Pneumonia in Adults:

t h e Pr a c t i c a l E m e r g e n c y
Department Perspective
a,b,c,
Karen G.H. Woolfrey, MD, FRCP(C) *

KEYWORDS
 Pneumonia  Community-acquired  Classification  Treatment
 Adult  Pneumococcus

INTRODUCTION AND PERSPECTIVE

Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung most commonly caused by infection with

bacteria, viruses, and other organisms. It is both a common and a potentially serious
disease. It is estimated that there were more than 500,000 hospital admissions in the
United States in 2009 from pneumonia. Whereas pneumonia managed as an outpa-
tient is a less severe disease, pneumonia requiring hospitalization is associated with
approximately 15% mortality. Pneumonia is often a complication of a preexisting
condition or infection such as influenza. The 2009 national vital statistics identified
pneumonia and influenza as the eighth leading cause of death.1 Pneumonia consis-
tently accounts for most of these deaths. Close to 90% of the deaths attributed to
pneumonia occur in the population older than 65 years. In this cohort, pneumonia
and influenza combine as the seventh leading cause of death.2,3
The Center for Disease Control’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
recommends annual influenza vaccination for everyone older than 6 months.4 (The
emergence of serious drug-resistant pneumococci also accentuates the urgent
need for pneumococcal immunization. Together, pneumonia and influenza repre-
sented a cost to the US economy in 2005 of $40.2 billion. In 2010, the economic costs
of all lung diseases were projected to be approximately $173.4 billion.5)
The challenge for emergency department (ED) care is to recognize the diagnosis,
initiate early and appropriate empiric antibiotic therapy, risk stratify patients with
respect to severity of illness, and recognize indications for admission. This challenge

No funding support received.

The author has nothing to disclose.
a
Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
b
Royal College Emergency Medicine Residency Training Program, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
c
Postgraduate Education, Department of Emergency Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Sciences
Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
* 2075 Bayview Avenue, Room C7-53, Toronto, Ontario M4N 3M5, Canada.
E-mail address: karen.woolfrey@sunnybrook.ca

Emerg Med Clin N Am 30 (2012) 249–270

doi:10.1016/j.emc.2011.12.002 emed.theclinics.com
0733-8627/12/$ – see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
250 Woolfrey

must be balanced with an emphasis on cost-effective management, recognizing the

changing spectrum of pathogenesis and a cognizance toward variable and less
common presentations.

PATHOGENESIS

Infectious transmission in pneumonia occurs most commonly either by microaspira-

tion or by direct droplet inhalation. However, the development of clinical pneumonia
requires either a defect in host defense mechanisms or inoculation with virulent organ-
isms. Several pneumonic pathogens are spread by droplets. This mode of transmis-
sion bypasses the upper tract defenses and deposits directly in the lower
respiratory tract. Fig. 1 shows the 2 most common modes of transmission and the
infectious organisms most commonly associated with each.
Host defenses can be impaired in many ways. Fig. 2 shows some common condi-
tions that are associated with an increased risk of the development of pneumonia and
the manner in which these conditions impair host defenses.
Pneumonia can also be transmitted through less common mechanisms. These
mechanisms may include: hematogenous spread; invasion from infection in contig-
uous structures (pleura or subdiaphragmatic structures); direct inoculation (as a result
of surgery or bronchoscopy); and reactivation, most commonly in immunocompro-
mised hosts. The most common organisms that are implicated in reactivation, even
after many years, include Pneumocystis jiroveci, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and
cytomegalovirus.

CAUSE AND CLASSIFICATION

The challenge in the ED is not in making the diagnosis of pneumonia but rather in iden-
tifying the cause of the infection such that the appropriate antibiotic treatment can be
instituted in a timely manner. This strategy is of particular importance in those patients
with higher risk of mortality (ie, hospitalized inpatients). Because microbiological
testing results are not available at the time of the ED assessment, the initial therapy
with antibiotics is empiric.
To facilitate the decision-making process with regard to the institution of empiric
antibiotics, it is helpful to classify pneumonia. The traditional classification was based
on the terminology of typical or atypical pneumonia. The traditional clinical

Fig. 1. Modes of transmission of pneumonia.

 Pneumonia in Adults 251

Fig. 2. Host conditions that predispose to pneumonia. URTI, upper respiratory tract
infection.

presentation of typical pneumonia, most commonly caused by Streptococcus pneu-

moniae, included high fever, rigors, cough with rust-colored sputum, and laboratory
findings of leukocytosis. Microbiology revealed gram-positive encapsulated
diplococci. The classic chest radiograph (CXR) appearance in this setting was lobar
consolidation. Streptococcus pneumoniae accounts for approximately 60% of
community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). Fig. 3 shows a CXR with this typical
appearance.
The clinical presentation of atypical pneumonia was a more gradual onset, dry
cough, in patients who often look well and are ambulatory. Microbiology often did
not identify any organisms on Gram stain because most commonly they did not
have cell walls. The CXR appearance was more often an interstitial pattern. Fig. 4
shows a CXR with this atypical interstitial appearance. The most commonly described
atypical organisms are Mycoplasma, Legionella, and Chlamydophila. The challenge
with this traditional classification is that in clinical practice the presentations of these
infections have considerable overlap whereby a pneumococcal infection may present
with an interstitial pattern on CXR and atypical clinical symptoms and vice versa.
A more practical classification for the ED is to consider the environmental contact
combined with host factors, because this can provide guidance with respect to the

Fig. 3. (A) CXR, posteroanterior, lobar consolidation. (B) CXR, lateral, lobar consolidation.
252 Woolfrey

