..

ROB KRIER

- v. IAN. 2003
Foreword by Colin Rowe

ACADEMY EDITIONS· LONDON

"'/.o..
·o'l

lJi I . . I L

In memory of Camillo Sitte

Written for students of architecture
Dedicated to my brother Leon
My deepest gratitude to Gudrun
for her criticism. corrections and patience

First published in Great Britain in 1979 by

ACADEMY EDITIONS
an imprint of the Academy Group Ltd, 42 Leinster Gardens , London W2 3AN

English language edition and Foreword

Copyright© 1979 Academy Editions London
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be rep roduced
in any manner whatsoever without permission in writing from
Academy Editions, 42 Leinster Gardens, London W2 3AN

ISBN 0 85670 576 4

First published in German in 1975

Translated by Christine Gzechowski and George Black

Fifth ,impression 1991

Printed and bound in Hong Kong

. .. "'
• ' f , ;.1 (1 ! /"
 CONTENTS
..

FOREWORD and modulations of th1s spatial 2 THE DEV ELO PMENT OF THE
by Colin Rowe 7 type . . . ..... . . ..... .. . .. .. . .. . 42 TOWN ... . . ..... . . . ............ . 91
-combinations of different types 3 SHORT HISTORY OF STUTTGART 91
CHAPTER 1 of c1rcus ..... . .... . ..... . . . . . . 43 4 PR OPOSALS FO R THE
- geometncally complex systems . 46 RECONSTRUCTION OF
TYPOLOGICAL AND -triangular squares and the1r DEVASTATED URBAN AREAS
MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF derivatives ..... . . .... . . . . 50 (GENERAL) .. .. .. .... . . ..... . .. 102
THE CONCEPT OF URBAN SPACE13 - large-sca le composite plans .. . . 51 - stat1on area .... .. .. . .. . 105
1 INTRODUCTIO N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 - la rge-scale compos1te forms 59 - u n1versity area .... . . . .. . ... . 108
2 DEFINITION OF T HE CONCEPT -street plans .. ... . . . 60 - the Rotebi.ihlp latz ....... . . 1 12
'URBAN SPACE' . ... . . 15 - vanat1ons and 1nventions ...... 61 - J ohannesstrasse/ Feuersee . . . . . . 122
- the square .. ... . . . .. . . . .. . ... . 17 10 EPILOGUE TO TH E C HAPTER - the Osterreichisc he Platz . . ... . 123
- the street .. . . .. . .......... . 17 'THEORY OF URBAN SPACE' .. 62 -the W ilhelmsplatz - the
3 TYPICAL FUNCTION S OF Leonhardsplatz .......... .. .. . . 13 1
URBAN SPACES 17 -the Charl ottenplatz- the
- the square .. . . ... . . . . . ... • . . .. 19 Sc hlossplatz .... ... . .. . . ... . . . 142
CHAPTER 2 - the Staa tsgalerie . .. .. .. . . . ... . 153
- the street . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . :!0
4 TYPOLOGY OF URBAN SPACE .. 22 - the Schlos sgarten . . . . . ..... .. . . 155
THE EROSION OF URBAN SPACE 5 EPI LO GUE TO T HE CHAPTER
5 MODULATION OF A GIVEN
IN 20TH CENTURY TOWN RECO NSTRUCTING D EVASTA TED
SPATIAL TYPE ...... . . .. . 23
6 HOW BUILDING SECTION S
PLANNING .. .. .. .. . .. . 63 URBAN SPACE 157
1 HISTORICAL SUMMARY 64
AFFECT URBAN SPACE ..... 2:1
2 CRITIQUE OF PRESENT-DAY
7 INTERSECTIONS OF STREET
PATTERNS OF URBAN
AND SQUARE .... .. .... . . . . . 28
DEVELOPMENT 83
8 SPATIAL TYP ES AND HOW
3 WHAT MODELS FOR
THEY MAY BE COMBINED . . .... 28
9 MORPHOLOGICAL SERIES OF
DEVELOPMENT WILL MEET T H E CHAPTER 4
FUTURE D EMANDS OF URBAN
URBANSPACES 30
GROWTH? . . .. .... .... ... .. . . . 83 APPEND IX 1 59
- plans of rectangular squares
6 STUTTGART AND THE A XES O F
w 1th vafliJllons 32
IT S DEVELO PME NT .. .. .. . .. . .. 161
-orth ogonal plans for squ ares 33
7 PROJECTS FOR STUTTGART/
- orthogo na l plans for squares w1th CHAPTER 3
LEINFELDE N ..... ........ .. . .. 166
central build1ngs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8 POSTSC RIPT FO R ARCHITECTS :
-open squares with bu1ldmgs RECONSTRUCTING DEVASTATED
'LET'S PUT ARCHITECT U RE
Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 URBAN SPACE WITH EXAMP LES
BACK IN ITS PROPER PLACE' . . 167
- examples of spaces wh1ch are FROM THE CITY CENTRE O F
angled. d1v1ded. added to o r STUTTGART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
superimposed ... ..... . . . 40 INTRODUCTION
- c1rcuses 41 - motivation and obJeCtives w h1ch BIBLIOGRAPHY ... . . .. . ... . 173
-Circuses contammg buildin gs gave nse to th1s study .. . ... .. . . 89 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .. . 174

U n tversitatea Tehnicll Ia~

BIBI·;:'IOT '- A
 details of pseudo-Capitalist admin- For. the idea that 'art stopped short at
FOREWORD istration we will have nothing to do ;
instead. we wi ll simplify. abstract and
the cultivated court of the Empress
Josephine' has. in one form or another,
project to the degree of extravagance a been around for a considerable time;
by Colin Rowe highly restricted. private and not very
hospitable vers~tln of what the good
and. recently, though in a different
framework of va lues. it has been given
society might be assumed to be; we fresh currency. But. of course. even in
will give a nod to Kaufmann: we w ill 1881. W. S. Gilbert's endearing. phili-
give three muted cheers for the stine and distinctly inadequate satire of
Stalinallee; we will adore the mani- the miscellaneous aesthetes who popu-
festo pieces of Boullee: we will late the pages of Patience disclosed a
(mostly) refuse to observe the built quasi-critical orientation which was in
work of Soane; instead. and if neces- no way new.
In the jungle-l ike politics of archi- sary. we w ill unroll a few hundred
tectural self advertisement it has yards of neutral Adolf Loos f acade. Something went wrong in 1714. or
become a misfortune of the late Emil build a lot of little towers and stand 1750. or 1789, or 1804, with the
Kaufman 's great achievement. inad- around on top of them a quantity of beginning of the Georgian era or at its
vertently and considerably after his Ledou x villas. wave quietly but not end. with the death of Queen Anne or
death. to have sponsored a highly too exuberantly to Louis Kahn (con- the accession of Queen Victoria. with
edited and. often. somewhat mindless gratulations on the Trenton Bath Andrew Jackson. with Ulysses S.
version of neo -classicism. Was it House) . insinuate a reference to the Grant. with th e discovery of Pompeii,
Von Ledoux bis Le Corbusier or was it metaphysic of Giorgio de Chirico. with the emergence of the Roman
Three Revolutionary Architects which display a conversance w ith Leonidov. Empire. with the collapse of the Roman
gave the cue? And it was probably the become highly enthusiastic about the Empire. w ith the decline of the Middle
latter. w ith its so desirable conno- more evocative aspects of Art Deco. Ages, w ith the appearance of Brunel-
tations of dynamic and anti-academic exhibit the intimidation of curtains leschi. or Michelangelo, or Inigo
insurrection . For. when the archi - waving in the wind, and, then, gently Jones. or Borromini. One can re-
tectural Boy Scout camps of the 1920s warm up the ensuing goulash in the arrange the dates. rename the style
(La Sarraz and all the rest) could be pastoso of Morandi. phases. reidentify the personalities
seen as equipped with a respectable. which decorate this scenario but the
and still revoluti onary. pedigree. then basic structure of what. after all, must
the possibilities of annexation became But. if here is displayed the solution still be historical myth will remain
endless. For. then. it became pos- (with all its atavistic seductions) fresh surprisingly consistent and intact. At
sible to be interested in the late from Milano-Venezia. one might also some moment in time there occurred a
eighteenth century w ithout seeming be prompted to ask whether its cessation of meaningful artistic pro-
to be desperately old hat. and for a Marxism is not a little too romantic and duction and a catastrophic decline in
series of hero figures to be observed. its presumptions a little too premature. all sense of value. Standards of crafts -
And so. and after cert ain strange leaps Apropos of the so-called New York manship were abruptly terminated.
of the mind. Ledoux-Boulh'le w as Five and their alleged intellectualistic Collective endeavour declined. Society
followed by the constellation of Saint involutions. Aldo Giurgola spoke of became atomised and the individual
Simon. Comte and Fourier and then. the discreet charm of the bourgeoisie; alienated. Disassociation of sensi-
after the whole panoply of the French and about this other context of bility ensued and tragic schism be-
socialist tradition became exposed. by gestures. postures. antics which has tween feeling and thinking was the
Karl Marx and the so curious notion just been abruptly summarized. where inevitable result. But. now. nous avons
that a William Morris society might social conscience. social agony and change tout cela. For we. the protago-
be constructed out of French neo - high fashion are almost inextricably nists of the new, have scrutinized and
classical components; and one might interrelated. just what is there that discriminated. We know the evil. we
abbreviate the possible process of needs to be said? That. although have the remedy, ours is the pre-
argument by wh ich all this may have the stage set is almost completely scription ; and. as for you. just you take
come about : changed from that of a few years ago. a good look and a good listen.
the form of words w hich the players
With the nitty-gritty of the Welfare use is, in some way. distressingly Such, in its time, was one of the
State and the appall ing bureaucratic familiar? primary messages of modern archi-

7
 ,.,
tecture - a primary message of Walter and nothing - ever - w as really very The verbals are antique: and the
Gropius. Sigfried Giedion. Le Corbusier true and. in the twentieth cen tury. even problem of the symbiosis of antiquity
and Ni kolaus Pevsner. Only believe in those few who almost approached and th e would-be way-ou t. though not
this : and if y ou w ill but do so. the goodness. almost embodied truth. insuperable. is certai nly considerable.
world will become re-integrated. the were invaria bly debauched by the For avant garde protestati on (hey. look
joys of craftsmanship res tored and the fl agrant influence p f a local grandee - at ou r acrobatics ! ) and the eternal
wounds of society healed. But if. a capitalist Dracu la. monstrous. sadie creakings of old verbal machinery are.
contributing to th e litany of this myth. and perverse - wh o distorted th e in th e end. not the best of all possible
th ere have been many of the would-be message and rendered its results bedfellows; and. si mply. the combi-
self-consciously cri tical names of re- utterly vain. nation is less than respectably athletic .
cent Western civi lisation. it must still
remain a particu larly savage irony that Or. at least. something like this seems Until recen tly w hen modern archi-
modern architecture's most favored to be among the many inherently t ec ture. in spite of its longevity. was
polemic has now been enlisted aga inst in co nsistent diagnoses of modern still. universally, procla imed as 'new'.
modern architecture itse lf. For the locus architecture's impendi ng collapse ; and. almost any archi tect und er the age of
ofth e histo rical riftvall eyis now shifted; up to a point. this diag nosis is alm os t six ty (with appropriate ach ievements
the bad date is now 1923 - or th ere - beli eva ble. But. it is surely not so mu ch to his cred it) was likely to be saluted
abouts ; the bad gestures/propositio ns th e credibtllty as it is the wholly con- and advertised as 'young' and th e
are those of ClAM; and the really evil ventiona l character of such argument question 'But just how old does one
guys (the Pted Pipers w ho lead the child- w hich deserves attention. For. if in have to be in order to become a young
ren in the wrong direction and finally their impli ca tion that most of the c ities architect ( ?)' was scarcely ever pro-
deposited them in a Carp athia n w ilder- of the world have been approximately pounded. For the legend of uncor-
ness. terribly dangerous and ever so far w recked via the agency of modern rupted. incorruptibl e arch itectural
from home) are rap id ly coming to be architecture the proponents of archi- youth (youth synonymous with the
the bearers of just those names w hich. tettura razionale can only be entirely only quest worthwhile - the ongoing
only the other day, seemed to be so correct. then should it not seem quest for the new and the ag ile) per-
firml y respectable and so highly estab- strange that th e style of argument. sisted as one of th e most fundamental
lished among the commemorators of even the vocabul ary of argument. in of f ictio ns: and. indeed. the collusion
architectural progress. which these judgements are delivered- between Peter Pan. Jugendstil. the
bourgeois angst. apoca lyptic threat. Boy Sco uts and th e early Fascist
So. perhaps. we now inhabit a some- incipient worl d tra nsforming event. 'giovinezza. giovinezza' is likely t o
w hat desperate Transylvanian land - holi stic delive rance - is represent ative remain among the more observable
scape of the mind. lugubriously of a critical strat egy of w hich modern phenomena of early twentieth century
furn ished with the wreckage of repu- arch itecture shou ld have made us only culture - perh aps part of th e inevitable
tations and the debris of good inten- too sceptica l ? For. again. the decora- heritage of the art nouveau.
ti ons. Hamelin tow n is f ar away ('in tions of the stage infer someth ing
Brunswick near f amous Hanover sign ificantly avant garde. wh ile the So it w as an important idea - and a
City') ; but. havi ng been brought to libretto of the opera comes over as a dangerous one: and. like many im-
our present destitution by the most standardized and enti rely t o be antici- portant - and dangerous - ideas. it has
charming of music. the most inter- pated plot. To repeat: the bad date is become f ossilized and survives as no
esting of leaders. the most curious of now 1923. the good date is now 1974. more than unexamined and tedious
subterranean ro utes. we can only f eel or '75. or '76 ; and it is the persistence of tradition: let us rather be potentia l
disquieted. abused. disturbed and. an old argument. transferred from th an productive: let us be dynamic
being unable to f org et the Hansel and context to visua l context and still rath er than introspective; let us prefer
Gretel toy town from out of which we presented as novelty w hi ch is here the animation to reflection : let us condemn
were seduced. w e can now only profoundly disquieting fa ctor. For the unjust sophistications and specia l
suspect the instrument of ou r tempta- what we are here presented with is moral cod es of establi shed society;
tion -the notion of an impeccable and someth ing profess ing t o be radical since Rousseau' s noble savage (p ri m-
'scientifi c' solution throu gh instant chic. elegant fa figura. social concern; ordi al energ y uncontaminated by
'total' design- was itself no more than and if. in terms of the v isu als. what w e cu lture) is almost the same as Peter Pa n
a species of late Biedermayer orn a- receive is an engaging archaeology of {who is alm ost the same as the statue
mental gingerbread . For. apparently, the future. then. in terms of the verbals. of Eros in Piccad illy Ci rcus) then. in
nobody- ever - was real ly very good. the situation is much the same. order to make tabula rasa. in order to

8
 ,,
disclose a pnm!llve house and to whi ch are are w ritten in the Lamb's v iated reconstitution of the nineteenth-
engender a fuwre soci ety - redeemed. Book of Life.' century city. enticing ly equipped with
and of renew ed aboriginal purity - let surrealistic overtones. is now so widely
us proceed to mock. to injure and to The v ision of Final J udgement and received as the most pregnant and
destroy the existing. Deliverance. of the Great Hallelujah. potenti al of disclosures. For. though
whe n equipped. w ith a technological such a reconstitu tion is. in many w ays.
Now the fi esta of destru ction (one gloss. is. of course. immensely like in wha t is required. there are still inhibi-
imagines broken bottles on a New kind to the vision of the ville radieuse tions to be fe lt about the tricking out of
Year's Eve in Naples) w hich has con - to be later experienced by Le Cor- Beaux- Arts plans with nee-primitive
tinued since the Enlightenment surely busier ; and. if this later vision, of a fa cades ('a poor thing but Minoan'. as
deserves t o be applauded . For the most world rede emed by architecture. is now Sir Arthur Evans almost certainly did
part it has been ex hilarating; also it has severel y discredited. it is still not too not say about his Cretan restorations)
resulted in previously undreamed of unreasonable to suggest that some and there are still reserves of feeling
blessi ngs; and as one attempts to eschatological framework of this kind (odd ly Futurist and stra ngely techno-
imagine the cond1ti on of provincial still survives as the psychological phi le ?) w hich w ill operate to prevent
society. circa 1770. in almost any small underpinning of much currently fa sh- any such. immediate. dispensation.
city in the world. then one can only say: i onable architectural polemic - and
Th ank God for the ventilations w hich. particularly that of Italian origin. For So much could seem to be a highly
over the last tw o hundred years. have th is is a polem ic w hich. professing t o negative series of remarks wi th which
been made ! be coolly critical. is still. more often to open an introduction to th e English
than not. evidently inflamed by notions editio n of Rob Krier's Stadtraum; but
But. at least for the impatient. the of that glaring turbulent upsurge w hich they are not intended so to be inter-
route of w hat might be conceived to be w ill for ever release us from the preted. An implicit theme of Krier's
progress has still taken an extremely stin king limitations of bourgeois cul- book is a rappel a I'Ordre. It is an
long time; and. of course. one of the ture and effectively initiate the millen- evident critique of 'planning', highway
major road blocks to emancipation has nia! establishment. engi neering, the urbanistic propo-
now become the fantasies which the siti ons of ClAM. of science fiction
architect entertains about himself. And this (though. to a degree. charm - c1t1 es. populist do-it-yourself and
fanta sies now littl e more than the ing and of a period ) is surely something towns ca pe; and. if as such it is a book
platitudes of criticism. but. still. fanta - of a pity. For. if the advocates of which one can only receive with
sies whi ch. in their own day - now a architettura razionale (who are in great sympathy and happiness. then the
very good many years ago - were danger of flooding the market and purpose of all the foregoing rather
conceived of as permanent. indeed inspirin g a counter-wave of disgust) protracted observations is to suggest.
dazzli ng. illuminations w hich were for are able to make a highly apt critique of not apropos of Rob Krier but apropos
ever to make v isible the surface of a modern architecture's urbanistic f ailure of the context to which. ostensibly, he
glorious autostrada leading to a crystal - and if this is of immense va lue. it does has been assigned - the context of
line social condition of lif!1pid authen- not automatically f ollow that all the architettura razionale post-modernism
ticity. physical achievements of modern and all the rest- that a recall to order
architecture are to be condemned and need not directl y involve the flushing
'And I John saw the Holy City, New that we are entirely obliged to return to out of both the baby and this bath-
J erusalem. coming down from God out a simplified and innocent worl d. a Ia water. that we do not only revolve but
of heaven . ... and the City lieth four- Laugier. a species of ante-diluvian also evolve. that if a reasonable object
square. and the length is as large as the (and Marxist) belle epoque. remi nis- of criticism is certainly the cutting of
breadth : . . . and the City was pure cent more of Knossos than New York. modern architecture down to size. then
gold like unto clear glass ... and the in which strangely deserted piazzas. it is slightly preposterous to attempt
street of the City was pure gold. as it seemingl y prepared for not yet to be any such undertaking while still assent-
were transparent glass . . . and the anticipated rituals. in the meantime ing to a particular mystique - the
City had no need of the sun. neither of support a somewhat sca nty popul ation mystique of the critical date. of
the moon to shine in it : f or the glory of of mildly desperate hippies. Giovinezza. of the Zeitgeist. of building
God did li ghten it. . .. and there shall as a version of physics. etc .. etc.
in no w ise enter into it anything that Indeed. it may be a rather curious
defileth. neither whatsoever worketh commentary upon a contemporary Indeed. t o attempt a critique of the
abomination or maketh a lie: but they failure of nerve th at a merely abbre- modern movement. damning its phy-

