‘drop of blood’ (P 459), plur. ψιάδες αἱματόεσσαι. ψίακα· ψακάδα ‘drop’,
ψίδες· ψιάδες, ψακάδες, and ψιάζει· ψακάζει (H.). ψίακ- beside ψακ-άδ- points
to a Pre-Greek palatalized phoneme *sy.
ὠδίς, -ῖνος [f.] ‘throes of birth, that which is born (out of pains)’, metaph. ‘strain’
(Λ 271). The word is likely to be Pre-Greek because of the suffix -ῑν- (see
3.2.3.79).
7.3 Sex
κίκκη [f.] · συνουσία, ἡ ἀπὸ τῶν αἰδοίων συνοσμία ‘sexual intercourse, emitting
the same smell from the private parts’ (H.). Cf. κίκκασος· ὁ ἐκ τῶν παραμηρίων
ἱδρὼς ῥέων, καὶ βόλου ὄνομα ‘sweat flowing from the inside of the thighs; name
for a cast of the dice’ (H.), with the Pre-Greek suffix -ασ- (see 3.2.3.29). Note
the geminate -κκ- (see 2.2a.25).
ὄλισβος [m.] ‘penis coriaceus’, = ‘of leather’ (com., Herod.). Obscene word with
a suffix -β-. As the suffix shows, the word is Pre-Greek. Note the cluster -σβ-
(see 2.2a.16).
σκινδακίσαι [v.] = τὸ νύκτωρ ἐπαναστῆναί τινι ἀσελγῶς ‘sexual arousal at night’
(Phot.) and σκίνδαρον· προσκίνημα· καὶ τὸ νύκτωρ ἐπαναστῆναι ἀκολάστως σκιν-
δακίσαι ‘movement towards (i.e. a woman); sexual arousal at night’. In H.
1. σκινδαρεύεσθαι· κακοσχολεύεσθαι, δακτυλίζεσθαι, σκιμαλίζεσθαι ‘to play mis-
chievous tricks; to be pointed at with the finger; to hold up the middle finger’;
2. σκινδαρίσαι· τὰ αὐτά ‘id.’; 3. σκινδάρ(ε)ιος· ὄρχησις οὕτω καλουμένη ‘a dance’;
4. σκίνδαροι· τὰ προσκυνήματα (leg. προσκι-, cf. Photius s.v. σκίνδαρον); 5. σκίν-
δαρος· ἡ ἐπανάστασις νυκτὸς ἀφροδισίων ἕνεκα ‘arousal at night for sex’. Both
formally and semantically most probably Pre-Greek. Denominative of *σκίν-
δαξ, a doublet with s-mobile (see 2.4) of κίνδαξ· εὐκίνητος ‘easily moved’ (H.)
(see section 13 below). Further note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13). Cf. σκίνδαρος
below.
σκίνδαρος [m.] ‘an obscene gesture’ (H., Phot.). Also σκινθαρίζω ‘make obscene
gestures’ (H.). The variation is typical of Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1). Further note
the suffix -αρ- (see 3.2.3.28). Cf. σκινδακίσαι above.
106 chapter 6
8 Attire and Jewellery
ἀμοργίς [f.] kind of dress. Adjective ἀμόργινος epithet of χιτών and other gar-
ments, cf. ἀμόργεια· χρώματος εἶδος, ἀπὸ νήσου Ἀμοργοῦντος ‘kind of color, after
the island of Amorgos’ (Suid.). The name of the island may have been used
to designate clothes, cf. MoE jersey, jeans, etc. Note the suffix -(ρ)γ- (see
3.2.3.101–102).
ἄμπυξ, -υκος [f., m.] ‘women’s diadem; horse’s bit; rim of a wheel’ (Il.). If we
analyze the word as *amp-uk-, it contains a typical substrate suffix (Beekes
2003b: 112–115; for the suffix see 3.2.3.119 above).
ἀρβύλη [f.] ‘shoe that covers the whole foot up to the ankle’ (Hp.). Cf. ἀράβυλας·
ὑποδήματος εἴδη φορτικὰ καὶ βαρβαρικὰ ‘kinds of coarse, non-Greek sandals’
(H.). And ἄρμυλα· ὑποδήματα. Κύπριοι ‘sandals (Cypr.)’ (H.). Clearly a sub-
strate word, as evidenced by the suffix -υλ- (3.2.3.121) and the variations β / μ
(2.5.4), αρ / αρα (2.6.5), and κατ-/καθ-άρβυλος (2.1).
βλαύτη [f.] ‘slipper’ (com.). βλαῦδες· ἐμβάδες, κρηπῖδες, σανδάλια ‘slippers, boots,
sandals’ (H.). The variation τ / δ points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1).
βουβάλιον [n.] ‘bracelet’. Cf. βουπάλινα (Delos) and βουπαλίδες· περισκελί-
δες ‘legbands’ (H.). The variation β / π points to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.1).
θρόνα [n.pl.] ‘flowers’, as a decoration in woven tissues and embroidery (Il.),
as a medicine and charm (Hell. poets). Acc. to the sch. on Theoc. 2, 59, the
Thessalians used θρόνα for colorful embroidered figures (πεποικιλμένα ζῷα),
and the Cypriots for variegated clothes (ἄνθινα ἱμάτια); H. glosses θρόνα both
as ‘flowers’ and as ‘colorful embroideries’ (θρόνα· ἄνθη, καὶ τὰ ἐκ χρωμάτων
ποικίλματα); cf. Bechtel (1921, 1: 448). Furnée (1972: 189) compares τρόνα·
ἀγάλματα, ἢ ῥάμματα ἄνθινα ‘statues, colorful stitchings’ (H.), which proves
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1).
θύσᾰνος [m.] ‘tassels, fringe’ (Il.). Cf. θυσσανόεις. The variation σ / σσ points to
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.8). Also note the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
κεκρύφαλος [m.] ‘hair-net of a woman, envelopped by the ἀναδέσμη’ (Il.), also
‘part of the head-stall of a bridle’, ‘pouch of the belly of a hunting-net’; ‘the
second stomach of a ruminant, reticulum’ (Strömberg 1944: 63f.). Technical
word of Pre-Greek origin; note the reduplication (3.1) and the suffix -αλ-
(3.2.3.15).
κλανίον [n.] ‘bracelet’ (pap. imperial period). Cf. χλανίαι· περιβολαί ‘garment’
(Furnée 1972: 131 objects that this word rather belongs to χλανίς ‘upper gar-
ment’) and χλανίτιδες· οἱ ὅρμοι παρθένων ‘maidens’ necklaces’ (H.). The varia-
tion between voiceless and aspirate shows the Pre-Greek origin of the word
(see 2.5.1). Furnée (1972: 388) further compares πλανίς· τὸ τῆς νύμφης χρυσοῦν
διάδημα ‘golden headband of the bride’ (H.), which would point to an initial
labiovelar (see 2.5.6).
κοσύμβη [f.] name of a cloak which acc. to D. Chr. 72, 1 was used by herders and
countrymen; by em 311, 5, H. and others it is explained with ἐγκόμβωμα ‘kind
of apron’, by em 349, 15 it is called an ἀναβολή ‘mantle’; the mg. κρωβύλος ‘hair
knot’ in Poll. 2, 30 (different readings) must be due to confusion with κόρυμ-
βος (for which see section 9.8). Also κοσσύμβη (H.). Cf. κότθυβος, a piece of
military equipment, perhaps περίζωμα. Cf. also κοσυβάτας ‘sacrificer’, which
confirms the form without nasal (Furnée 1972: 283). Further Lat. gossypion,
-inum ‘cotton-plant’, which point to *γοσσυπιον. Pre-Greek origin is likely,
given the prenasalization (2.5.2), the variation -σ- / -σσ- / -τθ- (2.5.5.9a) and
the suffix -υ(μ)β- (3.2.3.113 and 3.2.3.125).
λήδιον [n.] a light cloth = τριβώνιον (kind of garment) or ἱμάτιον εὐτελές ‘cheap
garment’ (H.). Also ληδίον (Att. inscr. iva), λῄδ-, λῃδίον, λήιδ-; Dor. λᾶδος
(Alcm.); λᾷδος, λαι- (H.). The variation between forms with and without ι
shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1j).
λόκκη [f.] · χλαμὺς, ἐφαπτίς (garment names) (H.). Furnée (1972: 344) compares
λάκκος ‘a garment’. Given the interchange α / ο, the word is probably Pre-
Greek (see 2.6.1.1b). Also note the geminate -κκ- (see 2.2a.25).
ὄχθοιβος [m.] ‘purple stripe or edge of a chiton’ (Ar., Pherecr.); ‘tuft neckband’
(Att. inscr.); cf. Kretschmer (1928: 169). No doubt a Pre-Greek word (cf.
Furnée 1972: 321); note the Pre-Greek structure. For the suffix cf. e.g. -αιβ-
and -υβ- (see 3.2.3.9 and 3.2.3.113).
ῥαπίς [?] ‘kind of shoe’. Cf. ἁρπίς, -ῖδος ‘kind of shoe’, = κρηπίς ‘man’s high boot’
(em 148, 36). The variation ρα / αρ (2.5.12) and the suffix -ῑδ- (3.2.3.70) point
to Pre-Greek origin.
σάνδαλον [n.] ‘sandal(s)’ (h. Merc.); name of a flat fish (Matro), see Strömberg
(1943: 37). Also σάμβαλον. The initial σ- (2.2a.15), the variation δ / β (2.5.6)
and the suffix -αλ- (3.2.3.15) point to Pre-Greek origin. Furnée (1972: 153, 389)
also mentions σέμπαδα· ὑποδήματα (H.), perhaps to be read *σέμπαλα? This
would add the variations ε / α (2.6.1.1a) and π / β (2.5.1).
σισύρα [f.] ‘thick, villous cloak (made of goat fur), fleece cloak’ (Ar.). Also
σίσυρνα. According to Furnée (1972: 215), it is of Pre-Greek origin. Note initial
and internal σ (2.2a.15), final short -α (3.3.1a) and the suffixes -υρ- (3.2.3.133)
and -ν- (3.2.3.91).
σιττύβαι [f.] · δερμάτιναι στολαί, τὰ μικρὰ ἱμαντάρια ‘leather garments, the small
halyards’ (H.). Further σίττυβα [n.pl.]· χιτὼν ἐκ δερμάτων ‘frock made of
hide’ (Poll. 7, 70), σίττυβον· τὸ μικρὸν δέρμα ‘small hide’ (Hdn. Gr. 1, 378)
and σίττυβοι· κροσσοί, ἱμάντες, θύσανοι ‘tassels, leather straps, fringes’ (Phot.,
Eust.). Cf. σίσυβοι = κροσσοί, ἱμάντες, θύσανοι ‘tassels, leather straps, fringes’
108 chapter 6
(Phot., Eust.). The variation ττ / σ (2.5.5.9a) and the suffix -υβ- (3.2.3.113) show
that the word is Pre-Greek, reflecting *sityub-. See also σίττυβος (section 9.2
below).
τήβεννα, -ος [f.] designation of a garment of a distinguished person, Lat. toga
(Hell. and late). Also τημενίς. Furnée (1972: 220, 387) showed that the word is
Pre-Greek (variation β / μ and ν / νν, see 2.5.4 and 2.5.8).
ὕσκλος, ὕσχλος [m.] ‘a device (ἀγκύλη, βρόχος) on sandals used to fasten the
straps’ (Phryn. ps). ἕπτυσχλοι· ἀνδρεῖον ὑπόδημα (H.). The variation κ / χ (2.5.1)
and the variation in initial aspiration (2.1) point to Pre-Greek origin.
χλαῖνα [f.] ‘upper-garment, mantle’, originally worn only by men (Il.). Also
κλανίσκιον. Cf. χλανίς, -ίδος ‘light upper-garment’, χλαμύς, -ύδος, accus. -υν
(Sapph.) ‘upper-garment for men’. This group is no doubt Pre-Greek, given
the suffix -υδ- (see 3.2.3.115; for -υν see 3.3.4), and the interchanges χ / κ (see
2.5.1) and ν / μ (see Furnée 1972: 388).
ψέλιον [n.] ‘bracelet, ring, arm jewel, anklet’ (Hdt., X., Hell. and late inscr.
and pap.). Also ψέλλιον and ψίλ(λ)ιον, Aeol. (gramm.) σπέλ(λ)ιον. Here also
belongs ψαλίς, which has several meanings, including ‘ring or the like for
supporting or strengthening’ (see s.v. in section 10.2 below). The word is no
doubt Pre-Greek, in view of the variations ψ / σπ (2.5.5.6a), ε / α (2.6.1.1a), ε /
ι (2.6.1.2b) and λ / λλ (2.5.8).
9 Equipment and Utensils
9.1 Furniture
ἀσάμινθος [f.] ‘bathtub’ (Il.). A clear substrate word because of the suffix in -νθ-
(see 3.2.3.81).
θᾶκος [m.] ‘seat, chair’ (Att.). Epic Ion. Dor. θῶκος (since Il.). From θάβακον·
θᾶκον ἢ θρόνον (H.), it appears that θᾶκος was contracted from *θά(ϝ)ακος;
θῶκος would then come from *θό(ϝ)ακος. The word must be Pre-Greek, as
was observed by Furnée (1972: 342). A suffix -ακ- is frequent in Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.13); the variation *-αϝ- / -οϝ- is normal in substrate words (see 2.6.1.1b).
κειρία [f.] ‘girth of a bedstead, bandage (for wounds, dead), tapeworms’ (Ar. Av.
816, lxx, pap., medic., Ev. Jo. 11, 44). Often plur. Also κιρία, κηρία, καιρία. The
variation is probably Pre-Greek: α before a palatalized consonant is realized
as αι, which becomes ει (see 2.6.1.1f and 2.6.1.1i).
τάπης, -ητος [f.] ‘carpet, rug’ (Hom.). Also τάπις, -ιδος (X., Delos iv–iiia), δάπις
‘id.’, τάβης. The variation τ / δ and the suffix -ητ- point to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.62).
τηλία [f.] ‘table or board with an elevated edge’, of the table of a baker, the stage
on which game-cocks fight, a gaming table (com., Aeschin., Arist., pap.), also
of a sieve (Ar. Pl. 1037, sch. σηλία); unclear Ar. V. 147 (of a flue?). Uncertain
σαλ[ία] ‘sieve’ (seg i, 414, Crete v–iva). On the mg. Chantry (1994). Note σηλία.
The variation τ / σ is typical of Pre-Greek words (see 2.5.5.9a).
χαλάδριον [n.] ‘low bed, mattress’ (pap. iip). Also χελ-, -τριον. As a variant,
χάλανδρον· κράββατον (H.) also belongs here: the -ν- is the typical Pre-Greek
prenasalization (see 2.5.2). Further note the variations δ / τ and α / ε, and the
suffix -α(ν)δρ- (see 2.5.1, 2.6.1.1a and 3.2.3.22).
ψίαθος [f., m.] ‘rush mat’ (Att. inscr. [va], Ar., Arist., Thphr.), also used as a screen
(Apollod. Poliorc.) and as a means of transport (pap. iiia, Sor.). Also ψίεθος.
Pre-Greek, as is shown by the variation α / ε (see 2.6.1.1a).
9.2 Containers
ἄγγος [n.] ‘vessel’ (Il.). Cf. ἄγδυς· ἄγγος Κρητικόν (H.). Prenasalization and varia-
tion γ / γδ (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.5.1b).
ἄρακις [f.] ‘bowl, pan’ (Ath. 11, 502b: Αἰολεῖς τὴν φιάλην ἄρακιν καλοῦσιν). Also
ἀράκτη. The variation κ / κτ proves substrate origin (see 2.5.5.1b). Furnée
(1972: 308, 319) further compares ἄροκλον = φιάλη, with κτ > κλ, for which
he gives parallels, and α / ο (see 2.6.1.1b).
βανωτός [m.] ‘vase used as a measure’ (pap. iiia, Callix.). The suffix -ωτ- points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.149). The -ω- probably goes back to -au- (for the
variation see 2.6.1.1h), which makes comparison with βάναυσος ‘of an artisan;
artisan’ (section 13 below) attractive.
βοῦτ(τ)ις [f.] ‘vase in the form of a frustum of a cone’ (Hero). The word is
evidently Pre-Greek because of the alternation τ / ττ (see 2.5.8).
βυτίνη [f.] · λάγυνος ἢ ἀμίς. Ταραντῖνοι ‘flask or chamber-pot (Tarantian)’ (H.).
Cf. Att. πῡτῑν́ η ‘flask covered with plated osier’. The interchange π / β proves
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1). The suffix -ῑν- is also frequent in Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.79).
γαδή [f.] · κιβωτός ‘box’ (H.). Cf. γάνδιον· κιβώτιον (H.). Because of the prenasal-
ized variant, the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2).
γρῖπος [m.] ‘fishing basket, creel’ (ap, Artem.). Also γρῖφος, with π / φ (see
2.5.1).
γρῡμέα [f.] ‘bag or chest for old clothes’ (com., Phld.). Also γρυμαία, γρυμεῖα,
γρυμεία. Cf. γρύτη [f.] ‘trash, trumpery, woman’s dressing-case, vanity-bag,
frippery’. The formation of γρυμέα is rare; together with the variants -αία, -εία,
it points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.7).
γυργαθός [m.] ‘wisker-basket, creel’ (Ar.). Also γέργαθος. Variation υ / ε and the
suffix -αθ- (see 2.6.1.2c and 3.2.3.6).
δάρπη [f.] · σαργάνη, κόφινος ‘basket’ (H.). Cf. τάρπη ‘large wicker basket’ (cf. s.v.
110 chapter 6
below), σάρπους· κιβωτούς. Βιθυνοὶ δὲ ξυλίνους οἰκίας ‘boxes; wooden dwellings

(Bith.)’ (H.). The variation δ / τ / σ proves Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and
2.5.5.9a). Note that the word is also attested in Anatolia (Bithynia).
θύλακος [m.] ‘sack, bag’, mostly made of leather (ia). Also θῦλαξ (com.). Cf. θυλ-
λίς· θύλακος (H.), θυλίδες· οἱ θύλακοι (H.). The suffix -ακ- points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 3.2.3.13).
κάρταλλος [m.] ‘basket with pointed bottom’. Rarely -αλος. The variant with
single -λ- points to a Pre-Greek word, as does the suffix itself (see 2.5.8
and 3.2.3.15), which is not surprising given the meaning. Furnée (1972: 352)
suggests to connect καρταλάμιον ‘small basket’ and κερτύλλιον ‘basket’, which
add the variation α / ε and the suffixes -αμ- and -υλλ- (see 2.6.1.1a, 3.2.3.18 and
3.2.3.123).
κάψα [f.]? · κίστη, θήκη ‘basket, chest’ (Suid., cf. Phot.). Var. κάμψα· θήκη, γλωσσο-
κομεῖον ‘chest, casket’ (H.). The prenasalization and the suffix -σα (with short
-α) point to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.2, 3.2.3.105 and 3.3.1a).
κέρνος [n.] ‘earthen vase with nipples all around, used in mystery cult’ (sch. Nic.
Al. 217; Ammon. and Polem. apud Ath. 11, 476f and 478c; H.). The by-forms
κέρχνος, κερχνίον, show that the word was Pre-Greek. Also note the suffix -ν-
(see 3.2.3.91).
κηθίς, -ίδος [f.] ‘ballot box, dicebox’ (Poll. 7, 203; not quite certain). κήθιον, -ειον,
-ίον; with metathesis of aspiration χείτιον beside κείθιον (Eust. 1259, 36); also
κητίον. The interchanges θ / τ and η / ει point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1
and 2.6.1.2f).
κίβῐσις [f.] ‘sack, pack’ (Hes.). Acc. to H. Cypr. for πήρα ‘leather pouch’. Also
κίβησις (Suid., Orion), κύβεσις, κυβησία (H., see Furnée 1972: 365). Further
κίρβα· πήρα ‘leather pouch’ (H.; below). Given the variants, most probably of
Pre-Greek origin. Also note the suffix -ισ- (see 3.2.3.84). Cf. κιβωτός directly
below.
κῑβωτός [f.] ‘wooden chest, box, cupboard’ (Hecat., Simon., Att.), also of Noah’s
ark and of the alliance (lxx). Perhaps cognate with κίβισις ‘sack’ above, thus
probably Pre-Greek. Note the suffix -ωτ- (see 3.2.3.149).
κίλλιξ 1 [?] · στάμνος ‘jar’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 132) connects it with κύλιξ ‘id.’; the
interchanges λ / λλ and ι / υ and the suffix -ικ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.5.8, 2.6.1.4 and 3.2.3.73).
κίρβα [f.]? · πήρα (cod. πεῖρα), διφθέρα. Αἰτωλοί ‘leather pouch (Aetolian)’ (H.).
Probably Pre-Greek; see Furnée (1972: 305). Cf. κίβισις above.
κόβαθος [m.] a vessel (PLond.). Furnée (1972: 346) compares κύβεθρον ‘beehive’
(H.) and κύαθος ‘vessel, scoop’ (see s.v. in section 9.3 below). If correct, the
word is Pre-Greek in view of the variations β / zero, α / ε and ο / υ (see 2.5.4,
2.6.1.1a and 2.6.1.3c). Also note the suffix -αθ- (see 3.2.3.6).
κοτίλιον [n.] mg. not certain, probably name of a vessel to preserve things
(inscr. Delos 1429 b ii 25 [iia]). The formal similarity with vulgar κότιλον,
κοτίλλιν (Latte gives κοτίλλιον)· ἀνδρὸς αἰδοῖον ‘male private parts’ (H.) cannot
be denied. The variation λ / λλ in the suffix points to a Pre-Greek word (see
2.5.8), as does the suffix itself (see 3.2.3.75–76).
κόφινος [m.] ‘big basket’ (Att., Hell.), also as a measure of capacity = 9 Att.
χοίνικες (Boeot. inscr.). Furnée compares κόφος, probably ‘basket-load’, as
well as κοψία· χύτρα ‘earthen pot’ and κόψα· ὑδρία ‘water bucket, urn’ (H.);
note the suffixes -ιν- and -σα (see 3.2.3.78 and 3.2.3.105).
κρωσσός [m.] ‘water pail, pitcher, salve bottle, cinerary urn’ (trag., Theoc.). The
element -σσ-, as well as the technical meaning, points to a Pre-Greek word
(see 2.5.5.9a).
κυψέλη [f.] ‘chest, box, beehive’ (Hdt., Ar., Plu.), ‘earwax’ (com.), ‘hollow of the
ear’ (Poll., H.). Also -άλη (pap.). Clearly a Pre-Greek word, given the variation
α / ε and the suffix (see 2.6.1.1a, 3.2.3.15 and 3.2.3.42); cf. also κυβέλη ‘hollow’,
with ψ / β (see 2.5.5.2b).
κώρυκος [m.] ‘leather sack’ (Od.). The word is no doubt Pre-Greek, with the
suffix -υκ- (see 3.2.3.119).
λάγῡνος [m., f.] ‘flask with a small neck’, also as measure (Arist. Fr. 499, Hell.).
Also -ῠ-. Many names for vessels are loans. This one is probably Pre-Greek,
because of the interchange ῠ / ῡ (see 2.6.2). The suffix in which the varia-
tion occurs also points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.127). See also λήκυθος
below.
λάρναξ, -ᾰκος [f.] ‘chest, box, coffer, coffin’ (Il.). Note the gloss νάρναξ· κιβωτός
‘id.’ (H.), with variation λ / ν (see 2.5.7a). The suffix is typically Pre-Greek
(see 3.2.3.13).
λέβης, -ητος [m.] ‘kettle, cauldron’ (Il.), also a monetary unit (Crete). Diminutive
λεβήτιον. The suffix -ητ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.62).
λήκυθος [f.] ‘casket for oil or perfume’ (Od.), also metaph. ‘rhetorical bombast’
(Cic., Plin.), = Lat. ampulla. Epid. λάκυθος (iva). Evidently a Pre-Greek word;
note the suffix -υθ- (see 3.2.3.117). Furnée (1972: 121) connects λάγῡνος (above)
and λάγιον ‘cup, vase’, with the variations κ / γ (2.5.1) and α / η (2.6.2) and the
suffix -ῡν- (3.2.3.127), which seems convincing.
μάρσιππος [m.] ‘bag, pouch (for money), purse’ (X., lxx, Hell. pap.). Diminutive
μαρσίππιον, -ίπιον, -ύπ(π)ιον. Most probably Pre-Greek because of the varia-
tions π / ππ and ι / υ (see 2.5.8 and 2.6.1.4).
πείρινθα [acc.sg.f.] ‘basket on a cart’ (ο 131, Ω 190). Like many words in -νθ- (for
-ινθ- see 3.2.3.81), the word is probably Pre-Greek.
πίθος [m.] ‘large, mostly earthen vessel for storing wine, which is open at the
top’ (Il.). Myc. qe-to. πιθάκνη (Thasos va), also in Att. mss., beside φιδάκνη (A.,
112 chapter 6
D., Thphr., Moer.), Dor. πισάκνα. The word displays vowel variation e / i and
consonant variation in πιθ- vs. φιδ- (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.2b). Thus, probably
Pre-Greek. For the initial labiovelar, see 2.5.6.
σαλούσιον [n.] ‘pot, measure’. Also -ώσιον, -ώτιον, -ώδιον. In view of the suffix
variants, the word is probably Pre-Greek. For the suffix -ουσ-, see 3.2.3.98.
σάνδυξ [?] · κιβωτός ‘box, chest’ (H.). Also σενδούκη. The formation of the word
is Pre-Greek; note the initial σ- (2.2a.15) and the suffix -υκ- (3.2.3.120). Pre-
Greek origin is further confirmed by the variations α / ε (2.6.1.1a) and υ / ου
(2.6.1.3h).
σαργάνη [f.] ‘plaited basket’ (since iva). Acc. to em 753, 54, the Attic form
is ταργάνη. Cf. also ταργάναι· πλοκαί, συνδέσεις, πέδαι ‘twinings, bindings,
shackles’ (H.). The variation σ- / τ- is Pre-Greek (see Furnée 1972: 124 and
2.5.5.9a above). Further note the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
σιπύη (-ύα) [f.] ‘box for keeping flour and bread’ (com., ap, Poll.). Also συπύη;
σίπυδνος. Note hομοσεπυοι (inscr. Selinous). The variations ι / ε and ι / υ may
be explained by Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.2b and 2.6.1.4).
σίττυβος [m.] a κάκκαβος-like cauldron (Antiph. 182, 7). Probably the same word
as σίττυβον ‘skin, leather’, which has a variant σίσυβοι (see σιττύβαι in section
8 above); the meaning ‘kettle, pan’ may have developed from ‘leather bag’.
At any rate, the word is clearly Pre-Greek, reflecting *sityub- (see 2.5.5.9a and
3.2.3.113).
σπυρίς [f.] ‘basket’ (ia, etc.). Cf. σφυρίς (Hp.). The variation σπ- / σφ- shows
that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1). Furnée (1972: 241) further compares
σύριχος (Alex.), σύρισσος (Poll.), σύρισκος (H.), ὑριχός (Ar.), ὕρισχος (Phryn.),
ὑρίσκος (H.), ὑρίσσος (H.), all ‘twined basket’, which may reflect *σϝύρ-, with
the variation π / φ / ϝ (see 2.5.4). See also σύριχος below.
σύριχος [m.] ‘basket’ (Alex.). Also συρίσκος· ἀγγεῖόν τι πλεκτόν, εἰς ὃ σῦκα ἐμβάλ-
λουσι ‘a woven basket into which figs were thrown’. τινὲς δὲ ὑρίσκον (H.). Here
also ὕριχος. Also ὑρρίς· σπυρίς ‘basket’ (Zonar.); cf. ὑρίσιδα (for ὑρίς, -ίδα?)· σπυ-
ρίδιον, σπυρίς ‘id.’ (H.); ὑρράδα (cod. ὕρρ-)· σπυρίδιον ‘id.’ (Theognost.), ὕρραχα·
πρίσχη (H.). With different anlaut: ἄρριχος and ἀρίσκος· κόφινος ‘big basket’
(H.). There are many alternating forms, so Pre-Greek origin is very likely
(Furnée 1972: 135, 241, 392, 300). See 2.5.9 for the variation σ- / zero and
3.2.3.88 for the suffix -ιχ-. See also σπυρίς above.
τάρπη [f.] ‘big basket’ (Att. inscr. iva). Also τερπόνη, with variation α / ε (see
2.6.1.1a). Furnée (1972: 183, etc.) compares δάρπη· σαργάνη, κόφινος (H.), with
variation τ / δ (see 2.5.1); see also s.v. above.
ὕρχη [f.] ‘earthen vessel used for salting fish, etc.’ (Ar.). A technical word, Aeolic
acc. to Poll. and others. Lat. orca ‘large-bellied vessel, tun’, whence urceus
‘pot, pitcher’, may have been borrowed from Greek. Alternatively, both lan-
guages may have independently borrowed them from a Mediterranean lan-

guage (thus also Furnée 1972: 361, etc.).
φάσκωλος [m.] ‘leather bag, bag for clothing, for metal objects, etc.’ (Ar. Fr. 319).
Pre-Greek origin seems probable (Furnée 1972: passim); note the suffix -ωλ-
(see 3.2.3.143).
φωριαμός [f.] ‘chest, trunk’, e.g. for keeping clothes and laundry (Ω 228, ο 104,
A. R. 3, 802), the gender is only visible in the latter attestation. Furnée (1972:
389) compares χωριαμός· κίστη (H.), which seems to prove Pre-Greek origin.
Apart from the variation φ / χ (2.5.6), note the suffix -αμ- (3.2.3.18).
9.3 Dishware
δέπας, -αος [n.] ‘goblet’. Myc. di-pa. The variation e / i points to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.6.1.2b).
κάλυξ, -ῠκος [f.] ‘cup, calyx of a flower, husk, shell, pod, rosebud’, also metaph.
for the ornament of a woman (Σ 401). Both root and suffix look Pre-Greek
(καλ-υκ-); for the suffix, see 3.2.3.119.
κισσύβιον [n.] name of a wooden drinking-cup (Od., Theoc., Call.), on the matter
see Brommer (1942: 358 and 365f.). Also κισσύφιον. The word is Pre-Greek
because of the variation β / φ (see 2.5.1).
κοτύλη [f.] ‘bowl, dish, small cup’ (Il.), on the mg. Brommer (1942: 358 and 366),
also as a measure for liquids and dry materials, = 6 κύαθοι or = 0,5 ξέστης
(ia), metaph. ‘socket, especially of the hip-joint’ (Il., Hp.), ‘cymbals’ [pl.] (A.).
Furnée (1972: 101, 181) adduces κόνδυ ‘a cup’, as well as κονδύλιον, which would
show variation τ / δ (2.5.1) and prenasalization (2.5.2); he notes (1972: 20514)
that -υλη is a well-known suffix in Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.121).
κύαθος [m.] ‘ladle for drawing wine’ (ia). The word is clearly Pre-Greek: Furnée
(1972: 237) compares the variants κόβαθος ‘a vessel’ (see s.v. in section 9.2
above) and κύβεθρον ‘beehive’, with the variations β / zero (2.5.4), ο / υ
(2.6.1.3c) and α / ε (2.6.1.1a). The sequence -υα- is also typical of Pre-Greek
words (see 2.6.4). Further note the suffix -αθ- (see 3.2.3.6).
κύλιξ, -ικος [f., m.] ‘(drinking) cup’ (post-Hom.). See Furnée (1972: 110, 13265),
who points to κυλί-σκ-η and κυλίχν-ιον, with aspiration before the nasal (see
3.2.3.91). As this feature is non-ie, the word may be Pre-Greek; note that -ικ- is
a typical Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.73), and that κυλ-ικ- is a typical Pre-Greek
structure (see 3.2.2).
κύμβη 1 [f.] ‘cup, bowl’ (Nic., Ath.), ‘boat’ (S. Fr. 127). Also κόμβος = τὸ ἔκπωμα
‘drinking-cup’, with υ / ο (see 2.6.1.3c). Furnée (1972: 284) compares κύπη
‘ship, etc.’ (H.) and considers the word to be Pre-Greek in view of the vari-
ation π / β and the prenasalization (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2). See also κύπελλον
below.
114 chapter 6
κῠ́πελλον [n.] ‘bulbous drinking vessel, beaker, goblet’ (Il.). Note κύφελλα ‘hol-
lows of the ears’, with the variation π / φ (see 2.5.1). Furnée compares not
only κύπη (H.) in various meanings (1972: 121), but also κύβος … τρύβλιον ‘cup’
(H.) and κύμβη, κύμβος ‘id.’ (1972: 176 and 284). See s.v. κύμβη above. Further
note the suffix -ελλ- (see 3.2.3.43).
λεκάνη [f.] ‘basin, dish’ (Ar., inscr., pap.). Also λακάνη (Hell.), -ίσκη (H.). Variation
ε / α (see 2.6.1.1a). Further note the suffixes -αν- and -ισκ- (see 3.2.3.19 and
3.2.3.85).
τρύβλιον [n.] kind of drinking vessel of unknown shape and varying size
(Ar., lxx, Ev. Matt.), also a measure of capacity (medic. etc.). Furnée (1972:
367) compares τρίβανον, designation of a measure of content, = λήκυθος
(H.), and considers the word to be Pre-Greek. For the variation υ / ι, see
2.6.1.4.
ὑστιακόν [n.] ‘drinking cup’ (Rhinth. 3 = Ath. 500 f.). ὑστιακκός· ποτήριον ποιόν.
᾿Ιταλιῶται (H.). ὑστίς (ms. ὑετίς)· ὑδρίς. Ταραντῖνοι (H.). In view of the variant
with -κκ- (see 2.5.8), the word may be Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972: 150). Note the
φιάλη [f.] ‘flat vessel, dish, flat bowl for drinking or sacrificing, etc.’ (post-Hom.),
also for cooking and to preserve ashes (Ψ). Also φιέλη (Hell. acc. to Moer.).
Myc. pi-a2-ra /phihalā-/, also pi-je-ra3 /phielai/. The word is probably Pre-
Greek on account of the interchange of suffixes that is already attested in
Mycenaean (Furnée 1972: 346). See 2.6.1.1a on the variation α / ε and 3.2.3.15
and 3.2.3.42 on the suffix -α/ελ-.
9.4 Domestic and Craft Tools