Fig. 4. CXR, posteroanterior, interstitial pattern.

likely offending agent. This practical classification is important for the ED in guiding
treatment. Hence, the history in the ED should focus not only on the pattern of symp-
toms but also on the setting in which the pneumonia is acquired, any geographic travel
or animal exposures in conjunction with any host risk factors that could predispose to
certain types of infection and also predict patient outcome. The classification can be
broadly divided into 4 categories: CAP; hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP); health
care-associated pneumonia (HCAP); and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP).
Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is defined as an acute infection of the
pulmonary parenchyma, occurring outside the hospital, with clinical symptoms
accompanied by the presence of an infiltrate on CXR6 The diagnosis of CAP requires
that a patient has not been hospitalized or in a nursing home in the previous 14 days.
The most common pathogens implicated in the development of CAP are Strepto-
coccus pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Hemophilus influenzae, Clamydo-
philia sp, and viruses.
Two classifications of pneumonia are associated with exposure to the health care
environment. HAP is a new respiratory infection that presents more than 48 hours after
hospital admission. HCAP is infection in patients hospitalized for 2 or more days in the
previous 90 days. This group includes patients undergoing dialysis or chemotherapy,
chronic wound care, or home intravenous antibiotics care, the immunocompromised
patient population, and patients from nursing home facilities.
VAP is pneumonia that is diagnosed more than 48 hours after a patient has been
intubated and placed on a ventilator in the intensive care unit (ICU).
Fig. 5 provides a schematic view of this classification of pneumonia and the path-
ogenic organisms most commonly associated with infection. The latter 3 classes
(HAP, VAP, and HCAP) are predominately associated with gram-negative bacteria.
Acinetobacter is a pathogen associated with VAP specifically, and the 3 encapsulated
bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella, and H influenzae) are all associated
with particularly higher morbidity and mortality.7
 Pneumonia in Adults 253

Fig. 5. Classification of pneumonia. aViral, includes influenza A and B, adenovirus, respira-

tory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza.

Mortality from pneumonia varies depending on the causative organism, but Strep-
tococcus pneumoniae has the highest mortality. The incidence of Streptococcus
pneumoniae in 2008 was 100/100,000 adults/y. The mortality statistics for pneumo-
coccal pneumonia in 2005 published by the World Health Organization were 1.6
million deaths worldwide. Even in developed countries the statistics indicate 10% to
20% mortality. The greatest risk of pneumococcal pneumonia is usually among people
who have chronic illness such as lung, heart, or kidney disease, sickle cell anemia, or
diabetes. But high rates are also noted in patients recovering from severe illness,
those residing in nursing homes or chronic care facilities, and those patients older
than 65 years.8 Other high mortality causes include Klebsiella, Legionella, and
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
The clinical symptoms that characterize pneumonia caused by various agents often
overlap, and the interobserver variability of physical findings has been shown to be
high. This finding has led to an approach of antibiotic treatment of pneumonia in the
ED, which is mostly empiric. However, to facilitate diagnostic decision making, various
epidemiologic conditions have been shown to be related to specific pathogens in
patients with pneumonia.9 These classic associations are shown in Table 1.
The typical cardiovascular reaction to fever is tachycardia. However, certain pneu-
monias may be associated with fever and relative bradycardia (Faget sign). These
pneumonias include Legionella, Mycoplasma, and tularemia. Other infections associ-
ated with this clinical sign include yellow fever, typhoid fever, brucellosis, and Colo-
rado tick fever.
It is also often useful to consider the pathogenic organisms in pneumonia with
respect to age of the host. Table 2 shows the most typical organisms based on age
classification.

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
Laboratory Tests
Complete blood count
The white blood cell count (WBC) is neither sensitive nor specific to identify the likely
causative agent of pneumonia (ie, bacterial or viral), but may be correlated with the
severity of illness.10,11 However, the WBC count may be useful in 2 scenarios: first,
neutropenia, which may indicate immunosuppression; and second, lymphopenia,
which may indicate immunosuppression from AIDS.
 254
Woolfrey
Table 1
Epidemiologic conditions, risk factors, and classic presentations of pneumonia associated with specific pathogens