9
 .I')

sical embodiments while still con- For it is the destruction of Stuttgart say about either 'science' or 'history'.
cerned with the endorsement of its which is. intrinsically, the anguished (Though a victim of nei ther. ) His
psychological virulence. one must theme of this book; and it is the con- approaches are comp let ely the oppo-
finally say is ·a procedure so extrava- templation of this destruction - the si te of the rabble rousing strategies to
gantly half-witted as to defeat compre- juxtaposition of what was. what is. and be associat ed w ith the protagonists of
hension. At which stage, and merci- what might be .._ which leads and modern arch itecture. Instead he comes
fully. the time is now come to reverse obliges Krier to make spatial proposals. on as a person of detente. Indeed.
the argument. We are confronted with for the renewal of both practice and mostly he operates w ith apparent
a book. equipped with lots of visuals society. And in these terms. patently, naivety (wel l just why not?) and great
and not really too many words; but. if Stuttgart is not simply Stuttgart. It is decisiveness. For. if this is clearly not a
some of the visuals and some of the by no means a one time small populist book (almost certa inly it
words display an affiliation. the book residenzstadt lying in a fold of big hills proposes a liberal Communist society
both impresses and invites and there and successively wiped out by heavy conceived as almost acceptable to the
are many specific things to be said industry. allied bombs. plann ing f ormer Ki ng s of Wurttemberg) it is sti ll
about it. So like what to say? blight. and simple silliness. Rather it is a book concerned with an order which
the type of any and every city of th e many innocent indi viduals of South
\ world. destroyed by strange abst ract German and Catho lic upbringin g might
That Rob Krier somehow doesn't fit. agencies. the faceless. obtuse (and w ell be expected to understand.
that he cannot rapidly be relegated to a plausible) creatures of government and
category. might quite well be a first. university. And how to argue with. how So much. agai n. as belong ing to its
observation. For. if one can sense in to inhibit the population of those merits; but now it might be poss ible t o
this book a romantically Marxist and bureaucracies which. supposing it s speak of a neo-antique content which
Italian connection and. if by many of judgement to be scientific. convinced may, sometimes. be a little distu rbing.
its readers it will be placed in some- of its intelligence and responsibility. A nd particularly this is evident in
thing very like the context of ideas unaware of how much its working Krier's proposals for th e vicini ty of the
which has already been noticed. this theorems are derived from the wild men Schloss. pp. 142-153, where one
can then seem to be only a very small of forty to fifty years ago. is mostly might be reminded of Mamie Ei sen -
part of the whole. For Krier has pro- unable to perceive either the reason or hower's alleged statement that th ings
duced a highly eclectic book which is the necessity for argument? are no more like what they used to be
evidently charged with conviction and t han they ever were bef ore. Here Krier
a highly radical book which is emi- Now it is an enormous merit of Urban publishes. p. 151 . Von Th ouret's
nently conservative in its tone. It is. Space that Krier neither considers. solution of 1800. the condition as of
perhaps. not a very highly self- refuses. nor disdains. the possibility of 1972. t hen the city' s proposals. then
conscious book. Its author is. maybe. a discourse with such persons. He his own ; and it is of interest to bring
little too sure of his principles and a simply ignores it. He does not mu ddy his own proposals into comparison
little too unconcerned in protecting or confuse his proposals with qualifi- with Sitte's suggestions for the Vie nna
himself against flank attacks. possibly cations addressed to the incorrigible. Ring. p. 50. For are Sitte's suggestions
a little more equivocal than he is He prefers that evidence should be significantly superior t o the situation
aware. He dedicates his performance. submitted to the eye (with the assump- wh ich he felt obliged to condemn?
rather surprisingly, to Sitte; he seems tion that the eye communicates with Are t here not j ust too many forecou rts ?
to owe a great deal to Sti.ibben; he the other senses?). He has little use for Is there not a too exaggerated pre-
certainly owes very much to the the stimulants of the ear and the occupation with space at the expense
urbanistic contributions of Matthias extensive deliveries of the mouth. He is of object? And is not something like
Ungers; his graphics oscillate between essentially laconic. And. since the this also true of Krier's operations in
late nineteenth-century Old Fashioned incorrigible of today are apt to become the Charlottenplatz and t he Sch loss -
and strip cartoon Pop; but. clearly, this the docile sheep of tomorrow. al most platz? He is over-reacting, of course.
is a book which has been put together certainly, by ignoring argument with to the present condition of th ese
with a controlled indignation and it is them. Krier has produced a text book spaces; but. in his anxiety t o provide
the quality of Rob Krier's quiet indig- for 'planners' of the year 2000. them w ith adeq uate structu re. in his
nation. issuing in an exhaustive en - anxiety to exceed the condition of
cyclopaedia of urban spaces. which His techniques are subdued. He im- 1800- a highly interesting balance of
one feels compelled and happy to plies no critical neutrality (nor even its space and object. order and accident.
salute. possibility). He has. really, very little t o in whic h non-cont igueus build ings

10
are allowed to experience each other's what. what has happened to the Pala is He is not interested in factories and he
magnetism - it might be felt that. to Royal? is clearly infatuated by palaces. He
some extent. he recapitulates the would not propose a factory as an
anomalies of Sitte's proposals for This. no doubt. is an aspect of the appropriate model for a student resi-
Vienna. problem of which is front and wh ich is dence (Pavilion Suisse): but if. in
back. which part of the building these terms. he might be thinking of a
But. if this is to go too far. to compli- belongs to the world of indisputably Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg (build-
cate by a conscientious excess of zeal, private idiosyncrasy and which pos- ing nice build ings but awfully cruel to
in another area of interest. that related sesses the proudly proclaimed status M ozart ). then he invariably sheers
to the texture of solids. it can also seem of the irrefutably public event. which away from any such idea. Because.
that Krier is reluctant to go far enough. side is random happening and which thoug h the Kings of Wurttemberg and
And one refers to a condition of void- side is grandly generalized set piece? the Archbishops of Salzburg are evi-
solid relationship which seems to And this seems to be a question. dently a large part of his ideal appar-
derive from an undue preoccupation involving the profitable intercourse atus. then. equally evident is his great
with intersecting movement systems between order and confusion. dress anxiety to check all that- the residue
and linear models and which is apt to and undress. which Krier seems to be of the Holy Roman Empi re. the
leave what are alleged to be streets reluctant to entertain. But. if with panoply of the Almanach de Gotha -
unsupported by a sufficient back-up of Krier nearly everything has onlv a against the more 'rational' and philan-
density. public facade (meaning nearly every- th rop ic fi ndings of a sensit ive social
thing is equipped with the profusion of democracy.
This is a type of recurrent solution two equally representative vertical
(particularly well illustrated on pp. surfaces). if there is very little idea of Reactions to this book can easily be
24-25) which is clearly propounded one building surface being smooth. ambiva lent. In this book there are no
as normative but which is apt to cursive and continuous and the other Metabolists. no Kenzo Tange, no
instigate doubts as to what might being bumpy, syncopated and staccato Futu rists. no Technos. no Archigram.
really be the preferred route by which (the empirical constitution of the little trace of surrender t o the romantic.
the observer/user would traverse these traditional city). there are many other manifestations of scientism. Krier is
configurations. Would he or she. instances - Le Corbusier's maisons a enormously good at trees in the French
indeed. follow the somewhat relentless redents. Jellicoe's Motopia and Stir- style - and don't we need it? Krier is
lines of the streets? Or would he or she ling's Runcorn- which might be co n- unaware of the virtues of congestion,
be far more predisposed to hop from sidered as exactly illustrati ng th e a little too quietly ordered. too Apol-
Palais Royal to Palais Royal. nego- inherent difficulty of performing one of lonian. insufficiently Dionysiac. Isn't
tiating what is presented as the prime the most necessary of operations. the it all a bit like Albert Speer. relieved of
movement system with a combination discrimination of back and front. his imperial mission and making far
of mild frustration and patience? For more intelligent demonstrations in t he
there is here a considerable problem So Krier (like Le Corbusier and many Germany of Mett ernich? Many of his
as to what is public and what is others) largely fails to understand t he minor spaces are elegant and excellent
private. what is major and what is res privata: but. if with him. the public (Ostereichischer Pl atz, pp. 123-31,
secondary: and. if public spaces are front is an invariable. his solutions also Rotebuhl Plat z. pp. 118-9) ; but are not
said to occur at the intersections of have a decency all of their ow n. For. the outer subu rban proposals a little
prime movement. then there may be fundamentally, his book is an un- t oo predictable and linear.
some scepticism as to whether these ashamed panegyric upon public fronts
spaces could ever become animated (he illustrates them by means of a Such is a casual collection of American
when so extremely adjacent to an somewhat enigmatic anthology of reactions to Urban Space: and they are
alternative and apparently much more what appear to be Stuttgart high mostly the reaction of students at
charming route of travel. And this issue bourgeois houses of - give or t ake a Cornell. of persons fa miliar with the
might be focused by proposing a few years - circa 1 900) : and. if Le issues and. at the same time. agitated
Place Vendome and then proposing. in Corbusier as an architect was. at by them. But they are. probab ly,
its immediate vicinity, the presence of bottom. very like this (so much of his slight ly more profound. sympathetic
no less than four Palais Royals. by architecture was a eulogium of public and elaborate rea ctio ns than are likely
making this proposal and then asking fronts. most of his urbanis m w as t o be f ound elsewhere. For inst ance.
the question: What. in the process. has ostensibly the reverse). with regard to in the cultural amnesia of the Ger-
happened to the Place Vendome and this issue Krier comes through clean. manic la nds it would be greatly

11
 ..
~

interesting to know how Stadtraum addressing itself to a situation which exhibits date back to 1971-72. So
has been received; and. in the United knows no frontiers. For Rob Krier has during much of this time something
Kingdom one might also. prospectively. here done a major thing . He has has faded - though not much; and.
wonder. But then how is this book destroyed the Zeilenbau and restored therefore. about this book one would
likely to be received in the great North the perimeter block. As a result of finally like to say (as about much else)
American theatre of ideas w hich is so Krier. we reject Hilberseimer and that. if only abstractions could be
turbulent. so classical in its ultimate return to th ink about the Karl Marx Hof relaxed. more empiri cal material
bias and so eterna lly irrational? in Vienna; and. if the Karl Marx Hot is allowed to enter and a further
scarcely what we are anxious to see. if genera lisation to take place. th en how
To some persons. both in England and we mig ht want to qualify it. then this happy one would be. And. no doubt
the Germanic lands. th e question of must be all to the good . For Rob how happy wou ld be Robert Krier.
North America wi ll appear redundant. Krier's book is remarkably unassuming
We have our liberalism. we have our and. in spite of obviously M arxian But the afterview is not very much
conservatism. we have our quasi- overtones. it prescribes solutions which allowed; and. meanw hile. imag ine
Marxist postures: and just what else is are appl icable anywhere and every- Kri er's possible afterviews. what has
there to ta lk about? But it is the great where- including North America . here been done is constructive. sug-
merit of this book to have transcended gestive and tremendou sly important.
such noisy and smelly barriers. to be It is a book published in Germany in
rooted in south Germany but to be 1975 and the projects which it

12

I
 l

..
CHAPTER 1

TYPOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL

ELEMENTS OF

THE CONCEPT OF URBAN SPACE

 ..,

DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPT

CHAPTER 1 'URBAN SPACE'
scarcely be proved that because of the
wishes of the ruling classes and their

TYPOLOGICAL AND If we wish to clarify the concept of

urban space without imposing aesthe-
artists. th e st ylistic canons of the period
in European art history between 1600
and 1730 appeared almost to be

MORPHOLOGICAL tic criteria, we are compelled to desig-

nate all types of space between
determined by fate. Of cou rse for the
historian every period of history forms

ELEMENTS OF THE buildings in towns and other localities

as urban space.
a unit with its own internal logic. wh ich
cannot be fragmented and inter-
cha nged with elements of other periods

CONCEPT OF This space is geometrically bounded

by a variety of elevations. It is only
at will.

URBAN SPACE the clear legibility of its geometrical

characteristics and aesthetic qualities
which allows us consciously to per-
The creative person. such as th e artist.
may use a completely different metho d
of approach. The decisions he makes in
ceive external space as urban space. deploying his aesthetic skills are not
always based on assumptions wh ich
The polarity of internal-external space can be unequivocally explained. His
is constantly in evidence in this chap- artistic 'libido' is of enormous import-
ter, since both obey very simi lar laws an ce here. The cultural contribution of
not only in function but also in f orm. an age develops on the basis of a
Internal space, shielded from weather hig hly complex pattern of relat ed
and environment is an effective symbol phenomena. which must subsequently
of privacy; external space is seen as be th e subject of laborious research on
open, unobstructed space for move- the part of historians. This example
INTRODUCTION ment in the open air, with public. throws us ri ght into a complex problem
semi-public and private zones. which appears t he same in wh ichever
The basic premise underlying this period of history we consider. We must
chapter is my conviction that in our The basic concepts underlying th e discuss this example exhaustively be-
modern cities we have lost sight of the aesthetic characteristics of urban space fore we start constructing our rational
traditional understanding of urban will be expounded below and system- system. Each period in art history
space. The cause of this loss is familiar atically classified by type. In th e pro- develops gradually out of th e assimi-
to all city dwellers who are aware o1 cess. an attempt will be made to draw a lated functional and forma l elements
their environment and sensitive enough clear distinction between precise aes- w hich precede it. The more conscious
to compare the town planning achieve- thetic and confused emotional factors. a society is of its history, the more
ments of the present and the past and Every aesthetic analysis runs th e risk of effortlessly and tho roughly it handles
who have the strength of character foundering on subjective questions historical elements of style. This truism
to pronounce sentence on the way of taste. As I have been able to observe is important in as far as it legitimises
things have gone. This assertion alone from numerous discussions on th is the artist's re lationshi p w ith the univer-
is of no great service to town planning topic, visual and sensory habits, w hich sally accepted wealth of formal vo-
research. What has to be clearly vary from one individual to the next. cabulary of all preceding ages- this is
defined is what should be understood are augmented by a vast number of as applicable in the 20th as in the
by the term urban space and what socio-political and cultural attitudes, 17th centu ry.
meaning it holds within the urban which are taken to represent aesthetic
structure. so that we can go on to truths. Accepted styles in art history - I do not wish to rally support for
examine whether the concept of for example, baroque town plans. eclecticism. but sim ply t o warn against
urban space retains some validity in revolutionary architecture etc - are an all too naive understanding of
contemporary town planning and on both useful and necessary. history, wh ich has been guilty of such
what grounds. 'Space' in this context misjudgements as representing urba n
is a hotly disputed concept. It is not However my observations indi cate that architectu re amongst the Romans as
my intention here to generate a new they are almost always identified w ith markedly inferi or to that of the Greeks,
definition but rather to bring its the social structure prevailing at the w hich from an historical point of view
original meaning back into currency. time in question . Certainly it can is simp ly not true. The same mistake

15
persists today. as can be seen from 'abstracts'). Yet others found th ei r elude w ith a fai r deg ree of certainty
atti tude to the architecture of the 19th material in social criticism and the de- tha t none of these interre lated factors
century. nunciation of social injustice and can be considered in isolation.
carried out their mission using for ma lly
Our age has a remarkably distorted simple methods (the 'expressionists'). W ith this brief outline of the problem,
sense of history. which can only be The break with t~ el itist artistic trad i- we should just add a word of caution
characterised as irrational. Le Cor- tion was identical to Hie artist's struggle about an over-simplist ic und iscrimi-
busier's apparen t battle against the for emancipation from his patron- th e nating outlook. It is certainly w orth
'Academie' was not so much a revolt ruling class and its cultural dictator- trying to establish why certain k inds
against an exhausted. ageing school as ship - which had been brewing even of urban space were creat ed in the
the assumption of a pioneering stand before the French revolution. 17th cent ury which we now identify
in which he adopted its ideals and with that period. And it would be even
imbued them with a new and vigorous The example of the baroque town more interestin g to exam ine the real
content. layout has already been mentioned, reasons why 20th century town plan-
and t he question raised of the identity ning has been impoverished and
This so-called pioneering act' was a of form. content and meaning. We reduced to the lowest common de-
pretended break with history. but in must be more exact in asking: nominator.
reality was an artistic falsehood. The
facts were these: he abandoned the 1 Was the resulting form the free The following classification does not
tradition current until then that art expression of the creative artist? make any value j udgement s. It enume-
supported by the ruling classes enjoyed rates the basic f orms w hic h constitute
the stamp of legitimacy and. being at 2 Alternatively. were the artistic w ishes urban space, w it h a limited nu mber of
an advanced stage of development. of the employing class imposed on the possible variati ons and combinati ons.
materially shaped the periods which artist. and was he forced to adopt their The aesthetic qua lity of each element
followed. It was a revolt at one remove. notions of form? of urban space is cha racterised by the
so to speak. for the 'Academie' lived on, structural interrelation of detai l. I shall
and indeed came itself to share the 3 Do contemporaneous periods exist. attem pt to discern th is qua li ty wherever
·same confused historical sense as the which on the basis of different cultu ra l we are dea ling w ith physical fe atures of
followers of the revolution. traditions in different countries or a spa tial natu re. The two basic elements
continents where similar social con- are the street and the square. In the
I am speaking here about the modern ditions prevail. produce the same category of 'interi or space' we wou ld
age in general, and not about its artistic solutions? be talking about the corrid or and th e
exponents of genius who tower above room . The geometrical characteristi cs
the 'image of the age'. Rather than be 4 Alternatively, are there non-con - of both spatia l f orms are th e same.
indebted to elitist currents in art. the temporaneous periods which led t o They are differenti ated on ly by the
generation around the turn of the fundamentally different artistic solu-
century sought new models. They tions, each being a stage in t he
found them in part in the folk art of development of the same cu ltural
other ages and continents, which had tradition in t he same country under
hitherto attracted little attention. the same conditioning socia l factors?