ἄβδης [m., f.] · μάστιξ παρ’ Ἱππώνακτι ‘whip (Hippon.)’ (H.); Cf. ἀβριστήν· μάστιγα
(H.), with the suffix -ιστ- (see 3.2.3.86). The word is Pre-Greek because of
the cluster βδ (see 2.2a.3), with -βρ- perhaps representing earlier -βδ- (see
2.5.7b).
ἀγνύς, -ῦθος [f.] ‘weaving stones’ (Plu.). The suffix -ῡθ- is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.117).
ἄρβηλος [m.] ‘semicircular knife’, used by cobblers (Nic. Th. 423). ἀνάρβηλα· τὰ
μὴ ἐξεσμένα, ἀρβήλοις γὰρ τὰ δέρματα ⟨ξέουσι⟩ (H.). The suffix -ηλ- is Pre-Greek
(see 3.2.3.56).
ἄσιλλα [f.] ‘yoke for carrying baskets, etc.’ (Simon.). Most probably, ἄσιλλα is a
substrate word in view of the suffix -ιλλα (see 3.2.3.76).
ἄτρακτος [m., f.] ‘spindle’, also ‘arrow’; Laconian acc. to Th. 4, 40. Also ἄδρακτος
(H., gloss.). Variation τ / δ (2.5.1). Perhaps also κ / κτ (2.5.51b) if -κ- in ἀτρακίς, a
kind of thistle (cf. ἀτρακτυλ(λ)ίς ‘spindle-thistle, Carthamus lanatus’), is not
due to simplification.
γίγγλυμος [m.] ‘hinge, joint, pivot, gudgeon’ (X., Epid.). Also γύγλ-, γιγλύμιον.
Probably Pre-Greek; note the prenasalization and interchange ι / υ (see 2.5.2

and 2.6.1.4).
δίκελλᾰ [f.] a two-pronged fork (trag., Delos iiia). The suffix -ελλα points to
δοίδυξ, -ῡκος [m.] ‘pestle’ (Ar.). The suffix -ῡκ- is typical of Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.120).
θρῖναξ, -ακος [f.] ‘three-pronged fork, trident’ (Ar., Tab. Heracl. 1, 5, Nic.). Furnée
(1972: 189) compares τρίναξ ‘an instrument in agriculture’, with τ / θ (see 2.5.1);
also note the suffix -ακ-, frequent in substrate words (see 3.2.3.13).
κανθήλια [n.pl.] ‘panniers on both sides of the pack-saddle’ (Ar., Artem.), also
‘curved pieces of wood at the back of a ship, which were used when a tent
was drawn up’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 130) connects it with ἀνθήλιον ‘id.’ (Charax),
with alternation κ- / zero (see 2.5.10), and assumes Pre-Greek origin; he
further connects it with κανθίαι· σπυρίδες ‘basket’ and with κάθος· σπυρίς ‘id.’
(H.) (Furnée 1972: 290), which would point to prenasalization (see 2.5.2).
Further note the suffix -ηλ- (see 3.2.3.56).
κάρδοπος [f.] ‘kneading-trough’; for the fem. gender, cf. the instances in Schwy-
zer (1950: 342); on καρδόπη (Ar. Nu. 678) see ibid. (281). No doubt a Pre-Greek
word; note the suffix -οπ- (see 3.2.3.93).
κρώπιον [n.] ‘sickle, scythe’ (Pherecyd. 154 J.). Also κρώβιον (cod. also κρόπ-
and κρόβ-). Given the variation, the word must be Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.3e). Furnée (1972: 148) refers to Hurr. hurubbi ‘sword’.
λώγασος [m.]? · ταυρεία μάστιξ ‘whip made of ox-hide’ (H.). Pre-Greek, on ac-
count of the suffix -ασος (see 3.2.3.29).
μακέλη [f.] ‘mattock’ (Hes. Op. 470, Theoc., A. R.), also a destructive instrument
of Zeus (A., S., Ar.). Also μάκελλα [f.] (Φ 259, Luc. Hes. 7). Further, μάσκη·
δίκελλα, βάσκα· μακέλη and μάκκορ (Lacon. for μάσκος)· ἐργαλεῖον γεωργικόν,
ὡς δίκελλα ‘agricultural tool like a δ.’ (H.). The variation -ελλα/-έλη is best
explained by a Pre-Greek ending *-alya. Therefore, μάκελλα, μακέλη are Pre-
Greek. See 2.5.8 on λ / λλ and 3.2.3.42–43 on the suffix -ελ(λ)-. Further note
the variations μ / β (2.5.4) and κ / σκ (2.5.5.3b).
μάστιξ, -ῑγος [f.] ‘whip, scourge’, metaph. ‘plague’ (Il.). The word is Pre-Greek, on
account of the suffix -ῑγ- (see 3.2.3.68).
μάχαιρα [f.] ‘large knife, butchery knife’ (Il.); post-Hom. also ‘short sword, dag-
ger’. I compare μάγειρος ‘cook’, and conclude that it is a Pre-Greek word, in
view of the interchange γ / χ (see 2.5.1). Further note the suffix -α/ειρ- < *-ary-
(see 3.2.3.12 and 3.2.3.41).
μέσαβον [n.] ‘strap’, fixing the pole to the middle of the yoke. Var. μέσσαβα [pl.].
If we take into consideration the forms μέσοψ ‘strap’ in μεσόπα· ἱμάντα τὸν
περὶ τὸν ζυγὸν καὶ τὸ ἄροτρον δεδεμένον ‘a strap bound around the yoke and
116 chapter 6
the plough’ (H.), with the variations α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and π / β (2.5.1), Pre-Greek
origin becomes evident. Further note the Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.1 and
3.2.3.93).
μέσακλον [n.] ‘weaver’s beam’ (lxx 1 Ci. 17, 7). V.ll. -κνον, -άντιον; -κμον (H.), -κνον
(Suid.); further μέσακμον· κανὼν τοῦ ἱστοῦ ‘rod of the loom’, οἱ δὲ ἀντίον ‘others:
(part of) the loom’, οἱ δὲ τὸ μεσάκτων ἢ μεσάκρων (H.); μεσάτμῳ· τῷ κανόνι, τῷ
μέσῳ καλάμῳ τοῦ ἱστοῦ ‘the middle rod of the loom’ (Suid.). Almost certainly
a technical loanword from Pre-Greek because of the many different variants.
μόροξος [m.] ‘kind of pipe-clay, used to bleach clothes’ (Gal., Aët.). Also μόροχθος
(Dsc.). The variation ξ / χθ (like in Ἐρεχθεύς : Ερεχσε̄ς) is typical of Pre-Greek.
The interchange θ / σ may reflect a phoneme *ty (see 2.5.5.4b).
πέτευρον [n.] ‘hen-roost, acrobat’s bar or framework, high platform, public
noticeboard’ (Ar. Fr. 839, inscr. iva, Hell.). Also -αυρον, πέντευρον. Technical
expression with vacillation between ευ and αυ (see 2.6.1.1g), and between
πετ- and πεντ- (see 2.5.2). Further note the suffix -α/ευρ- (see 3.2.3.32 and
3.2.3.51).
σινίον [n.] · κόσκινον ‘sieve’ (H.). Cf. σεννίον mg. uncertain (connected with
winnowing); σείνιος τόπος ‘sieving, winnowing area’. The alternation σιν- /
σενν- / σειν- points to a Pre-Greek origin (Furnée 1972: 357).
σκέπαρνος [m.] ‘axe for working wood, chip-axe’ (Od., S. Fr. 797, Hell. and late),
‘surgical bandage (metaph.)’ (Hp.). The suffix -αρνο- is awkward from an
ie point of view. Both formally and semantically (instrument names), the
word is much more likely to stem from Pre-Greek, in which the suffixes -αρ-
(3.2.3.28) and -ν- (3.2.3.91) are common, as is the combination of the two (see
2.2a.14 and 3.2.3.104).
σπάλαθρον [n.] (Poll.) = σκάλευθρον ‘oven rake’ (Poll.). Also σπάλαυθρον (Phot.,
also H. [cod. σπαύλαθρον]). Myc. qa-ra-to-ro /skwalathron/. The variation π /
κ points to a Pre-Greek labiovelar, which is confirmed by Mycenaean (see
2.5.6).
σχενδῡ́λη [f.] name of an instrument of the χαλκεῖς, probably ‘pair of tongs’
(Eleusis iva, H.). σκενδύλια [n.pl.] ‘(small) pincers, nippers’ (Hero), also κέν-
δυλα (trad. ap 11.203). In H. also σχενδυλό-ληπτοι ‘caught between tongs’. The
s-mobile (2.4) and the variation χ / κ (2.5.1) point to Pre-Greek origin. Also
note the suffix -ῡλ- (see 3.2.3.122).
τύκος [m.] ‘tool for processing stones, blacksmith’s hammer, pickaxe’, also ‘bat-
tle axe’ (Hdt. 7, 89: codd. κ and χ; Poll. 7, 118 and 125). Also τύχος. Pre-Greek
in view of the variation κ / χ (see 2.5.1).
ὕνις, -εως, -ιος [f.] ‘ploughshare’ (Hell.). Rare variants ὕννις (sch. Hes. Op. 425, H.),
ὕννη (H.), acc.pl. ὕννας. Furnée (1972: 387) regards the word as Pre-Greek on
account of the incidental gemination (see 2.5.8).
φάτνη [f.] ‘crib, manger’ (Il.), ‘depression, coffer in a coffered ceiling, coffer’
(Hell. inscr.), ‘tooth socket’ (Poll.), name of a star in the constellation Can-
cer, beside the Ὄνοι (Thphr.). Late also πάθνη. Yet, Beekes (2003b: 109–112)
stresses that φάτνη is the oldest form (Hom.), whereas πάθνη is only Hel-
lenistic. There are parallels for a progressive shift of aspiration (φιδάκνη
> πιθάκνη). The word is most probably Pre-Greek; note the suffix -ν- (see
3.2.3.91).
9.5 Hunting and Fishing Equipment

δίκτυον [n.] ‘net, strick’ (Od.). Myc. de-ku-tu-wo-ko /dektuworgos/. The variation
e / i points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.2b). Probably further related to δικεῖν
‘to throw’ (see s.v. in section 15 below) and δίσκος ‘discus’ (see 2.5.5.5b).
καλαῦροψ, -οπος [f.] name of a herdsman’s staff, which was thrown to drive
back the cattle to the herd. Also κολλόροβον. It is a typical Pre-Greek word,
containing a labialized phoneme rw, from a pre-form *kalarw-ap-, where the
labial element was anticipated in καλαυροπ-. For the suffix -οπ- (with ο < α in
a labial environment), see 3.2.3.93.
κύρτος [m.] ‘weel, lobster pot’ (Sapph., Pl., Arist., pap.), also ‘bird-cage’ (ap).
Cf. κυρσερίδες· τὰ τῶν μελισσῶν ἀγγεῖα, κυψελίδες ‘honeycomb, beehives’ (H.),
pointing to *κυρσέρα, with variation τ / σ (2.5.5.9a) and the suffix -ερ-
(3.2.3.48).
λάπαθος [m.] ‘pitfall for wild animals’ (Democr. 122, pl.). The suffix -αθ- points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.6).
σαγήνη [f.] ‘large fishing net, trawl’ (lxx). Cypr. ἀγάνα (H.). Because of the Cypr.
by-form with σ- / zero (see 2.5.9) and the attractive connection with σάγουρον
with a different suffix (3.2.3.97; on -ην- see 3.2.3.58), the etymon is without a
doubt Pre-Greek.
σιγῡ́ν(ν)ης [m.] ‘hunting spear, javelin’ (Hdt. 5, 9, Opp.). -υμνον (Lyc.). Furnée
(1972: 247) assumes that σιγῡν- reflects *σιγυϝν-, which is a variant of σιγυμν-,
with the typical Pre-Greek alternation μ / ϝ (see 2.5.4). For -υμν-, -ῡν- and
-υνν-, see 3.2.3.126–128.
9.6 Armor and Weaponry

ἄλαρα · τὸ τοῦ δόρατος εἰς τὸν αὐλὸν τῆς ἐπιδορατίδος ἐμπῖπτον. ἢ κάρυα Ποντικά.
⟨καὶ δένδρα ἀλαρίαι⟩ ἀφ’ ὧν γίνεται τὰ δόρατα (H.), cf. em 57, 53. Cf. ἐλάραι· τὰ
ἐν τῷ αὐλῷ τῶν δοράτων ἁρμοζόμενα (H.), with the variation α / ε, which points
to substrate origin (see 2.6.1.1a).
θώραξ [m.] ‘cuirass’ (Il.), ‘trunk, chest’ (Hp.). Most probably a Pre-Greek word;
Furnée (1972: 30235) points to a v.l. θύραξ, which would prove Pre-Greek ori-
gin. Furnée gives more examples of ω / υ (see also 2.6.1.3k above); Pre-Greek
118 chapter 6
*u was often rendered by Greek ω. The suffix -ᾱκ- is very frequent in Pre-
Greek (see 3.2.3.13).
κόρυς, -υθος [f.] ‘helmet’ (Il.). Chantraine (1932: 165 ff.) considered Mediter-
ranean origin for κόρυς; we now know that this must be correct, since the suf-
fix -υθ- (3.2.3.117) and the alternating suffixes in κορυφή ‘top, skull’ (3.2.3.138),
κόρυμβος ‘uppermost point, top’ (3.2.3.125), κόρυδος ‘(crested) lark’ (3.2.3.115),
κορυδ-ών ‘id.’ (3.2.3.145), -αλ(λ)ος ‘id.’ (3.2.3.15), κορύνη ‘club, mace, knobby
bud or shoot, penis’ (3.2.3.127) all point to a Pre-Greek word (cf. Furnée 1972:
195); cf. s.vv. κόρυδος (section 4.3), κορυφή (section 7.1), κόρυμβος (section
9.8).
λαισήϊα [n.pl.] a kind of shield, made of raw skins (E 453 = M 426 λαισήϊά τε
πτερόεντα, Hdt. 7, 91 ὠμοβοέης πεποιημένα), used by the Cilicians. Furnée
(1972: 182) compares λαῖτα· πέλτη ‘shield’ (H.), λαίδας· ἡ ἀσπίς ἀπὸ βύρσης
‘shield made of a hide’ (Theognost., Zonar.). The variation τ / δ / σ points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.5.9a).
λαῖφα [?] · ἀσπίς (H.); cf. λαίβα· ἀσπίς, πέλτη (H.). Given the variant, the gloss is
clearly Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1).
ξίφος [n.] ‘sword with a straight, double-edged blade’ (Il.); see Trümpy (1950:
60ff.); metaph. of the ξίφος-like bone of the cuttle-fish (Arist.); as a plant
name = ξιφίον (Thphr.). Also σκίφος. Myc. qi-si-pe-e /kwsiphehe/ [du.]. The
variation kw- / k- points to a Pre-Greek labiovelar (see 2.5.6). For the variation
ξ / σκ, see 2.5.5.6b.
πέλεκυς [m.] ‘axe, double axe, hatchet’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 150 f.) points to βέλεκ-
κος· ὄσπριόν τι ἐμφερὲς λαθύρῳ μέγεθος ἐρεβίνθου ἔχον ‘pulse resembling a λ.
with the size of a chick-pea’ (H.), with π / β and κ / κκ (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
Note the suffix -εκ- (see 3.2.3.13). πέλεκρα· ἀξίνη ‘axe’ (H.) and πέλυξ ‘id.’ (lxx,
pap.) may also be Pre-Greek formations.
πήληξ, -ηκος [f.] ‘helmet’ (Il.). Note the suffix -ηξ < -ᾱξ, which often occurs in
Pre-Greek words (see 3.2.3.13 and 3.2.3.55).
πλάστιγξ, -ιγγος [f.] ‘scales’ (Att.), also ‘disk of the kottabos-standard’ (Critias,
Hermipp.), metaph. ‘oyster shell’ (Opp.), ‘horse-collar’, which hangs from the
wood of the yoke, like the scales from the weigh-bridge (E. Rh. 303), also
(plur.) ‘surgical splints’ (Hippiatr.). πλήστιγγες [pl.] ‘id.’. The suffix -ιγγ- points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.69).
σπολάς, -άδος [f.] ‘leather harness, jerkin’ (S.). Here perhaps ἄσπαλον· σκῦτος
‘skin, hide’ (H.), with a prothetic vowel (2.3) and α / ο (2.6.1.1b). Further note
the suffix -αδ- (3.2.3.5).
τόξον [n.] ‘bow’, plur. ‘shooting device(s), (bows and) arrows’ (Il.). Replaces
inherited βιός; in Homer, τόξον is already the more usual word for ‘bow’. The
Mycenaean attestations (to-ko-so-ta = τοξότας, to-ko-so-wo-ko) disprove the
possibility of an old loan from Scythian. Thus, τόξον could be of Pre-Greek

origin.
φάσγανον [n.] ‘sword’ (Il., epic poet., Cyprian acc. to ab 1095), ‘sword lily, gladi-
olus, iris’ (Thphr., Dsc. etc.), ‘sword of the swordfish’ (Opp.). The word is no
doubt Pre-Greek; note the a-vocalism and the suffix -αν- (3.2.3.19).
9.7 Horse Tack

ἀστράβη [f.] ‘comfortable saddle for an ass or a mule’ (Lys.), see re 4, 1792.
Also acc. ἀστράπην (-απήν trad.) (Anon. in Rh. 8, 668), with β / π (see 2.5.1),
and note Lat. astrama = σανίς, ὑποπόδιον, where the -m- for -b- may point to
substrate origin (see 2.5.4).
γναμπτούς · χαλινούς ‘bits or bridles’ (H.). Also γλαμψοί· χαλινοὶ στόματος ‘bits or
bridles for the mouth’ (H.). Clearly Pre-Greek, in view of the structure γναC-,
which cannot be ie (cf. γναθμός in 7.1), and the variations πτ / ψ (see 2.5.5.4a)
and ν / λ (see 2.5.7a).
εὔληρα [n.pl.] ‘reins’ (Ψ 481, Q. S.). Dor. αὔληρα. Given the variation ευ / αυ (see
2.6.1.1g), the words are probably Pre-Greek. Further note the suffix -ηρ- (see
3.2.3.60).
κημός [m.] ‘muzzle, plaited lid of the balloting urn, fyke for fishing, cover for
nose and mouth, etc.’ (A., S., Ar., X.); on the mg. Schenkl (1913: 172ff.). Cf. χάβος
‘muzzle’ (below), with the interchanges κ / χ (see 2.5.1) and μ / β (see 2.5.4).
λέπαδνον [n.] ‘broad leather strap, fastening the yoke to the neck and the girth’
(Il.). Mostly plur. -να; also λέπαμνα (Apollon. Lex.), with δν > μν. The sequence
-δν- points to Pre-greek origin (see 2.2a.6 and 3.2.3.38).
χάβος [m.] · κημός ‘muzzle’ (sch. Ar. Eq. 1147). Besides χαβόν· καμπύλον, στενόν,
also χαμόν· καμπύλον (H.). The word is Pre-Greek in view of the variation β /
μ (see 2.5.4). See also κημός above.
χαλῑνός [m.] ‘bridle, rein, bit’ (Il.), also metaph. ‘marine ropes’ (Pi., E.). Aeol.
χάλιννος. A suffix -ῑν- is frequent in Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.79).
ψαλόν [n.] · εἶδος χαλινοῦ ‘kind of bit or bridle’ (H.), in fact ‘ring of a muzzle(?)’
(delg). Here belong all words with ψαλιο-, ψαλιδ- (also with ε and σπ-).
ψάλιον; ψέλιον ‘open ring’ worn by the Persians (Hdt., X.), ‘open collar’ of
the Gauls (Plb.); also ψίλιον (Delos iiia), ψίλλιον (inscr. iiia), σπέλλιον. Further
ψελιόω (ap 7, 234). ψαλίς, -ίδος with σπαλίς. Pre-Greek in view of the varia-
tions ψ / σπ (2.5.5.6a), ε / α (2.6.1.1a), ε / ι (2.6.1.2b) and λ / λλ (2.5.8). See also
ψέλιον (section 8 above) and ψαλίς (section 10.2 below).
120 chapter 6
9.8 Means of Transport

ἀμάναν [f.] · ἅμαξαν ‘chassis, wagon’ (H.). Cf. ἀπήνη ‘id.’ (see s.v. below) (Kuiper
1956: 213, Furnée 1972: 224). A variation π / μ is well-known in substrate words
(see 2.5.4). See also καπάνα ‘id.’ below.
ἅμαξα [f.] ‘framework, chassis of a four-wheeled wagon; wagon’ (Il.). Furnée
(1972: 221) compares ἀβακλή· ἄμαξα (Cyr.), with the interchange ἀμακ- /
ἀβακ-, from which we must conclude that the etymon is Pre-Greek (see
2.5.4).
ἀπήνη [f.] ‘four-wheeled wagon’ (Il.), synonymous with ἅμαξα, see Delebecque
(1951: 174f.). Perhaps to πήνα· ἀπήνη (H.), with a prothetic vowel (see 2.3), but
rather to καπᾱ́να ‘id.’ (see s.v. below), with the variation κ- / zero (see 2.5.10).
See also ἀμάναν above, with the variation π / μ (see 2.5.4).
βουτάνη [f.] A: · (1) μέρος τι τῆς μακρᾶς νεώς ‘part of a long ship’; (2) ἢ μάστιξ ‘a
whip’, ἢ (3) τάνυσις τῆς βοείας ‘force of an ox’. (4) μέρος δὲ τῆς νεώς, πρὸς ὃ τὸ
πηδάλιον δεσμεύεται ‘part of the ship to which the rudder is tied’. (5) δηλοῖ δὲ
καὶ μάχην ‘a battle’. (6) ἀηδίαν ‘nausea’. Cf. B: βουστάνη· βοοστασία, ἡ τῶν βοῶν
στάσις ‘cowshed’. (2) ἢ μάστιξ ‘whip’, (3) καὶ πληγή ‘blow’. Gloss A2 is identical
to B2. The words show the typical Pre-Greek variation τ / στ (see 2.5.5.10a).
Further note the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
κάνναθρον [n.] ‘cane or wicker carriage’. Also κάναθρον, with the variation ν / νν
(see 2.5.8). Derived from κάννα ‘reed’ (see s.v. in section 3.4).
καπᾱ́να [f.] Thessalian word for ‘wagon’ = ἀπήνη (Xenarch. 11, H.). Kuiper (1956:
2139) compared ἀπήνη (see s.v. above) in the light of the alternation κ- / zero,
which points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.10). Further note the suffix -ᾱν- (see
3.2.3.20). See also ἀμάναν ‘id.’ above.
κόρυμβος [m.] ‘uppermost point of a ship’ (I 241), ‘top of a mountain’ (Hdt., A.),
‘cluster of the ivy fruit’ (Mosch., Corn., Plu.), ‘hair knot; = κρωβύλος’ (Heraclid.
Pont.). Also κόρυμνα· κόσμος τις γυναικεῖος περιτραχήλιος ‘women’s ornament
worn round the neck’ (H.). Related to κορυφή ‘top, skull’ (section 7.1 above),
with a prenasalized variant of the suffix (see 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.125) and the
variation φ / β (see 2.5.1). See also κόρυς ‘helmet’ (section 9.6 above).
λαμπήνη [f.] ‘a covered wagon’ (S. Fr. 441, Hell., com., lxx; acc. to Polem. Hist.
a Tegeatan word, acc. to others Thessalian). Also ἕδρα, θρόνος (Porphyr. in
Ptol. 49). Also λαπίνη· ἡ ἅμαξα ‘wagon’ (Suid.), probably itacistic for *λαπήνη
(Furnée 1972: 285). The word is evidently Pre-Greek, because of the prenasal-
ization and the suffix -ήνη (see 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.58).
σίφαρος (σεί-) [m.] ‘topsail, topgallant sail’ (Arr.), ‘curtain in the theatre’ (Eph-
esus). Also σῑπ́ αρος. The variations σιφ- : σειφ- : σῑπ- clearly point to a non-ie
origin (cf. Furnée 1972: 163). Further note the suffix -αρ- (see 3.2.3.28).
τράμπις, -ιδος, -ιος [f.] according to sch. Lyc. ‘βαρβαρικὸν πλοῖον’ (Lyc.). V.l. τράμ-
βις. The variation π / β points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1). Furnée (1972:
165) further connects τράφηξ ‘bar, beam, board, handle’ (section 10.1 below),
which would add prenasalization (see 2.5.2).
9.9 Other Technical Terms