Pathogen Symptoms Associated Condition Radiographic/Laboratory Findings

Streptococcus pneumoniae Rapid onset, rust sputum, Alcoholism; COPD/smoking; HIV Leukocytosis; gram-positive
chills, rigors (early); postinfluenza; IVDU; encapsulated diplococci; lobar
endobronchial obstruction infiltrate
Staphylococcus aureus Gradual onset; postviral illness IVDU; postinfluenza; structural Gram-positive cocci in clusters;
lung diseasea; endobronchial associated with abscess, pleural
obstruction effusion
Klebsiella Fever, rigors; current-jelly sputum Alcoholism; COPD; diabetes; Bulging minor fissure; gram-
elderly; negative encapsulated bacillus
Pseudomonas HAP; VAP; HCAP; cystic fibrosis; Patchy infiltrates; gram-negative
hot tub use; COPD/smoking bacillus
Hemophilus influenzae Gradual onset Elderly; HIV (early); COPD/ Patchy infiltrates; pleural effusion;
smoking; postinfluenza; gram-negative encapsulated
endobronchial obstruction coccobacillus
Moraxella catarrhalis COPD/smoking Gram-negative diplococcus
Chlamydophila pneumoniae Gradual onset; dry cough; staccato COPD/smoking Patchy infiltrates; Gram stain
cough (neonates) negative
Mycoplasma Insidious onset; young adults Gram stain negative; CXR,
intestinal and perihilar; pleural
effusion; extrapulmonary
manifestations: bullous
myringitis, cold agglutinins,
morbilliform rash, hemolytic
anemia, Guillain-Barré
Legionella High mortality; relative Elderly, COPD/smoking; hotel/ Gram stain negative; patchy
bradycardia (Faget sign); GI cruise shipb infiltrates; hyponatremia;
symptoms; no person-to-person nonspecific LFT abnormalities
spread
Anaerobes Aspiration: oral pathogens or Alcoholics; edentulous, CXR: right middle lobe or right
gram-negative enteric neuromuscular disease, recent upper lobe infiltrates lung
pathogens intubation; endobronchial abscess
obstruction
Hantavirus Acute lung injury and shock; Rodent urine/feces; travel to
rodent urine/feces southwestern United States
CA-MRSA CXR: lung abscess
Bordetella pertussis Cough more than 2 weeks;
posttussive vomiting
Yersinia pestis Buboes; high person-to-person Fleas from rodents; hematogenous
transmission spread
Bacillus anthracis No person-to-person transmission; Inhaled spores Wide mediastinum
also GI and skin infection
Francisella tularensis Tularemia; lymphadenopathy; Infected rabbits
ulcerated skin lesions
Coxiella burnetii Q fever Cattle and sheep exposure Spirochete
Chlamydophila psittaci Psittacosis Infected birds
Histoplasma capsulatum; Histoplasmosis (bat/bird Dirt/construction exposure Patchy infiltrate
Coccidioides immitis; droppings); coccidiomycosis
Blastomyces dermatitidis (southwestern United States);
blastomycosis (erythema
nodosum); slow gradual onset
SARS Coronavirus; acute lung injury;
shock; young adults; travelers
(Southeast Asia); highly

Pneumonia in Adults
contagious and lethal
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Alcoholics; lung abscess; HIV
(early); IVDU

(continued on next page)

255
 256
Woolfrey
Table 1
(continued )
Pathogen Symptoms Associated Condition Radiographic/Laboratory Findings
Acinetobacter Alcoholics; VAP
HIV (early)
Streptococcus pneumoniae; H
influenzae; M tuberculosis
HIV (late) Opportunistic infection; CD4 <200; increased LDH; low
Pneumocystis jiroveci; progressive SOB oxygen saturation
Cryptococcus; Histoplasma;
Aspergillus; Mycobacterium
kansasii; Pseudomonas
aeruginosa; H influenzae

Abbreviations: CA-MRSA, community-acquired MRSA; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; GI, gastrointestinal; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus;
IVDU, intravenous drug use; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; LFT, liver function test; SARS, severe acute respiratory syndrome; SOB, shortness of breath.
a
Structural lung disease: bronchiectasis.
b
Hotel or cruise ship stay within the previous 2 weeks.
 Pneumonia in Adults 257

Table 2
Age related pneumonia pathogens

Age Range Suspected Organism

0–3 weeks Group B streptococcus, Listeria, E coli
3 weeks–3 months Streptococcus pneumoniae, Chlamydia,
Bordetella pertussis, viral (respiratory syncytial virus,
parainfluenzae)
4 months–4 years Viral, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Mycoplasma
4 years–15 years Mycoplasma, Streptococcus pneumoniae
Adults: CAP, HAP, VAP, HCAP See Table 1

Blood cultures and sputum cultures

The laboratory detection of pneumonia can be difficult because of problems in obtain-
ing an optimal specimen for diagnosis.12 Blood cultures from pneumococcal pneu-
monia cases are often negative, and respiratory specimens such as sputum or
nasopharyngeal samples can be confounded by the presence of normal flora.
The 2003 guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the
American Thoracic Society (ATS) recommend 2 blood cultures for patients hospital-
ized with pneumonia.6,13 However, low rates of secondary bacteremia have led
many to question the usefulness and cost-effectiveness of routine blood cultures.
Studies have repeatedly shown sensitivity of blood cultures in patients admitted to
the hospital with CAP to be between 7% and 10%. Patients with CAP who had blood
cultures performed had a less than 2% chance of having a change in therapy directed
by blood culture results. Severity of pneumonia, as measured by the Pneumonia
Severity Index (PSI), also poorly correlates with the yield of blood cultures.14 Blood
cultures should be considered in patients who have a host defect in the ability to clear
bacteremia. These patient groups include those with asplenia, complement defi-
ciencies, chronic liver disease, and leucopenia.15,16
The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) has made recommenda-
tions regarding the use of blood cultures in adult patients with CAP.17 The AHRQ
states that routine blood cultures are not recommended in patients admitted with
CAP. Consideration should be given to obtaining blood cultures in higher-risk patients
admitted with CAP (ie, those with severe disease, immunocompromise, significant
comorbidities, or other risk factors for infection with resistant organisms).
The benefits of sputum culture are also controversial. A meta-analysis has shown
the use of sputum Gram stain to have low yield.18 The initial limitation is that less
than 50% of patients do not produce an adequate sample. Despite this finding,
when a sputum sample has more than 25 polymorphonuclear cells per low-power field
and there is a predominant organism, the causative organism is identified in more than
80% of cases. The interpretation of the sputum culture is also problematic. For prop-
erly handled samples the sensitivity is approximately 75%. This sensitivity is lower if
antibiotics therapy has been started before the sample is taken. In addition, because
of the possibility of culturing bacteria that colonize the oropharynx, false-positive
results may occur. This finding is especially true for debilitated patients, who are
more likely to be colonized with pathogens. However, certain organisms are always
pathogenic and can be assumed to be causing disease if they are identified. These
organisms include Legionella species, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and the endemic
fungi.19
The current IDSA/ATS guidelines for CAP in adults published in 20077 state that
sputum cultures should be considered in patients when it is expected that the findings
258 Woolfrey