There began an unprecedented flurry In this series of permutations, the

of discovery of anonymous painting, following factors are relevant: aesthe-
sculpture. architecture, song and music tics, artist patron, social environment.
of those peoples who were considered leeway given to artistic expression,
underdeveloped, and their contributi on formal restrictions imposed by t he
to culture was for the first time pro- patron, formal restrictions imposed by
perly valued without regard to their the social environment fashion, man -
stage of civilisation . Ot her artists agement level of development. tech-
sought their creative material in the nology and its potential applications .
realm of pure theory and worked with general cultural conditions. scien t if ic
the basic elements of visual form and knowledge, enlightenment nature.
its potential for transformation (the landscape. climate etc. We can con-

16
di mensions of the wa lls wh ich bound access to individual plots. It has a more
t hem and by th e patterns of f unction pronouncedly functional character th an
and circ ulation which characterise the square. w hich by virtue of its size is
them. a more attractive place to pass the t ime
than the street. in whose confin es one is
THE SQUARE involuntarily ciil<Ught up in the bustle of
traffic. Its arch itectural backdro p is
In al l probability the square was the only perceived in passing. The street
first way man discovered of using 3 House
layouts which we have inherited in our
urban space. It is pro duced by the towns were devised for quite different
grouping of houses around an open functional purposes. They were plan-
space. This arrangement afforded a ned to th e scale of the human being,
high degree of co ntrol of the inner the horse and the carriage. The st reet is
space. as well as f acilitating a ready unsuitable for the flow of mot ori sed
defence against external aggression by traffic. whilst remaining appropriat e to
minimising the external surface area human circulation and ac ti vity. It
lia ble to attack. This kin d of cou rtyard rarel y operates as an aut onomous
freq uently came to bear a symbol ic iso lated space. as f or example in the
value and was therefore chosen as the case of villages built along a sing le
model for th e construction of numerous street. It is mainly to be perceived as
hol y places (Agora. Forum. cloister. part of a network. Our historic towns
mosque courtyard). With t he invention have made us familiar with the in-
of houses built around a central court- exhaustible diversity of spatial relation -
yard or atrium this spatial pattern ships produced by such a complex 4 Urban structure
became a model for the future. Here layout.
rooms w ere arranged arou·nd a central 'street'. it retain s no co nnection w it h
courtyard li ke single housing units TYPICAL FUNCTIONS OF t he orig inal signif icance of t he term.
around a sq ua ~e. URBAN SPACES Certai nly the moto rised. transportat ion
of people and go ods is one of th e
THE STREET
The activities of a town take place in primary f unctions of t he town. but it
The street is a product of the spread of public and private spheres. Th e be- requi res no scenery in the space
a sett lement once houses have been havioural patterns of people are si milar around it. It is different in the case of
bu ilt on all available space aro und its in both. So. the result is that the way t he movement of pedestrians or public
central square. It provides a framework in which public space has been t ransport vehicles w hich move at a
for the distribution of land and gives organised has in all periods exerc ised mode rat e speed. like carriages. T oday
a powerful influence on th e design of we have boulevard situ ations wh ich
2 private houses. apparen tly draw their life from t he
defile of fl ashy cars and pavement
We might almost infer the existence of c afes are visited despite the fact that
a kind of soci al ritua l. w hich prod uces the ai r is pollut ed by ex haust f umes.
a perfect match bet ween individual and Lookin g at planning .schemes of t he
collective. What concerns us above all turn of the centu ry one can appreci ate
here are tho se activities w hich t ake that in cosmopoli tan cities su ch as
place in the t own in the open air: i.e. Paris. Rome or Berlin. th e ai r was
actions w hi ch a person performs out - pollu ted in a different way : by horse
side the familiar territ ory of his own manu re. st inking sewage and un -
home and for w hich he utilises pu blic collected refuse. A problem of urban
space. as fo r example travelling t o work. hygie ne. as old as th e town itself. with
shopping . selling goods. recreation. th e on ly d ifference t hat people can be
leisure activities. sporting events. de- poisoned by carbon mon oxide but
liveries etc. Although the asphalt ca rpet sca rcely. by horse manure.
which serves as a channel f or t he
movement of cars is still called a On medical grounds we can no longer

17

I
 5 The square,..ps· intersection of two
roads. fixed point of orientation. meet-
ing place.

18
indulge in this kind of boulevard Le Corbusier in the 30s. and for Jorn wh ich prod uced it. There is no reason
romanticism. While the automobile in Utzon in the 60s. expressed his ho pe why the building types used by ext inct
its present form continues to occupy that this loss would perhaps be com- dynasties to design their residences and
streets. it excludes all other users. pensated by a powerful impet us t o- show th eir material wealth should not
wards artistic expression. He hoped fo r serve as a model for housing today.
Let us give a brief outline here of the the same thing. from new const ructi on
characteristic functions of the space techniques. I have already stressed (I must add here t hat my critique of
defined by the square and the street: the importance of the poetic content the ways of seeing such arch itectural
and aesthetic quality of space and f orms applies main ly to the German
buildings. It is not my wish t o intro- cultura l scene. By and large a frighten-
duce into this discussion the concept ing ly vague sense of history pre-
of symbolism. with all its eth ical and dominates in th is country.)
THE SQUARE
re ligious overtones; and I would also
This spatial model is admirably suited like to warn against the arbitrary The early Christians were not afraid to
to residential use. In the private sphere confusion of aesthetic and symbolic adopt the bu ilding type of Roman
it corresponds to the inner courtyard or categories. If I maintain th at the judi cial and commerc ial bu ildings, the
atrium. The courtyard house is the Louvre. instead of being a museum. basi lica, as the prototype of their
oldest type of town house. In spite of might equally well be housing, a religi ous monuments. Le Corbusie r
its undisputed advantages. the court- castle, an office building etc. let me took his rows of 'redents' fro m baroque
yard house has now become dis- make it clear that I am spea king of castles.
credited. It is all too easily subject to space or building type. not of external
ideological misinterpretation, and detailing or historical and socio- No contempora ry pu blic squares have
people are afraid that this design may political factors which led to this been laid ou t w hi ch could be com-
imply enforced conformity to a com- structural solution. The aestheti c value pared with urban. squares like t he
munal lifestyle or a particular philo- of the different spatial types is as Grande Place in Brussels. the Place
sophy. independent of short-lived fu nctional St anis las in Nancy, the Piazza de·l
concerns as it is of symbolic inter- Campo in Siena. th e Place Vendome
A certain unease about one's neigh- pretations which may vary f ro m one and t he Place des Vosges in Paris. the
bours has undoubtedly led to the age to the next. Plaza Mayor in Madrid , the Plaza Rea l
suppression of this building type. Yet in Barcel ona etc . This spatial type
in the same way as communa l living Another example to clarify th is argu- awai ts redis covery . This can only
has gained in popularity for a minority ment: occur first ly w hen it can be en -
of young people with the disappearance dowed w ith meaningfu l functions.
of the extended family, the concept of The multi-storeyed courtyard house. and second ly is planned in the right
neighbourhood and its accompanying from the Middle Ages up to modern place with the appropriate approaches
building types will most certain ly be times. was the building type wh ich within the overall town layout.
readopted in the near future. acted as the starting point for the
castle. the renaissance and baroque
In the public sphere. the square has palace etc. The Berlin tenements of What are the f unctions wh ich are
the 19th century are also courtyard appropriate to the squa re?
undergone the same development.
Market places. parade grounds. cere - houses, but nowhere near being
monial squares, squares in front of palaces. Anyone familiar w ith the Commerc ial activ ities certain ly, such
churches and townhalls etc. all relics architecture of Palladia should draw as the market but above all activities
of the M iddle Ages. have been robbed the right conclusion from this . The of a cultural nature. The establishmen t
of their original functions and their lavish use of materials certainly does of pub lic admin istrat ive offices, com -
symboli c content and in many places not play the decisive rol e here . If that mun ity ha lls. youth centres, libraries.
are on ly kept up through the activities were the case, Pallad ia would long t heatres and concert halls, cafes, bars
of conservationists. since have fallen into obliv ion. So, etc. Where possible in th e case. of
even in the 20th century, I can central squa res. t hese should be fu nc-
The loss of symbolism in architec- construct a building with an inner tions which generate activity twenty-
ture was described and lamented by courtyard without remotely ai ming to fou r hours a day. Resident ial use
Giedion in Space. Time, Architecture. imitate the palace architectu re of t he should not be exclu ded in any of these
The literary torch which he carried for 16th century and the social class cases.

19
 only fu nction when it is part of a
system in which pedestrian access
leads off the street. This system can be
unsettled by the follow ing plann ing
errors:

1 If some houses and flats cannot be

approached directly from t he st reet bu t
only from the rear. In th is way the
street is deprived of a vital activity. The
res ult is a state of competition between
internal and externa l urban space .
Th is characterisa t ion of space refers to
the degree of public activity wh ich
takes place in each of t hese two areas.

2 If the ga rages and parking spaces

are arra nged in such a way t hat th e
flow of hu man t raffic between car and
house does not impin ge upon the
street space.

3 If th e play spaces are squeezed out

into isolated areas w ith the sole
justifi cati on of preserving the intimacy
of the res idential zone. The same
neuroti c attitude towards neighbours
is experienced in flats. The noise of
cars out side the home is accepted. yet
indoors children are prevented from
playing noisil y.

4 If no money can be invested in public

open spaces. on suc h items as avenues
~ of trees. paving and other such street
r ~ furniture. given th at the f irst priority is
the visua l appeal of space.
~~ ~.z -
(:}\~ ,~~ .1 t't,
-
l)
5 If the aesthetic quality of adjacent
houses is neglected. if t he fa cing
\I I I~ A f ro ntages are out of harmony. if
f ~ \.tl different secti ons of th e street are
inadequately demarcated or if the
6 Th e street as artery and means of scale is unba lanced. These f actors
orientation . fu lfil a precise cu ltural role in the
functional coherence of t he st reet and
THE STREET in Germany today. are so excessive square. The need to meet the town's
that attractive spatial situations can fu nction of 'poetry of space' shou ld be
In purely resident ial areas streets are only be achieved by gimmickry. In as self -eviden t as th e need to meet any
universally seen as areas for public most cases. there is ample space avai l- technical requ ire ments. In a pu rely
c irculation and recreation. The dis- able for gardens in addition to the objective sense. it is just as basic.
tances at which houses are set back emergency access required for pub lic
from the street. as regul ations demand service veh ides. This street space can Can you imagine people no longer

20
 .....

making music. painting. making pic - growing need to adopt new modes of merci al and office buildings. however.
tures. dancing ... ? Everybody would transport will leave our countryside this bui lding type could come back
answer no to this. The role of archi- littered with gigantic and obsolete into fashion. Protection against the
tecture on the other hand is not monuments of civil engineering. elements is a financial ly justifiable
apparently seen as so essential. 'Archi- amenity for shopping streets in our
tecture is something tangible. useful. In fact. one is inclined to think that. latitudes. The arcaded street. developed
practical' as far as most people are considering the ·revel of investment in by the Romans from the colon nades
concerned. In any case its role is still the car and all that goes w ith it. a w hich surrounded the Greek Agora,
considered as the creation of cosiness fundamental change is no longer has completely died out. The remains
indoors and of status symbols out- feasible in the long term. of such formal streets can still be found
doors. Anything else is classed as at Palmyra. Perge. Apameia, Sidon,
icing on the cake. which one can All this illustrates the enormous con- Ephesus. Leptis Magna. Timgad ~tc.
perfectly well do without. I maintain fli ct of interests between investments
that a stage in history when architec- f or the demands of machine/car and The appearan ce of this type of street is
ture is not granted its full significance investments for living creature/man: a fascinating event in the his tory of
shows a society in cu ltural crisis. the it also indicates that there is a price to town planning. With the increased
tragedy of w hich can scarcely be be paid f or the restoration of urban prosperity of Roman rul e. a need arose
described in words. Contemporary space. if our society is to continue to for the uniform and schematic plan of
music expresses it adequately. value life in its cities. the Greek colonial town to be modi-
fied, with emphasis being placed on
The problems of the residential street Back to the problem of the commerci al arterial roads w ithin the homogeneous
touched on here apply equally to the street which has already been out- network of streets. and this was
commercial street. The separation of lined. It must be fashioned differently achieved by marking them w ith par-
pedestrians and traffic carries w ith it from the purely residential street. It ticu larly splendid architectural features.
the danger of the isolation of the must be relatively narrow. The passer- They certainly had important func -
pedestrian zone. Solutions must be by must be able to cast an eye over all tional connotations which today can
carefully worked out which will keep the goods on display in the shops no longer be clearly surmised. What-
the irritation of traffic noise and exhaust opposite without perpetually having to ever these connotations were, they
fumes away from the pedestrian. with- cross from one side of the street to the had an obviously commercial as well
out completely distancing one zone other. At least. this is w hat the shopper as symbolic character, in contrast to
from the other. Th is means an over- and certainly the tradesman would like the Agora and th e Forum. w hich were
lapping of these functions. to be to see. Another spatial configuration of reserved primarily for political and
achieved w ith considerable invest- the shopping street is provided by the religious purposes . Weinbrenner, with
ment in the techn ologica l sphere, a old town centre of Berne. in w hich his proposed scheme for the improve-
price which the motorised society pedestrians ca n examine the goods on ment of the Kaiserstrasse in Karlsruhe,
must be prepared to pay. This problem display protected by arcades from the attempted to revive this idea. The
wi ll remain much the same even when inclemency of th e weather. This type of Konigsbau in Stuttgart designed by
the well-known t echnical shortcom- shopp ing street has retained its charm Leins could be a fragment of the
ings and acknowledged design failings and also its functional efficiency up to arcaded street of Ephesus. The Romans
of the individual car have been ironed the present day. The pedestrian is were astoundingly imaginative in per-
out. The number of cars. and their rel atively untroubled by the ro ad. which fecting this type of street space. So,
speed. remains a source of anxiety. li es on a lower level. This street space for example. changes in the direction
With the way things are going at the can serve as an example to us. of streets. dictated by existing features
moment. there seems little hope of of the urban structure. were high -
either factor being corrected. On the The same can be sa id of the glass- lighted as cardinal points by having
contrary, nobody today can predict roofed arcades or passages which ori- gateways built across them. In the
what catastrophic dimensions these ginated in the 19th century. Strangely Galeries St. Hubert in Brussels, thi s
problems will assume and what solu- enough , th ey have fallen out of problem has been solved on the same
tions w ill be needed t o overcome favour today. From the point of principle. By this expedient. the street
them. view of venti lation it was obviously space is divided up into visually
disadvantageous then to lead the manageable sections. in contrast to
It is completely absurd to labour under street frontage into a passageway. the seemingly infinite perspective of
the misapprehensio n that one day the With today's fully air-conditioned com- the remaining netw ork of streets. It

21
 ·>'I

shou ld equally be noted that in rare

cases streets broaden out into squares
direct ly without the ir articulation being
ma rked by build ings. Th e street and
the square were conceived as largely
independent and autonomous spaces.

Such devices. used by Roman and

Greek town planne rs to indicate spatia l
rel ationships. lapsed into oblivion w ith
t he decli ne of the Roman empire in
Europe. Isolated building types su ch
as the forum and the basilica were
adopted unchanged in t he Middle
Ages, f or examp le in monasteries. The
f orum was no longer employed as a
public space. Not so in Nort h Africa
and the Near East. and to some ext ent
in Spa in, where these ancient t ypes of
urba n space su rvived almost un-
changed until t he turn of the cent ury
using traditional const ruction methods.

TYPOLOGY OF URBAN S PACE

In f ormulating a typology of urban

space. spatial forms and their deriva-
tives may be div ided into three main
groups. according to th e geomet rical
pattern of t heir g round plan: these
gro ups derive fro m the sq uare, t he
circle or t he triang le.

DOD
W ithout doubt the scale of an urban
space is also related t o its geometrica l
qualiti es. Scale can on ly be mentioned
in passi ng in this ty pology. I wish to
try and deal w ith the signifi cance of
propo rt ions in externa l space mo re
comprehensively in a later chapter.
They do not affect the arrangement of
my ty pology.