ἀσκάντης ‘pallet, bier’ (Ar.). ἀκχάνθαρ (codd. ἀκχαλίβαρ)· κράββατος. Λάκωνες
‘couch (Laconian)’ (H.); σκάνθαν· κράββατον ‘id.’ (H.). The variations are due
to substrate origin. For the prothetic vowel, see 2.3.
βρόχος [m.] ‘noose, slip-knot’ (Od.). βρυγχός· βρόχος (H.). The prenasalization
and the variation ο / υ point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2 and 2.6.1.3c).
ἑλάνη [f.] ‘torch from reed, reed bundle’ (Hell.). Var. ἑλένη· λαμπάς, δετή ‘torch,
reed’ (H.). Pre-Greek in view of the variation α / ε and the suffix -αν- (see
2.6.1.1a and 3.2.3.19).
θῶμιγξ, -ιγγος [f.] ‘cord, string; bow-string’ (Hdt., trag., etc.). Formation in -ιγγ-,
which proves Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.69).
κανών, -όνος [m.] ‘straight rod, bar, stave or grip to handle the shield, directive,
rule, model, etc.’ (Il.). Myc. ko-no-ni-pi /konōni-phi/. The variation α / ο shows
that it is a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.1b). Derived from κάννα ‘reed’ (section
3.4 above).
κιλλίβᾱς, -αντος [m.] ‘three-legged stand, frame’ (Ar. Ach. 1121, Poll.). Also κελλί-
βας (pap.). The variation ε / ι points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.2b). The
suffix may be Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.23); connection with βαίνω is probably
folk-etymological.
κόλλυβος [m.] ‘small change’ (Ar., Eup., Call.), ‘small gold weight’ (Thphr.); ‘rate
of exchange’ (Hell., inscr., pap., Cic.). The element -υβ- (which cannot be
explained from Hebrew ḥālap, with which it is usually compared) points to
a Pre-Greek word (see 3.2.3.113).
κόμβος [m.] ‘band, belt’ (Anon. apud Suid.). The forms κομβοθηλεία, κομπο-
θηλαία, κομποθήλυκα clearly show that there was a variant with -π-, which
κύνδαλος [m.] ‘wooden nail’ (Poll., H.). The structure *CuNC-aR- is typically
Pre-Greek. Note the suffix -αλ- (see 3.2.3.15).
μάγγανον [n.] ‘philtre, charm’ (Heracl. All., H.), ‘block of a pulley’ (Hero Bel., pap.
iiip), ‘iron peg, bolt’ (sch.), μ. πολεμικόν ‘catapult, ballista, tormentum’ (gloss.,
H.), · γάγγαμον ‘fishing-net’ (H.). As Van Beek (p.c.) suggests to me, μάγγανον
recalls μηχανή (below) both semantically and formally. [sn]: This connection
is confirmed by the H. glosses μάγγανα· μηχανήματα and μαγγανία· μηχανή.
The words show typically Pre-Greek variations: α / ᾱ, η (2.6.2), γ / χ (2.5.1)
and prenasalization (2.5.2). Further note the suffix -αν- (3.2.3.19).
μάλθη [f.] ‘mix of wax and pitch’, used to caulk ships, and on writing tablets
122 chapter 6
(Cratin. 204); acc. to H. also = τρυφερή [adj.] ‘delicate, tender’; is this correct?
Also name of a large aquatic animal (Ael., Opp.), perhaps after its tender or
wax-like meat, Strömberg (1943: 32). Also μάλθᾰ. The word is Pre-Greek, as
the sequence μαλθ- cannot be explained from ie (*mldh- > βλαθ-). This also
explains the nom. in -α (see 3.3.1a).
μέρμις, -ῑθος [f.] ‘band, string’ (κ 23, D. S. 3, 21). μέρμινθα is a v.l. in D. S. The
word must be Pre-Greek because of the alternating suffix -ῑθ-/-ινθ- (see 2.5.2,
3.2.3.72 and 3.2.3.81). Furnée (1972: 289) compares μήρινθος, σμήρινθος ‘string,
thread’ (below), and further σμῆριγξ ‘hair’, σμήριγγες· πλεκταί, σειραί, βόστρυ-
χοι ‘coils, strings; cords; curls of hair’ (H.) (for both see μῆριγξ in section 3.4
above).
μήρινθος [f.] ‘cord, thread’ (Il.). Also σμήρινθος. Because of its suffix and the
s-mobile, μήρινθος is probably Pre-Greek (see 2.4 and 3.2.3.81). Cf. also σμή-
ριγγες· πλεκταί, σειραί, βόστρυχοι ‘coils, strings; cords; curls of hair’ (H.) s.v.
μῆριγξ (section 3.4 above) and μηρύομαι ‘to draw up, furl, wind (up)’ (section
15 below).
μηχανή [f.] ‘expedient, contrivance, cunning; means, tool, machine, device’ (ia,
Dor.). Dor. μαχανά. The connection with μάγγανον (see s.v. above) proves that
μηχανή is Pre-Greek.
μοχλός [m.] ‘handle, lever, long or strong rod’, often used to bar doors, ‘cross-
beam, -bar’ (Od.). Also μοκλός, with the variation κ / χ (see 2.5.1).
ὀβελός [m.] ‘broach’ (Il.), ‘obelisk, bar of metal used as a coin or weight, obol’
(= the sixth part of a drachme), ‘obelus, horizontal line used as a diacritic’.
Att. ὀβολός, Dor. Arc. ὀδελός (also Nic.), Thess. ὀβελλός. The word is clearly
Pre-Greek (see Furnée 1972: 389) in view of the variations β / δ (2.5.6), ε / ο
(2.6.1.3l) and λ / λλ (2.5.8).
πάσσαλος [m.] ‘plug, pin, peg’ (Il.). Att. πάτταλος. πάσσαλος is probably Pre-
Greek *paky-al-. See 2.5.5.9a on the variation ττ / σσ and 3.2.3.15 on the suffix
-αλ-.
πίναξ, -ακος [m.] ‘wooden plank, dish, writing table, public statement, chart,
painting’ (Il.). The word is probably Pre-Greek; note the Pre-Greek suffix -ακ-
(3.2.3.13).
πλέθρον [n.] measure of length of 100 feet, square measure of 10,000 square
feet (ia); later (Plu.) = Lat. iugerum; also ‘race-track’ (Syrac.). Also πέλεθρον
(Hom.). Furnée (1972: 152) adduces βλέθρον (inscr. Thespiae, lsj 1414). The
variations π / β (2.5.1) and ε / zero (2.6.5) point to Pre-Greek origin.
πόρπη [f.] ‘clasp’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 163) connects πορφίτῳ· περόνῃ ‘buckle’ (H.),
and concludes that the word is Pre-Greek on account of the variation π / φ
(see 2.5.1).
ῥάβδος [f.] ‘twig, rod, staff, magic wand; line, stripe, groove’ (Il.). Cf. ῥαπίς· ῥάβδος
(H., Phot.), ῥάμνος ‘briar, rhamnus’. In view of the variation β / π / μ, we can

be certain that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.4).
σκινδαλμός, σκινδάλαμος [m.] ‘splinter, hair-splitting, etc.’ (Dsc., Alciphr.), also
σκινδάλαμος (Ar., Luc. et al.), σχινδαλμός, σχιδαλαμός etc. (v.l. Hp. Mul. 2, 133).
Cf. σκινδύλιον [n.] ‘shingle’. The root variations, σκινδ- / σκιδ- / σχινδ- / σχιδ-
(see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2), as well as the presence of the suffixes -αλμ- (cf. e.g.
ὀφθαλμός in 7.1) and -υλ- point to a Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.15, 3.2.3.90 and
3.2.3.121). The second α in σκινδάλαμος is a secondary prop vowel, which is
frequent in Pre-Greek (see 2.6.5).
στύπος [n.] ‘stick, shaft, stalk’ (A. R., Nic., Plb.); cf. H.: στύπος· στέλεχος, κορμός
‘stump, trunk’. καὶ τοῦ ὀφθαλμοῦ τὸ σῶμα, καὶ τὸ κύτος (cod. κῆτος) ‘the whole
of the eye, vessel or jar’. καὶ ὁ ψόφος τῆς βροντῆς ‘the sound of thunder’. The
by-form στύμος· στέλεχος, κορμός (H.) shows variation π / μ, which could
indicate Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.4).
σφενδόνη [f.] ‘sling’, from wool, hair, animal sinews, etc., often metaph. of sling-
like objects, e.g. ‘bandage, headband, case on a ring, white of the eye’ (Il.);
also ‘throw, missile’ (Ar., X.), referring to σφενδονάω ‘to use the sling’. Com-
pared with Lat. funda ‘leather strap, sling’, which would point to a common
loan from a Mediterranean or Anatolian source (e-m s.v. funda). This source
is likely to have been Pre-Greek. This is confirmed by the structure of the
word; for the suffix -ον-, cf. 3.2.3.145.
σφρᾱγίς, σφρηγίς, -ῖδος [f.] ‘seal, seal of a state, impression of a seal, signet,
seal-ring, cut stone’ (ia), ‘sealed field-plot’ (pap.). For extensive discussion on
the mg. of σφραγίς, see Diehl (1938; with lit.); also Kenna (1961: 99 ff.), Kranz
(1961). Σφραγίδιον, the name of a cave (ἄντρον) of prophesying nymphs on
the Cithairon (Paus. 9, 3, 5), where the νύμφαι Σφραγίτιδες live (Plu. Arist. 11).
Furnée (1972: 3247) takes the word to be Pre-Greek because of the suffix -ῑδ-
(see 3.2.3.70).
ὕσσακος [m.] only ὑσσάκους· πασσάλους (em 785, 7, Phot.); gen.pl. -άκων ‘cunnus’
(Ar. Lys. 1001); also ὕσσακος· ὑστακός (H.), = πάσσαλος (Theognost. Can. 24),
ὕσταξ· πάσσαλος κεράτινος ‘penis made of horn’ (H.). Pre-Greek; note the
φάκελος [m.] ‘bundle’ (Hdt.). Also φάκελλος (Arist.). The variant in -λλ- proves
that this word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.8). Further note the suffix itself (see
3.2.3.42–43).
φάλαγξ, -αγγος [f.] ‘round and longish piece of wood, log, roller, beam’ (Hdt.,
Delos iiia, A. R., Orph.), ‘balance beam’ (Arist.), ‘joint of the fingers’ (Arist.,
medic.), ‘row of eyelashes’ (Paul. Aeg.), ‘spider’ (com., X.), after the long joints
of its legs; traditionally a technical term in the military: ‘(close or dense)
battle-array, line of battle’ (Il.), in later times of the so-called Dorian and
124 chapter 6
especially of the Macedonian phalanx, with heavy-armed infantry (X., Plb.

etc.). The suffix proves Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.3).
10 Construction
10.1 Architecture and Constructional Elements

αἴδωσσα [f.] (cod. αἰδῶσσα)· τῆς αὐλῆς τὰ τειχία ‘the walls of the court or hall’
(H.). Furnée (1972: 197) considers it to be a substrate word, taking αἴθουσ(σ)α
(directly below) as a variant form, with the variations θ / δ (2.5.1), ω / ου
(2.6.1.3i) and σ / σσ (2.5.8). For the suffix -ωσσ-, see 3.2.3.148.
αἴθουσα [f.] ‘portico’ (Il.); also a plant. Var. αἴθουσσα (Hdn. Gr. 2, 919). The
variation σ / σσ (2.5.8) and the suffix -ουσ- (3.2.3.98) point to Pre-Greek origin.
See also αἴδωσσα above.
ἄργελλα [f.]? · οἴκημα Μακεδονικόν, ὅπερ θερμαίνοντες λούονται ‘Macedonian
dwelling-place, where [men] bathe while warming up’ (Suid.). Also ἄργιλλα,
ἄργῑλα ‘subterranean house’. The interchanges ε / ι (2.6.1.2b) and λ / λλ (2.5.8)
in the suffix clearly point to a substrate word, as does the suffix itself (see
3.2.3.43 and 3.2.3.75–76).
βαλανεῖον [n.] ‘warm bath, bathroom’ (Ar.). The structure of the word is frequent
in Pre-Greek: βαλ-αν- (with β-, -α-, -αν-). For the suffix -αν-, see 3.2.3.19.
ἑστία [f.] ‘hearth, fireplace, altar’, metaph. ‘house, family, etc.’. Var. Ion. ἱστίη,
Aeol. Boeot. Locr. Dor. Arc. ἱστία. No ie etymology. The most probable con-
clusion is that the word is of Pre-Greek origin. An interchange ε / ι is frequent
in Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.2b).
ἐσχάρα [f.] ‘hearth, house, sacrificing hearth’ (Il.), metaph. ‘platform, stand’
(Ph. Bel., etc.), in medical language ‘scab, eschar on a wound by burning’
(Hp., Arist.). As there are no cognates and as an ie proto-form can hardly
be posited, the word is most probably Pre-Greek. Note the suffix -αρ- (see
3.2.3.28).
θάλαμος [m.] ‘inside room at the back of a house’ (as opposed to μέγαρον,
δῶμα); room for women and bedroom, also a room for provisions (Il.; on the
meaning Wace 1951: 203ff.), in mariners’ language ‘the lowest deck of a ship’
(Timae., Poll.). Its structure (CαC-αC-) is typical for Pre-Greek words. For the
suffix -αμ-, see 3.2.3.18.
θησαυρός [m.] ‘treasury, warehouse, receptacle, treasure’ (Hes.). No etymology;
probably a technical loanword, without a doubt from Pre-Greek. The appear-
ance of the word suggests a pre-form in *-arw- (see 3.2.3.32).
θόλος [f.] ‘round building with conical roof, rotunda’, ‘round bath’ (Od.). The
connection with θάλαμος ‘inside room at the back of a house’ (e.g. Maaß 1928:
1ff.) makes sense; the variation α / ο is typical of Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1b). Cf.
σαλία (σ- < θ-)· πλέγμα καλάθῳ ὅμοιον, ὅ ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς φοροῦσιν αἱ Λάκαιναι.
οἱ δὲ θολία ‘something plaited, like a basket, which Laconian women wear on
the head; others: θ.’ (H.).
θριγκός [m.] ‘topmost course of stones in a wall, cornice, frieze’, also metaph.
(Od.), ‘fence’ (E., Ar.). Late also τριγχός, θριγγός, θριγχός. The forms τριγχός
and θριγγός can be old variants (see 2.5.1) or result from more recent devel-
opments. Cf. also στριγχός· τειχίον, στρικτόριον, στεφάνη δώματος ‘little wall,
crown of a building’ (H.), with s-mobile (see 2.4).
καλύβη [f.] ‘hut, cabin’ (Hdt.); ‘bridal bower’ (A. R.); ‘sleeping-tent’ (PFlor. 335,
2). Also καλυβός; κολυβός· ἔπαυλις ‘farmstead’ (H.). The variation α / ο (before
υ) shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1b). See also καλύπτω (section
15 below).
κιγκλίς, -ίδος [f.] ‘latticed gate’, especially those through which knights or coun-
selors entered the court of justice or the meeting hall (Ar., Luc., Plu.), also
θυρο-κιγκλίδες (Attica). It seems to be a reduplicated form with prenasaliza-
tion κι-γ-κλιδ-, which points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2 and 3.1).
κρατευταί [m.pl.] ‘stone or metal blocks on both sides of the altar, on which the
spits rested’ (I 214, Eup., Att. inscr.); also ‘supporting stone of the pavement’
(Lebadea). Var. κραδευταί, with variation τ / δ (see 2.5.1). Further note the
suffix -ευτ- (see 3.2.3.52).
λαβύρινθος [m.] ‘labyrinth’, a great building with many corridors and turns, in
Egypt (Hdt.), Crete (Call.), Anatolia (inscr. Miletus), etc.; metaph. of compli-
cated thoughts (Pl.). Myc. da-pu2-ri-to-jo /daphurinthoio/. See Furnée (1972:
397f.). Pre-Greek in view of the variations λ / δ and β / φ, and the suffixes -υρ-
and -ινθ- (see 2.5.1, 2.5.7a, 3.2.3.81 and 3.2.3.133).
μέγαρον [n.] ‘hall, room, the inner space of a temple’, plur. ‘house, palace’ (epic
Ion., Il.). Cf. the tn Μέγαρα. Undoubtedly a technical loan from the substrate.
Note the suffix -αρ- (see 3.2.3.28).
μέλαθρον [n.] ‘vault of the roof, roof-beams, roof’, also (often plur.) ‘dwelling,
house’ (Il., also inscr. Delos iiia, lxx, pap.). Connection with κμέλεθρον ‘beam’
has been tentatively considered because of the remarkable formal and
semantic similarity. In my view, this proves that the word is Pre-Greek; κμέ-
λεθρον is a by-form showing variation ε / α (see 2.6.1.1a) and an initial cluster
(on κμ- / μ- see 2.5.13).
πάγασα [f.] · θύρα. καὶ παγασαί ‘door’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 15757) identifies the word
with the town Παγασαί in Thessaly. The suffix -ασ- (3.2.3.29) and the final
short -α (3.3.1a) suggest Pre-Greek origin.
πλίνθος [f.] ‘brick, air-brick’, metaph. ‘square building-stone, metal ingot, aba-
cus’ (ia). The semantic field, as well as the presence of the notoriously
126 chapter 6
foreign element -ινθ- (3.2.3.81), suggest that the word is a loan from Pre-
Greek.
πύργος [m.] ‘tower, wall-tower’, also the fortification wall itself (Il.), metaph.
‘closed division of warriors, column’ (Il.), ‘siege tower’ (X.), ‘farm-building’
(lxx, pap., nt). The glosses φύρκος· τεῖχος ‘wall’ and φ⟨ο⟩ύρκορ· ὀχύρωμα
‘stronghold’ (H.) attest a variant form with different stops. In conclusion, the
word is clearly Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1).
σκόλοψ, -οπος [m.] ‘pointed pole, palisade, prickle’ (epic Ion. poet. since Il., Hell.
and late prose), for Att. χάραξ, σταυρός, -ωμα. Also σκόλοφρον· θρανίον ‘bench’
(H.). The variation π / φ and the suffixes -οπ- and -ρ- point to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.1, 3.2.3.93 and 3.2.3.101); cf. Furnée (1972: 107).
τέραμνα [n.pl.] ‘house, residence’ (E., almost only lyr., also Artem.). Also τέρεμνα.
Here also τέραμνοι· στεγανοὶ, σκιαί, σκηνώματα ‘covered, shadowy place, tents’
and τέραμνος· κυψέλη ‘vessel, chest, box’ (H.). The variation α / ε and the suffix
-α/εμν- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1a, 3.2.3.17 and 3.2.3.45). Probably
also related to θεράπνη, which occurs both in the meaning ‘servant, maid’ and
as ‘house, residence’ (see θεράπων, section 11.1 below), with the variations θ /
τ and μ / π (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.4).
τίτανος [f.] ‘chalk, plaster, crayon, marble-scrapings’ (Hes. Sc. 141). H.: τίτανος
and τέτανος· κονία, χρίσμα, ἄσβεστος ‘dust, plaster, unslaked lime’. Given the
variation ε / ι, the word is probably Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.2b). Also note the
suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
τράφηξ, -ηκος [m.] meaning uncertain. According to H. (similar em, sch. Lyc.
etc.), it means χάραξ, σκόλοψ. ἔνιοι τὸ δόρυ, ἄλλοι τὸ τῆς νεὼς χεῖλος; acc. to em
also = τὸ ξύλον ἔνθα τιθέασι τὸν ἄρτον. Rare in literary language: Bito (‘beam,
pole’?), Lycophr. 641 (‘beam, plank’?), 1001 (‘spear’?), Att. inscr. iva (‘board
of a ship’?). In H. also: τράπηκι· δόρατι. Also with o-vocalism: τρόφηξ (cod.
-φῆς)· χάραξ, σκόλοψ (cod. σκώληξ); τρόπηκος· μερὶς τῆς κώπης ὁ τρόπηξ. The
variations π / φ and α / ο and the suffix -ηκ- are frequent in Pre-Greek words
(see 2.5.1, 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.55). Furnée (1972: 165) also compares τράμπις,
τράμβις ‘foreign ship’, in which case we have prenasalized variants as well
(see 2.5.2). Thus, it is clearly a Pre-Greek word.
τύμβος [m.] ‘mound, burial mound, grave’ (Il.). Beside τύμβος, we find Corcyr.
τῡμος (via; the length is metrically ensured) with the same meaning. The
variation shows that the word is Pre-Greek (not recognized by Furnée 1972).
τύρσις, -ιος, -ιδος [f.] ‘tower, keep, turret; palace, castle, fortified town’ (Pi., Hp.,
X., Hell. poet. etc.); in H. also τύρρις· πύργος, ἔπαλξις, προμαχών and τύρσος·
τὸ ἐν ὕψει οἰκοδόμημα. Probably a loanword from a Mediterranean language,
see Kretschmer (1934: 110ff.) with many details.
χλῆδος [m.] ‘debris, filth, rubbish’ vel sim. (A. Fr. 16 = 264 M.), = ὁ σωρὸς τῶν λίθων
‘heap of stones’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 136 and 12336) mentions variants κληδόν·
σωρόν (H.), κληδέα· φραγμοί ‘fencings, partitions’ (H.) and also χλέος (inscr.
Tegea [iva]). These ensure Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1, 2.5.10 and 2.6.1.2i).
10.2 Infrastructure
ἄγυια [f.] ‘street, road’ (Il.). Probably a substrate word in -υια (3.2.3.118), see
Szemerényi (1964: 203ff.) and Beekes (1998: 25 f.).
ἄρπεζα [f.] ‘hedge’ (Nic.), cf. ἀρπέζας· τοὺς αἱμασιώδεις τόπους. οἱ δὲ τείχη καὶ
περιβόλους. οἱ δὲ τὰ κλιμακώδη χωρία ‘places that are hedged in; walls and
enclosures; terraced places’ (H.). Also ἄρπεζος [f.] ‘id.’. Further ἄρπισαι· αἱμα-
σιαί. ἢ τάφρους ‘walls; ditches’ and ἄρπιξ· εἶδος ἀκάνθης ‘kind of thorny plant’
(H.; cf. s.v. in section 3.4 above). The variation -εζα/-ισα (in ἄρπισαι) is typi-
cal for substrate words (see 2.5.5.9a and 2.6.1.2b for the variations ε / ι, ζ / σ
and 3.2.3.40 and 3.2.3.84 for the suffixes). Also ἀρπάναι· μάνδραι βοσκήματων
‘cattle folds’ (H.), with the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
γέφῡρα [f.] ‘bridge’. Boeot. βέφυρα, Cret. δέφυρα, Lacon. δίφουρα. The variation γ /
β / δ points to a Pre-Greek labiovelar (see 2.5.6). The Lacon. form with -ι- and
-ου- points to non-Greek origin as well (see 2.6.1.2b and 2.6.1.3d). Also note
the final short -α (see 3.3.1a). Finally, the suffix is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.134).
γοργυρα [f.] ‘underground drain’, sometimes used as a prison (Hdt. 3, 145, em,
H.); cf. ἀρδάλια· τοὺς πυθμένας τῶν κεραμίδων, οὓς ἔνιοι γοργύρας καλοῦσιν ‘the
base of roof-tiles, which some call γοργύρας’ (H.) which lsj translates as
‘water-pot, trough’. Cf. also κορκόδρυα· ὑδρόρυα ‘water-course’ (H.), perhaps
to be read as *κορκόρεα· ὑδρορ(ρ)όα. Also γεργυρα (Alcm. 132), κορχυρέα (Corc.
iia, cf. s.v. below). γοργυρα, with all its variants, is definitely of Pre-Greek
origin: variations κ / γ / χ (see 2.5.1) and ε / ο (see 2.6.1.3l); ending -έα (see
Chantraine 1933: 91f. and 3.2.3.7 above); suffix -υρ- (see 3.2.3.134).
κορχυρέα [f.] ‘subterranean drain’ (ig 9(1), 692: 8 [Corcyra iia]: περι ταν κορ-
χυρε[αν]). The variants γοργυρα, γεργυρα, γοργύριον ‘id.’ (Hdt. 3, 145, H.) and
κορκόδρυα (κορκορρόα Lobeck) point to a Pre-Greek word; see γοργυρα above.
λαύρα [f.] ‘narrow street, narrow passage, alley, quarter’ (Il.). Cf. Λαύρειον (-εον,
-ιον) [n.], a mount in Attica with famous silvermines. The word is no doubt
Pre-Greek; note the name of the mountain and its suffix (see 3.2.3.7).
σκάπετος [m.] ‘digging’ (Megara). Also κάπετος. Most probably Pre-Greek; note
the s-mobile (2.4) and the suffix -ετ- (3.2.3.49).
ψαλίς, -ίδος [f.] 1. ‘subterranean (arched) passage, canal, (subterranean) vault,
flying buttress’ (S. Fr. 367, Pl. Lg. 947d, Arist., Ph. Bel., Hero, Hell. and late
inscr.); 2. ‘scissors’ (S. Fr. 413, Ar. Fr. 320, 1, ap, pap. iip, Poll.); 3. ‘ring or the like
for supporting or strengthening’ (lxx, Ph. Bel.); also ψαλλίδ[ων] (bgu 1028, 9
[iip])? The latter would show variation λ / λλ (see 2.5.8). In the third meaning,
128 chapter 6
ψαλίς might be connected with ψέλιον ‘bracelet, ring, arm jewel, anklet’ (see
s.v. in section 8 above). See also ψαλόν (section 10.2 above).
11 Society
11.1 Social Hierarchy and Administration

ἄναξ, -κτος [m.] ‘lord, ruler’ (Il.). Plur. also (ϝ)άνακες, name of the Dioskouroi
(Hom.), from which (ϝ)ανάκειον, Ἀνάκεια, ἀνακώσιος. It is probable that the
forms without -t- are younger, but see e.g. Ruijgh (1957: 112) and Ruijgh (1970:
309ff.). The suffix -αξ points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.13 and 3.3.3a).
ἄνθρωπος [m.] ‘man’ (Il.). Myc. a-to-ro-qo /anthrōkwos/. The occurrence of -oq- in
Mycenaean does not prove Indo-European origin, as the substrate language
also had labiovelars (see 2.5.6). -ωπ- is a Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.146). See
further δρώψ below.
ἀτμήν, -ένος [m.] ‘servant, slave’ (Call.). Fem. plur. also ἀδμενίδες (em). The
variation τ / δ points to a substrate word (see 2.5.1). Furnée (1972: 95, 179)
further adduces λατμενεία· δουλεία (H.; cf. s.v. below), with λ- / zero (see
2.5.11).
βασιλεύς [m.] ‘king (especially the Persian king), prince’ (Il.). Myc. qa-si-re-u
/gwasileus/. The word is no doubt of Pre-Greek origin; labiovelars are well-
known in this language (see 2.5.6). -ιλ- is a Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.75). For
-ευς, see 3.3.1d.
βάταλος [m.] · καταπύγων καὶ ἀνδρόγυνος, κίναιδος, ἔκλυτος ‘a lewd man, herma-
phrodite, catamite; lascivious’ (H.); = πρωκτός ‘anus’ (Eup. 82 apud Harp.).
Also βάτταλος; βατᾶς, βαδᾶς and σπάταλος ‘wanton, lascivious’ (see σπατάλη
below). The s-mobile (2.4), the interchanges π / β and τ / δ / ττ (2.5.1, 2.5.8)
and the suffix -αλ- (3.2.3.15) point to Pre-Greek origin.
δρώψ [m.] · ἄνθρωπος ‘man’ (H.). Kuiper (1956: 224f.) accepts the gloss as Pre-
Greek, explaining ἄνθρωπος as a variant with prothetic vowel (2.3), prenasal-
ization (2.5.2), and the variation δ / θ (2.5.1). Cf. s.v. above.
ἔρῑθος [m., f.] ‘day-laborer’, of reapers, sheaf-binders (Σ 550, 560), ‘spinner’ (S.,
D. with folk-etymological connection with ἔριον), ‘servant, etc.’. The suffix -ῑθ-
θέμις [f., n.] ‘justice, law, custom’, also goddess of justice (Il.). Different oblique
forms, e.g. gen. θέμιστος (Hom.), θέμιτος (Pi.), θέμιδος (A.), rarely θέμιος (Hdt.),
θέμεως (inscr. Metropolis). C.J. Ruijgh suggested (pers. comm.) that inter-
change between i-stem forms and forms in -ι(σ)τ- seems to point to Pre-
Greek origin. -ιτ- and -ιστ- are Pre-Greek suffixes (see 3.2.3.87 and 3.2.3.109).
For the variation τ / στ, see 2.5.5.10a.
θεράπων, -οντος [m.] ‘attendant, servant; companion’ (Il.). Also θαραπ-. θεράπνη
also occurs in the meaning ‘dwelling, habitation’ (θεράπναι· αὐλῶνες, σταθμοί
H.); one might assume a meaning ‘house’, whence a collective ‘servants’. We
can hardly separate the Laconian tn Θεράπνα, -ναι from θεράπνη ‘house’. Cf.
also τέραμνα (section 10.1 above) with the same meaning. The variations τ /
θ, π / μ, ε / α and the suffixes -απ- and -ν- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1,
2.5.4, 2.6.1.1a, 3.2.3.26 and 3.2.3.91).
θής, θητός [m.] ‘serf, bondsman; hired laborer’ (Od.). Also θᾶτας· θῆτας (θάτας·
θύτας ‘sacrificers’ cod.), τοὺς δούλους. Κύπριοι ‘slaves (Cypr.)’ (H.). The original
form was *thāt-, thus it was probably Pre-Greek.
λατμενεία [f.] · δουλεία ‘slavery’ (H.). Cf. ἀτμενία ‘id.’, with λ- / zero (see 2.5.11). Cf.
ἀτμήν above.
μαστροπός [m., f.] ‘procurer, procuress’ (Ar., X., etc.). Also μαστροφός, μάστρυς.
The variant with -φ- and the suffix -οπ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1
and 3.2.3.93). Furnée (1972: 160) further compares μάτρυλλος, -α ‘procurer’,
ματρυλεῖον, μαστρυλλεῖον ‘brothel’, with the variation τ / στ and the suffix
-υλ(λ)- (see 2.5.5.10a, 3.2.3.121 and 3.2.3.123).
μέλλαξ, -ακος [m.] ‘young boy’ (inscr. Alexandria, PMag. Par.), μέλακες· νεώτεροι
‘the younger ones’ (H.). As the word is no doubt identical with μῖλαξ (see s.v.
below), it is Pre-Greek; note the variations ε / ι and λ / λλ (see 2.6.1.2b and
2.5.8). Further note the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
μέροπες, -ων, -εσσι [pl.] epithet of ἄνθρωποι (Hom.), βροτοί (B 285), after these of
λαοί (A. Supp. 90 [lyr.]) and, as a substantive, = ἄνθρωποι (trag., Hell. and later
poets); also = οἱ ἄφρονες ὑπὸ Εὐβοέων ‘senseless (Eub.)’ (Gloss. Oxy. 1802, 48).
Further as an en (Pi.) and of a bird (Arist., Plu.). The suffix -οψ (-ωψ) points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.93). See Beekes (1995/6: 21–27).
μῖλαξ [?] · ἡλικία ‘age-group’ · ἔνιοι δὲ μέλλαξ. καὶ παρ’ Ἑρμίππῳ ἐν Θεοῖς (Fr.
33) ἀγνοήσας Ἀρτεμίδωρος· ἐκεῖ γὰρ μῖλάξ ἐστιν, δηλοῖ δὲ τὸν δημοτικόν ‘some
have μέλλαξ, among them Artemidorus on Hermippus’s Gods (Fr. 33), but
wrongfully, as μῖλαξ is found there, and it means a kind person’ (H.). delg
adds that the gloss may be partly corrupt, referring to μέλλαξ in H., i.e.
μέλ[λ]ακες· νεώτεροι ‘the younger ones’ (corrected to μελλ- by Salm.). The
word is Pre-Greek in view of the variant μέλλαξ (see s.v. above) and the suffix
-ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
πρύτανις, -εως [m.] title of a leading official, in Athens member of the govern-
ing committee of the council, ‘foreman, chief of affairs, prytan’ (Dor., ia); also
name of a Lycian (E 678). The variation of Aeol. πρότανις (Att. inscr. inciden-
tally have προταν-εύω, -εία) and Phoc. and Cret. βρυτανεύω, -εῖον is suggestive
of borrowing from a Pre-Greek source (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.3c). Further note
the suffix -αν- (see 3.2.3.19).
130 chapter 6
σπᾰτάλη [f.] ‘lavish, lascivious way of life, debauchery, luxury’, also of luxurious
objects, ‘adornment, bracelet, anklet’ (lxx). Furnée (1972: 154, 179) convinc-
ingly connects βάταλος ‘lascivious man’ (see s.v. above); the variations σ- /
zero (2.4), π / β (2.5.1) and the suffix -αλ- (3.2.3.15) show that the word is Pre-
Greek.
τριττύς [f.] 1. ‘third of a phyle’ (Att.); τριττύ-αρχος [m.] ‘principal of a τ.’, whence
-αρχέω (Pl., inscr., Poll. et al.), also τρικτυαρχέω (Delos iii and iia). 2. ‘sacrifice
of three animals’ (Call., sch.). 3. ‘triad’, of a threefold victory (Philostr.); τριτύς·
τριάς ‘number three, triad’ (H.). τριπτύς (Ceos), τρικτύς (Delos). The variation
ττ / πτ / κτ points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.6).
τύραννος [m.] ‘absolute ruler, monarch, tyrant’, rarely fem. ‘lady, princess’, also
adj. ‘dictatorial, imperious, ruling’ (h. Mart., Pi., ia, etc.). The structure of the
word, with the suffix -ανν- (see 3.2.3.24), points to Pre-Greek origin.
11.2 Military Expressions

κυδοιμός [m.] ‘din of battle’ (Il.), see Schwyzer (1939: 492) and Trümpy (1950:
158f.). Given the unusual formation, the word is without a doubt Pre-Greek.
λάφῡρα [n.pl.] ‘booty’ (ia). The word has the suffix -ῡρ-, which is Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.134).
ὅμῑλος [m.] ‘throng, band of warriors, crowd, turmoil of battle’ (Il.). Aeol. ὄμιλλος
(em) could be hyperdialectal. Suffixes with V̄ C were frequent in Pre-Greek;
the interchange -ιλ-ο- / -ιλλ-ο- may represent a suffix -ily-o- (see 2.5.8 and
3.2.3.75–76).
πόλεμος [m.] ‘battle, war’ (Il.). Epic also πτόλεμος. Myc. e-u-ru-po-to-re-mo-jo
/Euru-ptolemoio/. Prob. Pre-Greek in view of the variation π- / πτ- and the
suffix -εμ- (see 2.5.5.1a and 3.2.3.44).
πρυλέες, -έων [m.pl.] ‘heavily armed foot-soldiers’ (Il., Hes. Sc. 193, Gortyn),
metaph. of birds (Opp.); προυλέσι· πεζοῖς ὁπλίταις ‘hoplites on foot’ (H.). In
view of the formal variant προυλέσι, the word is probably of Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.6.1.3h).
στῖφος [n.] ‘crowd packed closely together, troop of warriors, ships, etc.’ (Hdt.).
Semantically close to στείβω ‘to tread (on something), densify by treading,
trod, trample’. The variation φ / β is probably best understood in terms of
substrate origin (see 2.5.1).
φύλοπις, -ιδος [f.] ‘battle’ (Il., epic). Pre-Greek word in view of the suffix -οπ- (see
3.2.3.93).
11.3 Professions and Other Societal Appellatives