will result in a change in antibiotic management or that the test is likely to have high
yield. The specific guidelines recommend therefore the use of sputum cultures in
the following 8 circumstances: ICU admission; failure of outpatient antibiotic manage-
ment; cavitary infiltrates; active alcohol abuse; severe obstructive or structural lung
disease; positive Legionella urinary antigen test (UAT); positive pneumococcal UAT;
or pleural effusion.
Serologic testing
Serologic testing is available for Chlamydia sp, Legionella, and some fungi. In the ED
these investigations are useful only from a retrospective perspective because they
usually require both acute and convalescent serum titers. Rapid antigen tests are
also available for influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). These tests may be
useful as an adjunctive ED test for infection control purposes for hospital inpatients
and as an aid in decision making regarding family and contact prophylaxis.
UATs are commercially available for Streptococcus pneumoniae and Legionella
pneumophilia. These tests have the highest diagnostic yield in patients with more
severe illness. These antigen tests are rapid, simple to use, have high specificity in
adults (<90%), and, most importantly, have the ability to detect the organism after
antibiotics have been started.20,21
Serologic testing can be useful as an aid to tailoring antibiotic management. This
finding is of particular importance for the identification of Mycobacterium or the iden-
tification of antibiotic-resistant strains. The latter have been implicated in increased
mortality22 and in increased risk of clinical failure.23 The identification of certain path-
ogens may have important epidemiologic implications. These implications include
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), influenza, legionnaire disease, and agents
of bioterrorism. Cost is the greatest impedance to testing in all patients. The cost/
benefit ratio must be considered.24
Microbiological testing in severe CAP in patients admitted to the ICU has been
shown to both identify the causative agent and lead to changes in antibiotic therapy,
both of which, in this setting, have had a positive impact on patient outcome.25
Imaging Modalities
CXR
The diagnosis of CAP is based on the presence of select clinical features (cough,
fever, sputum production, or pleuritic chest pain) and is supported by imaging of
the lung. The CXR remains the reference standard for the diagnosis of pneumonia.
It has been shown to have greater sensitivity and specificity than the physical exam-
ination of the chest for diagnosis of pneumonia.26 The CXR is not only useful in making
the diagnosis of pneumonia but also in aiding in differentiating pneumonia from other
common causes of cough and fever, or in identifying an alternative diagnosis.
There is considerable overlap in the classic CXR appearances associated with
specific pathogens. However, CXR has low sensitivity for the diagnosis of pneumonia
in the very elderly population and in the neutropenic population.
Computed tomography scan/magnetic resonance imaging
Computed tomography (CT) of the chest has been shown to have greater sensitivity
than CXR for the diagnosis of pneumonia. However, the clinical significance of these
findings when the CXR is negative is unclear.27 For patients who are hospitalized with
suspected pneumonia but have a negative CXR, it is recommended to treat the condi-
tion empirically and repeat the CXR in 24 to 48 hours.
CT scanning has been shown to be beneficial for the diagnosis of pneumonia in the
neutropenic patient.27,28 CT scanning can be useful in those patients who do not
 Pneumonia in Adults 259

respond to initial therapy. In addition to ruling out other diagnoses such as pulmonary
emboli, a CT scan can disclose other reasons for antibiotic failure, including pleural
effusions, lung abscess, or central airway obstruction. Magnetic resonance imaging
has been shown to have similar sensitivity compared with CT and has been recom-
mended for follow-up examinations in this patient population to minimize repeated
radiograph exposure.29
Ultrasonography
Recently the use of bedside ultrasonography has been studied in the ED diagnosis of
pulmonary conditions including pneumonia. Bedside lung ultrasonography has been
shown to be 96% sensitive and 96% specific in the diagnosis of radio-occult (negative
CXR) pleural-pulmonary lesions.30 A recent systematic review31 has also shown
bedside lung ultrasonography to be an ideal tool for the diagnosis of emergency
pulmonary conditions, with the benefit of the absence of radiation.

HOSPITAL ADMISSION DECISIONS

Diagnostic and treatment decisions for pneumonia are based on assessing the
severity of illness. These assessments also affect the decision between inpatient
and outpatient treatment and ICU admission versus admission to a general ward.

Scoring Systems
Two scoring systems have been developed that can assist in the identification of
patients who may be candidates for outpatient treatment: CURB-65 is a severity of
illness score,32 and the PSI33 is a prognostic model (Table 3).
The use of these objective criteria must be supplemented by physician judgment.
Factors such as patient compliance to oral medication and outpatient social support