7 One type of urban space on three

diffe rent scales

22
 ·"'
MODULATION OF A GIVEN Even the dimensions of a space can regular and irregula r configurations.
SPATIAL TYPE have a distorting influence on its effect.
to such an extent that it ceases to bear The basic elements can be modified by
The matrix drawn up below (Fig. 8) any relation to the original. The column a great variety of building sect ions. I
shows. reading from top to bottom: headed 'distortion' has not been co m- illustrate here 24 different t ypes wh ich
1. The basic element: 2. The modifica- pleted in this r:l'latrix. as these shapes substantially alt er the features of urban
tion of the basic element resulting cannot be diagrammatically expressed. space. See Fig. 9.
from the enlargement or reduction of
the angles contained within it. where All these processes of change show
the external dimensions remain con-
stant: 3. The angles remain constant
and the length of two sides changes in 8
the same proportion : 4. Angles and
external dimensions are altered arbi-
trarily.

UJ <.!:1
Reading from left to right. the matrix D..
<0:
z z
:r: I- z a:
illustrates the following stages of = D..
0
>=
""
<..>
2
:::;
2
UJ
c::J
>= <0:
--' a:
modulation: c:;; = :2 Ci ~
0
I-
<0: 2: t3 0 ::>
CJ <0:
"" <0: c::J ""
Ci
1. Angled space. This indicates a
space which is a compound of two
parts of the basic element with two
parallel sides bent.

2. This shows only a segment of the

basic element.
R=REGULAR
UR = IRREGULAR
3. The basic element is added to.

4. The basic elements overlap or

BASIC
SHAPE
Ia lo ID lolnlniiii!IO 101
merge.

5. Under the heading 'distortion' are ALTERATION

OF
included spatial forms which are INTERNAL
difficult or impossible to define. This ANGLES
category is intended to cover those
shapes which can only with difficulty
be traced back to their original geo-
metri c model. These shapes may also be
described as species born out of chaos. ALTERATION
OF
Here the elevation of buildings may be EXTERNAL
distorted or concealed to such an DIMENSIONS
extent that they can no longer be
distinguished as clear demarcations of
space- for example. a facade of mirror
ALTERATION
glass or one completely obscured by
OF BOTH
advertisements. so that a cuckoo- INTER NAL
clock as big as a house stands next to ANGLES AND
an outsize ice - cream cone. or an advert EXTERNAL
for cigarettes or chewing gum stands DIMENSIONS
in place of the usual pierced facade.

23
 , J'I

9
HOW BUILDING SECTI ONS
AFFECT URBA N SPACE

Notes on Fig. 9

1 Standard traditiona l section w ith

pitched roof.
2 W it h fla t roof.
3 With top floor set back. This device
redu ces the heig ht of the building
visible to the eye.
4 W it h a projection on pedestrian
level in the form of an arcade or a solid
structu re. This device 'd istances' the
pedestrian from the real body of the
building and creates a pleasing human
sca le. This type of section was applied
w it h part icular vi rtuosity by John Nash
in his Park Crescen t. London.
5 Ha lf way up the bui lding the section
is reduced by half its depth ; thi s
allows for extensive fl oors on t he lower
level and flats wi th access balconies on
t he upper level.
6 Random te rracing.
7 Sloping elevat ion w ith vert ical lower
and upper floors.
8 Sloping elevat ion w ith prot ruding
13 14 15 16 gro und f loor.
9 St epped section.
10 Slop in g section with moat or
f ree -standing ground f loor.
11 Standard section w it h moat.
12 Bui lding with ground floor arcades.
13 Bu ilding on pilotis.
14 Bui lding on pilotis. wi th an inter-
mediate fl oor simi larly supported.
15 Sloping ground in front of bui lding .
16 A free-sta nding l ow bu ild i ng
placed in front of a higher one.
17/ 18 Buildings with a very shal low
incl ine. as for exa mple arenas.
19 Build ing w ith arcade above ground
level and access to pedestria n level.
20 Bui lding w ith access balcon y.
21 Inverted stepped section .
22 Bui lding wi th pitched projections .
23 Bui lding with projections.
24 Build ing w it h free -standing towers.

Eac h of these bui lding types can be

given a facade appropriate to its
function and meth od of construction.

24
I The sketches reproduced here (Fig . 1 0)
can only give some idea of the in -
1
,J'l

~----------~10~------~--~
•~ : 0·~.t .. ' •••• \, ..... . .. . . . -. , '. .. ... . • • • ·: ••
: ·. ·. ·... : ·.' ..... · .... . ·,. t .'

r exha ustible design possibilities. Each

of these structures influences urban
space in a parti cular way. It is beyond
the scope of this work to describe the
nature of this influence.
Ill
2
ELEVATIONS

Notes on sketches in Fig. 10:

I Row 1 left to right:

Pierced facade: the lowest level is
more generously glazed in each sketch.
redu cing the solid area to a simple
load-bearing structure.
3
2 The glazed area within the load-
bearing structure can be modified
according to taste. The following
th ree pictures show a reverse of the
design process portrayed in 1. A solid

I
base forces the glazed area upward .

3 The w indow type can be modified 4 '1l~~~~~~~

horizontally and vertically according ~ ~
to the imagination of the designer. ~
4 Faceless modular facade as a theor-
eti cal (abstract) way in which the =
building might be enclosed. The modu- !D ro JD q_ tr
lar facade can be adapted to all
vari atio ns in the shape of the bui lding.
Solid sections of the bui lding ca n be 5 . - - - - - - - - . ,
/ / /
combined with the grid.

5 W indowless buildings: w indows are

tz/ //
1-
l11
~
I
I
I'iif''.l
placed in niches etc. and the process
starts again from the beginning. II ~
'
..
.
,I
r
l
l ~~ I~
/ I i
6 Exploration of d ifferent geometries;
a thematic interpret ation of the eleva-
tion : lowest level = heavy ; middle 6
sect1on = smooth with various per-
forati ons ; upper part = light. trans-
parent. (One of the sketches of squares

l
show s a v ariation on this theme on
three sides of a square.) Arcades
placed in front of houses. different
archi tectural styles juxtaposed.

25
11 The square as intersection. 12 Arcade running round the square ;h igh. narrow columns.

13 Lower arcade. 14 Low arcade, w ide openi ngs.

15 Combination of three different facades. 16 As 15. but overgrown with pla nts.

26
17 Relationship between single object and urban space. 18 Effect of materials.

19 Dialogue between old. new and green. 20 Green open space, trees w ith short and tall trun ks.

·~

21 Green open space with poplars. 22 Green open space, surrou nded by different kinds of t rees.

27
 23 INTERSECTIONS OF
STREET AND SQUARE

All spat ia l t ypes examined up to now

can be classified accord ing to the
'-'-'
a::
types of street intersection laid out in
-' >- -' '-'-' the diagram opposit e (Fig. 23). As an
<1: :z <1: :=:1
a:: '-'-' a:: c:::J
example here we have a set of permu-
>-
~
<..J
tf
c:::>
'-'-'
>-
:S
::::;
co
c:::> tations for up to f our intersections at
f our possible point s of entry . This
chart should only be t aken as an
ONE INTERSECTI NG STREET indication of the almost unlimi ted
ran ge of possible permutat ions of
these spatial forms . To attempt a
compre hensive display here wou ld
confli ct w ith t he aim of th is typo-
logical outli ne.

The vertical co lumns of th is diagram

show the number of stree ts inter-
TWO INTERSECTING STREETS secting w ith an urban space . Horizont -
ally . it shows four possible w ays in
wh ich one or more st reets may inter-
sect w ith a square or street:

1 Centrally and at ri ght angles t o one

COMBI NATIONS side.

2 Off-centre and at ri g ht angl ts t o

one side.

3 Meeting a corner at ri ght ang les.

THREE INTERSECTING STREETS
4 Oblique. at any ang le and at any
poi'n t of entry.

COMBINATIONS

SPATIAL TYPES AN D HOW

FOUR INTERSECTING STREETS
TH EY MAY BE COMB IN ED

We may summarise the morpho logica l

classif ication of urban spaces as
fo ll ows :

AND SO ON ... COMBINATIONS The three bas ic shapes (square. circl e

28
and triangle) are affected by the 24
following modulating factors: angling;
segmentation; addition; merging. SPATIAL TYPES
overlapping or amalgamation of ele-
ments; and distortion.

These modulating factors can produce

geometrically regular or irregular re -
sults on all spatial types.

At the same time. the large number of

possible building sections influences
the qual ity of the space at all these
stages of modulation. All sections are
fundamentally applicable to these spa -
tial forms. In the accompanying
sketches I have attempted to make ""
z
c::
:z
0
clear as realistically as possible the 2 ;::
""
2
::::;
0
;:: ""
:z
C3
c..
5a:: a:
0
effect of ind ividual spati al types so Ci a: >-

that this typology can be more easily

""
2
<(
Cl
<(
UJ
:2
UJ
>
0 "'
Ci

accessible and of practical use to the

planner.

The terms 'closed' and 'open' may be

applied to all spatial forms described
up to now: i.e. spaces which are com-
pletely or partially surrounded by
buildings.

Finally. many compound forms can be

created at will from the t hree spatial
types and their modulations. In t he
case of all spatial forms. the differen-
tiation of sca le plays a particularly
important role. as does the effect of
various architectural styles on the
urban space.