ἠπεροπεύς [m.] ‘cheat, deceiver’ (λ 364, A. R. 3, 617, ap 9, 524, 8). A loan from
Pre-Greek is quite possible (thus also delg), especially in view of suffixal
-οπ- (see 3.2.3.93). Cf. ἀπάτη (section 14 below).
κάβαισος [m.] ‘gluttonous fellow’ (Cratin. 103), also pn (ig 5(2), 271: 9 [Man-
tinea iva]). Also κάβασος. The meaning and structure of the word point to
Pre-Greek origin; note the suffix -α(ι)σ- (see 3.2.3.29). The variation -αισ- /
-ασ- points to Pre-Greek *-asy- (see 2.6.1.1c).
κασαλβάς, -άδος [f.] ‘strumpet’ (Ar.). κασσαβάς (em). κασαύρα· κασωρίς, πόρνη
‘strumpet, prostitute’ (H.). For σ / σσ, see 2.5.8. The form κασ-ωρ- continues
κασ-αυρ- (a well-known development in Pre-Greek; see Furnée 1972: 30132
and 2.6.1.1h above). In turn, the form κασαυρ- may continue κασαβ-, with
β varying with υ, ϝ (see 2.5.4). The relation between κασαλβ- and κασαβ- is
unclear. I suggest that κασαλβ- originates from *kasalw-, with a labialized
phoneme lw that may also easily have become w > b. [sn]: -αυρ- may also
represent *-arw- (see 3.2.3.32), which would result in a variation lw / rw (cf. λ /
ρ in 2.5.7c).
κήρυξ [m.] ‘herald, messenger’, also ‘trumpet-shell’ (Il.). Accented κῆρυξ in Hdn.
(cf. Schwyzer 1939: 391). Myc. ka-ru-ke /kārūkes/, Dor. Aeol. κάρυξ, -ῡκος.
κορύγης· κῆρυξ. Δωριεῖς (H.). The suffix -ῡκ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see
3.2.3.120), as do the variation κ / γ (see 2.5.1) and Pre-Greek *a interchanging
with *o before a following *u (see 2.5.13.2, 2.6.1.1b). The *a that we must
assume for the gloss was short, so we also have variation in vowel length
(see 2.6.2).
κίμβιξ, -ικος [m.] ‘niggard, skinflint’ (Xenoph., Arist., Plu.). Cf. σκιπός· σκνιφός, ὁ
μικρολόγος ‘dim-sighted, penurious’ (H.), and σκιφία (H.) as an explanation
of κιμβεία ‘stinginess’. The s-mobile, the prenasalization, the interchange of
stops and the suffix -ικ- point to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.4, 2.5.2, 2.5.1 and
3.2.3.73).
κιναβεύματα [n.pl.] · πανουργεύματα (H., see also Phot. κάννα). κιναφεύειν· παν-
ουργεύεσθαι ‘to fabricate by ruse’ (H.). Variation β / φ (see 2.5.1). Cf. κάναβος
(section 12.2 below).
κιξάλλης, -ου [m.] ‘highway robber, pirate, thief’ (Democr. 260, sig 38, 19 [Teos
va], H.); Jo. Gramm. (in Hoffmann 1898: 208) has κιττάλης = κλέπτης (on the
phonetics see Schwyzer 1939: 318). Cf. κίξας· τοὺς ἐν ὁδῷ λῃστάς ‘thieves on
the road’ (Phot.). It is a clear example of a Pre-Greek word: alternations
λλ / λ (2.5.8), ττ / ξ (2.5.5.9a), suffix -αλ(λ)- (3.2.3.15). We could reconstruct
Pre-Greek *kikyaly-. See Furnée (1972: 286).
κοᾱλ́ εμος [m.] ‘blockhead’ (Ar., Plu.), also name of a demon of stupidity (Ar.
Eq. 221). Cf. κόβᾱλος ‘rogue, mischievous knave’, καυαλός· μωρολόγος ‘speaking
132 chapter 6
like an idiot’, both in section 13, and κόαλοι· βάρβαροι ‘foreigners’ (H.) below.
The word is clearly Pre-Greek because of the variants, with the variations
β / υ / zero (2.5.4), α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and the suffixes -ᾱλ- (3.2.3.15) and -εμ-
(3.2.3.44).
κόαλοι [m.pl.] · βάρβαροι ‘barbarians’ (H.). Probably related to καυαλός and
κόβαλος. See κοᾱλ́ εμος above and κόβᾱλος, καυαλός in section 13 below.
κόβειρος [adj.] · γελοιαστής, σκωπτής, λοιδοριστής ‘jester, scoffer’ (H.). Hemberg
(1950: 326) refers to the grotesque pictures of the Kabeiroi in Thebes. Since α
may vary with ο in Pre-Greek words (see 2.6.1.1b), our word must be identical
in origin with Κάβειρος (section 18 below). Also note the suffix -ειρ- (see
3.2.3.41).
κόλαξ, -ᾰκος [m.] ‘flatterer, fawner’ (Att., Hell.). As the suffix -ακ- originates from
Pre-Greek (3.2.3.13), the same probably holds for this word.
λάσται [f.] · πόρναι ‘whores’ (H.). Further λάσταυρος ‘κίναιδος, catamite’. Furnée
(1972: 383) connects λασιτός· κίναιδος and λεσιτός· πόρνη (H.). The element
λασ- / λασι- / λεσι- is clearly Pre-Greek, and probably represents *lasy-. Also
note the suffix -αυρ- (see 3.2.3.32).
λυπτά [f.] · ἑταίρα, πόρνη ‘whore’ (H.), in an alphabetically wrong position.
Furnée (1972: 316) compares λύπη ‘id.’, also λούπα ‘id.’, with the variations π /
πτ and υ / ου (see 2.5.5.1a and 2.6.1.3h); he also connects λίπτω ‘to desire’, with
ι / υ (see 2.6.1.4). For the ending, see 3.3.1a.
μάρτυς [m., f.] ‘witness’ (Il.) ‘martyr, blood-witness’ in Christian litt. Aeol. (Hdn.
Gr.) and Dor. μάρτυρ, Cret. Epid. μαῖτυς (-ρς), -ρος. I assume that it is a loan
from Pre-Greek (see Furnée 1972: 296), which is confirmed by the suffix -υρ-,
which is not ie (see 3.2.3.133).
πῑσ́ υγγος [m.] ‘shoemaker’ (Sapph., Alex. Aet., Herod., com. apud Poll.). Besides
πέσσυμπτον· σκυτεῖον ‘shoemaker’s workshop’ and πεσσύπτη· σκυτεύ⟨τ⟩ρια
‘female shoemaker’ (H.). Cf. πεττύκια [n.pl.] ‘small pieces of leather’ (Moer.).
A Pre-Greek word (Furnée 1972: 357), as revealed by the interchanges σ / σσ /
ττ and ε / ι (see 2.5.5.9a and 2.6.1.2b) and the suffix -υγγ- (see 3.2.3.114).
σηλαγγεύς, -έως [m.] ‘gold refiner, gold washer’ (Agatharch.). May be related to
σάλαγξ· μεταλλικὸν σκεῦος ‘metallic vessel or implement’ (H.) (see s.v. σάλος
in section 1 above), in which case it would show the variation η / α (see 2.6.2).
At any rate, the suffix -αγγ- shows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.3).
τένθης [m.] ‘glutton, gourmand’ (com.). We should envisage to connect τένθης
with τένδω ‘to gnaw at’, in which case the variation δ / θ (2.5.1) points to
Pre-Greek origin (Furnée 1972: 196, 88).
φένᾱξ, -ᾱκος [m.] ‘impostor, trickster’ (Ar., rare and late). Cf. πηνήκη ‘wig’ (Luc.),
with the variations φ / π and ε / η (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.2i). Further note the
characteristic suffix -ᾱξ (see 3.2.3.13).
φλέδων, -ονος [m., f.] ‘babbler’ (A. Ag. 1195, Timo). We find -α- in παφλάζω and
παφλάσματα ‘stilted words’, and -η- in φληναφάω ‘to babble’ (see 2.6.1.1a and
2.6.1.2i). The variation φλεδ-/φλην- shows nasalization (i.e. replacement of
a consonant by the nasal of its series, see 2.5.3), which points to Pre-Greek
origin; see already Kuiper (1956: 216).
φλύᾱξ, -ᾱκος [m.] ‘buffoonery’ (ap), ‘buffoon’ (Poll., St. Byz., Eust.). Prob. Pre-
Greek; note the suffix -ᾱκ- (see 3.2.3.13).
φύλαξ, -ακος [m., f.] ‘watcher, guardian, protector’ (Il.). As the suffix -αξ indi-
cates, the word may well be Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.13).
12 Culture
12.1 Contest
ἅμιλλα [f.] ‘contest’ (Pi.). The suffix -ιλλ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.76).
βαλβίς, -ῖδος [f.] ‘rope indicating start and finish of the race-course, turning post’
(Att.). βαλβίς is a technical term borrowed from Pre-Greek; note the suffix -ῑδ-
(see 3.2.3.70).
ἑψία [f.] ‘joy, play’ (S. Fr. 3, Nic. Th. 880). Also ἔψια (em 406, 8), ἀψίαι· ἑορταί.
Λάκωνες ‘festivals (Lacon.)’ (H.). Without anlauting vowel: ψιάδδειν = παίζειν
(Ar. Lys. 1302 [lyr.], H.), ψιά· χαρά, γελοίασμα, παίγνια ‘joy, laughter, plaything’
(H.). Note the variations ἐ- / ἑ- / ἀ- / zero and the varying accentuation, which
indicate that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.1, 2.3 and 2.6.1.1a). See also ψιάζω
below.
κάλπη [f.] ‘trot’ (Paus., Plu., Hippiatr.). Furnée (1972: 379) compares σκαλπάζειν·
ῥεμβωδῶς βαδίζειν ‘to walk around at random’ (H.), σκαλαπάζει· ῥέμβεται ‘id.’
(H.), with prothetic σ- and α / zero (see 2.4 and 2.6.5), which suggest that the
word is Pre-Greek.
κελεα [f.] name of an agon for youths in Sparta (Lacon. inscr., imperial period),
cf. Bechtel (1921, 2: 376). Also ntr.pl.? Also -εια, -ηα, -οια; καιλοῖα, -υα. The
variation suggests a Pre-Greek word.
κίγκασος [?] · κυβευτικός τις βόλος ‘a cast of dice’, also κίκκασος· … καὶ βόλου
ὄνομα ‘name of a cast of dice’ (H.); cf. s.v. below. The word must be Pre-Greek
because of the prenasalization and the suffix (see 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.29).
κίκκασος [m.] · ὀβόλου ὄνομα ‘name for an obol’ (Phot.). κίκκασος· ὁ ἐκ τῶν
παραμηρίων ἱδρὼς ῥέων καὶ βόλου ὄνομα ‘sweat flowing from the inside of the
thighs; name for a cast of the dice’ (H.). delg doubts the first gloss, and for
the second, compares κίγκασος (cf. s.v. above). [sn]: The gloss κίκκασος καὶ
κίγκασος· βόλου ὄνομα (Hdn. Gr.) confirms the connection of these words,
as well as the assumption that ὀβόλου in Phot. is a mistake for βόλου. The
134 chapter 6
prenasalization proves Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2). Also note the suffix -ασ-
(see 3.2.3.29).
κόλαφος [m.] ‘punch, buffet’ (Epich. 1 as a name of a παιδοτρίβης, H., em).
The word is no doubt Pre-Greek; note the suffix -αφ- (see 3.2.3.33). See also
κολάπτω (section 15 below).
κόνδαξ, -ᾱκος [m.] name of a gambling game, played with a blunt dart (ap 5, 60
[sens. obsc.], Cod. Just. 3, 43, 1, 4). Cf. κόνδοι· κεραῖαι ‘horns’ (H.), κονδοκέρατος
‘with short horns’. The word κόνδαξ must be Pre-Greek, in view of the suffix
-ᾱκ- (see 3.2.3.13); the structure (prenasalized consonant, see 2.5.2) fits this
assumption.
κότταβος [m.] name of a game (Anacr., Pi., trag., com., Hell.) from Sicily, in which
the player throws the rest of the wine from a cup against a target, either
against a slice that is in balance on top of a stick, which falls (soc. κότταβος
κατακτός), or against an empty saucer, which floats in a basin with water, and
sinks when hit (κ. ἐν λεκάνῃ or δι’ ὀξυβάφων). However, κότταβος indicated not
only the game itself, but also several objects and movements used in it. Ion.
-σσ-. The variation ττ / σσ points to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.5.9a). Further
note the suffix -αβ- (see 3.2.3.1).
ψιάζω [v.] ‘to play’, only in Lac. 3pl. ψιάδδοντι (Ar. Lys. 1302 [lyr.]), ψιάδδειν· παίζειν
‘id.’ (H.). Cf. ψιά· χαρά, γελοίασμα, παίγνια ‘joy, laughter, game’ (H.); see s.v. ἑψία
above. The variants ψίεσσα· εὐδαίμων, μακαρία and ψίεντα· τὰ αὐτά ‘id.’ (H.),
with the variation α / ε (see 2.6.1.1a), may indicate that the Pre-Greek form
had psy-, cf. ψίακ- beside ψακ-άδ- s.v. ψιάς (section 7.2 above).
12.2 Sculpture
δᾱγύς, -ῦδος [f.] ‘puppet’ of wax (Theoc. 2, 110). Technical word of foreign origin.
Probably a Pre-Greek word in view of the suffix -ῡδ- (cf. 3.2.3.115).
κάναβος [m.] ‘wooden framework around which artists molded wax or clay;
block-figure; mannikin; lean person’ (Stratt., Arist., Poll., H.). Also κάνναβος,
κίνναβος. κιναβεύματα· πανουργήματα ‘crimes’ (see s.v. in section 11.3). The
variation ν / νν and the suffix -αβ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.8 and
3.2.3.1). Probably a derivation of κάννα ‘reed’ (section 3.4).
κολοσσός [m.] ‘gigantic statue, colossus’ (Hdt. [only about Egypt], Hell.), also
‘statue’ in general (A., Hell.), ‘figure, puppet representing someone absent’
(Cyrene, seg ix, 72, 117 and 122), cf. Buck (1955: 112). Also -ττ- (D. S.), -σ-
(Cyrene). The element -σσ- (/ -σ- / -ττ-) typically points to Pre-Greek origin,
as does the suffix -οσσ- (see 2.5.5.9a and 3.2.3.95).
12.3 Musical Instruments, Performing Arts

βάρβιτος [f.] or [m.] musical instrument with many strings (Pi.). Also βάρμιτος,
βάρμος and βάρωμος. The word is most probably Pre-Greek, in view of the
variation β / μ and the suffix -ιτ- (see 2.5.4 and 3.2.3.87).
βίδην · εἶδος, κροῦμα, Σοφοκλῆς Ἀκριδίῳ “ὡς ἐπιψάλλειν βίδην τε καὶ ξυναυλίαν.”
ἄλλοι βίθυν (H.). Also βυδοί· οἱ μουσικοί, ἢ κροῦμά τι. σοφώς Κρησίν (H.). Also
ψαλεῖ βίδυν. Pre-Greek in view of the variations δ / θ and ι / υ (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.4).
γίγγρος [m.] name of a Phoenician flute (Men.). Also γίγγλαρος (Poll.), γιγγλάριον
(ab). Variation ρ / λ (2.5.7c), suffix -αρ- (3.2.3.28). Further appears to display
prenasalization and reduplication (see 2.5.2 and 3.1).
ἴαμβος [m.] name of a metrical foot and a verse, ‘iambus, mocking verse’
(Archil., Hdt., Att.). Like διθύραμβος and θρίαμβος (both in section 12.4 below),
ἴαμβος is doubtless of Pre-Greek origin. Note the sequence -ια- and the suffix
-αμβ- (see 2.6.4 and 3.2.3.16).
καρπαία [f.] name of a mimetic dance in arms of the Thessalians. Also καπρία·
εἶδος ὀρχήσεως ‘kind of dance’ and κάρπεα· ὄρχησις Μακεδονική ‘Macedonian
dance’ (H.). The variation -αια / -εα / -ια points to substrate origin (see
3.2.3.7).
κιθάρα [f.] ‘lyre’ (ia). Pre-Greek in view of the suffix -αρ- (see 3.2.3.28).
κόλαβρος [m.] name of a song which accompanied the dance κολαβρισμός
(Ath.), = χοιρίδιον ‘little pig’ (H. [cod. κοιλίδιον], Suid.), also καλαβρισμός (v.l.
codd. Ath. 14, 629d). Cf. κολόβριον ‘little pig’. Variation ο / α and the suffixes
-αβ- and -ρ- (see 2.6.1.1b, 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.101).
κόλλοψ, -οπος [m.] ‘peg or screw by which the strings of the lyre were tightened’
(φ 407, Ar., Pl., Luc.); ‘thick skin on the upper part of the neck of oxen or
pigs’ (Ar. Fr. 646 and 506, 3); ‘bar by which a windlass was turned’ (Arist.
Mech. 852b 12); metaph. ‘ἀνδρόγυνος, cinaedus’ (Hell. com., ap). The word is
clearly Pre-Greek because of its suffix (see 3.2.3.93); this conclusion is further
strengthened if κόλλαβος (section 6 above) is a variant; -οπ- / -απ- / -αβ- is a
Pre-Greek suffix variation, with the alternations π / β and α / ο (see 2.5.1 and
2.6.1.1b).
κόρδᾱξ, -ᾱκος [m.] name of a dance in old comedy (Ar., Thphr.), also in the cult
of Apollo (Amorgos) and Artemis. The ending -ᾱξ is typical of Pre-Greek (see
3.2.3.13).
κώδων, -ωνος [m., f.] ‘bell, (sound of a) trumpet’ (ia). The word has been shown
to be Pre-Greek by Furnée (1972: 198f.); note the suffix -ων- (3.2.3.145). Prob-
ably related to κώδεια (section 3.4 above).
λῠ́ρα [f.] ‘lyre’, four-stringed (or seven-stringed) instrument like the cithara (h.
Merc. 423). Technical loan from the Mediterranean area.
136 chapter 6
πανδούρα, -δοῦρα [f.] three-stringed lute (Euph. apud Ath. 183f., Poll.). Var.
φάνδουρος. Variation π / φ and the suffix -ουρ- (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.97).
σάλπιγξ, -ιγγος [m.] ‘trumpet’ (Σ 219). A word of Mediterranean culture; the
suffix is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.69).
σκινδαψός [m.] name of a four-stringed musical instrument with thorn-like
appendices (middle com. etc.), also designation for a senseless word (Artem.,
S. E. etc.); name of an ivy-like plant (Clitarch.; cf. Dawkins 1936: 9 f.). Without
initial σ-: κινδαψός. The s-mobile and the suffix -αψ- point to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.4 and 3.2.3.35).
σῦριγξ, -ιγγος [f.] ‘quill, flute, syrinx’ (Il.); also of pipe-like objects, e.g. ‘windpipe,
blood-vessel, fistula’ (medic., etc.), ‘spear case’ (T 387), ‘hole in the nave of a
wheel’ (trag., etc.), ‘subterranean passage’ (Plb., etc.). Pre-Greek in view of
the suffix (see 3.2.3.69).
τύμπανον [n.] ‘kettledrum, hand drum’ (ia h. Hom. 14, 3), also metaphorically
as a technical expression, ‘instrument of torture’ (Ar. etc.), ‘water wheel’
(Plb., pap.), ‘drum in a machine’ (Hero; also -ος [m.]), etc. Also τύπανον. The
prenasalization and the suffix -αν- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2 and
3.2.3.19).
φόρμιγξ, -ιγγος [f.] ‘cither’, especially as an instrument of Apollo (Il.). Clearly
a Pre-Greek word, on account of the suffix (see 3.2.3.69). Furnée (1972: 173,
342) adds βάρμος (Phyllis apud Ath. 14, 636c), βάρωμος (Euph. Fr. Hist. 8, Ath.
4, 182f), βάρμιτος (em 188, 21), and βάρβιτος (Pi., Anacr.), with the variations
φ / β (2.5.1), α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and μ / β (2.5.4); cf. s.v. βάρβιτος above.
φῶτιγξ, -ιγγος [f., m.] Alexandrian designation of a kind of flute, the ‘German’
flute (Plu.). The suffix is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.69).
12.4 Religious Festivals and Feasting

δῑθύραμβος [m.] name of a song at the festival for Dionysus (Archil.), also said of
the god (E. Ba. 526 [lyr.]). Also διθυραμφος on a vase (seg xvi (1959) no. 40).
The variation β / φ (2.5.1) and the suffixes -υρ- (3.2.3.133) and -αμβ- (3.2.3.16)
point to Pre-Greek origin.
εἰλαπίνη [f.] ‘drinking-bout, festive eating’ (Il.). Aeol. ἐλ(λ)απίνα (Hoffmann
1893: 487). The suffixes -απ- and -ιν- are Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.26 and 3.2.3.78–
79). The variation εἰλ- / ἐλλ- / ἐλ- points in the same direction (see
2.5.8).
Θαργήλια [n.pl.] Ionic-Attic festival before the harvest, connected with the cult
of Apollo (Hippon., Archil.), also Ταργήλια (Milete), which proves Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.5.1).
θίασος [m.] ‘Bacchic revel; religious guild’ (ia). An expression of the Dionysiac
religion, and as such suspected of foreign origin: probably Anatolian. The
source can be further identified as Pre-Greek in view of the sequence -ια-

and the suffix -ασ- (see 2.6.4 and 3.2.3.29).
θρίαμβος [m.] name of hymns sung at festivals for Dionysus (Cratin. 36), also
said of the god (Trag. Adesp. 140 et al.); also a Hell. rendering of Lat. tri-
umphus (Plb., D. S.). Formation like δῑθύραμβος (above), ἴαμβος (section 12.3)
and, like these, probably Pre-Greek, as is suggested by the sequence -ια- and
the suffix -αμβ- (see 2.6.4 and 3.2.3.16).
θύσθλα [n.pl.] ‘the sacred implements of Bacchic orgies’ (Z 134), secondarily
‘sacrifice’ (Lyc.; influence of θύω). Not derived from θύω; such a derivation
would presuppose a much more general meaning than the very specific one
of the present entry. It is rather a loan from Pre-Greek.
ἴθυμβος [m.] name of a bacchic song with dance; one who performs this
dance. Formation like ἴαμβος (section 12.3), διθύραμβος (above), etc., and,
like these, probably a loanword from the substrate; note the suffix -υμβ- (see
3.2.3.125).
σκαπέρδα [f.] a game at the Dionysia, during which two young men sitting
with their backs to each other try to lift up the other using a cord running
through a pole (Poll. 9, 116, H.); also: καὶ πᾶν τὸ δυσχερὲς σκαπέρδα λέγεται
καὶ ὁ πάσχων σκαπέρδης, ‘all that is hard to manage is called σ., and he who
suffers it is called σ.’. The suffix -ρδ- and the final -α point to Pre-Greek
origin (see 3.2.3.103 and 3.3.1a). Cf. further σκαπερδεῦσαι (Hippon. 3, 3), acc.
to H. = λοιδορῆσαι ‘to rebuke’, acc. to Tz. An. Ox. 3, 351 = συμμαχῆσαι ‘to help,
assist’, καπαρδεῦσαι· μαντεύσασθαι ‘to draw divinations’ (H.), σκαρπαδεῦσαι·
κρῖναι ‘to separate, decide’ (H.), which, if cognate, further add variation in
the place of the ρ (cf. 2.5.12) and the alternations σ- / zero (2.3) and α / ε
(2.6.1.1a).
12.5 Divine and Numinous Beings, Priests and Temples

ἀκκώ, -οῦς [f.] ‘bogey’ (Plu. 2, 1040b), acc. to others (Zen. 1, 53) ‘vain woman’.
Note the geminate -κκ- and final -ώ (see 2.2a.25 and 3.3.1e).
Ἅρπυια [f.] usually plur. ‘the Harpies’, demons (Il.). Old dual Ἀρεπυίᾱ. The
variation ε / zero and the suffix -υια point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.5 and
3.2.3.118).
ἐσσήν, -ῆνος [m.] name of the priests of Artemis in Ephesus, also ‘prince, king’;
acc. to Hdn. Gr. 2, 923, 8 = οἰκιστής, acc. to em 383, 30 properly ‘king-bee’.
Nouns in -ην are discussed by Furnée (1972: 172118); see also 3.2.3.57 above.
ἥρως [m.] ‘lord, hero’ (Il.). Myc. ti-ri-se-ro-e /tris-ērōhes/. Not from ἡρωϝ-, as
previously assumed, because of the Mycenaean form. Probably a Pre-Greek
word; see 3.3.1e on the ending -ω(ς).
κήρ, κηρός [f.] ‘death, doom, goddess or demon of death’ (Il.), plur. ‘types of
138 chapter 6
death, accidents’. Also κᾱρ- (Alc., Alcm., H.). The most likely analysis is that
the long α is original, and that the ia development η spread over a large area.
Since there was no ie root *kār-, the most likely conclusion is that the word
is Pre-Greek. See Beekes (2003d: 7–10).
Κορύβαντες [m.pl.] ‘Corybantes’, priests of the Phrygian Cybele (E., Ar., Str.),
sg. Κορύβας· Ῥέας ἱερεύς (H.); also Κύρβαντες, sg. -ας (Pherecyd., S.). The
variations ο / υ (2.6.1.3c) and υ / zero (2.6.5) and the suffix -αντ- (3.2.3.23)
show that the word was originally Pre-Greek.
λείτωρ, -ορος [m.] ‘priest’ (post-class. Att. inscr.). Cf. ἀλήτωρ· ἱερεύς (H.). The
prothetic vowel seems to point to Pre-Greek (see 2.3). Further note the
variation ει / η and the suffix -ωρ (see 2.6.1.2f and 3.2.3.147).
νύμφη [f.] ‘bride, young lady’, also appellation of a goddess of lower rank,
‘nymph’ (Il.); also metaph., e.g. ‘pupa’. Dor. -ᾱ. Voc. -ᾰ (Γ 130; ap 14, 43). No
assured ie etymology. Therefore, νύμφη is rather a Pre-Greek word, perhaps
containing a prenasalized stop (see 2.5.2). The voc. in -ᾰ may be the old
nominative (cf. 3.3.1a).
ὄρυμος · βωμός. οἱ δέ ὄρυμβος ‘altar; others: ὄ.’ (H.). Clearly a Pre-Greek word in
view of the variation. For -υμ- and -υμβ-, see 3.2.3.124–125.
σάτυρος [m.] ‘Satyr’, mostly plur. as a designation of mythical beings, which
belong to the company of Dionysus and are often represented as (male) goats
(since Hes. Fr. 198, 2); metaphorically of apes with a tail (Paus., Ael.). For such
a mythical word, Pre-Greek origin is a priori likely, and this is corroborated
by the suffix -υρ- (see 3.2.3.133).
Σφίγξ, -ιγγός [f.] ‘sphinx’ (Hdt., A., E., etc.), also name of a monkey (Agatharch.
et al.). Further acc. Φῖκα [f.] (Hes. Th. 326, v.ll. Σφῖκα, Φίγγα, Σφίγγα), Σφίξ,
-ικός (Choerob.; also Thess. inscr. viia?); Βῖκας· Σφίγγας (H.). The s-mobile
(2.4), variations φ / β, γ / κ (2.5.1), prenasalization (2.5.2) and final -ιγγ-/-ῑκ-
(3.2.3.69, 3.2.3.74) point to Pre-Greek origin.
ψῡχή [f.] ‘aspiration, breath, life, vitality, soul (of the deceased), spirit’, also as a
representation of the dead, seen as a winged creature (ζῷον πτερωτόν) (Il.).
All attempts to find an ie etymology are unconvincing; therefore, the word
is rather of Pre-Greek origin. For ψ-, see 2.2a.23.
13 Adjectives Marking a Certain Quality
ἄβδελλον [adj.] · ταπεινόν ‘low, abased’ (H.). Hes. has ἄβελλον, which may be a
variant, with the variation β / βδ (see 2.5.5.1a). Further note the suffix -ελλ-
(see 3.2.3.43).
ἀβέρβηλον [adj.] · πολύ, ἐπαχθές, μέγα, βαρύ, ἀχάιστον, μάταιον ‘much, heavy or
burdensome, great, empty, rash’ (H.) Also ἀβύρβηλον. The variation ε / υ and
the suffix -ηλ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.2c and 3.2.3.56).
ἄγχραν [adj.] · μύωπα. Λοκροί ‘short-sighted (Locrian)’ (H.). Cf. ἄκαρον· τυφλόν
‘blind’ (H.). These forms show typical Pre-Greek variations: κ / χ and pre-
nasalization (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.2).
αἰπύς [adj.] ‘steep, sheer’ (Il., mostly epic and poet.). Furnée (1972: 158) connects
it with ἐξαίφνης and ἐξαπίνης, as well as αἶψα, ἄφνω and ἄφαρ (all in section
16 below), which is very convincing. Alternations π(ι) / φ and αι / α (see 2.5.1
and 2.6.1.1c), which point to Pre-Greek *apy-.
ἀκραιφνής, -ές [adj.] ‘unmixed, pure, sheer; untouched, inviolate’. Furnée (1972:
159) compares ἀκραπνής (em 531, 56 = Et. Gud. 338, 15), with the variations π /
φ, α / αι (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.1c).
ἄμοιος [adj.] · κακός. Σικελοί ‘bad (Sicilian)’ (H.). Given the plausible connec-
tion with σμοιός (see s.v. below), the initial displays the variations ἀ- / zero
(2.3) and σ- / zero (2.4), which are typical for Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972:
368).
ἀμυσχρός [adj.] ‘immaculate, pure’ (Parth.). Also ἀμυχρός (S. apud Phot., Suid.),
ἀμυχνός, ἀμυγνός, ἀμύσκαρος (Suid.); ἄμουχα· καθαρεύουσα. Λάκωνες ‘clean or
pure (Lacon.)’ (H.). ἀμυσχῆναι· καθᾶραι, ἁγνίσαι ‘to cleanse’ (H.). The variation
σκ / σχ / χ / γ (2.5.1, 2.5.5.3b) points to Pre-Greek origin. Also note the suffixes
-ν-, -ρ- (3.2.3.91, 3.2.3.101).
αὐτοκάβδαλος [adj.] ‘improvised, extempore’ (Arist.); also subst. plur. ‘buffoons,
improvisers’ (Eup.). Furnée (1972: 316) compares καυαλός· μωρολόγος (below),
with interchange βδ / β / ϝ (see 2.5.4 and 2.5.5.1a); the group -βδ- is almost cer-
tainly of substrate origin (see 2.2a.3).
ἀφαυρός [adj.] ‘weak’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 330) compares φαῦρος· κοῦφος ‘light’
(H.), φλαῦρος ‘indifferent, bad’ (with inserted λ?) and φαῦλος ‘insignificant’,
with a prothetic vowel (2.3) and ρ / λ (2.5.7c). I would suggest that ἀμαυρός /
μαυρός ‘hardly seen, dim, faint’ is also cognate, with interchange μ / labial
stop (see 2.5.4).
βάκηλος [adj.] · ὁ μέγας ‘big or great man’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 115) compares
βάγιον· μέγα (H.), with κ / γ (see 2.5.1). The suffix -ηλο- is well known in
βάναυσος, -ον [adj., m.] ‘of an artisan; artisan’; metaph. ‘vulgar’ (ia). The struc-
ture of the word is Pre-Greek. On -σος, see 3.2.3.107. See also βανωτός ‘vase
used as a measure’ (section 9.2 above).
βδελυρός [adj.] ‘disgusting, loathsome’ (Ar.). Pre-Greek in view of the cluster βδ
and the suffix -υρ- (see 2.2a.3 and 3.2.3.133). A suffix -υκ- is found in βδελυκτός
etc. (see 3.2.3.119).
βεβρός [adj.] ‘stupid’ (Hippon. 40 Masson); ψυχρός, τετυφωμένος ‘cold/stupid,
140 chapter 6
stupid’ (H.). Also βεμβρός· τετυφωμένος, πάρετος ‘stupid, relaxed’ (H.). The
prenasalized form indicates Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2).
βλαισός [adj.] ‘bent, distorted’ (Hp.). Also πλαισός (Phot.). The variation β / π
βριτύ [adj.] · γλυκύ. Κρῆτες ‘sweet (Cret.)’ (H.). A variant βρυ- is found in Βρυ-
τόμαρτις, a variant of Βριτόμαρτις, epithet of Artemis on Crete, which means
‘dulcis virgo’ = ‘sweet maiden’ acc. to Solin. 11, 8 (see s.v. in section 18 below).
The variation ι / υ points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.4).
γρῡπός [adj.] ‘hook-nosed, curved’ (Pl.). Cf. γρῡ́ψ, -πός ‘griffin, lammergeier’, with
γρυβός· γρύψ (H.), which may prove a Pre-Greek alternation of stops (see
2.5.1). The nasal in γρυμπαίνειν· γρυποῦσθαι, συγκάμπτειν ‘bend together’ (H.)
could be a Pre-Greek prenasalization (see 2.5.2).
εὔοχθος [adj.] epithet of δαῖτες (B. Fr. 18, 4), βορά (E. Ion 1169), γῆ (Hom. Epigr.
7, 2), perhaps ‘rich, luxuriant, fruitful’. Furnée (1972: 127) connects ὄχθος with
ἀκτή ‘corn’ (section 5.1 above), which is quite acceptable; the variations κτ /
χθ and α / ο are frequent in Pre-Greek words (see 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.1b).
ἠλεός [adj.] ‘distraught, crazed’ (Il.). ἀλεός (-αι- cod.)· ὁ μάταιος, ἄφρων. Αἰσχύλος
‘foolish’ (H.). ἠλίθιος ‘idle, vain, foolish’. The variants ἠλεός, ἀλαιός point to a
noun with the pg suffix *-ay-(os), with *ay > *ey > *e (see 3.2.3.7). Moreover,
the suffix -ιθ- is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.72).
θαλυκρός [adj.] ‘warm, glowing’ (Call. Fr. anon. 69, ap 5, 219), in H. = ἰταμόν, λαμ-
πρόν, βλοσυρόν, ἀναιδές, πανοῦργον ‘rash, splendid, hairy, shameless, knavish’,
with θαλυκρέονται· ψεύδονται ‘they are deceived’ (H.). Cf. θάλπω (section 15
below). Both θάλπ- and θαλύκ- can be explained as from Pre-Greek *tal-ukw-;
in θαλυκρός we have retention of k after u. See 2.5.6 for the labiovelar and
3.2.3.119 for the suffix -υκ-.
-θελυμνος [adj.] in προ-θέλυμνος, epithet of δένδρεα (I 541), of χαῖται (K 15), of
σάκος (N 130); post-Hom. of various objects (δρῦς, καρήατα). Krahe (1939: 181)
thinks the word is Pre-Greek. This is without a doubt correct, because of the
suffix -υμνος (see 3.2.3.126).
θιβρός [adj.] meaning uncertain (only in Alexandrian poets); epithet of Κύπρις
(Call. Fr. 267), of Σεμίραμις (Euph. 81), of ὤεα χελύνης (Nic. Al. 555), and of
ὀφίων κῆρ ‘snake-poison’ (Nic. Th. 35). Also θιμβρός (Nic. Th. 35 v.l.), with
prenasalization, which points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.2).
ἴφθιμος [adj.] ‘powerful, strong, vigilant’ (Hom., Theoc., D. P.). The word is
non-ie and therefore probably Pre-Greek, just as Furnée (1972: 318) assumes
(following Ruijgh 1957: 1553). This is confirmed by the structure of the word,
which includes a suffix consisting of a long vowel and a consonant (see 3.2.2).
κάγκανος [adj.] ‘arid, barren’ (Il.). Because of the root structure (nasal and
a-vocalism), the word is suspect of Pre-Greek origin. Also note the suffix
-αν- (see 3.2.3.19). The words usually compared mean ‘hunger, pain’, and not
primarily ‘arid, dry’.
κάδαμος [adj.] · τυφλός. Σαλαμίνιοι ‘blind (Salamis)’ (H.). One gets the impression
of a Pre-Greek word (a-vocalism), and it is preferable to abandon attempts
at an inner-Greek or Indo-European etymology. Note the suffix -αμ- (see
3.2.3.18).
καθαρός [adj.] ‘clean, spotless, pure, unmixed, white (of bread, linen)’ (Il.). Dor.
κοθαρός, Aeol. κόθαρος. Pre-Greek in view of the variation α / ο and the suffix
-αρ- (see 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.28).
καρπάλιμος [adj.] ‘swift, eager’ (Il., h. Merc. 225, Ar. Th. 957 [lyr.], A. R.), epithet of
πόδες, of γένυες (Pi. P. 12, 20). A first syllable καρπ- can hardly be of ie origin.
The structure of the word is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.2).
κάρχαρος [adj.] ‘biting, sharp, raw’ (Alcm. 140, Lyc., Opp.). κάρκαροι· τραχεῖς
‘coarse, rough’ (H.). The variation κ / χ and the suffix -αρ- point to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.28).
καυαλός · μωρολόγος ‘speaking foolishly’ (H.). Cf. κόβαλος ‘rogue, mischievous
knave’ (below), κόαλοι· βάρβαροι ‘foreigners’ (H.), κοάλεμος ‘blockhead’ (both
in section 11.3 above). Pre-Greek in view of the variations β / υ / zero (2.5.4),
α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and the suffixes -αλ- (3.2.3.15) and -εμ- (3.2.3.44).
κίνδαξ [adj.] · εὐκίνητος ‘easily moved’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 291) compares σκίναξ
(section 4.2 above), implying that the word is Pre-Greek, with the variations
σ- / zero (see 2.3) and νδ / ν (cf. Kuiper 1956: 216). Also note the suffix -ακ-
(see 3.2.3.13). This nicely illustrates that some forms of substrate words may
closely resemble inherited material.
κλαδαρός [adj.] ‘invalid, infirm’, of δοράτια (Plb. 6, 25, 5; beside λεπτά), of κάμακες
(ap 9, 322 beside ἄκλαστοι; v.l. κλαμαραί), of γραμμὴ ζωηφόρος (in palmistry,
Cat. Cod. Astr. 7, 241). May be related to κλάδος ‘branch, twig, sprout’, κραδάω
‘to swing, brandish’, κράδαλοι· κλάδοι ‘branches’ (H.). The interchange ρ / λ
then suggests that these words are Pre-Greek (see 2.5.7c). Also note the suffix
-αρ- (see 3.2.3.28).
κλαμβός [adj.] ‘cocked, cropped’ (of ὦτα, Hippiatr.). The word has a typically
Pre-Greek appearance; cf. κραμβός, σκαμβός (both below).
κόβᾱλος [subst., adj.] ‘rogue, mischievous knave’, also (parodic) of mischievous
genies (Ar., Arist., D. C.). The word is Pre-Greek in view of the suffix (3.2.3.15)
and the variants κόαλοι, κοάλεμος (both in section 11.3) and καυαλός (above).
κολοβός [adj.] ‘curtailed, maimed, short’ (Pl., X., Arist., Hell.). Since the suffix
-οβ- cannot be explained in ie terms, the word is probably Pre-Greek; see
3.2.2 on the structure of Pre-Greek suffixes. See also κύλληβις below and
σκολύπτειν in section 15.
κράμβος [adj.] = καπυρός, ξηρός ‘loud or clear, dry’, of sounds (Ar. Eq. 539,
142 chapter 6
H., Suid.). κρομβότατον· καπυρώτατον. κατακεκονδυλωμένον ‘very dry, swollen’