Table 3
Comparison of CURB-65 and PSI scores

CURB - 65 PSI
Confusion 11 Age
Blood urea nitrogen >7 mmol/L 11 Female 10
Respiratory rate >30 11 Nursing home resident 110
Systolic blood pressure <90 mm Hg or diastolic Neoplastic disease history 130
blood pressure <60 mm Hg 11
Age >65 y 11 Liver disease 120
Congestive heart failure 110
Cerebrovascular disease 110
Renal disease 110
Altered mental status 120
Respiratory rate >29 120
Systolic blood pressure <90 120
Temperature <35 C or >39.9 C 115
Pulse >124 110
pH <7.35 130
Blood urea nitrogen <29 120
Sodium <130 120
Glucose >13.8 110
Hematocrit <30% 110
Partial pressure oxygen <60 110
Pleural effusion on radiograph 110
260 Woolfrey

systems should be taken into account. The ATS has also developed criteria to assist in
the decision making regarding which patients require higher-level monitoring or an
ICU admission directly from the ED.7
The PSI uses a 2-step approach to risk assessment. Patients are first identified as
low-risk and recommended for outpatient management. The low-risk patients are
those less than 50 years, who do not have significant comorbid conditions, and
who have no concerning features on physical examination. Patients who do not
meet these low-risk criteria are then classified into categories based on age, comorbid
illness, abnormal physical examination findings, and laboratory abnormalities. Scoring
is divided into 5 classes and each class is associated with a predicted mortality: class
1, points 0, mortality 0.1%; class 2, points less than 70, mortality 0.6%; class 3, points
71–90, mortality 2.8%; class 4, points 91–130, mortality 8.2%; class 5, points greater
than 130, mortality 29.2%. Classes 1, 2, and 3 are considered low-risk patients, class
4, moderate-risk, and class 5, high-risk. Hospital admission is recommended for those
patients who score more than 91 (class 4). This score has been shown to decrease
overall admission rates and decrease health care costs.34 However, the scoring
system does not consider dynamic observation of patients over time, the ability to
take oral medications, home supports, and access to follow-up.
CURB-65 is a more simplified tool that uses 5 criteria to determine patients at lower
risk for adverse events. These criteria are confusion; uremia (blood urea nitrogen
[BUN] >7 mmol/L); respiratory rate (>30); blood pressure (<90 systolic, or >60 dia-
stolic); age 65 years or greater. Each criterion is rated equally for a total score of 5.
The risk of 30-day mortality increases with increasing score. A score of 1 point is
the lowest-risk group, with an estimated 2.7% 30-day mortality; outpatient treatment
is recommended. Two points is the moderate-risk group, with a 6.8% 30-day
mortality; either outpatient treatment with close follow-up or inpatient treatment is rec-
ommended in this group. Three points is the severe group, with an estimated 14%
mortality; inpatient treatment is recommended in this group with consideration for
an ICU admission. Four and 5 points are the highest-risk groups. There is an estimated
27.8% mortality in these groups and an ICU admission is recommended.
Comparison of the PSI and CURB-65 scores reveals that they are equivalent in pre-
dicting mortality.35 Both the 28-day mortality and the inhospital mortality for PSI level V
and CURB >/- 3 were equivalent.36 Both scoring indices have also been shown to
accurately predict outcomes in patients with HCAP.37 However, there are no random-
ized trials of hospital admission strategies that directly compare the 2 scoring
systems. In addition, no prospective criteria have been validated for the decision-
making process for an ICU admission.38 PSI also underperforms in the elderly popu-
lation.39 This finding is suspected secondary to the inappropriate weight given to the
age variable in the scoring system. This situation is of concern because elderly
patients often have atypical presentations and worse outcomes.
The ATS has developed criteria to assist with inhospital disposition decision making.
These criteria are divided into major and minor criteria. Direct admission to an ICU or
high-level monitoring unit is recommended for patients with either of the major criteria
or with 3 of the minor criteria. Major criteria are invasive mechanical ventilation or
septic shock with the need for vasopressors. Table 4 shows the minor criteria for
severe CAP.

MANAGEMENT

The goal of therapy is eradication of the infecting microorganism, with resultant reso-
lution of clinical disease. Antimicrobials are the mainstay of treatment. The ATS
 Pneumonia in Adults 261

Table 4
Minor criteria for severe CAP

Physical Examination CXR Laboratory

Respiratory rate >30/min Multilobar infiltrates Leukopenia: WBC <4000 cells/mm3
Blood pressure: requires Thrombocytopenia: platelet count
aggressive intravenous fluids <100,000 cells/mm3
Hypoxemia: PaO2/FiO2 ratio <250
Mental status: confusion
Hypothermia: temperature <36 C

advocates an empiric approach to treatment based on clinical presentation. This

approach also incorporates the presence of risk factors for Pseudomonas species,
gram-negative organisms, and drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae (DRSP).7
Table 5 provides a schematic view of the current recommended treatments for
various patient populations with pneumonia.
The most common pathogens in this mild (ambulatory) group are all adequately
covered by macrolide antibiotics (see Fig. 5). Macrolide antibiotics are recommended
as monotherapy in this patient population. The use of fluoroquinolones to treat

Table 5
Recommended antibiotic treatment

Outpatient Inpatient Hospital Warda Inpatient ICU

Healthy/no risk Respiratory Minimum treatment
factors for DRSP fluoroquinolone b-lactam plus macrolide
Macrolideb or
or b-lactam plus macrolide
Doxycycline
Comorbidityc Antipseudomonal coverage
Respiratory fluoroquinoloned Imipenen; meropenem plus
or ciprofloxacin or levofloxacin
b-lactame plus macrolide or
b-lactam plus aminoglycoside plus
azithromycin
or
b-lactam plus aminoglycoside plus
antipseudomonal
fluoroquinolone
CA-MRSA
Vancomycin or linezolid
a
Increasing resistance rates suggest that empiric therapy with a macrolide alone is not recommen-
ded in this population.
b
Macrolide antibiotics include azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin; doxycycline can
be used as a macrolide alternative.
c
Cardiovascular: coronary artery disease or congestive heart failure, valvular heart disease; Pulmo-
nary: asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary, interstitial lung disorders; Renal: preexisting renal
disease with a documented abnormal serum creatinine level outside the period of the pneumonia
episode; Hepatic: preexisting viral or toxic hepatopathy; Central nervous system: vascular or
nonvascular encephalopathy, diabetes mellitus and treatment with oral anti-diabetics or insulin;
Neoplastic illness: any solid tumor active at the time of presentation or requiring antineoplastic
treatment within the preceding year.
d
Respiratory fluoroquinolones included moxifloxacin and levofloxacin.
e
b-Lactams include high-dose amoxicillin (1 g 3 times a day) or amoxicillin clavulanate (750 mg
twice a day) or ceftriaxone or cefuroxime.
262 Woolfrey