Design exercises can be 'played' on

th e 'keyboard' I have just described.
Apart from this 'formal' procedure.
other factors also have thei r effect on
space. and this effect is not insignific-
ant. These factors are the ru les govern-
ing build ing construction. which make
architectural design possible in the
OPEN
,
~
first place. and above all else determine
the use or function of a building. which
is the essential prerequisite for archi-
tectural design. The logic of this pro-
cedure would therefore demand this
~~~
sequence: function. construction and
finally the resultant design. SCALE

29
I MORPHOLOGICAL SERIES OF
URBAN SPACES
.>')

The series of spatial forms which I

have sketched here is laid out simply
according to the geometrical charac-
teristics of the basic shape. It does not
claim to be comp lete. It should indicate
to the planner the wea lth of spatial
forms w hich is our town-planning
heritage. and suggest w hat he can
learn from these examples and apply
to his own projects. In presenting th is
selection of drawings I would like to
try and convince arch itectural theoreti-
cians and historians that in future they
must incorporate spatial considerations
more exactly into their overall view of
architecture and town planning. Such
considerations have in fact been
criminally neglected .
There is a widespread and naive view
prevalent among act historians as well
as the general public that this type of
irregular or 'organic ' arch itecture is 25
more beautiful than a group of urban
buildings planned synchronically. In
26
reality. the facts of the matter are these:

N.B. Sketches w hose caption does not

indicate a specific location are the pro -
duct of the author's imagination.

25 Simple geometrica l variations on a

four sided square and examples of
different types of street intersection.
Anyone engaged on research or p lan -
ning on the subject of 'urban space'
w ill soon find that an almost in-
exhaustible range of possible forms
exists. most clearly in evidence in our
historic towns.

26/1 Vienna. Neuer Markt.

26/2 London. St. James' Square. 18th
century.
26/3 London. Grosvenor Square. 18th
century.
26/4 Turin. Corso Re d' ltalia.
26/5 Paris. Place des Vosges.

30
 ·>'~

27/1-20
A clear. geometri c urban spatial f orm
call s for arc hitectu re of extreme delic-
acy and high quality. Any architectural
error is immediately obvious and
damages the overall im pression . In the
case of irregular forms. variety is the
ove rri d ing characte ristic. Defective
architectural detaili ng is not so glarin gly
obvious. but is eff ectively buried .

The great popu larity of med iaeva l

squares is rather more rooted in t he
fa ct that. f irst. they are squares of a
type wh ich no modern t own could
imitate. and second th at they are
surrou nded by f ine arch itecture. Our
age cannot compete with the past in
this area either.

27/1 Square enclosed on all sides.

27/2 Two parallel streets enter t he
square. A sense of spatial enclosure is
now felt only in t he centre of the
square.
27/3 One street enters the square
centra lly. The sense of spatial en-
closure can now be f elt only at the
edge of the square.
27/ 4. 5 Add itional streets enter the
square. The space gradua lly loses it s
clear geometrical outli ne.
27/6. 7 A p rojec t i ng st ructure or
colonnade restores the interrupted
outline of the spac!3.
27/8. 9 The sense of spatial enclosure
is preserved.
27/1 0 Two street s meet the square
radially. From th is position its geo -
met rical f orm can now on ly be per-
ceived w ith diffi cu lty.
27/11 Romantic square w it h irreg ular
ground-plan and buildings of eq ual
height.
27/12 Romantic square ( in th is case
mediaeval ) w ith irregular ground-plan
and build ings of varying hei ghts.

27/13-20
Sketches by W . Wallbrecht.

31
 28/1-24
PLANS OF RECTANGU LAR
SQUARES W ITH VAR IATIONS

28/1-3 The corners of the square are

modified in various ways.
28/4 This modification can produce
an octagon.
28/5 G e rasa ( Pa l esti ne ; Rom an
Period). The Romans have marked the
crossroads with a vari ety of architec -
tural features. Here in Gerasa the
corners of the houses face the cross-
roads at an ang le of 45 degrees (see
Barcelona) and the street space was
blocked off from the crossroads by an
archway.
28/ 6 Versailles. Place Dauphi ne ; see
also Copen hagen. Amalienborg.
28/7 Turin. San Lorenzo Nuovo. 1775.
Architect Fr. Navone.
28/8 Geneva. on the ramparts. 1850.
28/10 Paris. Place Vendome. 1685-
1697. A rchitect Mansart.
28/11 Leinfelden (Stuttgart). 1971.
Architect Leon Krier.
28/1 2 Stuttgart. the Rotebuhlplatz.
1973. Author's scheme.
28/ 21 Palmanova (Ita ly), 1593. Archi-
tect Giul io Savorgn an.

32
 .>'I

29/1-24
ORTHOGONAL PLANS FOR
SQUARES

29/1 Livorno (Italy), Piazza V.

Emanuele. 1605. Arch itect A. Pieron.
29/2 Montpazier (France). 1284.
29/3 San Giovanni Valdarno (Italy,
Tu scany).
29/4 Turi n (Italy), Piazza San Carlo.
18th century. Architect Carlo di Castel-
lamo nte.
29/5 London. Hanover Square. 18th
century.
29/6 London. Golden Square. 18th
century.
29/7 Catania (Italy), Piazza Dante.
1774. Architect Fr. Battaglia.
29/8 Catania (Italy). Pi azza San
Fil ippo.
29/9 Florence (Italy), Piazza Vittorio
Eman uele .
29/ 10 Freudenstadt (Germany). 1599.
Architect Schickardt.
29/11 Freudenstadt. main sq uare with
arcades.
29/12 Bordeaux (France). Place de Ia
Bourse. 1733-1 743. Architect J.
Gabriel.
29/13 Reims (France). Place Royale.
1775. Architects Sufflot & Legendre.
29/14 Mannheim (Germany), Sch-
lossplatz. 17th century. Plan after
architect Coehorn.
29/15 Vienna (Austria). Piaristen -
platz.
29/17 Stuttgart. Schlossplatz. 1750.
Afte r architect Retti.
29/18 Stuttgart. Hohe Carlsschule.
1740-1748. Arch i tects Leger and
Fischer.
29/19 Copenhagen (Denmark). Ama-
lienborg, 1749. Architect Eig hve id .
29/20 Ludwigsburg (Germany).
Castle. 1795. Architect Frisoni.
29/21 Ludwigsburg (Germany). after
1715. Architects Nette and Frisoni.
29/22 Ludwigsburg (Germany),
Marktplatz.
29/23 Le Corbusier's 'Redents'. 1922.
29/24 Leinfelden (Stuttgart). Markt-
platz. 1971 . Author's scheme.

33
 ·>'I

~------~~~~-----
.-~ ·

... .. ..·· ·
..·· ..··
..· ..·..··
_
...-······
...... .. .. ······················-······················--····
.......... . ································::.:::-''
..···
..·..···
.-···
···----- -··.. - ~::.:::_,. ..-···
..··
....--··
..·

30 Lei nfelden
Leon Krier.

'

A
32 Freiburg im Breisgau (Germany),1971. Author's scheme. 33 Freiburg im Breisgau. 1971 (alternative plan). Author's
scheme.

34
 ..
~

34 Plaza Rea l. Barcelona. 1848 .

...,

35
 35/1-24

ORTHOGO NAL PLA NS FOR

[;j:%
~//U/h,. • u"
SQUARES W ITH CENTRAL

~
.
.~ .~ BU I LDING S r<....._
-~· · y<_
~...

t..~Q ~
W7,@.7ff/~ 'I

35/4 Leptis Magna (Libya), Roman

period, Market square.
35/8 Wiesbaden (Germa ny), Luisen -
platz.
35/12 Paris. Madeleine. Original plan.
35/1 6 After Gurlitt.
35/20 Stuttgart Feuersee. 19th cen -
t ury.
35/24 Leptis Magna. Roman period.

36 Junction wi t h marke rs. Le on

Krier. 71 .

36/1 below Cambridge, architects

Stirling and Gowan. 1958.

36
 ·"~
38/1 - 24

OPEN SQU AR ES W ITH

BU ILDINGS INTR ODUCED

2 3

~ ~ ~

~ 1J

w.-&"177~
u
5 6 8

37!1 - 10

37/1. 2 and 35/6 Buildi ngs around a

square. and stepped back.
37/3 In addition. the corner is cham -
(:)
13
I14

fered. ~
37/3 Arcade added .
37/4. 5. 7. 8-35/14 Rectangu lar
squ are. arcade placed along side w ith
angled corners.
37/6 Oct agona l open space wi th rec-
t angular arca de.
18
37/9. 10 see Fig. 38/23.

38/1 The square is open on one side.

38/2- 5 A n isolated bui lding is placed
in the open side.
38/5- 24 Variations. 21 22
rJ 24

37
 .~

39
Streets as an aid to orientation. Squares
at road intersections. Each house in t he
row has one side facing the paved
street and one facing the public
gardens.

38
40

The green area can be spatially articu -

lated in the same way as architectural
space. For landscaping and landscape
architecture the same design principles
apply as for town planning.

39
 ..
~

41/1-24
EXAMP LES OF SPACES
WH ICH ARE ANGLED,
DIVIDED. ADDED TO AND
SUPERI MPOSED

41 / 1. 2 A square is ang led when two

f acing sides are not straight.
4 1/ 3. 4 The angle is articulated by an
intersecting street.
41 / 5-7 Two geometri ca l figures are
superimposed.
41 /8-1 1 Two geometrica l fig ures are
joi ned.
41 /12-1 6 Part of the space gives on
to open country.
41/17- 24 Exa mples of comp lex types
of square.
41/17 St. Gall (Switzerland}. early
mediaeva l.
41 / 18 M asso Maritima (Italy). Pi azza
del Duomo.
41/19 Figli ne Valdarno (Italy, Tu s-
cany).
41/20 Verona. 1. Piazza d' Erbe
2. Piazza dei Signori
41/21 Vo lterra (Italy), Pi azza del Bat-
tistero.
41 / 22 Pienza ( Ita ly). Piazza Pio II.
41/23 Florence. Piazza S. Maria No -
vella.
41/24 Modena. 1. Mercato dell e Leg -
na ; 2. Piazza Grande ; 3. Piazza della
Torre.

42 Sketches of Nordlingen (Germ any) .

40
 45/1-24

CIRCUSES

43 Lucca .

44 Siena.

45/1-4 Regular or irregular circuses.

45/17 Bath (England), The Circus,
1754. Architect John Wood, father and
son.
45/18 The Hague (Holland).
45/19 Kassel (Germany), Konigsplatz.
18th century.
45/21 Paris. Place des Victoires, 1705.
Architect Mansart.
45/22 Berlin (Germany), Belle -Alli-
ance - Platz.
45/23 and 43 Lucca (Italy), Piazza
del Mercato. This square was con -
structed on the site of the Roman
amph i theatre ( cf. Piazza N avona,
Rome).
45/24 and 44 Siena (Italy). Piazza del
Campo.

41
 49/ 1-24
CIRCUSES CONTAINING
BUILDINGS AND MODULATIONS
OF THI S SPATIAL TYPE

----~-~---·~:->··-- ·--··-·--·
46 Leinfelden (Stuttgart) . 1 971
(scheme). Architect Leon Kri er.

48 Author's scheme.

49 / 2 Ge ras a (P a les t in e) . Roman

period .
49 / 6 Typical Roman theatre.
49/17 London. Regents Park. 1810.
Architect John Nash.
49 / 18 Paris. Pl ace Louis XV. 1750
(scheme) . Architect M . Polard .
49 / 20 Bath (England) . Architect J ohn
Wood.
49 / 21 Ed inburgh (Scotland) . 1766.
Architect J. Brow n.
49/22 Gerasa (Pale st ine). Roman
period.

42
 52/ 1-24
COMBINATIONS OF
DIFFER ENT TYPES OF CIRCUS

50 Paris (France). square on the Pont

Neuf. 1510-1584. Architect Du Cer-
ceau.

51 Author's scheme.
52/7 Paris (France). Place de I'Odeon.
1780.
52/8 Ostia (Italy). Roman Empire.
52/9 Rome (Italy). St. Peters. 1656.
Architect Bernini.
52/1 2 London (England). Finsbury
Circus.

A pedantic reader will notice that some

spatial types in this morphological
series are not in the correct place. I
must admit that I did not have the
pat ience necessary to reach t his pin-
nacle of perfection . I nurse the silent
hope that a dedicated expert will at
some time apply himself to the task of
compiling a perfect 'Encyclopaedia of
Urban Spaces·. This is only a beginning.
intended to whet the appetite for such
a monstrous undertaking.

43
 ··~

5 ( Englan d) · Park Crescent.

3 London. t John Nash.
181 2. ArdHtec

..
.J') -

45
 ·>'I
55/1 - 24

GEOMETRICALLY COM PLEX

SYSTEMS

55/5. 7. 8 Stuttgart. Osterre ichischer

Platz. Author's scheme.
55/10 Leptis Magna. Roman Empire.
55/1 3 London. Park Crescent. 1810.
Architect John Nash.
55/16 Rome. Piazza del Popu lo. 1816
(proposed scheme). Arch itect G. Vala-
dier.
55/18 Vigevano (Italy), Piazza Du-
cale. 15th century. Arch itect Bramante.
55/19 Turin (Italy ), Mercato.
55 / 20 Venice (Italy ), Piazza San Mar-
co. 15th- 16th centuries.
55 / 21 Rome. Temple of Trajan. Ro -
man Empire.
55/22 M ilan (It aly), square in front
of San Carl o al Corso. 1857. Arch itect
Carlo Amati .

] [
~{
54 (above) Hannover. Sprengel Mu -
seum. 1972 (scheme). Arch itect Leon
Krier.
55 / 23 Vienna. A trium of th e Vo tiv -
kirche .
55/24 V ienna. H ofbu rg . Architec t
Gottfried Semper.
56/ 1 Rome. Piazza Navona.
56/3 Stuttgart. Ki:in i gstrasse. 1782
(scheme). Arch itect R. F. H. Fischer.
56/ 5 Koblenz (Germany), Schloss-
platz.
56 / 6 St uttga r t. Sc h lossp latz. 1782
(scheme) . Archi tect R. F. H . Fisc her.

46
 56/1-24

GEOMETRICALLY COMPLEX
SYSTEMS

56/7 Ludwigsburg (Germany), on the

ramparts. Architect Frisoni.
56/8 The Hague (Holland). Architect
Berlage.
n
J [
56/9 Berlin-Charlotte nburg, Konig-
4
strasse.
56/13 Nancy (France). Place Carriere
and Place Stanislas. 1752. Architect
Here de Corny.
56/14 Ludw igsburg, Schlossplatz.
1709 (scheme). Architect J . F. Nette.
56/15 Ludwigs burg . Schlossplatz.
1713 (scheme). Architect Nette.
56/16 Edinburgh (Scotland). 1766.
Architect James Brown.
56/18 Karlsruhe (Germany) . Architect
Weinbrenner.

I l
56/19 Rome. St. Peter's (scheme).
Architect Fontana .
56/20 Rome. Piazza San lgnazi o.
1727. Architect Raguzzini.
56/21 Stuttgart. Osterreichischer
Platz. 181 0. Arch itect Thouret.
56/22 Stuttgart. Neues Schloss. 1750
(scheme). Arch i tect Retti .
56/23 Stuttgart. Schloss Solitwde.
Hotel Ducal. 1775. Arch itect C. V.
Shell.
56/24 Stuttgart. Schloss Solitude.
central area. 1764. Architects Guital.
Weyhing, de Ia Guepiere. 23 24
22

47
 7e-.
~

t·
' •
'
f,~
)
1-

Town layou t of Derby : bef ore after.

57 Design for town layout (author).

58 Stuttgart. Osterreichischer Platz (author's scheme).

48
 ,J'l

I ..

62 Square in Sannazzaro de Burgondi.

1967. Architect Aida Rossi .
• l· I _
..., ._. _ _
'-:"~·
.
._. ._
·~· _ _ _.,..
~

66 Triangular residential squa re. London 197 4. Sch eme by Leon Krier.

67 (see Fig. 65) Stuttgart. Charlottenplatz. 1973 (author) .

64 & 65 London. 74. Scheme by Leon

Krier.

49
 , >')
68/1-24

TRIANGULAR SQUARES AND

THE IR DERI VATI VES

68/1 Paris. Place Dauphine.

68/2 Siena ( Italy). Via d. Abbad ia.
68/3 Siena. San Pietro ail e Scale.
68/4 Siena, S. Maria de Provenzano.
68/5 Siena, San Virgi lio.
68/7 Schwetzingen (Germany).
Schlossgarten. 1750.
68/8 Monza ( Italy) .

68/9 Karlsruhe (Germany), 1715.

68/ 10 Versa il les (F rance). Place
d'Armes. Architects Mansart and Le
Vau.
68/11 Versail les. tcuries .
68/13 Vigevano ( Ita ly). Palazzo Sfo r-
zesco.
68/14 St. Gall (Switzerland). Mon-
astery.
68/15 Cracow (Poland ).
68/16 Rome . Capitol. Arc hitect
Michelangelo.

50
 ·>'I

LARGE-SCALE COMPOSITE
PLANS

68/17. 18 Strasbourg (France). De-

signs by the architect Blonde!. 1767.
68/19 Assos (Greece) . Agora.
68/20 Paris. Louvre.
68/21 After Gurlitt.
68/22 San Gimignano (Italy). 1. Piaz-
za del Duomo; 2. Piazza della Cisterna.
68/24 Turin (Italy).

70
Untv~r s lt a t a a Te hni cil la~i
71 BlBb'iOT .ECA

69 Section of Piranesi's proposed

plan for the Campo Marti in Rqme.

70 Pompeii. triangular forum. theatre

and gladiatorial school.
71 Pompeii. comparative sketch of the
same area. to clarify the spatial layout.

Regular triangular squares are extreme-

ly rare in the history of town-planning.
On the other hand, there are many
examples of mediaeval squares of an
irregular and roughly triangular shape.
These are usually formed by two roads
forking.

51
 ,,..
72/1 - 6
LARGE-SCALE COMPOSITE
PLANS

72/1 Paris. Dome des lnvali des. 1679-

1706. Architects J . Hardouin and
Mansart.
72/2.3.4 Ed i nburgh ( Sc ot land),
1766. Arch itect James Brown.

73 Leningrad (U.S.S.R.). Mikhai lovs-

kaya (now Arts Square).

::::-:
I'

74 Leningrad. square in front of the

Winter Palace. Architects B. Rastrelli
and Carlo Rossi.

..
'-
.
r ~; ~
.

~
.,
....:· ··

. ·- ../<·
l#
.. ...
.
.. ,·:- ~·
··. ..
(:4 ..
75 Naples (Italy), Piazza del Plebis -
cito, 1816- 1846 .
72/5 Bath (Eng land). 1754- 1775.
Architects J. Wood sen. and jun.
72/6 Bath (Eng land). Landsdow n
5 6 Crescent, 1794.

52
I
I

Ill
 ..,
76/1-6
LARG E-SCALE COM POSITE
PLANS

76/4 Vien na (Austria). scheme for the

alterations to the Rathausplatz. Archi-
tec t Camillo Sitte.
76/5 Steyr (Austria).

See also Fig. 76/1. Architect Carl o

Rossi.

0 0

See also Fig. 76/3.

76/6 Delhi. the Fort and Pa lace (after

La Roche. Indian Arch itecture. 231 ).
Note the imaginative treatment of a
tota lly enclosed urban space.
5 6

53
 77/1-3
LARGE -SCALE COM POS ITE
PLANS

77/ 1 Stupigni ( Italy). 1730. Architect

Filippo Juv ara.
77/2 Lening rad . area cont aining the
A lexan der. T hea t re and Cern y sev
squares. 1828-1832.
77/3 Turin (Italy) . Piazza Vittorio Ven-
et o. 1810. Arch itect G. Frizzi. Piazza
della Gran Madre d i Dio. 1818.
Arch it ect Bonsignore .

~ -. ~ ~~
r,~.·~7P-Y.NO<, ....
~
!1o AOO
"
I I
• 78 Reconstruction of th e main street
II 2 of Ephesus. 2nd century B.C.

UL~ ·~
79 Colo nnaded street in Palmyra.

nr
3

54
 ·>'I

80/1-3
LARGE-SCALE COMPOSITE
PLANS

Let us take a look at the self-contained

systems of street and square du ring the
Roman period. The forums always lay
adjacent to the streets: but the streets
never actually ran through them. Even
int ersect ions in exposed spots were
marked by the Romans with distinctive
architectural features. as for example in
Gerasa. Perge. Timgad. Lept is Magna
or Palmyra . In the development of
typical Roman urban architecture. an
important part was pl ayed by the
porticoed building borrowed from the
Greeks. Originally. the Greek Agora
was surrounded by one or more
colonnades. In Assos. for example. and
in Athens. there were two straight
colonnades. In Knidos and Priene on
t he other hand. one straight and one
U-shaped colonnade could sometimes
be found opposit e each other.
In his book Grundformen der Europais-
chen Stadt. Gantner shows th e different
stages of development of the Agoras in
Milet as they progress from the open to
the closed spatial system. The Agora in
the lower town at Pergamon w as an
open space enclosed on all sides. and
framed on three by colonnades. The
Agora at Magnesia on the Maander
was simi l arly an enclosed rectangular
site. but surrounded on all sides by a
double colonnade. These last two
Agoras were used as market places. The
two Gymnasia at Priene were square
open spaces. enclosed all round by a
colonnade. The Romans developed
these spatial types and the architecture
whi ch went with them to a perfect
degree. Out of the colonnade grew t he
arcaded street. in evidence in almost
all important Roman towns . The bas-
ilica was t he next phase of develop -
ment. This spatial type is a section of
arcaded street. covered and enclosed.

80/1 Terracina (Italy). c. 1700.

80/2 Perge. Roman period .
80/3 Gerasa (Palestine). Roman
3
period.

55
 81/1and2
LARGE-SCALE COMPOS ITE
PLANS

81 / 1 Pompeii. Forum.
81/2 Pompeii. Forum: si m plified
sket ch. bringing out clearly the layout
of urban space. The streets which
emerge on to the square are intercepted
by the colonnades of the f orum. so that
the spatial effect of the enclosure of the
square remains.

82 Stuttgart. Rotebu hlstrasse. 1973

(auth or's scheme). Cf. Piazza Navona
in Rome. Bramante's Piazza del Belve -
dere in the Vatica n. and the Piazza del
Duomo in Vigevano. also by Bramante.

56
 ·"'~

83/1-3
LARGE-SCALE COMPOSITE
PLANS

Coming from the old Forum, which

was surrounded by a large variety of
isolated buildings, you first enter
directly the Forum of Caesar adjacent
to t he Curia. This was bordered by a
colonnade. The temple, relatively spa-
cious in relation to the square, occupies
a good quarter of it. Next you enter
the Forum of Augustus. This was
roughly twice as large as the first and
its space was articulated in a funda-
mentally different way. The temple was
not free-standing in the square, but
was pushed back, w hich meant that it
had no rear elevation. To heighten the
perspective of the square, the single
colonnade was taken almost to the
front of the temple. Where the colon-
nades ended. semi-circular lateral
niches were inserted, emphasising the
transparency of the square. The rear

83/1 The Imperia l Forum in Rome,

completed under the emperor Trajan
by the architect Apollodor of Damas -
cus.
83/2 The spatial breakdown of the
Forum complex: I have found so many
different attempts to reconstruct this
complex that it is difficult for someone
who is not an architectural historian to
opt for a convincing version. Whether 2
mine is correct in every detail is not 1
<-~\ j1 )~""~t )~\_,;
really relevant here. I only want to
describe briefly the architectural and ~- ~/ _../"\ \ :·-:-;