(H.), with the variation α / ο (2.6.1.1b). Furnée (1972: 238) further compares
κραῦρος ‘dry, frail, fragile’ (below), assuming it is a form without prenasal-
ization and with u̯ for β (see 2.5.2 and 2.5.4). In view of these variations, the
word is without a doubt Pre-Greek.
κραῦρος [adj.] ‘dry, brittle, fragile’ (Pl., Arist., Thphr.). A Pre-Greek variant of
κράμβος (above), with interchange ϝ / β (2.5.4) and prenasalization (2.5.2).
κύλληβις · κολοβόν[τα]. οἱ δὲ τὰ κέρατα κολόβια παρ’ Ἰππώνακτι ‘short horns’ (Fr.
122); κυληβίς· κολοβή ‘curtailed’ (H.). The words κυλ(λ)ηβις· κολοβ- display the
typical Pre-Greek variations λ / λλ (2.5.8) and υ / ο (2.6.1.3c). Also note the
suffix -ηλ- (3.2.3.56). Cf. s.v. κολοβός above.
κύμβαχος [adj., subst.] 1. adjectival, ‘falling head-first’ (E 586; imitated by Call.,
Lyc.); 2. substantival, probably ‘crest of a helmet’ (O 536). Kuiper (1956: 213f.)
started from κύμβη, κύβη ‘head’ (section 7.1 above), κυβιστάω ‘to tumble
head-first’ (section 15 below): these forms in κυβ- without prenasalization
show that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2). Further note the suffix -αχ- (see
3.2.3.34).
λαίθαργος [adj.] ‘guileful, treacherous’, of dogs which bite unexpectedly (S.
Fr. 885, Orac. apud Ar. Eq. 1068); also λαιθάργῳ ποδί (Trag. Adesp. 227),
explained by H. as λαθραίῳ. λάθαργοι· κύνες κρυφίως δάκνοντες ‘dogs that bite
unexpectedly’ (H.). Cf. λήθαργος ‘forgetful, lethargic’ (section 7.2 above). The
variation αι / α, η points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1i).
λαμυρός [adj.] ‘voracious, avaricious, eager, coquettish’ (X., com., Hell.). Pre-
Greek in view of the suffix -υρ- (see 3.2.3.133) and the variant λαφύσσω ‘to
swallow’ with interchange μ / φ (see 2.5.1); see Furnée (1972: 225). Cf. λαιμός
‘throat’ (section 7.1 above).
λατραβός [adj.] · λαμυρός ‘gluttonous, lascivious’ (H.). Cf. λατραπία· λαμυρία μετὰ
ἐρυθριάσεως ‘voluptuousness with blushing’ (H.). The forms with λατραβ/π-
are clearly Pre-Greek, because of the interchange (see 2.5.1) and the suffix
(see 3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.26).
λέχριος [adj.] ‘slanting, crosswise’ (S., E., X.). Variants λικριφίς ‘crosswise side-
ways’; λικροί· οἱ ὄζοι τῶν ἐλαφείων κεράτων ‘the branches of the antlers of deer’
(H.), with a variant λεκροί; λί(γ)ξ· πλάγιος ‘sideways, athwart, etc.’ (H.). The
forms λεκροί / λικροί, λικριφίς and λί(γ)ξ display typical Pre-Greek alterna-
tions: ε / ι (2.6.1.2b), κ / χ (2.5.1) and prenasalization (2.5.2).
λιπερνής, -ητος [adj.] mg. uncertain, perhaps ‘poor, deserted, orphaned’ (Archil.
50 [πολῖται], bch 11, 161 [Caria], gloss.). λιπερνοῦντας· πενιχρούς ‘poor, needy’
(Suid.), which has a variant λιφερνοῦντας (J. aj 2, 5, 5). The variation π / φ and
the suffix -ρν- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.104).
λίσπος [adj.] probably ‘smooth, polished, flat’ (Ar. Ra. 826, of γλῶσσα); αἱ λίσπαι
as a word for the halfs of a dice, used by two friends as a tally (Pl. Smp. 193a),
also οἱ λίσποι (Suid.). Also λίσφος, λέσφος, with the variations ε / ι (2.6.1.2b)
and π / φ (2.5.1).
μάκαρ [adj.] epithet of gods and men, ‘happy, blissful’ (Il.). Also μάκᾱρ. Probably
Pre-Greek, because its formation is isolated within Greek, and because of the
interchange -αρ/-ᾱρ (see 2.6.2). The suffix in which the variation occurs also
μακεδνός [adj.] ‘tall, slim’, of trees, etc. (η 106, Nic., Lyc.); also name of a people
related to the Dorians (Hdt.). The variants Μακεδόνες, Μακηδών, Μακέτης
‘Macedonian(s)’, with the variations δ / τ (2.5.1) and ε / η (2.6.1.2i), suggest
Pre-Greek origin, as do the suffixes -εδ- (3.2.3.39) and -ν- (3.2.3.91).
μαλθακός [adj.] ‘weak, tender, soft, mild’ (P 588, also Hp., Pl.). Aeol. μόλθακος
(Alc.). μαλθ- cannot be explained from ie *mldh-, as this would give **βλαθ-.
The variation α / ο rather points to substrate origin (see 2.6.1.1b). The same
goes for the suffix -ακ- and, if μαλθάζω is old, its variant *-αγ- (see 2.5.1, 3.2.3.2
and 3.2.3.13).
μάργος [adj.] ‘mad, furious, greedy’ (Od.). Also μόργος· ἄπληστος ‘greedy’ (H.);
ἄβαρκνα· λιμός ‘hunger, famine’ (H.), which points to *ἄβαρκος. ἄβαρτος·
ἄπληστος, οἱ δὲ ἄμαργος (H.). μέργιζε· ἀθρόως ἔσθιε ‘eat at once!’ (H.). The many
variations are typical for Pre-Greek words: prothetic vowel (2.3), κ / γ (2.5.1),
μ / β (2.5.4), α / ε (2.6.1.1a), α / ο (2.6.1.1b).
μέρμερος [adj.] conventional epithet of unclear mg. (acc. to H. μέρμερα = χαλεπά,
δεινά, φροντίδος ἄξια ‘difficult, awesome, worthy of thought’); apparently a
reduplicated intensive formation. If related to μέριμνα ‘care, concern’ (with
the Pre-Greek suffix -ιμν-, see 3.2.3.77), we may assume an original mg. ‘rais-
ing concern’, whence ‘distressful, dreadful’ vel sim. (?), beside ‘pondering,
caring’, of persons. μέρμηραι [f.pl.] ‘cares, concerns’, μερμηρίζω ‘to care, med-
itate, invent, consider, linger’. The variation ε / η points to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.6.1.2i).
μῑκρός [adj.] ‘small, short, little’ (E 801, γ 296, trag., Att.). Also σμικρός, μικκός
(Dor. Boeot.), μικός. The group of words has a familiar and colloquial aspect,
as is shown by the variants. The variations σμ- / μ- (2.4) and κ / κκ (2.5.8)
μιλ(λ)ός [adj.] · βραδύς, χαῦνος ‘slow, loose, spongy; frivolous’ (H.), cf. ἀργός·
μιλός, βραδύς and νωχέλεια ‘slowness’· … μιλότης (-ώτις cod.) (H.), νωχελής·
ὁ μιλός, βραδύς, ἄχρηστος ‘useless; ineffective’ (H.). The variation λ / λλ points
to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.8).
μολοβρός [subst., adj.] scornful or ignominious qualification, referring to Odys-
seus, who has not yet been identified, by the goat-herd Melanthos and the
beggar Iros (ρ 219, σ 26; after this Lyc. 775); also of the head (κεφαλή) of a
144 chapter 6
plant in unknown mg. (Nic. Th. 662). Myc. mo-ro-qo-ro /mologwros/. The for-
mation of the word is Pre-Greek; cf. e.g. κολόβριον (s.v. κόλαβρος in section
12.3 above).
μύδος [adj.] · ἄφωνος (H.). Also μύνδος, with prenasalization (see 2.5.2).
μύκλος [adj.] ‘lascivious, lewd’ (Archil. 183 as a pn, Lyc. 771, H.), as epithet of the
pack mule (Lyc. 816), also name of the ass itself? (PTeb. 409, 7, ip; written
μοικ-, reading very uncertain). Acc. to H., μύκλοι or μύκλαι are ‘black stripes
at the neck and feet of the ass’; acc. to em 594, 18 and sch. Lyc. 771, μύκλος
is ‘a fold on the ass’s neck’. μυχλός, a Phocaean name of a stallion ass acc.
to H., but also = σκολιός, ὀχευτής, λάγνης, μοιχός, ἀκρατής ‘twisted, someone
lewd, lecherous, adulterer, not in control’; cf. also μύσκλοι· σκολιοί (H.). The
variation κ / χ / σκ is typical for Pre-Greek words (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.5.3b).
νωχελής [adj.] ‘slow, dull, sluggish’ (Hp., S., E., Hell. epic). Also νωχαλής (νωφ-
cod.)· νωθρός ‘id.’ (H.), νωχαλίζει· βραδύνει ‘to make slow, delay’ (H.). Furnée
(1972: 133) compares νῶκαρ ‘lethargy’ (section 7.2 above). The variations κ / χ
(2.5.1), α / ε (2.6.1.1a) and the suffixes -α/ελ- (3.2.3.15, 3.2.3.42) and -αρ (3.2.3.27)
ὄβριμος [adj.] ‘strong, mighty’ (Il.). Also ὄμβριμος. βριμός· μέγας, χαλεπός ‘huge,
hard’ (H.). The variation ὀβρι- / βρι- points to Pre-Greek origin (Furnée 1972:
246, etc.), as does the prenasalization (see 2.3 and 2.5.2).
παρδακός [adj.] ‘wet, damp’ (Archil., Semon., Ar. Pax 1148); πάρταξον (-ζον cod.)·
ὕγρανον. Λάκωνες ‘wetting’ (?) (H.). V.ll. πορ-, -δοκός. The variations δ / τ and
α / ο and the suffix -ακ- show that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1, 2.6.1.1b and
3.2.3.13).
πινυτός [adj.] ‘intelligent, sensible, reasonable, prudent, rational’ (Od.). Variant
forms are πνυτός· ἔμφρων, σώφρων ‘sensible, reasonable’ (H.), frequent in
Cypr. pns, e.g. Πνυτ-αγόρας. The variation πινυτ- / πνυτ- must reflect the
varying rendering of a palatalized cluster, viz. *pynut- (cf. Beekes 2008: 51).
ῥαδινός [adj.] ‘taper, bendable, slender’ (epic since Ψ 583). βράδινος (Sapph.);
ῥοδανός epithet of δονακεύς (Σ 576; v.ll. ῥαδινός, ῥαδαλός); βραδανίζει· ῥιπίζει,
τινάσσει ‘bursts, shakes’ (H.). The variation *u̯ rad- / *u̯ rod- shows that ῥαδινός
is a Pre-Greek word (see 2.6.1.1b).
ῥαιβός [adj.] ‘crooked, bent inward’, especially of legs (Arist.). A variant of
ῥάμφος (see s.v. in section 4.3 above). Prenasalization (2.5.2) and variation
α / αι (2.6.1.1c).
σαβακός [adj.] ‘damaged, rotten’, of inner organs (Hp.), ‘effeminate, womanish’
(ap), = ὁ σαθρός. Χῖοι ‘unsound (Chios)’ (H.). σαβάξας· διασκεδάσας, διασα-
λεύσας ‘scattering through, shaking through’ (H.); fem. σαβακτίδες· ὀστράκινα
ζῴδια ‘earthen figures’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 241) connects σαυκόν· ξηρόν. Συρα-
κόσιοι ‘dry; lean’ (H.), cf. s.v. below. The variation β / υ very strongly sug-
gests Pre-Greek origin for this word (see 2.5.4). Also note the suffix -ακ- (see
3.2.3.13).
σαθρός [adj.] ‘unsound, broken, broke; unhealthy, weak’ (ia). Furnée (1972: 196)
connects ψαθυρός ‘brittle’ (see s.v. below) and ψαιδρά· ἀραιότριχα ‘with thin
hair’ (H.), and concludes that the word is Pre-Greek in view of the variations
ψ- / σ- (2.5.13), α / αι (2.6.1.1c) and θ / δ (2.5.1). Cf. also ψαθάλλω (section 15
below).
σαλός [adj.] ‘foolish’ (H. s.v. ὑσθλός, sch. Ar. Nu. 397). Also δαλός (Cyr.) and
*ζαλός; the latter is seen in the derivative ζαλαίνω (H.). The variation in the
initial (σ- / ζ- / δ-) proves Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.9a). The root can be
reconstructed as *tyal-.
σαυκόν [adj.] · ξηρόν. Συρακούσιοι ‘dry (Syracusian)’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 110, 134,
229, 241) convincingly compares σαυχμόν· σαχνόν, χαῦνον, σαθρόν, ἀσθενές (H.),
σαβακός ‘weak, moldered, smashed’, and σαβακῶς· αὐστηρῶς, ξηρῶς, τραχέως
(H.) with σαβάξας· διασκεδάσας, διασαλεύσας (H.). From the variation σαυ- /
σαβ- it follows that the word is Pre-Greek (see 2.5.4). Cf. s.vv. σαβακός above
and σαυκρόν, σαχνός below.
σαυκρόν [adj.] · ἁβρόν, ἐλαφρόν, ἄκρον ‘delicate, light, highest’; σαυκρόποδες· ἁβρό-
ποδες ‘delicate-footed’ (H.). In H. also σαυχμόν· σαχνόν, χαῦνον, σαθρόν, ἀσθε-
νές ‘tender, porous, unsound, feeble’; with ψ-: ψαυκρός· καλλωπιστής, ταχύς,
ἐλαφρός, ἀραιός ‘dandy, swift, light, thin’; ψαυκρὸν γόνυ· κοῦφον ‘light’, ψαυκρό-
ποδα· κουφόποδα ‘light-footed’. The combination of σαυκρός with ψαυκρός and
σαυχμός (cf. s.v. σαυκόν above) shows that the word is Pre-Greek; note the
variations κ / χ and ψ- / σ- (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.13) and the suffixes -μ- and -ρ-
(see 3.2.3.90 and 3.2.3.101).
σαῦλος [adj.] poetical adjective of unclear and varying meaning, referring to
walking and movement (Treu 1955: 253 and 295): σαῦλα βαίνειν h. Merc. 28
(of a tortoise), Anacr. 168 (Bacchantes), Semon. 18 (horse), σαῦλαι Βασσαρίδες
(Anacr. 55), explained by H. with κοῦφα, ἥσυχα, τρυφερά ‘light, quiet, dainty’
and with ἁβρόν, κοῦφον, ἄκρον, τρυφερόν ‘delicate, light, highest, dainty’; acc.
to sch. Ar. V. 1169 = τὸ φαῦλον καὶ διερρυηκός, so ‘light, dainty, delicate, pranc-
ing’ vel sim.? The word σαῦλος presumably belongs to the Pre-Greek group
σαβ-/σαυ- (see σαβακός, σαυκόν and σαυκρόν above).
σαχνός [adj.] ‘tender, mellow’, of κρέα (Gal.). Also σακνός, MGr. and MoGr. ψαχνός
‘thin’, σαχρός ‘id.’. The variations σ- / ψ- (2.5.13) and -κ- / -χ- (2.5.1) point to
Pre-Greek origin. Also note σαυχμόν· σαχνόν (H.), which presents a variation
α / αυ (2.6.1.1d); cf. s.vv. σαυκόν, σαυκρόν above.
σιφλός [adj.] describing physical and psychological defects, ‘crippled, lame’ vel
sim. (πόδα σιφλός A. R.), ‘blinded, foolish’ (Γλαῦκος, Eleg. Alex. Adesp. 1, 2; of
fishes Opp.); also ‘porous, hollow’ (νάρθηξ, Eust.). We also find σιφνός· κενός
146 chapter 6
‘empty, void, bereft’ (H.), σιφνύει· κενοῖ ‘empties’ (H.). More importantly, we
find σιπαλός ‘blinded(?), maimed(?)’ (Call. Fr. anon. 106, H., Eust.), with the
variation φ / π (2.5.1).
σκαμβός [adj.] ‘crooked, bandy-legged’ (lxx, Hell. pap., Gal.). σκάμβυκες· σκό-
λοπες, χάρακες ‘pointed object, stake’ (H.), σκαμβάλυξ· σκαμβός, στρεβλός
‘crooked, twisted’ (H.). This word cannot be separated from σκιμβός ‘lame’
(see s.v. below), and the variation σκαμβ- / σκιμβ- as well as the derivatives
with the non-ie suffixes -υκ- (3.2.3.119) and -αλ- (3.2.3.15) point to a Pre-Greek
origin of this word.
σκιδαρόν [adj.] · ἀραιόν ‘thin’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 368) connects ἀ-κιδνός, which
has ἀ- instead of σ-. This looks like a Pre-Greek variation (see 2.3 and 2.4).
Also note the suffixes -αρ- and -ν- (see 3.2.3.28 and 3.2.3.91).
σκιμβός [adj.] = χωλός, σκαμβός ‘lame, crooked’ (H., sch. Ar. Nu. 254). A variant
of σκαμβός (see s.v. above). May be further related to σκίψαι· ὀκλάσαι. Ἀχαιοί
‘to squat (Achaean)’ (H.), which points to prenasalization (2.5.2); κιμβάζει·
στραγγεύεται (στρατ- cod.) ‘to loiter’ (H.), with the variation σ- / zero (2.4);
ὀκιμβάζειν· διατρίβειν καὶ στραγγεύεσθαι (στρατ- cod.) ‘to wear away, loiter’ (H.,
Phot.), with a prothetic vowel (2.3).
σμοιός [adj.] meaning doubtful; see below (Hdn. Gr., H., Theognost.). Also σμυός,
μοιός (H.) = χαλεπός, φοβερός, στυγνός, σκυθρωπός ‘difficult, fearful, hated,
sad- or angry-looking’. It is probably related to ἄμοιος (cf. s.v. above), which
adds yet another variant for the initial: σμ- / ἄμ- / μ-. This variation points to
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3 and 2.4).
σπανός [adj.] ‘grey’ (pap.). Furnée (1972: 339) connects σπάνις; see s.v. in section
14 below.
στρεβλός [adj.] ‘turned, twisted, crooked, cunning’ (ia). Var. στρόβῑλος [m.] ‘top,
whirlwind, whirlpool, fir-cone’. Cf. στροβέω [v.] ‘to turn around in circles,
move violently, distract’; στρόμβος [m.] ‘top’ (Ξ 413), ‘whirlwind’; στραβός
‘squinting’; στραβαλός· ὁ στρογγυλίας καὶ τετράγωνος ἄνθρωπος; στροῖβος· δῖνος
‘whirl, rotation’ (H.) (cod. στροιβός· δεινός). The variant with prenasalization
and the occurence with the suffixes -αλ- and -ιλ- point to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.2, 3.2.3.15 and 3.2.3.75). The group is reminiscent of στρέφω ‘to twist,
turn’ (section 15 below), which adds the variation β / φ (see 2.5.1).
στρογγύλος [adj.] ‘round, spherical, compact’ (ia). Pre-Greek in view of the
suffix -υλ- (see 3.2.3.121).
φαλικρόν [adj.] · ἄκρατον ‘unmixed, pure’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 389) compares χάλις
‘unblended wine’ (see s.v. in section 5.2 above). The connection points to a
labiovelar (see 2.5.6). The Pre-Greek element -ικρ- (see 3.2.3.73 and 3.2.3.101)
is also found in the compar. χαλικρότερος.
φαλός [adj.] · λευκός (H.). Various derivatives, e.g. φαλιός ‘bright, white-spotted’,
φάληρος, -ᾱρος ‘white-spotted’, φαλακρός ‘bald-headed’ (with φαλάκρα ‘bare