ambulatory patients with pneumonia without comorbid conditions, risk factors for
DRSP, or recent antibiotic use is not recommended because of the concern for the
development of fluoroquinolone resistance.40 Comorbidity or recent antimicrobial
therapy increased the likelihood of infection with DRSP, and enteric gram-negative
bacteria. In these patients, therapeutic options include either a respiratory fluoroqui-
nolone or a combination therapy with a b-lactam antibiotic effective against Strepto-
coccus pneumoniae plus a macrolide. Recommended b-lactams include: high-dose
amoxicillin or amoxicillin clavulanate. Oral cephalosporins can also be used as alter-
natives. Agents in the same class as the patient has been receiving previously should
not be used to treat patients with recent antibiotic exposure.
For patients who are admitted to a hospital ward, the combination treatment of
a b-lactam plus a macrolide or monotherapy with a fluoroquinolone has been shown
to be associated with a significant reduction in mortality compared with that of the
administration of a cephalosporin alone.41 The choice between dual or monotherapy
should be based on the patient’s previous 3-month antibiotic exposure. Initial therapy
for admitted patients is usually intravenous, but oral therapy can be considered for
patients without risk factors for severe pneumonia, especially with highly bioavailable
agents such as fluoroquinolones.42
Patients admitted to the ICU with pneumonia are those who are usually diagnosed
with severe pneumonia initially from the ED. The antimicrobial treatment in this patient
population must be broader. The minimum recommended treatment of these patients
is a b-lactam plus either azithromycin or a fluoroquinolone. For all patients admitted to
the ICU, antimicrobial coverage should include that for Streptococcus pneumoniae
and Legionella. This combination therapy is recommended for at least 48 hours or until
results of diagnostic tests are known. In the mechanically ventilated ICU patient, treat-
ment with a fluoroquinolone alone has been associated with inferior outcome.43
In the critically ill ICU patient with severe pneumonia, many microorganisms other
than Streptococcus pneumoniae and Legionella sp must be considered. Of particular
importance is Pseudomonas sp and gram-negative bacteria.44 Therefore, standard
empiric treatment regimes in this population should include coverage for Strepto-
coccus pneumoniae, Legionella sp, and H influenzae, all of the atypical organisms,
Enterobacteriaceae sp, and Pseudomonadaceae sp (see Table 5). Penicillin-allergic
patients should have the b-lactam substituted with azetreonam, a synthetic monocy-
clic b-lactam antibiotic. The excess mortality associated with MRSA indicates empiric
coverage for this organism in this patient population. For suspected MRSA (end-stage
renal disease, injection drug abuse, previous influenza, and previous recent antibiotic
use) vancomycin or linezolid should be added.

SPECIAL TREATMENT CONSIDERATIONS

Timing of Antibiotics
There seems to be a causal relationship between antibiotic timing and improved
outcomes, especially in the elderly population.45 Early antibiotic treatment does not
seem to shorten the time to clinical stability but has been shown to decrease length
of hospital stay.46 However, there is insufficient evidence to establish an overall benefit
in mortality or morbidity from antibiotics administered in less than 8 hours from ED
arrival in patients with CAP without severe sepsis. For patients admitted through the
ED, the first antibiotic dose should be administered while the patient is still in the ED.
Transition from Parenteral Antibiotics to Oral Antibiotics
Most hospitalized patients are initially treated with parenteral antibiotics. The transition
to oral antibiotics can occur when the patient has become clinically stable and has
 Pneumonia in Adults 263