spatial features which broadly charac-
terise this layout. It is important to say J"...... • • (I :: .:;~..f:'?::::~~: :~·c: ==·=:=·=."=~-:::=
... J;: =: .1 .. .. ======-=-==::::::::. .1.~ -r~:
'• [: ~-::.:· ·•··· ···· H ·~~ , n
, ' • • ••• • ........ Ill

at the outset that - contrary to all ~ ~~ f::a ~1 ·

expectations - the ceremonial layout •• :: I ;;: '1 : l t: I .: 1 :; '
is not flanked or approached by any '
./ ~
.:;... : :i ~
- a.l: -!· " t:.:..t :·
J··.. ..u
. ~1
~

~ ~~,8 ~·~
formal avenues.
83/3 Second design by the architect =\:=.\ .. =·. [Iii] :=·== <;
Boffrand for a Place Louis XV in Paris ~

0
It
• •
• IIi •
•
It
<~~
1
• •
e t..,;
.... a • ..lit
• I
~ •
Ill
••
111 • •
~
1 ;.,_

(site of the recently demolished Les . . .__ ·. ·.. ::: :: _..: ~ =·= :: t.:•• :·:r-
Hailes). This scheme. c. 1750. is ob-
.._'
,.,
. .............
"• ••
·..•• ...:_:··. ~.................
. r·····. . ··· :: • ' • I e -
=~ · !=
•.
.
It Ill •

·· ·.·.·-··-··· ·~. ··.···.······.- ·.·.···-·.·.····

••

viously not comparable in its com- -- J:: ~·.

.. ~ .... :....
· ··. ··M:!
~ ..., .... r-·£~"1··r· · · ......... ~·······~··:\
- L..-...J
·

-rn·!r- - ;.L_
.t- .... + • • • ••

plexity to the Imperial Forum in Rome.

but it has certainly been influenced by
it.
kwHT~ ·.l!r
3

57
 84/1 and 2
wal l was ang led towards the temple .
theatrically exaggerating the depth of
the space.

The Forum of Nerva. whic h flanked the

• f irst two. evinces the spatial impression
Q described above in a differe nt form.
this ti me excessively so. The square was
extremely elongated. and rounded off
at its top end like a circus. The Temple
of M inerva was squeezed ou t of the
Forum altogether. All that remained in
the square itself were the steps and the
portico of the temp le.

Moving on from the Forum of Augus -

tus. you cross an Atrium i.nto the Forum
of Traj an. wh ich measured approxi -
matel y 90 x 11 0 metres. The entrance
was adorned w ith a t riumpha l arch.
From th is point. the rest of the com-
plex was laid out axially. It should be
noted above all how the surround ing
colon nades of the diffe rent forums
were varied. In the latter. a single row
of columns stood on each side of the
triumphal arc h. then to the lef t and
right of the ma in axis a double co lon ~
nade. wh ich c reat ed spatial depth by
means of semi-circular apses. The
fac ing wa ll of the square was un-
adorned except for the entrances to
the adjacent Basilica Ul pia. wh ich were
decorated w ith columns. According to
Paul Bigot's reconstruction. the central
area and th e two flanking colonnades
were covered. The semi-ci rcu lar apses
at th e top w ere left open. The result
w as two rows of colum ns on the
longer axis of the basili ca and three on
its transverse axis.

Fin ally, after crossing a very narrow

Atrium. in which Trajan's colu mn

84/ 1 Chiwa (Usbekistan. U. S.S.R.).

main streets. On the right. the east gate
of the old town. on the left the west
gate. Top left in the pictu re is the
c itadel.
84/2 Buchara (Usbekistan. U.S.S. R.) .
main crossroads of the old town.

58
 86/1 and 2
LARGE-SCALE COMPOSITE
FORMS
.. ~- ft., ~· ,

·. . .-:; ~·
...~~ - ·· ·

85 Author's scheme. in which par-

ticular attention is paid to the interplay
of street and square.

stands. you reach the Temple of

Trajan. built in an extraordinarily
cramped site. so that on each side of
the temple all we have is a space the
width of a street. In the context of the
whole compositional flow of the
Imperial Forum complex. it is very
easy to detect the intention behind
this spatially constricted finale.

86/1 Spalato: on the right. the Palace

of Diocletian. A.D. 300. as reconstruc-
ted by E. Hebrard (external dimensions
215 x 176 metres); on the left the town
as it is today.
86/2 Comparison of the systems un-
2
derlying the town plan.

59
 87/1-6
STREET PLANS

This series of street plans ca n be

infi nitely expanded . Every town has a
large number of extremely interesti ng
st reet plans. wh ich are un iquely lin ked
to the place's history. it s topography
and its in habitants.

87/1 Paris, Avenue Richel ieu .

87/2 Naples (I taly), Corso Re d'l tali a.
1888-1894. .
87/3 Street plan. after Gurlitt.
87/4 Karls ru he (Germany), Kaiser-
strasse.
87/5 Paris. Rue de Tournon. 1780.
2 87/6 Rome. Circus Maximus. Looked
at lengthwise. the elongat ed race-
course has the appearance of a street.
and it is of course f lanked by t errac ing .

88 Author's scheme. in w hich par-

ticular atten tion is paid t o the inter-
play of street and squa re.
6

60
 91
VAR IATI ONS AND INVENTIONS

For anyone who is creati ve or wishes

to become so. th ese children's draw-
ings can have a meaning w hich points
far beyond the limits of the subject
under discussion.

My seven year old daughter Caren

didn't want to take second place to her
daddy while he was busy assembling
his collection. She has included people
in her drawings. as if to remind her

I father that the whole abstract game-

playing has no meaning without
people. She is right. and I'm ashamed
at so much 'use l ess messing
around' . .. !

89

I 89-91 Streets with archway. fence

and flags. Drawings by Caren.

90

6'1
 .,~

EPILOGUE TO THE CHAPTER:

'THEORY OF URBAN SPACE'

hope to have shown by th is wealth

of material that my definition of the
concept of urban space was arrived at
after careful consideration. The fact
that I had to rely so heavily on historical
heritage only indicates that knowledge
gained over the course of centuries
carries a certain conviction which we
cannot allow to go unnoticed . I have
collected this material primarily for
students. in the hope of encouraging
them to delve more deeply into our
architectural heritage. There are almost
no further discoveries to be made in
architecture. In ou r century the prob-
lems have merely changed their dimen-
sion. This is often so dramatic that one
cannot warn too emphatically against
hasty, untested solutions. As long as
man needs two arms and two legs. the
scale of his body must be the measure
of size for all building. That concerns
not only staircases and ceiling he ig ht.
but also the design of public space in
the urban context. In this respect. town
planning in our century has been a
miserable failure. To support this
statement. I would like to follow with
a chapter which describes the his-
torical course which the destruction of
urban space has followed.

92 Drawing by Leon Krier.

62

----------------------------------------------------------------------- - - -
 CHAPTER 2

THE EROSION OF
URBAN SPACE

IN 20th CENTURY
TOWN PLANNING
 ....

CHAPTER 2

THE EROSION OF
URBAN SPACE IN
20th CENTURY
TOWN PLANNING
-···W·
94 Vienna. early 19th century.
HISTORI CAL SUMMARY
The absolute necessity of protecti on
The development after the French and security had imposed a total
Revoluti on of new mil itary tech- discipline on every aspect of the town:
nol ogy and new tactical patterns for its construction. rebuilding and ex-
warfare ushered in an era in which all pansion. This holds true from the time
assumptions and empirical principles of the earliest known human settle-
about tow n planning were funda- ments. The decli ne of the city wa ll
mentally questioned. This was a break coin ci ded with the onset of industrial
with tradition which is un ique in development. which forced cities into
cultural history, and for which neither unprecedented growth. The spread of
architects nor l awyers and politic ians cities over the surround ing countryside
now we nt on unchecked. The first new
res idential areas were for the most part
laid out regularly around the old town
centre. according to the then f amiliar
chessboard pattern. which was almost
always used as the basis for new
settlements.

Until about 1900 the re was no signific-

ant variat ion in th is method of town -
planning. Four publications around
th is time attempted t o use new ideas to 95 Camillo Sitte: proposed develop-
ch allenge this type of development: ment of the Vienna Ring.
93 Jerusalem. plan by Cambrai.
Ebenezer Howard w ith his book Garden
Cities of Tomorrow. Soria y Mata w ith By this he meant the aesthetic reper-
were prepared. The defensive systems his notion of the linear city (1882). toire of architectural resources used to
of towns no longer offered adequate Tony Garnier w ith his Cite industrie/le shape urban space. These books
protection agai nst the new weaponry. (1904) and Camillo Sitte w ith Stadte- excited a great deal of attention around
Warfare had taken on fresh dimensions. bau nach seinen kunstlerischen Grund- the turn of the century. and in the years
and city wa lls. now no more than a satzen. Howard proposed a unit of which followed were wi dely mis-
futil e shell around the old core of the 'reasonable size' as an alternative to interpreted. The garden city : this term
town. were demo lished. Unti l this time. unwieldy agglome rated ce ntres. His alone became a sh ibboleth and sti ll
defensive measures had played a well- study is based on sociological con- serves today as a selling li ne for the
defined role in town planning. They siderations and a concern for public most unethical commercial interests.
could be described as salient factors in health. Sitte criticised above all the The concept of the garden city had a
planning, 'regulators' of urban space. artistic impoverishment of urban space . quite unforesee n impact. because of

64
96 Letchworth Garden City: Unwin
and Parker.

99 'Cite industrielle': To ny Garn ier 1904.

t he many ways in which the original

idea was misinterpreted. It gave rise
to a movement which today is rude ly
dismissed as 'urban sprawl'. Nowhere
in Howard's writings is the single-
family house with garden put fo rward
as the only possible house typ e for t he
garden city. His diagrams out line a
self-sufficient community w hich on
97 Proposals for the expansion of public health grounds provides f or
Madrid: Soria y Mata. substantially greater areas of green
space in the private and public zones
than were usual at the time. Oth erwise. 100 and 10 1 Details of Tony Gar-
Howard based his proposals on cur- nier's 'Cit e industrielle'.
rently accepted ideas about urban
space. Unwin and Parker's plans for
Letchworth indicate this clearly. Sitte's
aesthetic principles are forgott en. To-
day they appear obsolete, because
Sitte derives his thesis from a know-
ledge of town-planning history. His
architectural tools are those of the turn
of the century. They could hardly be
otherwise. But this does not apply to
his proposals for the use of urban
space. They have a validity wh ich is
98 Detail of Soria y Mata's linear city. independent of time and style.

65
 TAll The plans of Soria y Mata and Garn ier
were a different matter. The streets of
th ei r ideal cities w ere laid out on the
old grid system, but the buildings were
placed in isolation f rom each othe r.
Their proposa ls dissolved the tra di-
tional urban form and create d in its
place a vi lla landscape.

I would like to use an historical sum -

mary to show that this deve lopment.
which wou ld have a lasting influence
on modern town -p lanning. was not
w ithout precedent. It w as harking back
to a substantial body of architectural
theory. w hich clearly had its origin in
the vi lla architecture of the 16th and
17th centuries. The detached villa -
not without reason- is still considered
the idea l type of dwelling. The problem
is simply that no town can ever be
co nstructed by co ntinual addition of
this type of house alone .

I have singled out the most striking

102 View of the Temple of Solomon. J erusalem. phases of th is development. and would
103 Spectacula Babylonica. first like to look at some drawmgs by
J . B. Fischer von Erlach (1656- 1723).

Fischer von Erlach made an idea lised

translation into graphic terms of the
travel journ als of h is friends and
acq uaintances and then had his sket-
ches elaborated as engravings. In so
doing. he gave h is imagination free
rein and in many plates placed little
value on the fai thful reproduction of
histoncal reality . W hat is particu larly
in teresting in his vanous compositions
is the depiction of a comprehensive
typology of building forms. So for
example in the engraving of the city of
Jerusalem we can see a very clear
range of diffe rent types of sq uares and
courtyards. with their vari ous mod ula-
tion s. It is also interesting to note the
juxtaposition of a very rig idly laid ou t
citadel complex and an urban structure
wh ich is qu1te free and ap parently
disjointed.

I cannot imagine that this kind of

66
 ·~

representation of a town was simp ly a

dra ughtsman's trick. It was the norm
in isometric drawings to distort th e
basic outline of the town to some
extent: that is. to depict streets as
w ider than they in f act were. in order
that the architectural qua lities of the
buildings lining the streets sho uld
remain visible. This was not true of th e
standard town pers pectives of Meri an.
I am assuming that Fischer von Erlach
used this device to make clear his
vision of the town. But I am convinced
that h1s drawings were also in accord-
ance wi th his conception of the idea l
city. and m my view this must have
corresponded to the idea lised classical
notion of architec tu re prevalent during
the period .

Wha t this signifies is thi s : 'The more

precisely the three -di mensional quality
of a building 1s expressed on each
elevation. the more successful t hat
building 1s.' Thi s theory is old as
architectural history itself. The finest 104 Naumach ia.
mon umenta l buildings are a result of
it. In the case of urba n architecture
105 Mecca.
however. the theory cannot auto -
matically be subscri bed to: if it is. the
t own breaks down into individu al
buildings. as it did with Fischer von .
~.
~
Erlach. At this point. I would like to
give a brief summary of those th eorems · -~
' I •
w hich determine patterns of urban
building. In my comments on the
Stuttgart schemes. they w ill be referred
to frequently.

1 Each building in a t own must be

subordinate to the overall plan. Th at
is. its scale. bui lding type. architectural
vocabulary must harmon ise w ith the
existing architectural fa bric.

2 The existmg conception of urb an

space must not be destroyed, but
complemented by new building. If
such a concep ti on of urb an space
does not already exist. the new building
must create it. As our morphological
selection of urban spatial f orms shows.
the isolated bui lding may very well

67
 .~

have a role to play in the urban fra me-

work. This role must of course be based
on the fun ction of the bui ld ing and its
correspond ing form. It must. so to
speak. tear no holes in the urban fab ri c.
nor must it create any spatial va cuum
around itself.

3 The terms 'reg ular· and 'irreg ular·.

in the context of urban fabri c and
building form. shou ld not be postu -
lated on any ideolog ica l grounds. If
th ey were. thei r va lue would be de-
based. The introduction of the ortho -
gonal t own-plan in Gree ce is attri buted
to Hippodamus of Milet (5th cent ury
B.C.). This plan was subseq uently
widely imitated. espec ial ly in new
urban sett lements. Du ring the same
period. towns were being built on an
irregular g round plan. History shows
that archi tectural and spatia l master-
pieces w ere produced by bo th types.
Th is observat ion is va lid for all cu ltural
periods.

One fu rther rema rk could be added

about the drawings of Fischer von
Erlach: t hat he deliberately placed
side by side isolated bui ldings and
urban spaces of a very different
character. in order to underlin e th e
diversity and ri chness of th e urban
morp holog y which he w ished to
depict.

I have no w ay of proving eith er these

conjectures or th e cl aim that Fischer
von Erlach played a definite role in a
historical develo pment w hich sa w the
breakdown of t raditiona l patterns of
urba n space.

Nevert heless. his drawings prov ide

sufficient evidence to substantiate th is
106 J. B. Piranesi (1720-1778). Ima- Campo Martii. which of course has hypothesis and conseque ntly t o rate
ginary scheme for the Campo Martii in never looked like this. He spen t his hi m as one of the spiritual precursors
Rome. with a dedication to the English whole life studying Roman ruins with of this development. In no sense does
architect Robert Adam. This fantastic great passion and sketching plans f or this cha llenge his reputa ti on as a
composition is a unique document in their reconstruction. With this six -part fi rst -rate architect.
the history of architecture. With in- etching he added a kind of 'd ivert i-
credible inventiveness. Piranesi has mento' to Roman town-planning. Indivi dual building types. such as the
created an idealised version of the colosseum. the ci rcus. the ba th s and

68
 ....
many others. are interlocked like
pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, without any
recognisable town plan resulting. Most
of the structures are placed in the land -
scape independently. See Fi g. 106.
This kind of ideal city then is in
perfect accord wi th the visions of
Fischer von Erlach.

This scheme is especially interesting

for its almost inexhaustible range of
architectural styles.

Of course the layout of the town was

not produced by purely aesthetic
reasons. It is not by chance that the
town centre is a factory, a workplace.
If one takes the tro uble to decipher
Ledoux's plans and read his explana-
tory notes. it becomes clear that th is is
not a pian for the glorification of
capital and the employer class. and
that the manager's house- whose hall
was to be graced with an altar- is not
designed as a symbol of oppression.
Ledoux, a monarchist and Rousseauist.
planned an ideal city for an ethically
intact society which will never exist.
Although he worked as an artist in
Paris. and was highly respected t here.
he seems in this plan to negate the town
as a spatial concept. in contrast to his
contemporaries.

107 (Piranesi) from top to bottom ...

Porta di Aureliano. Capitol, Monte
Palatino (author's collage).

69
 108 Cla ude Nicolas Ledoux (1736-
1806) . Imag inary scheme for the 'Vil le
de Chaux', to day 'Sa li nes de Chaux' in
Arc-et -Senans.

109 The plan as built. According to

Emil Kaufman, Ledoux has 'destroyed
the uni ty of the Baroque town'. This is
in fact true. On ly the austere, street-
like layout of tree - lined avenues reca lls
the plan of the Baroque town. The
central se mi -circu lar area of the finish-
ed plan is surrounded by isolated
buildings . The spatial impression given
by th is magn ifi cen t comp lex is over-
whelm ing in its seductive clarity.
However. the town, la id out around its
sa lt pits. disintegrates into a series of
isolated bu ildi ngs, which are set so far
apart that it is no lo nger possible to
have any coherent sense of urban
space.

70
 · o'l

110 Etienne Louis Boullee (1728-

1791 ). Scheme for a museum. 1783.
111-117 J. N. L. Durand (1760-
1834). pupil of Boullee. From Precis
des fe90ns d'architecture donnees a
/'ecole pofytechnique. Boullee and
Durand's proposals for major building
complexes. The pupil is rather more
modest in his scale than the master.
What is interesting for our considera-
tions of urban space is f irst of all the
fact that an attempt is being made to
design a building from an internal plan
outwards. preserving architectural
balance between its elevations. Withi n
the outer walls of these large buildings
are courtyards of very differing types. 110 111
This kind of formal composition goes
directly back to the Roman baths. We
have already come across similar
complexes in Piranesi's work. ~-r:=::"-!J!!!.W!E:~
j~•., .~&!..- ..•••.. •
)>r'
·- (-.·- ·
I iiiiii- ·~ ..1 • ' • . · " • ""ijiji<

I I

112 113 114

115 116 117

117 Illustrates a scheme for a hospital.

Because of the danger of infection, the . . ..
~--•
~

individual wards are not connected. a ....4d:ia:: ·

Access is given simply by an arcade