hill’, tn Φαλάκρα(ι), -άκριον), φάλανθος ‘bald-headed’. Apart from Pre-Greek
suffixes (see 3.2.3.14, 3.2.3.23 and 3.2.3.28), the derivatives present various
variants, notably βαλιός ‘spotted, dappled’, tn Βάλαγρος, -άγραι and φαλαντ-
(e.g. φαλάντωμα ‘bare spot’), with the interchanges φ / β, τ / θ, κ / γ (see 2.5.1).
This clearly indicates that the whole group is of Pre-Greek origin (cf. Furnée
1972: 192 and s.v. φαλακρός in section 7.1 above).
φαῦλος [adj.] ‘bad, unfit, ill, mean, poor, etc.’ (ia). The word is reminiscent of
ἀφαυρός ‘weak, powerless’; see s.v. above.
φοῖνιξ, -ῑκος [subst., adj.] ‘(the color) purple’ (Hom. etc.); as an appellative or
adjective (fem. also -ισσα) ‘sorrel’ or ‘red-colored’, of a horse (Ψ 454), ‘purple,
dark-red, tawny’, of cattle, fire, clothes, etc. (Pi., Simon., E., Theoc.). Cf. φοινός
‘red’ and the en Φοίνῑκες. The suffix -ῑκ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see
3.2.3.74).
φόλυες κύνες · οἵ πυρροὶ ὄντες μέλανα στόματα εἶχον ‘red ones, having a black
mouth’ (H.); Gennadius (1926: 42f.) connects the word with φολίς ‘scale of a
reptile, spots on an animal skin’ and proposes to read στίγματα for στόματα:
“dogs of a yellow-red coat spotted with black”. Furnée (1972: 228) connects
φολύνει· μολύνει ‘stains, defiles’, which would mean that the word is Pre-Greek
(see 2.5.4).
φοξός [adj.] ‘sharp, pointed’ (B 219 of the head of Thersites, Arist., ap etc.).
Furnée (1972: 393) connects φοῦσκος· ὀξυκέφαλος (H.), with the variations ξ /
σκ and ο / ου and (see 2.5.5.6b and 2.6.1.3d).
φορκόν [adj.] · λευκόν, πολιόν, ῥυσόν ‘white, grey, wrinkled’ (H.). Cf. the pns
Φόρκος = Φόρκυς, with a variant Πόρκος (see 2.5.1). May also be related to
φαρκίς ‘wrinkle’ (see 2.6.1.1b). At any rate, definitely Pre-Greek (cf. Furnée
1972: 157).
χλεμερόν [adj.] · χλιαρόν, θερμόν ‘warm, hot’; χλεμύρα· χλοανθοῦντα ‘verdant’ (H.).
The word seems Pre-Greek; note the suffix -ερ- (3.2.3.48).
ψαθυρός [adj.] ‘loose, brittle, friable’ (medic., Arist., Thphr.). Also ψαθαρά· εὔθλα-
στα, σαθρά, ξηρά, ἀσθενῆ, ψαθυρά ‘easily bruised, weak, dry, weak, loose’ and
ψαδυρόν· ἀσθενές, μαδαρόν, ψαθυρόν ‘weak, wet, loose’ (H.). Pre-Greek in view
of the variation θ / δ (2.5.1) and the suffixes -υρ- (3.2.3.133) and -αρ- (3.2.3.28).
See also σαθρός above and ψαθάλλω in section 15 below.
148 chapter 6
14 Abstract Expressions
ἀπάτη [f.] ‘fraud, deceit’ (Il.). Note the Pre-Greek suffix -ατ- (3.2.3.31). Furnée
(1972: 234f.) connected ἄτη ‘bewilderment, blindness, delusion’ < *ἀϝάτη,
with the substrate variation π / ϝ (see 2.5.4), which is possible but not com-
pelling. His comparison with ἀπαφεῖν ‘to deceive’ (whose substrate origin is
shown by the variant ἀποφεῖν and the suffix -αφ-, see 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.33)
is attractive, as this has the same meaning. If ἠπερ-οπ-εύω ‘cheat, deceive’
(section 11.3 above) is cognate, note the suffix -οπ-, which is also a substrate
element (Beekes 1995/6: 18–25 and 3.2.3.93 above).
βλάβη [f.] ‘damage’. Cretan ἀβλοπές· ἀβλαβές (H.), ἀβλοπία = ἀβλάβεια. The
interchanges α / ο (2.6.1.1b) and β / π (2.5.1) are typical for Pre-Greek.
γάνδος [m.] · ὁ πολλὰ εἰδὼς καὶ πανοῦργος. τίνες δὲ γάδος ‘a villain who knows
much; some authors have γάδος’ (H.). Cf. γάσος· ὁ ἀπατέων. ὁ πολλὰ εἰδὼς καὶ
πανοῦργος (H.). Prenasalization and variation δ / σ (see 2.5.2 and 2.5.5.9a).
θάμβος [n.] ‘amazement, fright’ (Il.). Also θάπος, τάφος. Cf. perf. τέθηπα ‘I am
perplexed’, aor. ταφεῖν. The variation θαπ- / ταφ- / θαμβ- (with Pre-Greek
prenasalization), to which *θαϝ- in θαῦμα (below), etc. also belong, cannot
be ie, but is rather Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1, 2.5.2 and 2.5.4).
θαῦμα [n.] ‘wonder, astonishment’ (Il.). Also θῶμα, with αυ / ω (see 2.6.1.1h).
The word θαῦμα belongs to the group of θάμβος, τέθηπα, etc. with Pre-Greek
labial / ϝ (see 2.5.4). See θάμβος above.
θέα [f.] ‘sight, aspect, spectacle’ (ia). From *θᾱϝᾱ. No ie cognates; the word is
Pre-Greek, as is proven by the variations (see θαῦμα and θάμβος above).
θόρυβος [m.] ‘noise, crying, tumult, confusion’ (Pi., ia). Cf. the reduplicated form
τον-θορύ-ζω ‘to speak inarticulately, mumble’ (see Tichy 1983: 215 f.; cf. s.v.
in section 15 below), τόνθρυς· φωνή ‘voice’ (H.). Perhaps θρῡ-λέω ‘to make a
confused noise, babble’, θρῦ-λος ‘murmur’ also belong here. The variation
θορυβ- (from *tarup-?), τον-θρυ-, θρυ(λ)- suggests a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.2
and 2.6.5). Also note the suffix -υβ- (see 3.2.3.113).
ἰάλεμος [m.] ‘lament, dirge’ (trag. [lyr.], Theoc.), ‘tedious, dull person’, also
adjectival ‘slow’ (Hell.). ἰήλεμος (on the distribution Björck 1950: 16). For the
formation cf. κοάλεμος (section 11.3 above); the suffixes -αλ- and -εμ- point to
Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.15 and 3.2.3.44).
κίνδυνος [m.] ‘danger, risk’ (Thgn., Pi., ia; on the mg. Mette 1952: 409 ff.). On
κίνδυνος = ἡ ἐν πρῴρα σελίς ‘bench in the prow of a ship’ (H.), whence MoGr.
(Naxos) ‘bed’, see Andriotis (1936: 19f.). The Pre-Greek character is clear in
view of the ending -ῡν- (3.2.3.127) in κίνδῡν (Alc., Sapph.), with its long ῡ, as
seen by Kuiper (1956: 217).
κόβακτρα [n.pl.] · κολακεύματα, πανουργήματα ‘pieces of flattery, knavery’ (H.).
κάβαξ· πανοῦργος ‘crafty, knavish’ (H.). The element κα/οβ-ακ- is clearly Pre-
Greek (see 2.6.1.1b and 3.2.3.13).
λάτρον [n.] ‘payment, hire’ (A. Supp. 1011), = μισθός (Suid., em). There is no
convincing ie connection. Pre-Greek origin is likely. Note the suffix -ρ- (see
3.2.3.101).
λυκάβας, -αντος [m.] attested since τ 306 = ξ 161, A. R. 1. 198, Bion Fr. 15: 15;
grave-epigrams (imperial period) from Arcadia and Ionia. Time-indication
of uncertain mg., usually explained as ‘year’ and used in this sense by later
authors, who seem all to be based on τ 306; acc. to Leumann (1950: 2124)
rather ‘new moon’ (against this Ruijgh 1957: 147). The supposed Arcadian
origin (ab) probably refers to the late Arcadian inscriptions, see Leumann
(1950: 273). Also acc. -βαν, further λυκαμας (inscr. Amorgos). The variant with
μ and the suffixes -αβ- and -αντ- clearly point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.4,
3.2.3.1 and 3.2.3.23).
μόχθος [m.] ‘exertion, difficulty, distress, misery’ (Hes. Sc., Pi., trag., mostly
poet.). When compared with synonymous μόγος, μογέω (see s.v. in section
15 below), the words show a variation γ / χθ, which must be Pre-Greek (see
2.5.1 and 2.5.5.1b). Furnée (1972: 319f., 388) connects μοττίας· ᾧ στρέφουσι τῶν
ῥυτήρων τὸν ἄξονα ‘by which one turns the ἄξων of the reins’ (H.) as Cretan
for *μοκτίας.
ὀλαιτοί [m.pl.] · σπερμολόγοι ‘gossip’. καὶ ὀλατοί (H.). Also ὄλαιτος. Clearly a
Pre-Greek word in view of the variation αι / α (see 2.6.1.1c).
ὄλβος [m.] ‘prosperity, blessed state, wealth, happiness’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: 155)
connects ὄλπα· χόνδρου τις ἕψησις. ἔδεσμά τι ‘cooking of groats, kind of food’.
ἤ ὄλβος (H.); if the gloss is cognate, it must be Pre-Greek (see 2.5.1), which is
certainly a good possibility. See also οὐλαί in section 5.1 above.
σπάνις, -εως [f.] ‘rarity, scarcity’ (ia). Furnée (1972: 378) may be right in con-
necting ἠπανᾷ, -νεῖ· ἀπορεῖ, σπανίζει, ἀμηχανεῖ ‘is without resource’ (H.); he
assumes a prothetic σ- and a prothetic ἀ- (see 2.3 and 2.4), which was length-
ened to ἠ- (see 2.6.2). If so, the word is Pre-Greek.
τάγῠρι [n.] ‘small thing’ (Eup. 3). Furnée (1972: 261) compares σαγύριον· ἄρτου
κλάσμα ‘piece of bread’ (H.), and thinks the word is Pre-Greek. Apart from
the variation σ / τ, note the suffix -υρ- (see 2.5.5.9a and 3.2.3.133).
τύρβη [f.] ‘confusion, noise, tumult’ (Hp., Isoc., X., Plb. etc.). Also σύρβη (Suid.,
Eust.). The variation τ / σ points to Pre-Greek *ty (see 2.5.5.9a).
ψόθος [m.] = ἀκαθαρσία, ῥύπος, ψώρα (A. Fr. 82 = 21 M., Ar. Fr. 829, Phryn. Com.,
H., Phot., Suid.); ψόθιον (-ίον cod.)· αἰθαλῶδες, ψοθόν· μέλαν (H.); also ψοθώ⟨ρ⟩α·
ψώρα, ψόθωρ⟨ον⟩· αὐχμηρόν (H.), cf. Wackernagel (1943: 191); ψοθόκη· ἀκαθαρ-
σία (Hdn. Gr.), ψοθοιὸς ὁ ἀκάθαρτος (Theognost.). Furnée (1972: 197) connects
ψοῖθος = σποδός ‘ashes’ and (p. 39321) ψόλος ‘soot, smoke’, ἄσβολος ‘soot’ (see
150 chapter 6
s.vv. in section 2), with the variations π / β (2.5.1), ψ / σπ (2.5.5.6a), θ / δ / λ

(2.5.7a).
15 Verbs
ἀθέλγειν [v.] · ἀμέλγειν ‘to milk’ (H., em), (ἐξ)αθέλγεται (Hp.), explained as παρίε-
ται, διεκλύεται ‘lets go, releases’ by Galen. Also ἀθέλγηται· θηλάζηται ἢ θλίβηται
‘is suckled, compressed’ (H.), cf. ἀθέλγηται· Βακχεῖός φησι θηλάζεται ἢ ἐπισπᾶ-
ται, καὶ ἐκθλίβηται ὡς καὶ Νίκανδρος ‘is suckled, drawn after one; is squeezed
(out), crowded’ (Erot. 20, 1; see Hp. De med. off. 11). Cf. ἀθέλβεται· διηθεῖται ‘is
strained through’ (ab); ἀθελβεῖ· ἕλκει ‘draws’ (H.) and ἀθελβάζειν· διηθεῖν ‘to
strain through’ (H.); further ἀθέλδεται· διηθεῖται ‘id.’ (Diocl. Com. Fr. 7 Kock,
An. Bekk. 350). These verbs, meaning ‘to press, draw away, filter’, show a vari-
ation β / δ / γ, which points to a Pre-Greek labiovelar (see 2.5.6).
αἰσυμνάω [v.] ‘to be ruler’ (Hom.). Meg. αἰσιμνάω. αἰσυμνήτηρ (Ω 347) has a vari-
ant αἰσυ(ι)ήτηρ, now preferred by West (2001: 119f.). Also pns Αἴσυμνος, Αἰσυ-
ήτης (Hom.). Chantraine (1933: 216) and Von Blumenthal (1930: 33) assume
a Pre-Greek origin, which must be correct: it explains the interchanges μ / ϝ
and υ / ι (see 2.5.4 and 2.6.1.4).
ἀλαπάζω [v.] ‘to drain, plunder, destroy’. Cf. λαπάζειν· ἐκκενοῦν, ἀφ’ οὗ καὶ τὸ
ὄρυγμα ‘to empty out, whence also digging’ (H.). A. Eu. 562 has λαπαδνόν (cod.
λέπ-) = ἀλαπαδνόν ‘exhausted, feeble’. The interchange of the prothetic vowel
points to a substrate word (see 2.3).
ἁλιβδύω [v.] ‘to sink, submerge into the sea; to hide’ (Lyc.). Also ἁλυβδῆσαι. The
strange structure of the word and the group -βδ- (see 2.2a.3) make substrate
origin almost certain.
ἀμαρύσσω [v.] ‘to sparkle, twinkle’ (of the eye) (h. Merc., Hes.). ἀμαρῡγή ‘twin-
kling’ (h. Merc.); ἀμάρυγμα ‘id.’ (Hes.), -χμα (Sapph.), ἀμάρυγξ ‘id.’ (Hdn.);
Ἀμαρυγκεύς (Ψ 630); ἀμαρυγκυσία· βοστρυχία ‘curly things’ (H.). ἀμαρύττα·
τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς ‘eyes’ (H.); taken as a Cret. dual = ἀμαρύκτα ‘the twinkling
ones’. Cf. μαρμαίρω ‘to flash, sparkle, gleam’ (cf. s.v. below). ἀ- interchanging
with reduplication (see 2.3 and 3.1) and the suffix -υξ / -υγξ, which is typical
of the substrate language and shows prenasalization (see 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.114);
also note the variant with -υχ- (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.139). See Kuiper (1956: 221).
ἀμπλακίσκω [v.] ‘to miss, fail; to be bereft of; to transgress’ (Archil.). Compared
with ἀμβλίσκω ‘to cause to miscarry’, which delg rejects for both formal
and semantic reasons. Blanc (1994: 79–85) connects it with πλάζομαι. As Van
Beek suggests to me (p.c.), this is quite attractive, provided that πλάζομαι ‘to
become devious, go astray, wander about’ (which has no convincing etymol-
ogy) is a substrate word. The group would then display a prothetic vowel
(which is otherwise rare in verbal forms!), prenasalization, and interchange
β / π (if we include ἀμβλίσκω), and we could reconstruct a Pre-Greek verbal
root *(a)mplank- (see 2.3, 2.5.1 and 2.5.2).
ἀμύσσω [v.] ‘to scratch, tear, lacerate’ (Il.). ἀμύσχεσθαι. τό ξέειν τὰς σάρκας τοῖς
ὄνυξιν ‘the laceration of the flesh with claws’ (H.); ἀμυχή ‘rent, wound’. The
form ἀμυσχ- shows a typical Pre-Greek variation (insertion of -σ- before
stop). See 2.5.5.3b for the variation σχ / χ and 3.2.3.139 for the suffix -υχ-.
ἀράζω [v.] ‘to snarl, growl’, of dogs (D. H.). Also ἀρράζω; ῥᾴζω. The prothetic vowel
points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.3).
βδάλλω [v.] ‘to milk (cows)’ (Pl.). Also βδέλλω. Cf. βδέλλα ‘leech’. The meaning
‘leech’, the group βδ- (2.2a.3) and the variation α / ε (2.6.1.1b) indicate that it
is a Pre-Greek word, as does the geminate -λλ- (perhaps *bdaly- or *byaly-).
βρόξαι [v.] ‘to gulp down, swallow (again)’ (δ 222, μ 240; H. βρόξαι as a simplex =
ῥοφῆσαι, ap). Cf. βρόγχος ‘windpipe, throat’ (section 7.1); βράγχος ‘hoarseness,
angina’ (section 7.2); βρόχθος ‘throat, gullet’ (Hp.); βρούξ· τράχηλος, βρόγ-
χος ‘neck, throat’ (H.). The prenasalization (2.5.2) and the variations χ / χθ
(2.5.5.1b), ο / α (2.6.1.1b) and ο / ου (2.6.1.3d) reflect Pre-Greek origin.
γνάμπτω [v.] ‘to bend’ (Il.). An Indo-European etymology seems excluded be-
cause γναμπ- cannot have a pie preform (see under γναθμός in section 7.1
above).
γνυπ- [v.] ‘to be depressed’ (Men.). Furnée (1972: 315) has correctly observed
(following Latte; see now lsj Supp. s.v. γνυπτόω) that this is a separate verb
with the variants γνυπ- and γνυπτ-, as well as a variant γνυπετ- with anaptyxis
(see 2.6.5); the variation π / πτ is well known in Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972:
307ff.; see further 2.5.5.1a).
δέφω [v.] ‘to soften (with the hand), masturbate’ (Ar., Eub.). Also δέψω. The
variation φ / ψ points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.5.2a). Cf. further δέψα ‘skin’
(Suid.) with διφθέρα ‘prepared skin, hide, leather’ (section 4.1 above), which
would add the variations φ / ψ / φθ and ε / ι (see 2.5.5.1a, 2.5.5.4a and 2.6.1.2b).
δικεῖν [v.] ‘to throw’ (Pi.) also ‘to aim (on high)’ (E. hf 498) with ἄνδικε· ἀνάρριψον
‘throw!’, ἀνδικά· ὁ βόλος ‘throw, cast’, ἀνδίκτης· τὸ ἀναριπτόμενον τῆς μυάγρας
ξύλον ‘the sprung holding bar of a mousetrap’ (Call.; H.). Furnée (1972: 297)
compares λιχάξαι· ῥῖψαι, βαλεῖν. Κρῆτες ‘throw (Cret.)’ (H.), which points to
a Pre-Greek word in view of the variations δ / λ (2.5.7a) and κ / χ (2.5.1). See
further δίκτυον ‘net, strick’ (section 9.5 above).
δῑφάω [v.] ‘to search after’ (Π 747). δίφατον· ὄφιν Κρῆτες ‘serpent (Cret.)’ (H. cod.;
δίφα⟨ν⟩· τὸν ὄφιν Salm.); Latte comments ad loc.: “scil. a rimas scrutando
appellatus”. Also δίβαν· ὄφιν. Κρῆτες (H.). The variation φ / β points to Pre-
Greek origin (see 2.5.1).
152 chapter 6
δρύπτω [v.] ‘to scratch’, especially as a sign of mourning (Il.). Root δρυφ-, cf. e.g.
opt. ἀπο-δρύφοι (Ψ 187 = Ω 21), ἀμφι-δρυφής ‘scratched on both sides (cheeks)’
(Il.). Also δρυψ-, e.g. δρύψια ‘shavings’. Cf. δρυμάσσω ‘to tear up, crush’, with the
suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13). The variants δρυφ-, δρυψ-, and δρυμ- clearly point to
a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.4 and 2.5.5.2a).
ἐρέχθω [v.] ‘to rend, break’ (Ψ 317, ε 83, h. Ap. 358). Cf. Ἐρεχθεύς, Att. vases Ερεχ-
σες, with the variation χθ / ξ (see 2.5.5.4b). See Ἐριχθόνιος (section 18 below).
ἕψω [v.] ‘to boil, seethe’ (ia). Arm. ep‘em ‘cook’. A pre-form ie *seph- has been
posited, which would have had an s-enlargement in Greek (Schwyzer 1939:
706). Yet pie did not have a phoneme *ph. This means that the word is from
a substrate, probably Pre-Greek (cf. Furnée 1972: 327, who compares δέφω /
δέψω ‘soften’, see s.v. above).
θάλπω [v.] ‘to warm’, rarely intr. ‘to be warm’ (Od.). The root is also found in
θαλυκρός (see s.v. in section 13). Both forms can be explained as continuing
Pre-Greek *tal-ukw- (for the labiovelar, see 2.5.6); the syncopated form, with-
out -u-, yielded θάλπω. Thus Kuiper (1968: 270–275).
ἰύζω [v.] ‘to cry aloud, howl’ (Il.). The forms ἀβίυκτον (cod. -ηκτον)· ἐφ’ οὗ οὐκ ἐγέ-
νετο βοὴ ἀπολλυμένου (cf. Latte ad loc.) and ἐκβιούζει· θρηνεῖ μετὰ κραυγῆς (H.)
point to *ϝιύζω (cf. Furnée 1972: 277). Also ἰυγκτόν. With its prenasalization,
the word is typically Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2); note the vocalism of -βιουζει (see
2.6.1.3h).
καλινδέομαι [v.] ‘to roll about, wallow’ (ia). Cf. ἀλινδέομαι and κυλινδέομαι; delg
thinks it is a cross of these two. Furnée (1972: 391) reminds of the alternation
κ- / zero in Pre-Greek words (see 2.5.10). Also note the suffix -ινδ- (see
3.2.3.80).
καλύπτω [v.] ‘to cover, hide’ (Il., ia). καλύβη ‘hut, cabin’ (section 10.1 above),
καλυφή ‘submerged land’. καλυβ/π/φ- is clearly Pre-Greek in view of the
variation and the suffix (see 2.5.1 and 3.2.3.113, 3.2.3.132, 3.2.3.138).
κασσύω [v.] ‘to stitch, sew together like a shoemaker’. Att. καττύω. The foreign
phoneme σσ / ττ, in combination with the a-vocalism, shows Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.5.5.9a).
καχλάζω [v.] ‘to splash, bubble’, of water (Pi., A.). κόχλασμα (H. s.v. ἀπόβρασμα,
πομφόλυξ). Variation α / ο is typical of Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1b).
κερτομέω [v.] ‘to taunt, insult, mock, ridicule’ (almost only poetic, Il.). Furnée
(1972: 349) refers to καρτομιστής· χλευαστής ‘mocker’ (H.). The varying vocal-
ism points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1a). Probably related to σκερβόλλω,
-βολέω, κερβόλλουσα ‘to insult, mock, slander’ (cf. s.v. below), which in turn
is connected with (σ)κέραφος, σχέραφος.
κλοτοπεύω [v.] only T 149 together with διατρίβειν; the mg. was uncertain already
in antiquity, cf. κλοτοπεύειν· παραλογίζεσθαι, ἀπατᾶν, κλεψιγαμεῖν, στραγγεύ-
εσθαι ‘to misreckon, deceive, seek illicit love, loiter’ (H.), who further cites
κλοτοπευτής· ἐξαλλάκτης, ἀλαζών ‘vagrant, charlatan’. Kuiper (1933: 287ff.)
thought that the word was Pre-Greek in view of the suffix -οπ- (see 3.2.3.93).
κνάπτω [v.] ‘to card, comb, full (cloth)’ as a technical term, also metaph. ‘to
mangle, tear to pieces’ (ia). Myc. ka-na-pe-u /knapheus/. Late Att. has γν- for
κν- in most derivatives, e.g. γνάψις ‘fulling’, γνάφαλλον ‘cushion of wool’ (pap.
and ostr.); also κνέφαλλον ‘cushion’ (com., E.; v.ll. κναφ-, γναφ-) and γνόφαλλον
(Alc. Z 14, 8). The variation κ / γ, λ / λλ, α / ο / ε points to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.1, 2.5.8 and 2.6.1.1a–b).
κολάπτω [v.] ‘to peck (of birds), strike, carve, engrave’ (ia, Aeol.). Appears to be
derived from κόλαφος (section 12.1 above) and, therefore, of Pre-Greek origin.
κυβερνάω [v.] ‘to steer, head for’, metaph. ‘to govern, rule’ (γ 283). Cypr. inf.
κυμερῆναι. The variation β / μ and the suffix -ρν- point to Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.4 and 3.2.3.104).
κυβιστάω [v.] ‘to tumble head-first’ (Il., Pl., X.). Cf. κύβη = κεφαλή (em). κυβηβᾶν =
κυρίως τὸ ἐπὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν ῥίπτειν properly ‘to throw on the head’ (em), further
κύμβη ‘head’ (em) and κύμβαχος ‘head first’, ἀνακυμβαλιάζω ‘to tumble’ (see
Kuiper 1956: 213f.), which are prenasalized forms clearly containing the same
word (see 2.5.2). Cf. s.vv. κύβη (section 7.1), κύμβαχος (section 13).
κυλίνδω [v.] ‘to roll, turn over’ (Il.). Suffix -ινδ- (see 3.2.3.80), which is also found
in the synonyms ἀλίνδω, -έω and καλινδέομαι (cf. s.v. above).
κύπτω [v.] ‘to bend forward, stoop, to run with the head down’ (ia). Besides
κῡφός ‘bent forwards, hunchbacked’ (β 16), with several derivatives. With
factitive mg. κυπόω ‘to overthrow’. The variation κυφ- / κυπ- points to a
Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.1).
λαγκρύζεσθαι [v.] · λοιδορεῖσθαι ‘to be slandered’ (Phot.). A prenasalized form
beside λακερύζεσθαι ‘id.’. Therefore, clearly a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.2).
λαικάζω [v.] ‘to wench’ (com.). Resembles ληκάω ‘to have intercourse’, of which
λαικάζω is probably only a variant. The variation αι / η is typical for Pre-Greek
(see 2.6.1.1i).
λαιφάσσω [v.] ‘to swallow, gulp down’ (Nic. Th. 477); λαιφάσσοντες· ψηλαφοῦντες
‘groping’ (H.). Cf. λαφύσσω ‘id.’ (below) and λαιμάσσω ‘to be voracious’. The
variation φ / μ is well-known in Pre-Greek words (see 2.5.4), as is the variation
αι / α (see 2.6.1.1c). Cf. λαιμός ‘throat, gullet’ (section 7.1).
λαφύσσω [v.] ‘to swallow, gulp down’ (Il.). λαφύστιος ‘gluttonous, devoured’
(Lyc.), cf. Ζεὺς Λαφύστιος. Cf. λαιφάσσω ‘to swallow, gulp down’ (above), λαι-
μός ‘throat, gullet’ (section 7.1), λαμυρός ‘voracious’ (section 13). The varia-
tions φ / μ and α / αι point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.4 and 2.6.1.1c).
λέπω [v.] ‘to peel (off)’ (Il.). λεπτός ‘peeled, thin’, λεπτύνω ‘to make thin, etc.’,
λεπτυσμός, λέπτυνσις, -υντικός. Note the forms λεπτάγιον dub. sens., λεπτα-
154 chapter 6
κινός ‘weak, fine’, λέπασμα ‘pod, skin’, λέπῡρον ‘shell, pod’, λεπύχανον ‘skin
of an onion, rind of fruit’, λέπρα ‘leprosy’, λώψ· χλαμύς ‘mantle, cloak’ (H.),
λῶπος ‘pod, coat’, etc., with suffixes and/or alternations of Pre-Greek appear-
ance.
λογγάζω [v.] ‘to linger, hesitate, abide’ (A. Fr. 112, Ar. Fr. 811). It cannot be
separated from the synonym λαγγάζω; the variation α / ο points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.6.1.1b).
μαρμαίρω [v.] ‘to flash, sparkle, gleam’ (Il., late also prose). μαρμαρυγή ‘flashing,
sparkling’. Pre-Greek origin is a strong possibility, and in fact, it is almost
ascertained by ἀμαρύσσω ‘to sparkle, twinkle’ (cf. s.v. above), with a prothetic
vowel (see 2.3). The suffix -υγ- also speaks for this (see 3.2.3.114).
μάρπτω [v.] ‘to catch, seize, lay hold off, overtake’ (Il.). With a different auslaut-
ing velar, we find βρακεῖν· συνιέναι ‘to understand’, i.e. ‘to grasp’, and βράξαι·
συλλαβεῖν, δακεῖν, καταπιεῖν ‘to gather, bite, drink’ (H.). The variation κ / π
cannot be explained in ie terms. Rather, the variants point to Pre-Greek
*mr(a)kw-, which became either βραπ- or βρακ-, with a reflex different from
that of the ie labiovelar, or μαρπ- (see 2.5.6).
μηρύομαι [v.] ‘to draw up, furl, wind (up)’ (μ 170). Dor. μαρ-. Cf. βηρυσσεύειν·
σπείρειν (supposed to stand for σπειρᾶν), ἑλίσσειν ‘to wind’ (H.), with the
variation μ / β (see 2.5.4). Cf. μήρινθος ‘cord, thread’ (section 9.9 above).
μισέω [v.] ‘to hate, abhor’ (Pi., ia). A suffix -σος does not exist in inherited words,
but it does in words of Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.107). Therefore, Furnée
(1972: 254) assumes a Pre-Greek word, with an assibilated dental *ty (see
2.5.5.9a).
μογέω [v.] ‘to toil, be distressed, suffer’ (Il.). A by-form with initial σμ- is found
in σμογερόν· σκληρόν, ἐπίβουλον, μοχθηρόν ‘harsh, treacherous, sorrowful’ (H.),
with the variant σμυγερός ‘painful, toilsome, miserable’. Cf. further μόχθος
‘exertion, difficulty, distress, misery’ (section 14 above), with μοχθέω ‘to exert
oneself, subsist with difficulty’. The variations σμ- / μ-, γ / χθ and ο / υ point
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4, 2.5.5.1b and 2.6.1.3c).
μωκάομαι [v.] ‘to mock, ridicule, insult’ (lxx). Furnée (1972: 133) compares
μώχεται· φθονεῖ ‘envies, begrudges, refuses’ (H.) with a different velar, and
concludes to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.1).
ὀλόπτω [v.] · λεπίζειν, τίλλειν, κολάπτειν ‘to peel, pluck, peck’ (H.). A Pre-Greek
variant of ὀλούφω (directly below).
ὀλούφω [v.] = ὀλόπτω (Phot.), ὀλουφεῖν· τίλλειν ‘to pluck hair’, διολουφεῖν· διατίλ-
λειν ἢ διασιλλαίνειν ‘to mock’ (H.). Evidently a variant of ὀλόπτω, with varia-
tions ο / ου (2.6.1.3d) and φ / πτ (2.6.1.1a) that point to a Pre-Greek word.
πλατυγίζω [v.] ‘to slosh the water with one’s wings; to splash’, also metaphor-
ically of idle noise (A., Eub.). The structure πλατ-υγ- points to Pre-Greek
origin (see 3.2.2, 3.2.3.114). Perhaps related to πλαταγέω ‘to rattle, crash, clap
(one’s hands)’, which has a different Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.2).
ποππύζω [v.] ‘to click with the tongue’, as a calling signal, etc. (com., Thphr.,
Theoc.). The geminate and the suffix -υC- point to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.2a.25 and 3.2.2); ultimately onomatopoeic.
ῥαβάττειν [v.] · ἄνω καὶ κάτω βαδίζειν· τινές δὲ τύπτειν καὶ ψόφον ποιεῖν [καὶ
φράσειν] τοῖς ποσί, καὶ ῥάσσειν ‘to walk upwards and downwards; to beat and
make noise with [and to be about to indicate with] the feet, and to strike’
(H.). σοβεῖν καὶ τρέχειν καὶ συντόνως ποδοκτυπεῖν ‘to drive away, run, strike the
earth vigorously with the feet’ (Phot.). Has been compared with ἀρράβακα·
ὀρχηστήν· ἀπὸ τοῦ ἀρραβάσσειν ὅ ἐστι ὀρχεῖσθαι ‘dancer, after ἀ., which means
to dance’ (H.). The prothetic vowel and the suffix -ακ- point to Pre-Greek
origin (see 2.3 and 3.2.3.13). Furnée (1972: 142) further connects ἄραβος ‘rattle,
ring’ (section 17 below) and ἀροπῆσαι· πατῆσαι. Κρῆτες ‘to tread (Cret.)’ (H.).
ῥαθαπυγίζω [v.] ‘to kick someone’s buttocks’ (Ar. Eq. 796). Also ῥοθοπυγίζω. The
variation α / ο points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1b).
ῥαίνω [v.] ‘to besprinkle, spray, strew’ (Il.). Perf. med. 3pl. ἐρράδαται (υ 354),
plpf. ἐρράδατ(ο) (M 431). None of the etymological attempts accounts for
the variation ν and δ (in the perfect), which is a well-known Pre-Greek
phenomenon (Kuiper 1956: 216; see also 2.5.3 above). This proves that the
verb is Pre-Greek.
ῥέμβομαι [v.] ‘to go about, wander, roam around, act at random’ (Hell. and
late). ῥόμβος [m.] ‘circular movement, top, hummingtop, magic wheel, tam-
bourine’, also ῥύμβος. Cf. ῥυβόν· ἐπικαμπές (em, Hdn. Gr.). The forms with
ῥυμβ-, ῥυβ- point to a Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.2 and 2.6.1.3c).
σιωπάω [v.] ‘to be silent, keep secret’, also ‘to silence’ (Hom.). Also σωπάω in
διασωπάσομαι, σεσωπαμένον (Pi.), which points to Pre-Greek origin, reflecting
*syōp- or *syup- (cf. Beekes 2008).
σκαλαπάζει [v.] · ῥέμβεται ‘roams, rolls about’ (H.), σκαλπάζειν· ῥεμβωδῶς βαδίζειν
‘to wander about roamingly’ (H.). The alternation σκαλαπ- / σκαλπ- points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.5). Cf. κάλπη ‘trot’ (section 12.1 above), with
καλπάζω ‘to trot’, which shows that the σ- is prothetic (see 2.4).
σκαρδαμύσσω [v.] ‘to blink, twinkle’ (Hp., E., X., Arist.). Att. -ττω; καρδαμύσσω,
-ττω (H.). The variants point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4). Also note the
suffixes -αμ- and -υκ- (see 3.2.3.18 and 3.2.3.119).
σκερβόλλω [v.] ‘to vilify, slander’ (Ar. Eq. 821, H.; ipv.). Also κερβόλλουσα (cod.
-ολυσσα)· λοιδοροῦσα, βλασφημοῦσα, ἀπατῶσα ‘abusing, speaking profanely,
deceiving’ (H.). Cf. σκέραφος (σχέρ-)· λοιδορία, βλασφημία; κέραφος· χλευα-
σμός, κακολογία ‘mockery, abuse’ (H.). Sometimes σκίραφος ‘dice-box; trick-
ery, cheating’ is interpreted as cognate as well. The variants σκερ-, σχερ-, κερ-,
156 chapter 6
and possibly σκιρ- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4, 2.5.1 and 2.6.1.2b). Cf.
κερτομέω above.
σκιμᾱλίζω [v.] ‘to jeer, flout’ (Ar. Ach. 444, Pax 549, D. L. 7, 17); acc. to gramm.
(Moer., Phryn., H.) = καταδακτυλίζω; acc. to sch. Ar. Pax ad loc. ‘to hold up the
middle finger’ (sens. obsc.). σκίμαλλος (PLond. = Aegyptus 6, 194), probably
designation of a finger. Since all words in -αλλ- seem to be of Pre-Greek origin
(Beekes 2008; see also 3.2.3.15 above), these words are likely to be Pre-Greek,
too. Note the variation λ / λλ (see 2.5.8).
σκολύπτειν [v.] · ἐκτίλλειν, κολούειν ‘to pluck out, cut short’; σκολύψαι· κολοῦσαι,
κολοβῶσαι ‘to cut short, shorten’; ἀνασκολύψας· γυμνώσας ‘having stripped’
(H.). The variation between σκολυπ- and κολοβ- in κολοβός ‘curtailed, cut
short’ (cf. s.v. in section 13 above) points to a Pre-Greek origin, with σ- / zero
(2.4) and υ / ο (2.6.1.3c).
σμαραγέω [v.] ‘to drone, roar, thunder’, of the sea, thunder, etc. (epic Il., also Hp.
Mul. 2, 154). σμαράσσω (em), μαράσσω (Erot.). The variation σμ- / μ- points
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4). Furnée (1972: 227) further considers σφάραγος
= ψόφος ‘sound’ (H.) to be a variant, with interchange φ / μ (see 2.5.4). Also
note the suffix -αγ- (see 3.2.3.2).
σταθεύω [v.] ‘to scorch, roast, fry’ (Ar.). Furnée (1972: 191) compares στάτευσις
(Arist., Alex. Aphr. in Mete. 186) = στάθευσις, which indicates Pre-Greek origin
(see 2.5.1).
στρέφω, -ομαι [v.] ‘to twist, turn’, intr. and med. also ‘to run’ (Il.). The root has
no Indo-European cognates. As Van Beek suggests (p.c.), a comparison with
στρεβλός ‘turned, twisted, crooked, cunning’ (section 13 above) and cognates
strongly favors the conclusion that we are dealing with a Pre-Greek root,
with variation β / φ (see 2.5.1).
σφίγγω [v.] ‘to bind, embrace, jam in’ (since Emp., A. Pr. 58); the nasal-less
forms ἔσφιγμαι, σφίγμα and ἀπόσφιξις point to Pre-Greek prenasalization
(see 2.5.2).
τανθαρύζω [v.] ‘to quiver’. τανθαλύζει· τρέμει; τοιθορύσσειν· σείειν; ἐτανθόριζον· ἔτρε-
μον (H.). τονθορύζω (below) may be identical. The variations ρ / λ (2.5.7c) and
α / ο before υ (2.5.13.2, 2.6.1.1b) point to Pre-Greek origin.
ταρβέω [v.] ‘to be startled, shy, shun’ (epic poet. since Il.). Furnée (1972: 219)
compares ταρμύσσω ‘to startle’, with the variation β / μ (see 2.5.4). Moreover,
it is difficult to explain the element ταρβ- from an ie zero grade *trgw-, as this
would give *τραβ-.
ταρχύω [v.] ‘to inter’ (A. R. 3, 208). τέρχνεα· … ἐντάφια; στέρχανα· περίδειπνον.
Ἠλεῖοι ‘funeral feast (Elean)’ (H.). The variations σ- / zero and α / ε point
to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.4 and 2.6.1.1a). Cf. τέρχνος (section 3.1 above).
τιτρώσκω [v.] ‘to wound, harm, damage’ (ia). Ion. Dor. τρῶμα, Att. τραῦμα
‘wound, damage’. We have to start from a root τρω- / τραυ-, which cannot
be explained in ie terms. In Pre-Greek, however, a variation αυ / ω is found
(see 2.6.1.1h).
τονθορύζω [v.] ‘to murmur, speak inarticulately, gurgle’ (A. Fr. 298 = 630 M.). Pres.
also τονθορίζω and τονθρύζω. The formation is clearly Pre-Greek (Furnée 1972:
382), with prenasalization (2.5.2) and the variations -ο- / zero (2.6.5) and υ /
ι (2.6.1.4). Cf. τανθαρύζω above.
τρέφω [v.] ‘to make fat, feed, bring up, care for’, also ‘to cause to curdle’, of
γάλα ‘milk’ (ι 246) and of τυρός ‘cheese’ (Theoc. 25, 106, cf. τροφαλίς ‘fresh
cheese’). The cheese name τράφαλλος must be Pre-Greek: in FS Kortlandt
I demonstrated, following Kuiper, that all words in -αλλ-(ος) are Pre-Greek
(Beekes 2008; cf. 3.2.3.15). The root has no ie cognates. A connection with
θρόμβος ‘clump, clot, curd’ is quite possible, if we assume that τρέφω as a
whole is Pre-Greek. Prenasalization is well-known in Pre-Greek (see 2.5.2);
the β is not problematic, as Pre-Greek did not distinguish between aspirated,
voiced and unvoiced stops (see 2.5.1). Thus, θρόμβος proves that the verb is of
Pre-Greek origin.
τρώγω [v.] ‘to gnaw, browse, eat’, mostly of raw fruits (ia since ζ 90), later ‘to eat’
in general. No ie etymology. Formally comparable with τρώξανα ‘dry wood’
(section 3.1) and τρωξαλλίς ‘locust’ (section 4.7), which are clearly Pre-Greek
(see s.vv.). Although these words are probably not derived from τρώγω, the
formal resemblance suggests Pre-Greek rather than ie origin for the verb.
φληναφάω [v.] ‘to babble’ (Ar., Alex., et al.). Cf. φλέδων ‘babbler’ (section 11.3
above). The variation φλεδ- / φλην- is a typical case of Pre-Greek nasalization
(see 2.5.3). Without -αφ- (see 3.2.3.33), we find φληνύω ‘to brag’ (Hp. apud
Gal.), φλανύσσει· φλυαρεῖ, ληρεῖ ‘talks nonsense’ (H.), ἐκφλῆναι ‘to bubble up’
(E. Fr. 470).
φρῐμάσσομαι [v.] ‘to snort with lust for life, behave unruly’, of horses, goats etc.
(Hdt.). Furnée (1972: 173, following Kuiper 1956: 215), assumes that βρῑμάομαι
‘to snort with anger’ (etc.) is a Pre-Greek variant, which seems evident. Cf.
Furnée (1972: 247): σφριαί· ἀπειλαί, ὀργαί (H.) from *σφριϝαί, with an s-mobile
and variation μ / ϝ (see 2.4 and 2.5.4).
χαράσσω [v.] ‘to make pointed, sharpen; to carve, engrave, strike, stamp’ (Hes.).
Denominative from χάραξ, -ακος ‘pointed stake, vine-prop, fortifying pale,
stockade, palisade’. In view of the suffix, the word is most probably Pre-Greek
(see 3.2.3.13).
ψαθάλλω [v.] ‘to grind, scratch’ (Hermipp., Pl. Com.); ἐψαθήλατο· ἐκνήσατο
‘scratched’ (H.). Furnée (1972: 196) compared ψαθυρός ‘loose, brittle, friable’,
ψαδυρόν· ἀσθενές, μαδαρόν, ψαθυρόν ‘weak, wet, loose’ (H.), σαθρός ‘weak’, ψαι-
δρά· ἀραιότριχα ‘thin-haired’ (H.), with the variations ψ / σ (2.5.13), α / αι
158 chapter 6
(2.6.1.1c), θ / δ (2.5.1); cf. s.vv. ψαθυρός, σαθρός (section 13 above). A suffix -αλ-
is also found in Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.15).
ψαλάσσω [v.] ‘to touch, infringe, pluck’ (S., Ar., Lyc., Ael.), med. διαψαλάττεσθαι·
τὸ εἰς ἔρευναν διαστέλλεσθαι ‘to be instructed to do research’; ἐψαλάξατο·
ἔψαυσεν, ἐκινήθη ‘was touched lightly, was moved’ (H.). Derived from ψάλλω
‘to pluck, twitch a string (also a bowstring) with the fingers, instead of
with the plectrum’. The word is most probably Pre-Greek, because of its
a-vocalism and the suffix -ακ- (see 3.2.3.13).
ψεύδομαι [v.] ‘to lie, be wrong, break (an oath)’ (Il.), in Att. also ‘to lie to,
deceive, cheat, be false, etc.’, often regardless of intention. Also in ψύδος, plur.
ψύδη ‘lie’, for which mostly ψύθος, -η is found. The variation δ / θ points to
Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1). Furnée (1972: 197) further adduces ψαυδής (inscr.
Pholegandros) and ψούδιον ‘lie’ (H.).
ψίζομαι [v.] ‘to weep’, in ψιζομένη· κλαίουσα (H.). ψίνδεσθαι· κλαίειν (H.). Pre-
Greek in view of the prenasalization (see 2.5.2).
ψιθυρίζω [v.] ‘to whisper, murmer, slander’, metaph. of trees and birds, ‘to rustle,
chirp’ (Pl., Ar., Hell.). ψίθυρος ‘slanderer, whisperer; slandering, whispering’;
also ψίθυρ and ψεδυρός (also ψέδ-). Pre-Greek in view of the variations ε / ι
(2.6.1.2b), θ / δ (2.5.1) and the suffix (3.2.3.133), with the nom. -υρ (3.3.2c).
16 Adverbs
αἴφνης [adv.] ‘suddenly’. See αἶψα, ἄφαρ, ἄφνω, ἐξαπίνης below.