shown clinical improvement. Criteria for clinical stability include temperature less than
37.8 C, heart rate less than 100/min, respiratory rate less than 24/min, systolic blood
pressure greater than 90 mm Hg; room air oxygen saturation of greater than 90%; and
normal mental status.47 This transition should be balanced with an assessment of the
ability to ingest oral medications in patients with normal functioning gastrointestinal
tracts.
Duration of Treatment
It is recommended that the duration of treatment be a minimum of 5 days and that the
patient be afebrile for 48 to 72 hours before discontinuation of treatment. The patient
should not possess any signs of clinical instability at the time of discontinuation of
treatment.47 Few controlled trials have evaluated the optimum duration of antibiotic
therapy in either inpatients or outpatients. However, most patients with CAP are
treated for 7 to 10 days or longer.
Noninvasive Positive Pressure Ventilation
In patients with pneumonia, noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) has been
shown to be well tolerated, safe, and associated with a significant reduction in respi-
ratory rate, need for endotracheal intubation, and duration of ICU stay. NPPV does not
decrease overall duration of overall hospitalization or inhospital mortality, except in the
subgroup of patients with pneumonia and underlying chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD).48 However, other studies of patients with hypoxic respiratory failure
have failed to show a benefit of NPPV, with many patients eventually requiring intuba-
tion.49 Hence, these conflicting data do not support the routine use of NPPV in patients
with severe pneumonia, with the exception of patients with underlying COPD. The ATS
and the IDSA currently recommend a cautious trial of NPPV for refractory hypoxemia
in patients with severe pneumonia.7
Hypotensive, Fluid-resuscitated Patients with Severe Pneumonia
Corticosteroids have been studied in patients with septic shock and have yielded no ben-
efit. A recent 2010 Cochrane review of 20 randomized trials revealed that corticosteroids
did not change 28-day mortality. Furthermore, corticosteroids did show a statistically
significant increase in adverse events such as hyperglycemia and hypernatremia.50,51
Recombinant human activated protein C (APC) has also been studied in patients
with severe sepsis. A Cochrane Review of 4434 adult patients yielded no benefit.
There was no difference in mortality between the control group and those who
received APC, regardless of the severity of the sepsis. However, use of APC was asso-
ciated with a higher risk of serious bleeding.52
Diffuse Bilateral Pneumonia and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Mortality for patients with severe diffuse bilateral pneumonia or acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS) is extremely high. The ARDSnet trial revealed a significant
reduction in mortality with the use of low tidal volume ventilation (6 mL/kg ideal body
weight) or what has become known as a lung protective ventilation strategy. With this
intervention, the number needed to treat (NNT) to avoid 1 death is 9 (NNT 5 9).53,54 The
ATS therefore has made a level 1 recommendation that patients with diffuse bilateral
pneumonia or ARDS should be mechanically ventilated with low tidal volumes.
DRSP
Antibiotic resistance patterns vary considerable among countries/regions and evolve
over time. Globally, 1.6 million people die of invasive pneumococcal disease annually.
264 Woolfrey

This incidence is highest in extremes of age, in patients with comorbidity, and in those
with defects in immunity. The development of drug-resistant strains of microorgan-
isms has placed a challenge on effective treatment options.55,56
Emergency physicians should be aware that the patients at the highest risk of infec-
tion with DRSP include those who take antibiotics frequently, patients who are
exposed to others who commonly receive antibiotics, children younger than 6 years
(especially those in daycare facilities and their immediate family members), adults
older than 70 years, and those with underlying immunosuppression.
Penicillin resistance occurs in a stepwise fashion with irreversible mutations of the
penicillin binding proteins. In the United States, penicillin resistance decreased from
1999 to 2005. This decrease was reported in both the pediatric and the adult popula-
tion. This decline is a reflection of the introduction of the 7-valent pneumococcal
conjugate vaccine.57,58
During this same period, resistance rates to macrolides did not change, but resis-
tance to fluoroquinolones increased, likely reflecting an increase in use. The resistance
of fluoroquinolone is highest in adults older than 64 years and in patients with under-
lying COPD.
The impact of antimicrobial resistance on clinical outcome remains controversial.
Host factors such as extremes of age, immunosuppression, and comorbidity likely
also influence mortality.59
Prescribing antibiotics for respiratory infection contributes to the development of
resistance to that antibiotic. The effect seems to be greatest in the month immediately
after treatment but may persist for up to 12 months. Reduction in antibiotic use may
reduce the potential for antimicrobial resistance.60
Antibiotic resistance is a problem that can be combated at the ED level through
a combination of appropriate antibiotic selection, prescribing patterns, use of antibi-
otic resistance profiles, surveillance protocols, and an understanding of new antibiotic
treatment options.

Nonresponding Pneumonia
Nonresolving pneumonia is a clinical syndrome in which clinical symptoms of pneu-
monia do not improve or worsen despite an initial 10 days of antibiotic therapy or in
which radiographic opacities fail to resolve within 12 weeks. Mortality among nonres-
ponding patients is greatly increased compared with patients who initially respond to
treatment. Overall mortality as high as 49% has been reported for nonresponding
hospitalized patients with pneumonia.61 Nonresponse mandates either a transfer to
a higher level of care, further diagnostic testing, or a change in treatment. Inadequate
host response is the most common cause of apparent treatment failure. Patients older
than 65 years, those with COPD, diabetes, alcoholism, or those who are undergoing
immunosuppressive therapy are the most likely to be nonresponders.
Emergency physicians should be aware that as many as 10% of patients with CAP
and up to 60% of patients with HAP have inadequate responses to initial empiric
therapy. As many as 20% of these patients are diagnosed with diseases other than
pneumonia.62

SPECIAL PATIENT POPULATIONS

MRSA
There are 2 patterns of MRSA: the hospital-acquired strain (HA-MRSA) and those
more recently identified strains that are phenotypically distinct and have become
known as community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA).63 The latter are resistant to fewer
 Pneumonia in Adults 265

antimicrobials than are the hospital-acquired MRSA strains. However, most of these
strains do contain a toxin associated with the clinical features of necrotizing pneu-
monia, shock, respiratory failure, and the formation of abscesses and empyema.
This strain should be suspected in patients with cavitary infiltrates on CXR. It is esti-
mated that 2% of CA-MRSA infections result in pneumonia.64
CA-MRSA pneumonia is associated with an influenzalike illness, occurs most
commonly in young healthy individuals, and has high mortality. The recommended
parenteral antibiotic treatment is vancomycin or linezolid. The addition of rifam-
picin may also be considered. The management of CA-MRSA should also include
culture of blood, sputum, and pleural specimens in the case of pleural effusion.
Empyema is an associated complication and should be drained. It is recommen-
ded that patients with this diagnosis be admitted to an ICU. Respiratory infection
control measures are important for the prevention of nosocomial spread of
MRSA.65