which links the wards. The whole
building is enclosed by an arcaded
D
D u
outer wall. In t hese drawings we see
for the first time the emergence of a
: :;':_
::=:_..
::-:..:- l~ :::-.-=-
:::.::::::
[,::::.... .. _
model for terraced housing. This kind
of hospital was introduced in England .
-
around 1715 and was to have a de-
cisive influence on hospital con,struc-
tion in t he 19th century. I am sure that
these models also served as the proto- =-'- '--"'"- ..
type for typical 20th century row
housing.

71
 .r;

FACTORIES AND HO SP ITALS "'h."~

IN THE 19T H CENTURY n ~ It:>
t::J'pQoO: .. ~ o
""~ Qi'o ~~
l:::J 0...@ J/\f'>.
r::,o ~ D "b
•: ~~ r;:,r:> o~o n
• I~Dt> nD Y, rP1.. C'li.,.P
1 ': 0 "'CJU'a lie \}1::1 D "~ -u
~CY nO¢ lJ1 nc::l P l:![t
c!J '5J .~,.:~ {) f=:::::t.
'q

oq~~~ ~ r- c llD li
..""'d' ~oc'\~

118 Krupp factory in Essen. 1860.

-
""'<) ~ .;
124 Standard type of unplanned rural
village.
A comparable development in archi-
. ~: ·~ ~- tectural typology took place simu l-
.·
,,.. Ll""
~ ..
--:. . -· ..
. II .. ..,
.... .---=;;
. ' ··-' t aneously in industrial bui lding (Fig .
118). hospit al construction (Figs. 120-

1:W1l,if~:~:~~Jl~:::~~;
123) and residentia l bu il di ng in the
121 Municipal hosiptal in Berlin- 19th century.
Charlottenburg. architects Schmieden
1 ...,. ~:·:/~:<'i·~~::t:·>:l ~4~ti :~:~. ::·.:::::;; and Bathke. We have already described why hos-
pital construction was in the forefront
0 . ~~~).)j[((f ~ [ (((),)).~
1-. . : 'fl"'ff I J I! T'fl' 'i T't ' of this development. It is hard ly sur-
: :~i{{:l:l ; I ~:.;:: ::=.:: ::1:::({ prising that the constantly growing

_.
.1. ... ·-· ·-·..
1
~ ----:1- -~--J --- ·
. !
.. ,_.1_..... ·-· ·-
~-
. factory complexes should have shaped
themselves into a heterogeneous and
fragmented architectural jigsaw puzzle .
119 Kron enberg housing estate for Building forms were exclusively con-
Krupp fa ctory workers in Essen. 1872. ditio ned by the interests of productive
plan of site. efficiency. When for example the AEG
firm engaged an architect like Peter
1 20- 1 23 New hospitals of the type Behrens. they were motivated by the
built in Germ any in the second half of search f or presti ge. wh ich w ould play
the 19th ce ntury. a major ro le in promoting their outside
commercial interests. Such cases were
extremely rare. The laws of arc hitecture
1 22 R. Virchow hospital in Berlin. and harmonious urban design were of
architect L. Hoffman. little importance in industrial build ing.
Nevertheless. in many respects in-
dustrial building had its own distinct
influence on these two sets of laws.
The achievements of 19th century
industri al building in th e fie lds of
engineering and technology were to
provid e the essential impetus for
modern architectu re in the early 20th
century. They were als o to lead to
numerous misconceived developments.
such as the movements towards a
purely functional or constructional
ori entation. wh ich caused the im-
120 Sanat orium in Berli n- Beelitz. ar- 123 Muni cipal hosp1ta lm the Johann - poverishment of present-day archi-
chitects Schmieden and Bathke. stadt. Dresden. arch itect Brater. tecture. The influence of industrial

72
 ..,
building on urban planning was catas-

I trophic. There was nothing in the

interna l functional logic of a factory
which would necessarily lead to an
aesthetic external appearance. Any
pretence at beauty was restricted to the
entrance area or the management and
administrative buildings. The appear-
ance of the works itself. in terms of its
architecture and design. seemed t o be
of no consequence. Inhuman con-
ditions were imposed on the worker.
So the state of repression in society had

I its direct and all too visible result in the

architecture of the workplace.

TERRACED BUILDING

1 25 Plan for expansion of South

Amsterdam. In the foreground the
area planned and executed by Ber-
lage between 1902 and 1915, in the
background the development plan
proposed by the city planning depart-
ment and Cornelis van Eesteren in
1934. The contrast between the two
schemes is enormous. Berlage is still
working within the 19th century
tradition and uses the grid -system to
create a rich variety of streets and
squares. In the later plan terraced
building is repeated on a vast scale. 125
removing every basic point of orienta-
tion and in conflict with the ways in 126 127 128
which people identify with their en -
________J L.

Jar,
~
vironment. There IS no recog nisable
configuration of urban space.

I
126 and 127 Two diagrams from
Walter Gropius' Architektur.
1 26 Evolution of the block built
around a central courtyard into row
housing.
1 27 Use of site area and daylighting
improve in proportion to the number
of storeys! Terraced bu ilding cannot
be justified on these two very basic
i:O [
J l.. _! d
criteria.
,- -· -- - -,
( ... .. . ·, ... . .... '
1 28 Le Corbusier: the sketch shows
the site and the site-area occupied by a J r.--- -= ~ ( ... . ·--··
'Unite d'habitation' and for comparison
a sketch of the site area taken up by a
] ~ .. --- ~ [ N ~
8
- ·~ [ ' .,..ea~
development of equal density consist-
ing of single-family houses. The two
J L~ ·--
, r- - - -
_ -~ J
- , ,---
Com part! c .md d H yi>Otf1CSIS
numbt:l of bed~ IOCIC!41~tnU
nc:s ult b y
o f equJI dmoo n'> ICJn,. $hou ld have the same
tho number of storuys the .1tl{lle ol •nC.•dence
of Il l) hi d1mm1~hes a nd e:o. ~rrc to tho sun tmpso ...c s

73
 ·>'l

factors do not allow t his type of com- 1922

parison. since the elements are too 132 Le Corbusier: scheme f or a con-
disparate. I have included Figs. 126- temporary city of th ree million in-
128 here to show how biased the habitants . The quality of life projected
arguments are which have been used here by Le Corbusier certa in ly con -
as propaganda for the construction of forms w ith Howard's ideas. but th is
terraced building and the detached does not apply to the proportions of
'machine for living'. 'The town was the whole. What is interesting are t he
covered with a cancerous growth ... 1919' spatia l concepts which underlie this
and so had to be opened up by 129 and 130 Ludwig H ilberseimer: plan . They are repeated in all Le Cor-
separating out its functions. intro- proposal for a city. H ilberseimer was busier's proposed t own plans. rig ht
ducing more open space into the one of the first to take his designs for into the sixties: the grid system.
town etc.· urban development back to f irst prin- 'redents' terracing and the isolated
ciples: the house or row of houses and tower block. The streets and squares
'The need for expansion demanded produced by the grid system have been
their services. In his later studies he
vast built up areas. and so the town among the most bas ic elements of
uses a less rigid approach and yet the
had to be concentrated, built upwards town planning since its beginnings.
problem of urban space remains tot all y
etc.' Fig. 124 shows an unplanned. The urban spaces in Le Corbusier' s
neglected.
small settlement: a type which has scheme are desig ned as multi-storey
always existed and which can be circulation for vehicles and pedestrians
seen all over the world. So this type in the t rad itional sense. They have
of unstructured development is in no proved unworkable in their f orm. al-
way a novelty in town planning. All th ough the green courtyards barred to
that was new was that planners traffic have not. The ' redents' terracing
began, towards the end of the 19th has evolved from th e grid-system. The
century. to design such a type of forms of the open spaces are numerous.
unstructured development on the embracin g whole sections of residen -
drawing board. The colossal pressure t ial streets and courtyards.
for expansion of cities led to over- 1921
rapid decision making. Solutions were 131
The schematic repetition of the g rid-
necessarily simplified. house-plans re- Kibbutz in Nagalal (Israel). Arch itect system and 'redents' terracing is equally
duced to a minimum. building tech- Richard Kauffmann. Looked at from questi onable. In both cases orientation
nology was stifled for economic rea- the point of view of the superficial on t he pedestria n level is made extra-
sons. Functional. constructional and plan. this is a real isation of Led oux's ordinarily difficult. From this stage of
capital concerns were the order of the ideal city. The recognisable qualit ies development it is only a short step to
day. Architecture was a low priority. of urban space are absent. A kibbutz isolated tower blocks w ith spaces in
is the very place where one wou ld between desig ned on ly for tra ffic. The
Further stages of development which expect particular emphasis to be given
precipitated the erosion of urban space building as a perfect fu nctiona l unit (as
to building types which promote com- in t he 'cite radieuse') is cut off f rom the
in the town planning of the 20th munity life. spatia l play and log i c of th e town plan.
century:
T T ,- li·--tT.' -J~WJ~:J~~ - )_) So naturally the ind ivid ual requ ire-

+·' + .~~
__. .
+ f"'+ ~ ~G;.:~ ~-- ;:)m>~-~
~-,. .~ :_Y ' ~<~'t~ -·~-U:I::
ments of this unit are easier to meet.
Co mmerce was very quick to grasp
this and is respons ible f or the question -

ilil_tt~~ +J >~ - ~11m

able success of the i dea.

~ ~r'-J2tBQE
It is hard to say what type of space we
are dealing w ith in the case of isolated
Ul ;~_L..fF ~ - ~
~~~~: 0. _ut
m bu ildi ngs of such a sca le. It is not con -
sidered by Sitte. f o r whom only the
closed system of urban space is a
~~~om~-~~.FJQ~ rea lity. Corb speaks of the 'Poesie de
p, ~~ tJ IJ lJ ~-~-~ ~ ~-~ l'espace ind icible' in relation to the
129 132
74
internal space of a bu ilding. As far as proach to J. J. P. Oud. Le Corbusier
I am aware he made no clear statements constructs his Fruges estate pre-
about external space. In his Urbanisme. dom inantly using detached houses
he has th is to say of the Place Ven- (cf Tony Garnier's 'C ite industrie lle' ).
dome : 'the architectural style has more There is no recog nisable overall spatial
than a hint of the work of an interior plan . although the relationship between
designer . . . the buildings of the individual bu ildings is caref u lly judged.
" lnvalides" developed quite differently
on their open site.' This offers an
interesting comparison with Sitte. who
makes endless suggestions as to how
the new buildings on the Vienna Ring.
some of. which stand alone. may be
isolated rows of terraced housing, a
integrated into a harmonious urban
recognisable unity in terms of the
space by means of add itional building.
configuration of urban space is main-
The fascinat ion of the free-standing
tained. The solutions wh ich he f inds
building mass has been extensively
for dealing with the corners of the
covered by Siegfried Gied ion in his
triangular open space are masterly.
book Space. Time and Architecture.
This aesthetically important achieve-
and I am certainly not exaggerating
ment is missing from other parts of the
when I say that he has made this
development. The estate stands in
fascination the sine qua non of modern
direct line of descent from Berlage's 135 In th e sa me year Le Corbusier and
architecture and town planning. Mies
ideas of town planning. Pierre Jeanneret planned a new centre
van der Rohe speaks of the 'trans-
parency of space'. primarily in the sense f or Paris. known as the ' Plan Voisin' .
of a flowing transition from internal to which de rives fro m the 1922 scheme
external space. However. transparency for a c ity of three million inhabita nts .
- applied to urban space - is a ques- The scale of the proj ect corresponds to
tionable aesthetic concept. A building the size and import ance of Paris as Le
supported on pilotis is without doubt Corbusier understood it (' Paris prend
transparent in one sense. Earth and sky de l'epoque .. .'). For us. with the
can be perceived through buildings hindsight gra nted by fifty years of
dotted around the landscape. Glazed planning experience. th is plan bears
facades can produce effects of un- almost tra gic significance. The con-
expected charm. which may pass for cept of a high-density city centre
transparency. However. this is not a revea led its negative side after the
concept basic to the control of either Second World War. Paris was not
internal or external space. It is the spared . The striki ngly abstract design
stamp of a monument to detailing. underlying this scheme. realised under
Even Mies van der Rohe neglected the direction of a major architect. un-
urban space in his handful of town fortunately generated an unforgivable
planning projects. devoting himself epidemic of ' urban blight'. Even putting
entirely to the individual structure and spatial concerns on one side, a mass of
its specific problems. purely functional considera tions mili -
tate against such excessive urban
centralisation.
1924-25
133 J. J. P. Oud completed the 1926
Kiefhoek workers' hous ing in Rotter- 1 36 Ernst May, Romerstad t develop-
dam. surely one of the greatest ment. Frankfurt am Main. From 1925
achievements in the fields of architec- to 30. Ernst May was ch ief pla nner for
ture and town planning of the twenties. the c ity of Frankfu rt. Within the f rame-
Although Oud is largely working with work of the development plan which

75
 ·>'I

on the perimeter of the compl ex are art this scheme has a similar appeal to
not clearly delineated. El Lissitzky's sketches and was certain-
ly of comparable quality. The designs
of those German planners w ho worked
in Russia between 1930 and 1934 are
essen t ially more sterile. Landowski's
design however takes no accou nt of
urban space.

he himself had initiated. he built the 138 Rundling estate in Leipzig, archi-
housing developments in Frankfurt tect Hubert Ritter. Although one can
suburbs which established his reputa- detect the use of noteworthy spatial
tion as a planner and had a strong in- markers here, the overall concept is
fluence on future trends in residenti al not without its limitatio ns. The same
planning. both in Germany and abroad. criticism may be levelled as against
The quality of these developments the exclusive use of terraces: the re-
(Praunheim. Bornweiler Hang. Bruch- duplication of identical elements des-
feldstrasse. Rbmerstadt) is in every troys all sense of direction and acts as
way comparable with J. J. P. Oud's an obstacle to the inhabitant's abi lity
Kiefhoek housing. In detailed planning. to identify with his environment. These
he too lost spatial continuity, and one factors are all the more worrying in the
can already sense the impulse towards case of a concentric plan t han with an 1927
the exclusive use of row housing which orthogonal structure. 140 and 1 41 We i ss en hofs i edl un g,
May was to develop further in his work Stutt gart. pro duced in collaboration by
in Russia in 1930- 34. the f ollowing architects : Mi es van der
Rohe. Le Corbusier. J. J . P. Oud.
Gropius. Peter Behrens, J osef Frank.
Mart Stam. Richard Doecker. Ludw ig
H ilbe rse i mer , Hans Poelzig, Hans
Scharoun. Adolf Schneck. Bruno and
Max Taut. Victor Bourgeois.

..
o'

'"'
'

'
' ... __...,_...,-
......... ....,
...
-..... ."": ~ZiXc-d·
9~ {\ ~
: .
' '
··-
·.._._··--
.....
"' ' ,~
$
. ~~.A\ll,'(k,=~,.,

-
..::.._-... 0

'
'J ...dl t llll
I J J P , OuJ
I M •t1 ~1 1m
,.. l.z C...buuot
I flt lt tO. httfl.l
~ oc Mt.JD:Ift1tt
1 '=• l•uGroeMH
I u.d• •IH •I""""u••tr
' L...t••IM•n •&t>dort. t>tw
tV IIL,tf'orllll
"AdooiiJI -.1 ....
IJ I(ONS.hootiW'O
I I Ad.liiS."-1
U Bf\II'IOTINI
II Jolufo"l
tl Vouot Buutp..ot

1925- 26
137 Bruno Taut. Britz development. 141 The architectural signature which
Berlin. The interest ing feature of this is th e estate bears is remarkabl y uniform.
the horseshoe-shaped square which. But in plan ning t erms the indiv id ua l
although visibly intended as the focal 1927 buildi ngs re ma in distinct. The estate
point of the estate. is in a different 139 Kostino estate. Moscow. A rchi- was built as a showpiece in the context
spatial register from the streets which tect Nikolay Landowski. A very aes- of an exhibition by the Deutsche
lead to it. The architecture and space thetic layout ... As a piece of graphic WerkbUJ1d. In competition. the Wurt-

76
temberg Werkbund. which felt ex- but as a utopian v1s1on of a spiritual
cluded from the enterprise. built its capital for the world. In any historical
own estate at the same time. adjacent summa ry of the decline of the notion
to the exhibition site. They wished to of urban space this piece of work
show that Stuttgart was a match for occupies a position of cru cial import-
the International Movement in archi- ance. Le Corbusier's conception of th e
tecture. The result was respectable way lif e should be lived in the modern
German architecture striking a heroic
posture. Conceptually. it was planned
on the grid system. At the time this
enterprise was laughed out of court by
the 'modernists', who in turn were
subject to the type of insults which
became the order of the day in Nazi
Germany. Today we can judge this 1928-30
professional infighting w ith a certain 143 Jarrestadt. Hamburg . Between
detachment. The so-called 'reactionary' 1923 and 1933 Fritz Schumacher was
development of the Wurttemberg chief city planner of Hamburg. Under
Werkbund had planning qualities his directorship residential districts
which were lacking in the Weissenhof- were built with exceptional spat ial
siedlung: in architectural terms the features. comparable with the famous
reverse was true. courtyard housing of Vienna.

world finds its fina l expression in the

detached 'unites d'hab itation' situated
in th e residential zone below the
stadium. The spatial idea beh ind the
1927-28 organisat ion of the centre is based on
142 Dammerstock development. free-standing monumenta l buildin gs
Karlsruhe. The development plan was surrounded by lower struct ures. There
conceived by Walter Gropius and the are direct typolog ical relat i onsh ips
architects Haesler. Riphan. Roeckle 144 Kari-Kreis-Hof and Karl-Marx- with Roman baths and Palladian villas.
and others were involved. An important Hot. Vienna. c. 1930. Schumacher con- The whole complex is qu ite perfectly
terrace complex which i.s undoubtedly ceived the overall plan of the Jarres- th ought out according to classical
well thought out. Spatial criticism: t he tadt. He used an architectura l com- ru les for architectural co mposition.
city is reduced to a mathematical petition to find the best Hamburg and I know of no contemporary of Le
problem. Throughout the estate. the architects. who then carried out the Corbusier who could have achieved
area between the terraced rows can be deta iled planning. Karl Schneider exe- comparable artistic results. My critique
seen as a kind of street. with no dis- cuted the central courtyard. A good of Le Corbusier's legacy to town -
tinction between space to the front and example of the way in which different plan ning theory must therefore always
space to the rear. These spaces are re- planners can collaborate successfully. be seen in the context of the respect
dupl icated and break off sharply at the wh ich I have f or him as a creative
boundaries of the site. Such an 1929 artist. In his town planning projects.
abstract structure is incapable of being 145 'Mundaneum' project by Le Cor- he never allowed himself to be seduced
extended beyond its demarcations. No busier and Pierre Jeanneret. This pro- into architectural banalities. as was the
answer is given to inherited problems. ject is not meant as a residential city, case w ith Hi lberseimer fo r example.

77
 I)
146 Urbanisation of Sao Pau lo. Brazil. "'
..
~
150

1932 ' -~ in\!. ;

·~ ;~·~~:
148 Broadacre City by Frank Lloyd
·~~ :~~··
Wrigh t. Wright's conception of the
ideal. decentralised f orm of settlement. ·~·
.. ~~·'·
.. \, c. "' u

meant as a protest ag ainst the in human

overc rowding in Am erica's major c ities.
147 Urbanisation of Algiers. Here man's contact with natu re is