αἶψα [adv.] ‘quickly, suddenly’ (Il., poet.). See αἴφνης, ἄφαρ, ἄφνω, ἐξαπίνης (all
this section).
ἄφαρ [adv.] ‘forthwith, immediately’ (Il.). Furnée (1972: index) brilliantly con-
nected ἐξαίφνης and ἐξαπίνης, and further αἶψα, -ηρός and ἄφνω (cf. s.vv. in this
section), assuming a substrate element with the variations α / αι (2.6.1.1c), π /
φ (2.5.1), which point to Pre-Greek *apy-. See also αἰπύς (section 13 above).
ἄφνω [adv.] ‘suddenly’ (A.). See ἄφαρ above.
ἐξαπίνης [adv.] ‘suddenly’ (Il.). Also ἐξαίφνης. The variation -ιφ- / -πι- shows that
the i is part of the consonant, so we may assume a Pre-Greek phoneme *py
for these forms. See αἴφνης, αἶψα, ἄφαρ, ἄφνω above and αἰπύς in section 13.
ὀδάξ [adv.] ‘with the teeth, clenching one’s teeth’ (ὀδὰξ ἐν χείλεσι φύντες α 381 =
σ 410 = υ 268; also com., e.g. Ar. V. 164 διατρώξομαι τοίνυν ὀδὰξ τὸ δίκτυον); per-
haps in different mgs. at three places in the Il. (e.g. Λ 749 ὀδὰξ ἕλον οὖδας; cf.
X 17, B 418). ὀδακτάζω ‘to bite, gnaw’; ἀδακτῶ· κνήθομαι ‘to itch’ (H.); ὀδάξομαι,
ἀδάξομαι ‘to scratch (oneself), to itch, be scratchy, gnaw’; ἀδαχεῖ ‘scratches,
itches’ (Ar. Fr. 410), ἀδαχᾷ· κνᾷ, κνήθει κεφαλήν, ψηλαφᾷ ‘scratches the head,
touches’ (H.). Cf. ἀδαγμός ‘itch’ (section 7.2 above). Bechtel (1914) rendered
ὀδάξ in the oldest attestations with ‘itching, scratching’; the later meaning
‘with the teeth’ would have arisen from a folk-etymological connection with
ὀδών and δάκνω. The variation α / ο points to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.6.1.1b),
as do the aspiration in ἀδαχ-ᾷ, -εῖ and the interchange between -κτ- and -ξ-
in the verbal forms (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.5.4b).
ψάδιον [adv.] · κάταντες ‘steep, downwards’ (H.). M. Schmidt (the editor of
Hesychius) connects ψοδίον· σκολιόν ‘curved, bent’ (H.); if this is correct, the
word is Pre-Greek (see 2.6.1.1b). See also Furnée (1972: 389), who compares
ψάγιον· πλάγιον, λοξόν, κεκλιμένον ‘athwart, slanting, bent’ (H.), with the
variation δ / γ (see 2.5.6).
17 Sounds and Interjections
ἄραβος [m.] ‘rattle, ring’, of armor or teeth (Il.). Furnée (1972: 142) compares
ἀροπῆσαι· πατῆσαι. Κρῆτες ‘to tread (Cret.)’ (H.), which points to substrate
origin in view of the interchange α / ο (see 2.6.1.1b). Cf. ῥαβάττειν (section 15
above).
βόμβος [m.] ‘noise with a low tone’ (ia). βομβάξ interj., as ironic imitation of
a swollen style (Ar. Th. 45), with intensive reduplication βομβαλοβομβάξ
(ibid. 48). βομβυλιός ‘humming insect’, also vase with a small neck (from the
sound when emptied), βομβυλίδας· πομφόλυγας ‘waterbubbles’ (H.). βόμβυξ,
-ῡκος [m.] ‘low sounding flute, the lowest tone of a flute’ (Ar.); βομβύκιον kind
of bee (Arist.). Cf. βέμβιξ ‘whipping-top; insect’, πέμφιξ, πομφόλυξ ‘bubble’.
The variation π / β / φ (2.5.1) and the suffixes, notably -ακ- (3.2.3.13), -ῑκ-
(3.2.3.74), -ῡκ- (3.2.3.120), -υλ- (3.2.3.121), are typical Pre-Greek characteristics.
Ultimately onomatopoeic.
δοῦπος [m.] ‘dull, heavy sound’ (Il.). ἐρί-δουπος, also ἐρί-γδουπος ‘thundering
loud’ (Il.); anlaut γδ- also in ἐγδούπησαν (Λ 45) and μασίγδουπον βασιλῆα·
μεγαλόηχον ‘with heavy sound’, … (H.), and also in ἁλί-, βαρύ-, μελί-γδουπος.
The initial *gd- is not known from pie. Therefore, the word is probably
Pre-Greek (see 2.2a.4). For γδ- > δ-, see 2.5.13. See also κτύπος below.
κικκαβαῦ natural sound of the screech-owl (Ar. Av. 261). Cf. κίκυμος· λαμπτήρ
‘lantern’. ἢ γλαυκός· ὁμοίως καὶ κίκυβος ‘little owl, Athene noctua’ (H.), with
the Pre-Greek interchange β / μ (see 2.5.4).
κτύπος [m.] ‘strong noise, cracking, stamping’ (Il.). Reminiscent of δοῦπος ‘dull,
heavy sound’ (above). No doubt of Pre-Greek origin, with variation between
voiced and unvoiced stop (2.5.1) and between υ and ου (2.6.1.3h); see Furnée
(1972: 120).
160 chapter 6
πόποι interjection of surprise, disagreement, etc. (Il., epic). Also πόπαξ, with the
suffix -ακ- (3.2.3.13).
σίττα [interj.] cry of herdsmen (Theoc.). Also ψίττα (sch.); similar ψύττα, φίττα.
Variation ι / υ (2.6.1.4), ψ / σ (2.5.13), ψ / φ (2.5.5.2a).
18 Theonyms, Divine Epithets, Mythical Characters
Ἀθήνη [f.] the goddess (Il.), a common Greek goddess dating from Minoan
times, protecting the palace, and depicted with a snake. Dor. (etc.) Ἀθάνα.
The town Ἀθῆναι (Dor. Ἀθᾶναι) contains the same onomastic element. Like
the goddess itself, the name is Pre-Greek. Note the Pre-Greek suffix -ᾱν-
(see 3.2.3.20). See also Ἀττικός, Ἀτθίς in section 19 below, which display the
variation θ / ττ / τθ (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
Ἀπόλλων, -ωνος [m.] theonym (Il.). Ἀπέλλων (Dor.), Ἀπείλων (Cypr.), Ἄπλουν
(Thess.). Perhaps in Myc. ]pe-rjo[ /A]peljo[n-/, see Ruijgh (1967a: 56). Cypr.
Ἀπείλων points to a pre-form *Ἀπέλι̯ων for Dor. Ἀπέλλων; Thess. Ἄπλουν
perhaps derives from *Apelyōn with syncope and -ουν from *-ōn (Ruijgh apud
Beekes 2003c; cf. 2.6.5 above). Hitt. [DINGIR] Appaliunaš may well reflect the
Pre-Greek proto-form Apalyun. The Hittite rendering shows that the oldest
Pre-Greek form had *a. This became e before the palatal *ly. The e was then
assimilated (in Pre-Greek) to o by the following -ōn. For the suffix -ων-, see
3.2.3.145.
Ἄρης, Ἄρεως [m.] the god of war; also god of vengeance and oaths (Arcadia,
Athens, etc.). No etymology; ie origin of such a name is not to be expected.
Ἀριάδνη [f.] daughter of Minos, abducted by Theseus (Il.). The group -δν-, which
contains the suffix -ν- (cf. the variant Ἀριήδη), points to Pre-Greek origin (see
2.2a.6, 3.2.3.38, 3.2.3.91).
Ἄρτεμις, -ιδος [f.] name of the goddess (Il.). Myc. a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ [gen.];
a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/ [dat.]. Dor. Ἄρταμις, -ιτος; Boeot. Ἄρταμις, -ιδος; Delphi
Ἄρτεμις, -ιτος (sig 671, etc.). The variation t / d is due to a replacement of
the suffix: Myc. has -t-, and forms with -σι- (e.g. Ἀρτεμίσιον ‘temple of Ἀ.’)
presuppose a -t- too. For the suffix -ιτ-, see 3.2.3.87. The forms further show
the interchanges e / i (2.6.1.2b) and e / a (2.6.1.1a), which is rather an old
phenomenon than a recent assimilation.
Ἀσγελάτας [m.] epithet of Ἀπόλλων on Anaphe. Also Ἀπόλλων Αἰγλάτας
(Anaphe, Thera). The variation in these epithets is typical of Pre-Greek
words, as can clearly be seen in the name Ἀσκληπιός (see s.v. below): aC-
/ aiC- and asC- / aisC-. In the present case, we only have aiC- and asC-, but
the principle remains the same (Furnée 1972: 293, 295).
Ἀσκληπιός [m.] hero, later god of medicine (Il.). Αἰσκλαπιός (Epid., Troez.),
Ἀσχλαπιός (Boeot.), Αἰσχλαπιός, Ἀσκαλαπιός (Thess.), Ἀσκαλπιός (Gort.),
Αἰσχλαβιός (on a bronze figure from Bologna with Corinthian letters; see
Kretschmer 1943: 116), Ἀγλαπιός (Lac.), Αἰγλαπιός (Cos). The name is typical
for Pre-Greek words: apart from minor variations (β / π, αλ(α) / λα, κ / χ /
γ, see 2.5.1 and 2.6.5), we find α / αι (a well-known variation, see 2.6.1.1c) fol-
lowed by -γλαπ- or -σκλαπ- / -σχλαπ/β-. In view of the variation α / αι, the -σ-
was probably palatalized and we must reconstruct *(a-)syklap-. As the group
-σγ- is rare in Greek, especially before another consonant, the loss of -σ- can
be understood. The palatal character of the σ was sometimes expressed as a
preceding or following ι (cf. ἐξαπίνης beside ἐξαίφνης in section 16 and πινυτός
beside πνυτός in section 13).
Ἄτλας, -αντος [m.] ‘Atlas’ (Od.), name of the god who carries the pillars of
heaven. Pre-Greek words often end in -ant- (see 3.2.3.23).
Ἀχιλλεύς [m.] the son of Peleus and Thetis (Il.). The variation λλ / λ (like σσ /
σ in Ὀδυσ(σ)εύς) is typical of Pre-Greek words, and probably points to a
palatalized phoneme /ly/ (see 2.5.8).
Βριτόμαρτις [f.] epithet of Artemis on Crete (inscr., Str.), also a goddess or nymph
on Crete, Dreros. Also Βριτόμαρπις, -μάρπεια (Crete); Βρυτόμαρτις. Acc. to
Solin. 11, 8, it means ‘dulcis virgo’ = ‘sweet maiden’, which seems confirmed
by the gloss βριτύ· γλυκύ. Κρῆτες ‘sweet (Cret.)’ (cf. s.v. in section 13 above).
The variations π / τ and ι / υ point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.6 and 2.6.1.4).
Δάειρα [f.] name of a chthonic goddess in Attica, to whom a pregnant sheep
was sacrificed (Pherecyd. 45, Lyc. 710, inscr.); also Δαῖρα (A. Fr. 277, inscr.).
The suffix -ειρα points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.41).
Διόνῡσος [m.] name of a god (Il.). Dialectal Διώνυσος (epic, lyr.), Διόννυσος
(Thess., Cret.), Ζόννυσος (Aeol.), ΔιΕνυσος (Amorgos), Δεύνυσος (Anacr.). Fur-
née (1972: 250) recalls the pn Διονυτᾶς (beside -σᾶς on a coin from Teos; see
Meyer 1896: 381) and stresses that the variation τ / σ points to a non-ie =
Pre-Greek word (see 2.5.5.9a).
Εἰλείθυια [f.] name of the goddess(es) of birth, often in plur. (ia). Also Ἐλείθυια
(Pi., inscr.), Εἰλήθυια (Call., Paus.), Ἐλεύθυια (Cret.), Ἐλευθίη (Paros), Ἐλευ-
θία, with assibilation Ἐλευσία (Lacon.), and other variants. Myc. E-re-u-ti-ja.
Short form Ἐλευθώ (ap) and (quite different) Εἰλιόνεια (Plu. 2, 277b). On the
forms see Kalén (1918: 8). Beekes (1998: 24f.) shows that the suffix -υια is Pre-
Greek (cf. 3.2.3.118).
Ἑκάτη [f.] popular goddess originating from Anatolia, more specifically from
Caria, and identified with Artemis. Most probably of Pre-Greek origin. Note
the suffix -ατ- (see 3.2.3.31).
Ἐρῑνῡ́ς, -ύος [f.] name of an avenging goddess; as an appellative ‘revenge, curse’
162 chapter 6
(Il.), name of Demeter in Arcadia. Also Ἐριννύς (rejected by lsj). There is no

good ie etymology and the word is probably Pre-Greek. The variation ν / νν
may represent a palatalized phoneme ny (see 2.5.8).
Ἐριχθόνιος [m.] name of a hero and king of Athens, son of Ge, father of Pandion
(A., E.); also name of a Trojan, son of Dardanos, father of Tros (Υ 219, 230).
Cf. Ἐρεχθεύς (B 547, η 80), which is also an epithet of Poseidon (inscr.); on
Attic vases Ερεχσες. Ἐρεχθεύς / Ερεχσες is clearly a Pre-Greek name; more
forms are given by Furnée (1972: 263). It continues a pre-form *Erektyeu- (see
2.5.5.4b).
Ἑρμῆς, -οῦ [m.] Hermes, son of Zeus and Maia; also ‘herm, head of a herm’ (Il.).
From epic Ἑρμέας < Ἑρμείας; cf. Αἰνείας. Myc. e-ma-a2 /Hermāhās/ presents
the original form and shows that this is an unanalysable Pre-Greek name.
See Ruijgh (1967b: 12).
Ἥρα [f.] Hera, the wife of Zeus (Il.). As with most theonyms, Pre-Greek origin
is most probable.
Ἥφαιστος [m.] the divine smith, god of fire, also meton. for ‘fire’ (Il.). Dor. Aeol.
Ἅφ-, Ἄφ-, Att. vases Ηε̄φαστος. A Pre-Greek theonym; the form without -ι-
shows a typical Pre-Greek variation (see 2.6.1.1c) and points to original sy.
Ἰαπετός [m.] Iapetos (Il.). It seems obvious that the name, of a pre-Olympian
god, is Pre-Greek. A suffix -ετος is found in Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.49).
Κάβειροι [m.pl.] name of chthonic gods, especially on Samothrace and Lemnos,
as well as in Boeotia (Pi., Hdt., inscr.). The root of the name is clearly the same
as that in Κάβαρνοι, name of the priests of Demeter on Paros. This root must
have been Pre-Greek *kabary-. The palatalized consonant explains both *a
> ε and the ι; before the ν, the palatal character was neglected. See Beekes
(2004). For -ειρ- and -ν-, see 3.2.3.41 and 3.2.3.91, respectively.
Καδμῖλος [m.], one of the Κάβειροι, son of Kabeiro and Hephaistos; he is the
younger man, beside an older one and the Mother Goddess. Also Κάσμιλος,
Κάμιλλος. Variation λ / λλ (see 2.5.8) in the suffix -ιλ(λ)- (see 3.2.3.75–76). It is
probably a derivation of Κάδμος (below).
Κάδμος [m.] name of a hero, the founder of Thebes (Od.). Κασσμος (vase Rhe-
gium). The name is found for a river in Thesprotia and for a mountain and
a river in Caria. Therefore, the word is without a doubt Pre-Greek. This is
confirmed by the suffix -μ- (see 3.2.3.90) and by the name Καδμῖλος (above)
which has a suffix -ιλ- (see 3.2.3.75), which is well known in Anatolia.
Κέρκωπες [m.pl.] ‘name of two mischievous dwarfs’, which were fettered by
Heracles (Hdt.), metaph. [sg.] ‘teaser, rogue’ (Aeschin.); name of a long-tailed
ape (Manil.). κερκώπη· τέττιξ θήλεια μὴ φωνοῦσα ‘female cicala producing no
sound’ (H.). The suffix -ωπ- points to Pre-Greek origin (see 3.2.3.146).
Ὀδυσσεύς [m.] son of Laertes and Anticleia, king of the island Ithaca (Il.).
Several by-forms with λ: Ὀλυσ(σ)εύς, Ὀλυτ(τ)εύς, Ὀλισεύς, etc. (vase-inscr.),

Οὐλιξεύς (Hdn. Gr.), Lat. Ulixēs. The form with -δ- is only ascertained by epic
literature. Several variations which are typical of Pre-Greek: ο / ου (2.6.1.3d),
δ / λ (2.5.7a), υ / ι (2.6.1.4), σ(σ) / τ(τ) / ξ (2.5.5.9a). See also Beekes (2008).
Τιθωνός [m.] son of Laomedon, abducted by Eos (Il., Hes., et al.). The suffix -ων-
is Pre-Greek (see 3.2.3.145). Furnée (1972: 191) compares τιτώ = ἡμέρα (sch.
Lyc. 941), also = ἠώς, ἢ αὔριον (H.), with the variation τ / θ (see 2.5.1).
19 Toponyms and Ethnonyms
Αἰθίοπες [m.pl.] ethnonym, ‘Ethiopians’(?). Myc. pn a-i-ti-jo-qo /Aithiokws/ (or

/-ō-/). Of Pre-Greek origin in view of the suffix -οπ- (see 3.2.3.93).
Αἴσηπος [m.] hn in Mysia (Il.); also pn (Il.). No doubt a Pre-Greek name; the
structure of the word, with the suffix -ηπ-, is Pre-Greek (cf. 3.2.3.53–64).
Ἀττικός, Ἀτθίς [adj.] ‘Attic’. Derived from the same source as the name of Athens
(see Ἀθήνη in section 18 above), displaying θ, geminated τθ, and unaspirated
ττ, which are typical Pre-Greek variants (see 2.5.1 and 2.5.8).
Δαναοί [m.pl.] ‘Danaans’, a Greek tribe (Argos), used by Homer as a general
name for the Greeks. According to an ancient tradition, they took their name
from king Danaos, who came from Egypt. The name is certainly Pre-Greek;
cf. 3.2.3.7 for the suffix. A country Danaja (Tnjw), with a city Mukana, is
mentioned in inscriptions from Egypt, from Amenophis iii (1390–1352bc)
and earlier from Tuthmosis iii (1437bc); see dnp s.v. Danaos and Latacz
(2001: 150–165).
Ἠλύσιον [adj.] epithet of πεδίον (δ 563, A. R. 4, 811, Str., Plu.), also without a head
substantive (ig 14, 1750); rarely Ἠλύσιος λειμών, χῶρος (Luc., late inscr.), the
abode of the Blessed after death. A derivative in -ιο- from a geographical
name *Alut- or *Elut-, with a long initial vowel which may be metrically
conditioned. Note the suffix -υσ- (see 3.2.3.135).
Θεσσαλία [f.] ‘Thessaly’ (Hdt.). Att. Θετταλ-; Thess. Πετθαλ-, Boeot. Φεττ-. No
doubt a Pre-Greek name, probably from *Kwettyal- (see 2.5.5.9a and 2.5.6).
Κέως, -ω [f.] one of the Cyclades (inscr., Str.). Fick (1905: 59) compares Κέως
Κήιος Κεῖος with Τέως Τήιος and Κόως Κῶιος and Cret. Λάτως Λάτιος, and notes
as older forms Κήως Τήως Κώως.
Κώρυκος [m.] a promontory in Cilicia (h. Ap.). The structure of the word looks
Pre-Greek; note the suffix -υκ- (see 3.2.3.119).
Λῆμνος [f.] a Greek island. Myc. ra-mi-ni-jo /lāmnios/ ‘man from Lemnos’, Dor.
Λᾶμνος. No doubt a Pre-Greek name, note the suffix -μν- (cf. 3.2.3.17).
Ὄθρυς, -υος [f.] high chain of mountains in Thessaly (Hdt., Str.), also ὄθρυν·
164 chapter 6
Κρῆτες τὸ ὄρος ‘mountain (Cret.)’ (H.). The name is no doubt Pre-Greek.