VIRAL PNEUMONIAS
Influenza
In the ambulatory setting, in uncomplicated cases of viral pneumonia caused by influ-
enza, treatment within 48 hours of symptoms with oseltamivir or zanamivir is recom-
mended. These neuraminidase inhibitors have been shown to reduce median time to
resolution of symptoms by 0.5 to 2.5 days. In this patient population, both oral oselta-
mivir and inhaled zanamivir reduce the likelihood of complications of the lower respi-
ratory tract.66
In the hospitalized patient population, it is postulated that oseltamivir may reduce
viral shedding and therefore treatment even greater than 48 hours of symptom onset
may confer some benefit. Oseltamivir has been shown to have a broad influenza spec-
trum (both influenza A and B) and a low risk of resistance.
Amantadine is effective against influenza A only. Recent circulating influenza viruses
in North America have been resistant to amantadine. Hence, treatment or chemopro-
phylaxis with amantadine is not currently recommended.67

Pandemic Influenza
Influenza A from H5N1 (Avian) and H1N1 (pandemic influenza A) have a greater
severity of infection than routine seasonal influenza. Both strains possess pandemic
potential. These strains have been associated with acute respiratory failure and
mortality greater than70%. The usual clinical presentation is fever, cough, and respi-
ratory distress progressive over 3 to 5 days. Exposure to dead or dying poultry in an
area with known or suspected H5N1 activity has been reported by most patients with
avian influenza A.68
Rapid bedside tests to detect influenza A have been used as screening tools. It is
recommended that confirmed cases be treated with oseltamivir. The current recom-
mendation is for a 5-day course of treatment at the standard dosage of 75 mg 2 times
daily. Oseltamivir has been shown to have a significant mortality reduction, especially
when started within 6 to 8 days after symptom onset. The mortality benefit seems to
affect all age groups.69 All such patients should also be placed in respiratory isolation
and droplet precautions used.
The cause of viral pneumonia is most likely unknown to the emergency physician at
initial presentation. No universal empiric therapy for viral pneumonia can be recom-
mended. Causes of viral pneumonia other than influenza A and B include RSV, adeno-
virus, rhinovirus, enteroviruses, human metapneumovirus, hantavirus, and varicella
266 Woolfrey

zoster virus. Evidence for antiviral treatment of CAP caused by viruses other than influ-
enza comes mainly from case reports and treatment of immunocompromised
patients. Ribavirin has been shown to be efficacious against RSV, human metapneu-
movirus, and parainfluenza. It can be used in intravenous form for the treatment of
severe pneumonia caused by these viruses, from experience with immunocompro-
mised patients.70 Ribavirin aerosol treatment has been shown to be less efficacious.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Tuberculosis

The use of HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy) has decreased the incidence
of opportunistic infection in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV). Respiratory infections are the most common type of opportunistic infec-
tion in the population with HIV. Pneumonia is associated with high mortality in the
immunocompromised patient population. Pneumocystis jiroveci is the most common
opportunistic infection in the HIV population. Traditionally, such infection in a patient
with HIV is believed to represent reactivation of latent colonization. Those with CD4
counts less than 200 cells/mm3 are at the greatest risk. Among patients with HIV
and Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), mortality is 10% to 20%. This mortality
increases substantially with the need for mechanical ventilation. The addition of
corticosteroids to the standard treatment of PCP has been shown to decrease
both mortality and the need for mechanical ventilation. Corticosteroids are indicated
in patients with PCP and substantial hypoxemia (PaO2 <70 mm Hg; A-a gradient >35
mm Hg on room air).71–73
However, the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia in the population with
HIV remains Streptococcus pneumoniae. Patients infected with this microorganism
develop pneumonia more frequently than do patients who do not have HIV and they
have a more severe clinical course when infected.74 Pneumococcal infections occur
in patients with HIV with CD4 counts less than 500 cells/mm3.
In 2010, 11,181 tuberculosis (TB) cases were reported in the United States for a rate
of 3.6 cases per 100,000 population.75 HIV is considered the greatest risk factor for
TB infection. TB can occur in the early stage of HIV with CD4 cell counts less than
300 cells/mm3. Patients with HIV are more likely to develop active TB once infected
and they have a higher risk of death. It is estimated that in 2009, there were 1.1 million
HIV-positive patients with TB worldwide and 380,000 deaths from TB in the population
with HIV. HIV is also the most important risk factor for progression from latent to active
TB. Early diagnosis of TB can be difficult because of a lack of specific clinical findings,
such as abnormal CXR or positive skin test result. In patients with more advanced HIV
disease, extrapulmonary disease is more common.76 Treatment of latent TB infection
has been shown to reduce the risk of active TB in HIV-positive patients, especially those
with a positive skin test.77

SUMMARY

Pneumonia is a common disease presentation to the ED. The challenge for the emer-
gency physician is to recognize the diagnosis, initiate early and appropriate empiric
antibiotic therapy, risk stratify patients with respect to severity of illness, and recognize
indications for admission. Treatment should consider not only empiric therapy guide-
lines but also the environment in which the pneumonia was contracted and the host
factors that may implicate risk for a particular microorganism.
The emergency physician should initiate antibiotic treatment in the ED for all
patients who are diagnosed with pneumonia and should be vigilant regarding respira-
tory isolation and droplet precautions. Disposition should be based not only on the
 Pneumonia in Adults 267

severity of the presenting symptoms, but the underlying comorbidities of the patient,
the clinical likelihood of deterioration, and the access to outpatient follow-up.

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