Furnée (1972: 198) compares the Myc. tn o-du-ru-we, -wo (cf. Ruijgh 1967a:
185439), which points to *Ὄδρυς, with variation θ / δ (see 2.5.1).
Ὄλυμπος [m.] name of several mountain ranges in Greece and the Near East,
especially at the borders of Thessaly and Macedonia; seat of Zeus and of the
gods (Il.). Ruijgh (1967a: 173) points to a variant Οὐλυμπ-, Myc. u-ru-p-, with
ο / ου (see 2.6.1.3d). Also note the suffix -υμπ-, a prenasalized variant of -υπ-
(see 2.5.2 and 3.2.3.132).
Παρνᾱσ(σ)ός [m.] mountain chain in Phocis (Pi., Od., Hdt.). It clearly contains
a Pre-Greek suffix (see 3.2.3.29–30); note the interchange σσ / σ (see 2.5.8).
Beekes (2009) explains the phoneme σσ / ττ from Pre-Greek *ky (see also
2.5.5.9a).
Φαιστός [?] town in Crete, in the Peloponnese, in Thessaly (Plu.). A Pre-Greek
name (delg); note the suffix -ιστ- (see 3.2.3.86). Strangely enough the name
is not mentioned in Fick (1905), except on p. 15, where no interpretation is
given.
Φοίνῑκες [m.pl.] people on the west coast of Syria, also the inhabitants of
Carthage as Phoenician colonists. Older name of Caria. The suffix -ῑκ- is
Ὠκεανός [m.] name of a river that surrounds the world, ‘ocean’ (since Il.). Also
Ὠγήν, -ῆνος (H.), Ὠγενός (Lyc., St. Byz.), Ὠγηνός (Pherecyd. Syr. Fr. 2 D). The
variation κ / γ and the suffix -αν- point to Pre-Greek origin (see 2.5.1 and
3.2.3.19), as does the vocalic variation. In the framework of Pre-Greek, the
alternation ε / η (see 2.6.1.2i) may be due to *a or *ā influenced by a preceding
palatalized consonant. This is confirmed by the following: as the influence
of the palatal must have been strongest in the immediately adjacent part
of the vowel, and less in the more remote part, this resulted in a sequence
[æa] which was rendered as -εα- in Ὠκεανός. In other forms, the vowel was
changed as a whole, which resulted in Ὠγήν. Therefore, I reconstruct a
Pre-Greek form *ūkyan (with ὠ- from *ū-, cf. 2.6.1.3k).
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Index
Index to the lemmas in chapter 6. The numbers refer to the subsections.
ἄβδελλον 13 ἀκτή 5.1

ἄβδης 9.4 ἄκυλος 3.2
ἀβέρβηλον 13 ἀλαπάζω 15
ἄβλαροι 3.1 ἄλαρα 9.6
ἀβρυτοί 4.6 ἀλίβας 7.1
ἀγασυλλίς 3.3 ἁλιβδύω 15
ἄγγος 9.2 ἄλοξ 5.1
ἀγερρακάβος 5.2 ἀμάμαξυς 5.2
ἄγλις 3.2 ἀμάναν 9.8
ἀγνύς 9.4 ἅμαξα 9.8
ἄγριππος 3.1 ἀμαρύσσω 15
ἄγυια 10.2 ἄμιθα 6
ἀγχίλωψ 7.2 ἅμιλλα 12.1
ἄγχουσα 3.4 ἀμιχθαλόεσσα 3.1
ἄγχραν 13 ἄμοιος 13
ἀδαγμός 7.2 ἀμοργίς 8
ἄδρυα 3.2 ἀμπλακίσκω 15
ἀθέλγειν 15 ἄμπυξ 8
Ἀθήνη 18 ἀμυγδάλη 3.2
ἀθήρ 5.1 ἀμύς 4.4
ἀθραγένη 3.4 ἀμύσσω 15
αἴγειρος 3.1 ἀμυσχρός 13
αἴγιθος 4.3 ἄναξ 11.1
αἰγυπιός 4.3 ἄναυρος 1
αἴδωσσα 10 ἀνδράχνη 3.2
Αἰθίοπες 19 ἄνηθον 3.3
αἴθουσα 10 ἄνθραξ 2
αἶκλον 6 ἀνθρηδών 4.7
αἰπύς 13 ἄνθρυσκον 3.3
αἴσακος 3.1 ἄνθρωπος 11.1
αἰσάλων 4.3 ἄννησον 3.3
Αἴσηπος 19 ἀπάτη 14
αἰσυμνάω 15 ἄπαφος 4.3
αἴφνης 16 ἀπήνη 9.8
αἶψα 16 ἀπολάντιον 3.4
ἀκακαλίς 3.4 Ἀπόλλων 18
ἀκακία 3.1 ἄραβος 17
ἄκαστος 3.1 ἀράζω 15
ἄκινος 3.3 ἄρακις 9.2
ἀκκώ 12.5 ἄρακος 3.2
ἄκορνα 3.4 ἀρασχάδες 5.2
ἀκραιφνής 13 ἄρβηλος 9.4
ἀκρεμών 3.1 ἀρβύλη 8
ἀκρίς 4.7 ἄργελλα 10
index 171
Ἄρης 18 βαῖβυξ 4.3

Ἀριάδνη 18 βάκηλος 13
ἄρπεζα 10.2 βάλαγρος 4.5
ἄρπιξ 3.4 βαλανεῖον 10
Ἅρπυια 12.5 βαλαύστιον 3.2
Ἄρτεμις 18 βαλβίς 12.1
ἀσάμινθος 9.1 βάλλεκα 2
ἄσβολος 2 βαλμός 7.1
Ἀσγελάτας 18 βάναυσος 13
ἄσιλλα 9.4 βανωτός 9.2
ἀσκάλαβος 4.4 βάραθρον 1
ἀσκάλαφος 4.3 βάραξ 6
ἀσκαλώπας 4.3 βάρβιτος 12.3
ἀσκάντης 9.9 βασιλεύς 11.1
ἀσκηρά 3.1 βασκᾶς 4.3
Ἀσκληπιός 18 βασυνίας 6
ἄσκυρον 3.3 βάταλος 11.1
ἀσπάλαξ 4.2 βατίς 4.5
ἀστακός 4.6 βάτραχος 4.4
ἀσταφίς 5.2 βδάλλω 15
ἄσταχυς 5.1 βδελυρός 13
ἀστεροπή 1 βεβρός 13
ἀστράβη 9.7 βίδην 12.3
ἀστράγαλος 7.1 βίλλος 7.1
ἀσφάραγος 1 7.1 βλάβη 14
ἀσφάραγος 2 3.2 βλαισός 13
ἀσφόδελος 3.4 βλαύτη 8
ἀτάλυμνος 3.1 βλέννα 7.1
Ἄτλας 18 βλέτυες 4.7
ἀτμήν 11.1 βλῆχνον 3.4
ἄτρακτος 9.4 βλήχων 3.3
ἀτράφαξυς 3.2 βόλβιτον 4.1
ἀττέλαβος 4.7 βόλινθος 4.2
Ἀττικός, Ἀτθίς 19 βόμβος 17
αὐτοκάβδαλος 13 βόμβυξ 4.7
ἀφάκη 3.4 βουβάλιον 8
ἄφαρ 16 βούπτινον 3.4
ἀφαυρός 13 βοῦτ(τ)ις 9.2
ἄφνω 16 βουτάνη 9.8
ἄφρισσα 3.4 βράγχος 7.2
ἀχαρνώς 4.5 Βριτόμαρτις 18
ἄχερδος 3.1 βριτύ 13
Ἀχιλλεύς 18 βρόγχος 7.1
ἄχνη 5.1 βρόμος 5.1
ἀχραδάμυλα 4.6 βρόξαι 15
ἀχράς 3.1 βροῦκος 4.7
ἄχυρα 5.1 βρόχος 9.9
ἄχωρ 7.2 βρύσσος 4.6
ἀψίνθιον 3.4 βυθός 1
172 index
βύσταξ 7.1 Διόνυσος 18

βυτίνη 9.2 διφάω 15
βύττος 7.1 διφθέρα 4.1
βωληνή 5.2 δίψα 7.2
γαδή 9.2 δνόφος 1
γάδος 4.5 δοθιήν 7.2
γάθια 6 δοίδυξ 9.4
γάλινθοι 3.2 δόναξ 3.4
γάνδος 14 δορύκνιον 3.4
γέλγις 3.2 δοῦπος 17
γέλενος 3.4 δρόσος 1
γέφυρα 10.2 δρύπτω 15
γῆ 1 δρώψ 11.1
γη(γ)γήλιξ 4.2 ἔγχελυς 4.5
γηθυλλίς 3.2 εἱαμενή 1
γίγγλυμος 9.4 εἰλαπίνη 12.4
γίγγρος 12.3 Εἰλείθυια 18
γλαβρήνη 3.4 Ἑκάτη 18
γλήνη 7.1 ἐλαία 3.1
γναθμός 7.1 ἑλάνη 9.9
γναμπτούς 9.7 ἑλεδώνη 4.6
γνάμπτω 15 ἕλινος 5.2
γνοτέρα 4.5 ἑλλέβορος 3.3
γνυπ- 15 ἔλλοψ 4.5
γοργυρα 10.2 ἕλμις 4.8
γουνός 1 ἔλπος 6
γοῦρος 6 ἐξαπίνης 16
γραψαῖος 4.6 ἐρέβινθος 3.2
γρῖπος 9.2 ἐρέχθω 15
γρυμέα 9.2 ἔριθος 11.1
γρυπός 13 ἐρινεός 3.1
γυργαθός 9.2 Ἐρινύς 18
γύψ 4.3 Ἐριχθόνιος 18
γῶπας 4.3 Ἑρμῆς 18
δαγύς 12.2 ἐρυσίβη 3.5
Δάειρα 18 ἐρυσίπελας 7.2
δάκτυλος 7.1 ἐσσήν 12.5
Δαναοί 19 ἑστία 10
δάρπη 9.2 ἐσχάρα 10
δαῦκος 3.4 εὔληρα 9.7
δάφνη 3.1 εὔοχθος 13
δέπας 9.3 Εὔριπος 1
δέφω 15 ἑψία 12.1
διθύραμβος 12.4 ἕψω 15
δικεῖν 15 ζεκελτίδες 3.2
δίκελλα 9.4 ζιγνίς 4.4
δίκταμνον 3.3 ἠλεός 13
δίκτυον 9.5 Ἠλύσιον 19
δίλαξ 3.4 ἠπεροπεύς 11.3
index 173
ἠπίαλος 7.2 ἴθυμβος 12.4

Ἥρα 18 ἰκνύς 2
ἤρυγγος 1 3.4 ἴκταρ 4.5
ἤρυγγος 2 4.1 ἴνδουρος 4.2
ἥρως 12.5 ἴξαλος 4.1
Ἥφαιστος 18 ἰξύς 7.1
θᾶκος 9.1 ἶρις 1
θάλαμος 10 ἴσκαι 3.5
θάλασσα 1 ἰσχίον 7.1
θάλπω 15 ἴτον 3.5
θαλυκρός 13 ἴυγξ 4.3
θάμβος 14 ἰύζω 15
θάμνος 3.1 ἴφθιμος 13
θάπτα 4.7 ἴφυον 3.3
Θαργήλια 12.4 ἴχλα 4.5
θαῦμα 14 ἴψ 4.8
θέα 14 ἴωψ 4.5
-θελυμνος 13 κάβαισος 11.3
θέμις 11.1 Κάβειροι 18
θεράπων 11.1 κάβουρος 4.6
Θεσσαλία 19 κάγκανος 13
θής 11.1 καγκύλας 4.6
θησαυρός 10 κάδαμος 13
θίασος 12.4 Καδμῖλος 18
θιβρός 13 Κάδμος 18
θόλος 10 κάδουσα 5.2
θόρυβος 14 κάδυρος 4.1
θρίαμβος 12.4 καθαρός 13
θριγκός 10 καιάδας 1
θρίδαξ 3.2 καιέτα 3.3
θρῖναξ 9.4 καλαμίνθη 3.3
θρόνα 8 κάλανδρος 4.3
θρυαλλίς 3.3 καλαῦροψ 9.5
θρύον 3.4 καλινδέομαι 15
θύαρος 3.4 καλλαρίας 4.5
θύλακος 9.2 κάλπη 12.1
θύμαλλος 4.5 καλύβη 10
θυμάλωψ 2 κάλυγες 7.1
θύμβρα 3.3 κάλυξ 9.3
θύννος 4.5 καλύπτω 15
θύσανος 8 κάμαξ 5.2
θύσθλα 12.4 κάμμαρος 4.6
θῶμιγξ 9.9 κάμπη 4.5
θώραξ 9.6 κάναβος 12.2
ἰάλεμος 14 κάνδαρος 2
ἴαμβος 12.3 κάνθαρος 4.7
Ἰαπετός 18 κανθήλια 9.4
ἰβίσκος 3.4 κανθός 7.1
ἴδη 1 κανθύλη 7.2
174 index
κάννα 3.4 κιγκλίς 10

κάνναθρον 9.8 κίγκλος 4.3
κανών 9.9 κίδαφος 4.2
καπάνα 9.8 κιθάρα 12.3
κάραβος 4.6 κίκαμα 3.2
κάρδοπος 9.4 κικίβαλος 4.6
καρκίνος 4.6 κίκιννος 7.1
κάρον 4.7 κικκαβαῦ 17
καρπαία 12.3 κίκκασος 9.9
καρπάλιμος 13 κίκκη 7.3
κάρπασον 3.3 κίκους 4.7
κάρταλλος 9.2 κικριβιντίς 3.2
καρύκη 6 κιλλίβας 9.9
κάρυον 3.2 κίλλιξ 1 9.2
κάρχαρος 13 κίλλιξ 2 4.1
κασαλβάς 11.3 κίμβιξ 11.3
κασκάνδιξ 3.2 κιναβεύματα 11.3
κασσίτερος 2 κινάβρα 4.1
κασσύω 15 κίνδαξ 13
καυαλός 13 κίνδυνος 14
καύαξ 4.3 κινώπετον 4.4
καχλάζω 15 κιξάλλης 11.3
κάχληξ 2 κίρα 4.2
κάχρυς 5.1 κίρβα 9.2
κάψα 9.2 κιρκαία 3.3
κειρία 9.1 κιρσός 7.2
κεκρύφαλος 8 κίσηρις 2
κελεα 12.1 κίσθος 3.1
κελεός 4.3 κίσιρνις 4.3
κέλυφος 3.2 κισσός 3.4
κέπφος 4.3 κισσύβιον 9.3
κεράμβυξ 4.7 κίχλη 4.3
Κέρκωπες 18 κλαδαρός 13
κέρνος 9.2 κλαμβός 13
κερτομέω 15 κλανίον 8
Κέως 19 κλεμμύς 4.4
κῆβος 4.2 κλοτοπεύω 15
κηθίς 9.2 κλύβατις 3.4
κηκίς 7.1 κλῶμαξ 2
κήλαστρος 3.1 κλών 3.4
κημός 9.7 κνάπτω 15
κήρ 12.5 κνέφας 1
κήρυξ 11.3 κνώδαλον 4.2
κητώεσσαν 1 κνώψ 4.4
κηφήν 4.7 κοάλεμος 11.3
κῆχος 1 κόαλοι 11.3
κίβισις 9.2 κόβαθος 9.2
κιβωτός 9.2 κόβακτρα 14
κίγκασος 12.1 κόβαλος 13
index 175
κόβειρος 11.3 κραῦρος 13

κοκ(κ)άλια 4.6 κρούναι 3.1
κόλαβρος 12.3 κρύσταλλος 1
κόλαξ 11.3 κρώπιον 9.4
κολάπτω 15 κρωσσός 9.2
κόλαφος 12.1 κτύπος 17
κόλλαβος 6 κύαθος 9.3
κόλλιξ 6 κύαμος 3.2
κόλλουρος 4.5 κυβερνάω 15
κόλλοψ 12.3 κυβιστάω 15
κόλλυβος 9.9 κυδοιμός 11.2
κολλύρα 6 κυδώνια 3.2
κολοβός 13 κύλα 7.1
κολοιός 4.3 κυλίνδω 15
κολοιτία 3.1 κύλιξ 9.3
κολοκύνθη 3.2 κύλληβις 13
κολοσσός 12.2 κύμβαχος 13
κολοφών 1 κύμβη 1 9.3
κολύβδαινα 4.6 κύμβη 2 7.1
κόλυμβος 4.3 κύμινδις 4.3
κολύμφατος 3.1 κύνδαλος 9.9
κόμαρος 3.1 κυπάρισσος 3.1
κόμβα 4.3 κύπειρον 3.4
κόμβος 9.9 κύπελλον 9.3
κόνδαξ 12.1 κυπρῖνος 4.5
κόνδυλος 7.1 κύπτω 15
κονίλη 3.3 κύρτος 9.5
κόνυζα 3.4 κύσθος 7.1
κόρδαξ 12.3 κύτινος 3.2
κορδύλη 7.2 κύτισος 3.1
κόρδυλος 4.5 κύφελλα 7.1
κορδύλος 4.7 κύχραμος 4.3
κορίαννον 3.3 κυψέλη 9.2
Κορύβαντες 12.5 κῶβαξ 4.7
κόρυδος 4.3 κώδεια 3.4
κόρυμβος 9.8 κώδων 12.3
κόρυς 9.6 κώμυς 5.1
κορυφή 7.1 κώνειον 3.3
κόρχορος 3.3 κῶνος 3.1
κορχυρέα 10.2 κώνωψ 4.7
κοσύμβη 8 Κώρυκος 19
κοτίλιον 9.2 κώρυκος 9.2
κότταβος 12.1 λαβύρινθος 10
κοτύλη 9.3 λαγκρύζεσθαι 15
κόφινος 9.2 λάγυνος 9.2
κόχλος 4.6 λαίγματα 6
κράμβος 13 λαίθαργος 13
κραπαταλ(λ)ός 4.5 λαικάζω 15
κρατευταί 10 λαιμός 7.1
176 index
λαισήϊα 9.6 μακέλη 9.4

λαῖφα 9.6 μαλάχη 3.4
λαιφάσσω 15 μαλθακός 13
λάμπη 5.2 μάλθη 9.9
λαμπήνη 9.8 μάλκη 7.2
λαμυρός 13 μαντία 3.2
λαμψάνη 3.2 μάνυζα 3.2
λάπαθον 3.2 μαράσσαι 4.1
λάπαθος 9.5 μάργος 13
λάρναξ 9.2 μαρίλη 2
λάρυγξ 7.1 μαρῖνος 4.5
λάσται 11.3 μαρίσκος 3.4
λάταξ 1 5.2 μαρμαίρω 15
λάταξ 2 4.2 μάρπτω 15
λατμενεία 11.1 μάρσιππος 9.2
λατραβός 13 μάρτυς 11.3
λάτρον 14 μάστιξ 9.4
λαυκανίη 7.1 μαστός 7.1
λαύρα 10.2 μαστροπός 11.1
λάφυρα 11.2 μασχάλη 7.1
λαφύσσω 15 ματτύη 6
λεβηρίς 4.4 μάχαιρα 9.4
λέβης 9.2 μέγαρον 10
λείριον 3.4 μέδιμνος 5.1
λείτωρ 12.5 μέλαθρον 10
λεκάνη 9.3 μέλλαξ 11.1
λέκιθος 5.1 μέμβραξ 4.7
λέμφος 7.2 μεμβράς 4.5
λέπαδνον 9.7 μέρμερος 13
λέπω 15 μέρμις 9.9
λέχριος 13 μέρμνος 4.3
λήδιον 8 μέροπες 11.1
λήθαργος 7.2 μέσαβον 9.4
λήκυθος 9.2 μέσακλον 9.4
Λῆμνος 19 μέταλλον 2
λίμινθες 4.8 μήδεα 7.1
λιπερνής 13 μῆνιγξ 7.1
λίσπος 13 μῆριγξ 3.4
λογγάζω 15 μήρινθος 9.9
λόκκη 8 μηρύομαι 15
λυκάβας 14 μηχανή 9.9
λυπτά 11.3 μικρός 13
λύρα 12.3 μῖλαξ 11.1
λώβηξ 4.3 μιλ(λ)ός 13
λώγασος 9.4 μίλτος 2
μάγγανον 9.9 μιμαίκυλον 3.2
μάδρυα 3.2 μίμαρκυς 6
μάκαρ 13 μίνθη 3.3
μακεδνός 13 μισέω 15
index 177
μογέω 15 ὄλυνθος 3.2

μολοβρός 13 ὄλυραι 5.1
μόναπος 4.2 ὅμιλος 11.2
μόροξος 9.4 ὄμπνη 5.1
μότα 3.2 ὄμφαξ 5.2
μόχθος 14 ὄνωνις 3.4
μοχλός 9.9 ὀπιτίων 3.2
μύδος 13 ὀρεσχάς 5.2
μύδρος 2 ὅρκυς 4.5
μύκηρος 3.2 ὅρμινον 3.3
μύκης 3.5 ὄροβος 3.2
μύκλος 13 ὀρόδαμνος 3.1
μύξα 3.1 ὀρόντιον 3.3
μύρτος 3.1 ὅρπηξ 3.1
μύσταξ 7.1 ὄρυμος 12.5
μυστίλη 6 ὄρχος 5.2
μυττός 7.1 ὄστλιγξ 7.1
μυττωτός 6 ὄστρακον 4.6
μωκάομαι 15 ὄστρειον, -εον 4.6
μώλυζα 3.2 ὀστρύα 3.1
μώλωψ 7.2 ὀσφῦς 7.1
νάκη 4.1 ὄσχη 5.2
νάρθηξ 3.4 οὐλαί 5.1
νάρκισσος 3.4 οὔλαφος 7.1
νεκύδαλ(λ)ος 4.7 οὖραξ 4.3
νήθουσα 3.4 ὀφθαλμός 7.1
νῆσος 1 ὄχθοιβος 8
νικύλεον 3.1 πάγασα 10
νυκτάλωψ 7.2 πάγουρος 4.6
νύμφη 12.5 παλάθη 6
νῶκαρ 7.2 παλαστή 7.1
νωχελής 13 πανδούρα 12.3
ξίρις 3.4 παρδακός 13
ξίφος 9.6 Παρνασ(σ)ός 19
ὀβελός 9.9 πάρνοψ 4.7
ὄβρια 4.2 πάσσαλος 9.9
ὄβριμος 13 πείρινθα 9.2
ὀδάξ 16 πελεκάν 4.3
ὀδόλυνθοι 3.2 πέλεκυς 9.6
Ὀδυσσεύς 18 πέλλα 2
Ὄθρυς 19 πέρδιξ 4.3
οἰσπώτη 4.1 πέτευρον 9.4
οἰσύπη 4.1 πέτρα 1
ὀλαιτοί 14 πήγανον 3.3
ὄλβος 14 πηλαμύς 4.5
ὄλισβος 7.3 πήληξ 9.6
ὀλόπτω 15 πῆλυξ 1
ὀλούφω 15 πηνέλοψ 4.3
Ὄλυμπος 19 πίθος 9.2
178 index
πίναξ 9.9 σαλαμίνθη 4.7

πίνη 4.6 σάλος 1
πινυτός 13 σαλός 13
πίσυγγος 11.3 σαλούσιον 9.2
πίφιγξ 4.3 σάλπη 4.5
πλάθανον 6 σάλπιγξ 12.3
πλάστιγξ 9.6 σάμαξ 3.4
πλάταξ 4.5 σάμος 1
πλατυγίζω 15 σάνδαλον 8
πλέθρον 9.9 σανδαράκη 3.1
πλίνθος 10 σάνδυξ 9.2
πόλεμος 11.2 σαπέρδης 4.5
πόποι 17 σαργάνη 9.2
ποππύζω 15 σάρδα 6
πόρπη 9.9 σαρωνίς 3.1
πόσθη 7.1 σάτυρος 12.5
πρανώ 4.7 σαυκόν 13
πρυλέες 11.2 σαυκρόν 13
πρυμνός 7.1 σαῦλος 13
πρύτανις 11.1 σαύρα 4.4
πτελέα 3.1 σαύσαξ 3.2
πτίλον 4.1 σαχνός 13
πύργος 10 σέρφος 4.7
πώλυπος 4.6 σηλαγγεύς 11.3
πῶυξ 4.3 σῆραγξ 2
ῥαβάττειν 15 σήραμβος 4.7
ῥάβδος 9.9 σιαγών 7.1
ῥάδαμνος 3.1 σίαλος 4.1
ῥαδινός 13 σίγραι 4.2
ῥάδιξ 3.1 σιγύν(ν)ης 9.5
ῥαθάμιγξ 1 σίδη 3.1
ῥαθαπυγίζω 15 σικύα 3.2
ῥαιβός 13 σίλουρος 4.5
ῥαίνω 15 σίλφη 4.7
ῥάμφος 4.3 σίλφιον 3.3
ῥάξ 5.2 σίναπι 3.3
ῥαπίς 8 σινίον 9.4
ῥάφανος 3.2 σιπύη 9.2
ῥάχις 7.1 σιρός 5.1
ῥέμβομαι 15 σισύρα 8
ῥητίνη 3.1 σίττα 17
ῥόθος 1 σιττύβαι 8
ῥοῖβδος 1 σίττυβος 9.2
ῥοῖζος 1 σίφαρος 9.8
ῥώδιγγες 7.2 σιφλός 13
σαβακός 13 σιωπάω 15
σαγήνη 9.5 σκαλαπάζει 15
σαθέριον 4.2 σκαλίας 3.2
σαθρός 13 σκαλίδρις 4.3
index 179
σκαμβός 13 σπέος 1
σκαμ(μ)ωνία 3.3 σπήλαιον 1
σκάνδιξ 3.4 σπιλάς 1
σκαπέρδα 12.4 σποδός 2
σκάπετος 10.2 σπολάς 9.6
σκαρδαμύσσω 15 σπυρίς 9.2
σκέπαρνος 9.4 σταθεύω 15
σκερβόλλω 15 σταφυλή 5.2
σκίγγος 4.4 στάχυς 5.1
σκιδαρόν 13 στῖφος 11.2
σκιμαλίζω 15 στόνυξ 1
σκιμβός 13 στόρθυγξ 7.1
σκίναξ 4.2 στράγξ 1
σκινδακίσαι 7.3 στρεβλός 13
σκινδαλ(α)μος 9.9 στρέφω, -ομαι 15
σκίνδαρος 7.3 στρί(γ)ξ 4.3
σκινδαψός 12.3 στρογγύλος 13
σκῖρος 7.2 στρύχνον 3.3
σκολόπενδρα 4.7 στύπος 9.9
σκόλοψ 10 συαγρίς 4.5
σκόλυμος 3.2 σῦκον 3.2
σκολύπτειν 15 σῦριγξ 12.3
σκορόβυλος 4.7 σύριχος 9.2
σκορπίος 4.7 σφάγνος 3.1
σκύβαλον 6 σφάκος 3.3
σκύρον 3.3 σφένδαμνος 3.1
σκῦρος 2 σφενδόνη 9.9
σκύτη 7.1 σφίγγω 15
σκώψ 4.3 Σφίγξ 12.5
σμαραγέω 15 σφίδες 6
σμάρδικον 4.3 σφονδύλη 4.7
σμαρίς 4.5 σφόνδυλος 7.1
σμῖλαξ 3.1 σφρᾱγίς, -η- 9.9
σμίνθος 4.2 σχελίς 6
σμοιός 13 σχενδύλη 9.4
σμύρις 2 σχοῖνος 3.4
σμῶδιξ 7.2 σῶρι 2
σόγκος, -χ- 3.4 τάγυρι 14
σόρνιξα 3.2 τάγχουρος 2
σπάκελος 7.1 τάμισος 6
σπάλαθρον 9.4 τανθαρύζω 15
σπάλαξ 4.2 τάπης 9.1
σπάνις 14 ταρβέω 15
σπανός 13 τάργανον 5.2
σπαράσιον 4.3 τάριχος 6
σπάρος 4.5 τάρπη 9.2
σπατάγγης 4.6 ταρχύω 15
σπατάλη 11.1 τελλίνη 4.6
σπέλεθος 4.1 τένθης 11.3
180 index
τενθρηδών 4.7 φαλά 7.1

τέραμνα 10 φάλαγξ 9.9
τέρμινθος 3.1 φαλακρός 7.1
τέρχνος 3.1 φαλικρόν 13
τεῦτλον 3.2 φάλλαινα 4.2
τήβεννα, -ος 8 φαλλός 7.1
τήθεα 4.6 φαλός 13
τηλία 9.1 φάραγξ 1
τιθασός 4.1 φάρμακον 3.3
τιθύμαλλος 3.3 φάρυγξ 7.1
Τιθωνός 18 φάσγανον 9.6
τίτανος 10 φάσκωλος 9.2
τιτρώσκω 15 φάτνη 9.4
τίφυον 3.4 φαττάγης 4.2
τολύπη 4.1 φαῦλος 13
τονθορύζω 15 φαῦσιγξ 7.2
τόξον 9.6 φέναξ 11.3
τοπάζιον 2 φήληξ 3.1
τόρδυλον 3.3 φιάλη 9.3
τράμπις 9.8 φιβάλεως 3.2
τραύξανα 3.1 φιδάκνη 5.2
τράφηξ 10 φλέδων 11.3
τρέφω 15 φληναφάω 15
τριττύς 11.1 φλόμος 3.3
τρύβλιον 9.3 φλύαξ 11.3
τρώγω 15 φλύκταινα 7.2
τρωξαλλίς 4.7 Φοίνικες 19
τύκος 9.4 φοῖνιξ 13
τύμβος 10 φόλυες 13
τύμπανον 12.3 φοξός 13
τύραννος 11.1 φορίνη 4.1
τύρβη 14 φορκόν 13
τύρσις 10 φόρμιγξ 12.3
ὑάκινθος 3.4 φριμάσσομαι 15
ὕαλος 2 φρύνη 4.4
ὕδνον 3.5 φύλαξ 11.3
ὕνις 9.4 φύλοπις 11.2
ὕραξ 4.2 φωλεός 4.2
ὕρχη 9.2 φωριαμός 9.2
ὕσγη 3.1 φῶτιγξ 12.3
ὕσκλος, -χ- 8 χάβος 9.7
ὕσσακος 9.9 χαλάδριον 9.1
ὑστιακόν 9.3 χαλινός 9.7
ὕστριξ 4.2 χάλις 5.2
φάγρος 4.5 χάννα 4.5
φάζαινα 4.1 χαράσσω 15
φαίκανον 3.3 χέδροπα 3.2
Φαιστός 19 χελιδών 4.3
φάκελος 9.9 χελλών 4.5
index 181
χελύνη 1 7.1 ψεύδομαι 15

χελύνη 2 4.4 ψέφας 1
χέραδος 2 ψιάζω 12.1
χηράμβη 4.6 ψίαθος 9.1
χηραμός 1 ψιάς 7.2
χῖδρον 5.1 ψίζομαι 15
χλαῖνα 8 ψίθιος 5.2
χλεμερόν 13 ψιθυρίζω 15
χλῆδος 10 ψίμυθος 2
χοῖνιξ 5.1 ψόαι 7.1
χρέμυς 4.5 ψόθος 14
ψάδιον 16 ψοῖθος 2
ψαθάλλω 15 ψόλος 2
ψαθυρός 13 ψυχή 12.5
ψακάς 1 ὠδίς 7.2
ψαλάσσω 15 Ὠκεανός 19
ψαλίς 10.2 ὤκιμον 3.3
ψαλόν 9.7 ὠλίγγη 7.1
ψέλιον 8 ὤρυγγες 4.2

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Pre-Greek

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/iiel

Robert S.P. Beekes

Beekes, R. S. P. (Robert Stephen Paul), author

Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

4 The Unity of Pre-Greek 45

6 The Pre-Greek Lexicon 47

8 Attire and Jewellery 106

One of Robert Beekes’ main objectives in writing his Etymological Dictionary of

For book abbreviations, see the bibliography.

Aeol. Aeolic Lat. Latin

2 Grammar and Text

acc. accusative bc before Christ

compar. comparative nom. nominative

3 Authors and Works

A. Aeschylus Ath. Athenaeus

Eup. Eupolis Opp. Oppianus

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2014 | doi: 10.1163/9789004279445_002

1 The Phonemic System of Pre-Greek

Voiceless, voiced and aspirated stops may interchange in Pre-Greek words,

© koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2014 | doi: 10.1163/9789004279445_003

remarks in Beekes (1995/6: 12). From Mycenaean, we have a-to-ro-qo (ἄνθρω-

Note that η often represents ᾱ (γᾱθυλλίς / γηθ-), and as our knowledge of

2a Characteristic Phonemes and Phoneme Clusters

Stops:5 δδ: ἄδδαι, ἄδδιξ

2b How to Recognize Words as Pre-Greek?

5 We also have to recall the occurrences of κχ, πφ, τθ (see above).

A large number of words show an initial σ- before a consonant, which is absent

5.1 Voiceless / Voiced / Aspirated Stop

5.4 Labial Stops / μ / u̯

Labial stop / μ (Furnée 1972: 203–227). Examples: ἀρβύλη / ἄρμυλα; βάρβιτος /

1. a. πτ may represent a single phoneme py, as we saw in 2.1. Examples

1. b. κτ is most probably explained like 5b, discussed above. Examples

As we saw, it is very difficult to determine what exactly happened in each case;

5.6 Velar / Labial / Dental Stops; Labiovelars

It is remarkable that the variants mostly agree in voice / aspiration. Since

κ / π: κλάνιον / πλανίς; βράκαλον / ῥόπαλον

5.7 Dentals / Liquids

a. δ / λ: ἄβλαρος / βδαροί (Furnée 1972: 33027); δάφνη / λάφνη; Ὀδυσσεύς / Ὀλυσ-

c. λ / ρ: ἀζηλίς / ἀζηρίς; κλίβανος / κρίβανος; κλῶμαξ / κρῶμαξ.

5.8 Simple / Geminate

λ / λλ: βαλ(λ)ήν; θυλίς / θυλλίς; σπέλεθος / σπέλληξι dat.pl.; μακέλη / μάκελλα

5.10 Velar or Dental Stop / Zero

κ / zero: κάνδαρος / ἄνθραξ; καλινδέομαι / ἀλίνδω; κόγχναι / ὄγχναι; κανθήλιον /

Loss of a dental in inlaut: νέτωπον / νίωπον; ἰθουλίς / ἰουλίς; ἀσίδαρος / ἀσίαρος.

5.11 ν-, λ- / Zero

5.12 Metathesis, Shift of Aspiration

5.13 Secondary Phonetic Developments

2. α > ο before υ in the following syllable. The a was probably pronounced a

5.14 Other Variation

supposed to continue *pkt-. If we assume a cluster *kdn- in our example, it

6.1 Single Vowels (Timbre)

3l. ο / ε. Example: γοργυρα / γεργυρα.

4. ι / υ. There is some variation between ι and υ, but I do not know how to

5. υ / ε. Example: γυργαθός / γέργαθος.

The behavior of the diphthongs may be summarized as follows:

αι / ει and (vice versa) ει / αι

All this variation is understandable in terms of adaptation from a three-vowel

supposed to continue pkt-. If we assume a cluster kdn- in our example, it