Both projects by Le Corbusier and restored. but at the cost of sacrificing
Pierre J eanneret. the spatial system of the town.

Why have I taken so many of my

examples from the work of Le Cor-

it
busier? Because it fu lly rea lises the
, _ _J •
most significant stages in the progress
of modern town planning - invariab ly . . . !
execut ed in the most arresting and un- ~'~ :~~?~~,.;?~
~;· ~.. ;:;::.o::=-~~~
bi'(~~~~
..~~· ~
~=:;'~~~
· . ~ . . .-
compromising way. On his travels
:,....· ~ ....,.,.'?''l"/~,'l;.··
, . ~· ...... ;-• . j::":.·:r.. .o ~
';~:~:~:~·~~~~
. '. . -.,•~
.~nr?,.l?r.r.~p-/rrt'"
#t~~-·':f;!..-~·
~=~
through South America he sketched ::;; '~~~.::;:~::.~~n ~l7r?,..r,;'(~-...~
plans for the potential development of r r rrrrrrnr rrrrrr 1 rrr r r r ~---
Sao Paulo. Rio de Janeiro and Buenos r ' , 1rnrrm nl l'lififfil rr.rrr;r.1 crt_
A ires. In th ese. he attempts to harness 1933 1933
the urban explosion by usin g gigantic 149 and 1 50 Plan for expansion of 151 Plan for an idea l city by Le
rows of buildings w hich slice throu gh Antwerp by Le Corbusier and Pierre Corbusier. This plan is a revised version
the body of the city and carry roof - level ·Jeanneret. The main concept behind of the 1922 city for three million in -
motorways. So of course the buildings. this project is that of the 'redents' habitants. The pol itical and administra -
stretching f or miles. are f orced to adopt terrace. already evident in th e ideal tive centre is pushed to th e head of the
the f orm of the street plan. w hich from city plan of 1922. The pers pective city . Th is motif w ill be repeated twenty
a town planning point of view is not of sketch shows how im aginatively the years later in the planning of Chandi-
great value. The development of the space can be used w ithin such a garh. Cultural and commercia l activity
citadel above A lgiers. on the other stru cture. However. if this spatial type takes place in the heart of the com-
hand. is designed on the courtyard is repeated on a large scale. each plex. fla nked by residential areas. with
principle, but on such a vast sca le th at individual space loses its sig nificance the ind ustrial zone at the foot. The
it can no longer be perceived as en- and the inhabit ant finds orient ation 'a nat omy' of the ci ty is broken down
closed space. difficult. into its functiona l components in this

78
 ·"~

plan. We have come to realise tod ay Pierre Jeanneret. The same comments
t hat th is theory of the compartmentali- apply to this as to the Nemours
sation of function has had a negative project. Only the house type has
influence on urban life. From the point changed .
of view of urban space. the connec-
t ions between the various elements are
only fragmentary. and do not add up
to an integrated system. The siting
together of the arts bu ild ings in the
centre is very reminis cent of the w ay
in which Fischer von Erlach drew up
his visionary town plans.

af ter t he holocaust. Le Corbusier's

proposal is based on the legacy of
Soria y Mata . From the same period
came a simil ar study by Hilberseimer
1934 for th e expansion of London.
152 Nemours (North Africa). Project
by Le Corbusie r and Pierre J eanneret.
As in the Mundaneum project. the
free-st andi ng 'Unite d'habitation' is
positioned here as a living unit of
appropriate size. 'Unite de grandeur
conforme'. Urban space in the tradi-
tional sense is absent from this project.

1937
154 and 155 Sketches by Le Cor-
busier for the reworking of h is 1925
project for the centre of Paris. In this 1946
scheme, the cruciform tower- blocks 157 New centre for St. Die (France).
have been repla ced by Y -shaped and project by Le Corbusier. From the
simple slab blocks. I only include these purely arc hit ect ural point of v iew.
sketches to illust rate how superficial th is composition gives a f oretast e
was Le Corbusier's concern w ith urban of t he perfection of the Capitol at
space. Chandigarh. built lat er. parti cu larl y in
the cent ral posit ioning of t he arts
buildings. The visual fascinat ion of
1942 these projects derives f rom the build-
1 56 Sketch by Le Corbusier from ings as isolated units and their aesthetic
Les trois etab/issements humains. Dur- completeness. and not f rom a spat ia l
193 5 ing the war years many theoretici ans composition w ith geometrically de-
153 Hell oco urt. Alsace-Lorraine applied themselves to the questi on of f inable space expressed in streets and
(France) . Project by Le Corbusier and how Europe should be reco nstructed squares.

79
 ·>'l

street closed to traffic served as a model The spatial f eatu res of the last three
in the years which followed. th ough examples are identical. The complete
generally as an isolated develop ment breakdown of t raditional patterns of
with no spatial relationship to the urban space appears to have reac hed
surrounding urban fabric . its culm ination. The abstract vision of
the separation of various functions
w ithin the city has f in ally found its way
into the holy writ of town planning
departme nts. The dreams of the twen-
ties appear to be rea li sed . . . And yet!
One or two intelligent planners are
beg inning to establis h that this ideo-
logy of t he 'new city' challenges the
very validity of the city as an organism.

One of the earliest attempts to restore

1952 densi ty and continuity to th e built
1 58 Development plan of Chandigarh, environmen t in the city was the 1 962
Le Corbusier. Compare the plans for scheme by Candi lis. Josie and Woods
1955
ideal cities. Figs 132 and 1 51. 160 Gratiot development. Det roit. for a city of 100,000 inhabitants at
Architect Mies van der Rohe and Toulouse le M irail.
Hilberseimer.

1957
163 To ulouse le M irail. A rchitects
161 Brasilia. Architects Lucio Costa
Cand ili s. J osie. Woods. In this scheme
l arge parts of wh ich have now bee~
1953 (planning) and Oskar Niemeyer (archi-
159 Lijnbaan. Rotterdam. Architects tecture). bui lt. pedestri an zones were desig ned
van den Broek and Bakema. This to be free of traffic. and some of the
shopping street in Rotterdam con- house front s face on to these precin cts.
nects the station area with the town The refore. there are no streets or
centre. For the first time in post-war squa res in the accepted sense. They
planning. an attempt is made to could however have been created
formulate unified street-space. It is with ease in this project. and one cou ld
unfortunate that this development have dispe nsed with th e unnecessarily
f unctions exclusively as a shopping high tower blocks.
street with no integration of housing.
This is located behind the Lijnbaan and
consists of isolated high-rise slabs. 164 Centre of Berli n. 1960. Architects
They were designed by a different Peter and A lison Smithson. In thi s
architect. The idea of the pedestrian 162 Residential buildings in Brasilia. project the id ea of the traffic -free

80
 (r"'llJ~ ~ Yona Friedmann. Schulze-Fielitz etc. adjunct. An d the multip lication of such
~·~ / It is more reminiscent of the schema tic f ragment s results in a system of identi-
~~(~.- ;;· "
t'<C~
- ~-.;~. plans of Hilberseimer and other archi- cal incomplete spaces. la cking both

:_~ ~-- __ j~(;.111ft~~ tects of the twenties and is still continuity and the qualitat ive differ-
- --- l~~~~ ~~~ 11 I! \..,.

.
inspired by the idea of the city ences so im portan t to urban orienta-
. ;/~-,..~~ .~ having a crowJAing feature. as out lined tion.

-~-~~fi~;~
~ ~~m~~~ ~q[~~~\-
by members of the Fruhlicht g ro up.
In Chandigarh and Brasilia too t his
!l!li~---
.~t
'
:,\[~: c~~:7/'&,-~
1 idea was expressed on a monumental
scale. The spati al qualities of this

,(J-··:
~'~-- ~~~~~ur
~~E~J5113 _
;
_:-
.
1
f~[) '~
I~V~,
l~¥~11~ L.~~J
. .
1::
itt
.
c; -:
.
plan however were again devalued
by the mechanical repetitio n of
identical parts. There is a clear spatial
demarcation between city centre and
residentia l areas.
• /' - y \ - •. II
167 (a) Tradit io na l spatial arrange-
- · \J "'- -·
:-1 . . .. ment of c ities. If we loo k at the spatial
pedestrian street is executed with conti nuum of a cohesive urban struc-
due regard to technical and functional ture fro m a distance and in somewhat
demands. Economical use is made of si mplified terms. it ca n be compared
tower blocks to flank the street. with to the barriers w hich channel
the result that one cannot speak of a pedestri an movement. If th ere is a gap
coherent impression of space along its in the ba rri er. we w ill have to cope
full length. In this respect. the Toulouse w ith shortcomings in the system of
le Mirail project goes a step further. 166 Aalter. Belgium. Author's scheme. o rien tatio n.

At this point I would like to draw my

list of illustrations to a close. otherw ise
this chapter would turn into a history
of modern town planning. Yet I hope
that I have adduced sufficient mate rial
to support my thesis that as far as
modern town planning is concerned
the concept of urban space has by and
large fallen into disuse. To be fair. I 168 ( b) The modern city.
must emphasise that in def iance of Extend ing th is metaphor to our present-
this universal trend repeated efforts day situa tion. it cou ld be said that from
have been made to combat the erosion a spatial point of view our towns are
of our cities. It would be a worthwh ile composed of fo rlorn and isolate d
academic exercise to bring out the sections of 'barrier', battered on all
direct antithesis between these two sides by every conceivable stream of
tendencies. To be more precise. the activity and with no margin left for
post-war developments of t he fifties meaningful activity or orientation. This
and sixties have not progressed much contradicts the urban arch itect ure as
beyond the terraced building of the defined by Sitte and is nothing more
twenties. than a jumble of buildings.
1964
1 65 Ideal town plan by C. Reinhardt It could be argued that space is created The erosion of urban space is an on-
(Vienna). There is something In- just the same between two terraces. going process which has been w ith us
congruous about this plan as a True. this fragmentary space can be for the last fift y years in the guise of
product of the sixties. coming in the classified in an aesthetic category. but technological progress serving a demo-
middle of the urban experiments of it c~n only be understood as a part or cratic society. Every measure which

81
 .~

contributes towards this destructive standable response on the part of w as unsettled ( H. P. Bah rdt) . City
process can appear justified , because planners to a problem without his- centres. which by th is time had turned
of the power of the lobby which makes torical precedent. The whole was into areas containing nothing but
its profits out of the phenomenon. It is parcelled out into functional units: shops and offices. were virtually de-
a war waged by technological and living, recreation. work etc .. solutions serted outs ide working hours. New
financial interests. unparalleled in his- appropriate to eac_tl type were evolved reside ntial zones on the outskirts of the
tory. The palaces of past dynasties and and spatial relatio nships imposed. The city turned into dreary dormitory
their grandiose cultural expression abstract prototype for such an approach suburbs. A fresh demand arose for t he
seem positively modest by comparison. to town planning was Le Corbusier's re integ ra tion of urba n functions . and
Functions and methods have certainly 'Ville radieuse' of 1930. The Athens the catchword 'urbanism' was used to
changed. The only real difference is Charter. published three years later. conjure up visions of a lost atmosphere.
that our age will leave few buildings became its theoretical rule-book. This There has been no shortage in recent
behind which will be seen as worthy of model was used almost intact for the years of proposals and visions intended
preservation by later generations. We construction of Chandigarh in the as antidotes to the effects of the
have come to an adequate awareness fifties. Athens Charter.
of the problems of refuse disposal
created by consumer goods with URBAN SPACE WAS NOT These conta in little w hic h is of
built-in obsolescence. The consequen- DEFINED IN THE ATHENS practica l use on the technical side.
ces of transferring this fetish for dis- CHARTER Friedmann's proposals for building on
posables to the world of building do top of old towns are absurd. Fried-
not bear thinking about. The irresponsi- In the sixties there was a surge of mann. Fulle r. Soleri and t he Metabo-
bility with which even qualified plan- reacti on against the clinical separation lists all sought a solution to the problem
ners advocate disposable architecture of urban functions. The balance be- in monstrous, w himsica l building types .
to compensate for the absence of long- tween the public and t he private realm These extravaga nces are a symbolic
term planning is disturbing. This phe- illustration of the dead-end in wh ich
nomenon is essentially more than a town planning finds itself today. They
passing fashion. It has all the charac- are sol utions which only consider one
teristics of an ideology which aims not facet ofthe problem and must fall down
only at buildings acknowledged as on grou nds other than their fantastic
temporary. but also at the majority of waste of technological resources. Not
contemporary structures which are that the ut opian dream can be evalu-
designed to last. We feel quite properly ated by the yardstick of expense of
ashamed of the medi ocrity of our course. One or two of these proposals
built environment. and seem to be lead one to suspect that the idea may
quite prepared to foot the bill for be an end in itself. without possessing
demolition and subsequent rebuilding. t he aesthetic qua lity of th e utopias of
But we must recognise that the life- the Rena issance for examp le. They
span of a concrete structure is scarcely offer no real alternative to the blind
comparable with that of a timber- alleys which the Athens Charter has
framed building. I am co nvinced that led t o.
post-war German architecture will
suffer from these shortcomings for the Urba nism on t he other hand is no
foreseeable future. panacea either. It is interpreted today
as an active process. someth ing to be
The car has created wast es in our imposed. Urbanism is embodied in
cities. and this process has been every facet of city life and experience.
accelerated by another. equally effec- and not only where th is is at its most
tive factor: the separation of the concentrated .
various urban functions. In the nine-
teenth century the urban structure So we should be concerned not with
grew intolerable in its complexity. The 169 Designs for utop ian cities by activity alone. but at the same t ime
disentangling of urban functions in the Yona Friedmann, Buckminster Fuller. with the framewo rk in which it takes
twentieth century was an under- Kurokawa. Xenakis and others. place. This f ra mework is urban space.

82
The more full, chaotic and dramatic are reached . The internal restructuring transportation is subordinate to th e
this framework, th e more 'urbanism' proceeds at t he same tem po. Slum needs of the human community. The
seems guaranteed in t he eyes of many housing gives way to commercial and effectiveness of any utopian city must
planners. office buildings. Planning autho rities be measured aga inst the technolog ica l
have no better alternatives to these potential of existing modes of trans -
two trends in u"rban development. and port. The technol ogy of house bui ldi ng
even if they did have would lack the is of secondary importance. The most
powers needed to put them into prim itive bu ilding methods still produce
practice. the best results in housin g today. This
is not true of the stagecoach. So we
The growth of a major city tod ay is not must develop urba n models wh ich
only the concern of its own in hab itants. among other thi ngs wi ll be able to
A large proportion of its work- fo rce accommodate the pr ivate veh i cle.
170 Utop ian city by Jos Weber. commutes long distances fro m places whichever form t his may take. At t he
17 1 Ut opian city. called the 'Meta- outside the city limits and an increas ing moment. we cannot work on the
stadt' by Richard Dietrich . number of reside nts are moving out. assumption that this mode of transport
away from the pollution of the inner- will be dispensed w ith . We can on ly
city. The city has become a regio nal hope tha t the state will bring pressure
However. it is not the planners w ho
plann ing problem. We lack the ideas to ensure t hat the car conforms as
shape and contro l urban living. It is
and facilities f or planning w hich wou ld soon as possible to the requirements of
located according to the dictates of
enable us to evolve a coordinated pro - public health. Today's urban sprawl
market research men. The planner on
gramme to meet the needs of the must be prompt ly stopped and all new
th e job t hen has no alternative but to
reg ion. Part of such a programme t owns must be planned as part of an
submit to the demands of his client.
wo uld of course be the establishmen t int egrated super -reg ionar development
And if the cli ent believes that a
of appropriate bodies at a nationa l plan .
suburban shopping centre w ith motor-
level which would balance the de-
way access is more efficient and yields
mands of eve ry region - a department It is the aim of this study to provide
greater prof its. the planner's opinion
of planning perhaps, which wou ld be this utopia. whose demands are so
on the su itability of the project is not
responsible for keeping record s of all modest. w ith a realistic and workable
sought. 'U rbanism' cannot be achieved
regional development and taking cor- set of tools, which have noth ing in
by t he mere creation of high bu ild ing
rective action when this was necessary common with the spectacu lar pla nning
density, and certainly not by such
for th e sake of national development. fantasies which I have used as ex-
enormous expenditure.
amples in t he preceding text. Not
Thi s does not involve any 'Napoleonic' least. th is work is intended as a
master plan. I am simply trying to start corrective to the Athens Charter and
CRITIQUE OF PRESENT-DAY people th inking about plann ing on th e its consequences.
PATTERN S OF scale which seems appropriate to
URBAN DEVELOPM ENT today's problems. Transport planners WHAT MODE LS FOR
have been working on t his scale f or DEVE LO PMENT W I LL MEET
By 'urban development' I understand some time. Their plans are not con- TH E FUTURE DEMANDS OF
the outward expansion of a town. and fined to strict regiona l boundaries. Th e URBAN GROWTH?
the internal renewal and adaptation of world -wide railway network has al -
its fabric. My observations re late pri- ready caught town planners unawares ; Any prediction must be reasona bly
marily to large cities. w here develop- highway and motorway building has rea listic and te chnically and admini -
me nt problems are particularly pressing. done the same; and I fear that new stratively feasible by today's standards.
The growth of such cities is constantly and faster tra nsport systems wi ll be put It w ill have to avoid visualisi ng the
controlled by land-use plans. If one into operation in the near future. with t own according t o narrow ideolog ical
looks at these plans over a period of a similar lack of consu ltation with the preju dice. w hether th is is of a socio-
10-15 years. it is noticeable that at town planners. politica l or technical natu re. Socia l
eac h new stage the area given over to utopi as of the last 200 years have
building development increases under The highway has always been t he shown the limitations of such visions.
the pressure of expansion. until the moving force behind urban develop- as have the technological utopias of
administrative boundaries of th e town ment. But seen in its proper perspective. recent years. No precise planning

83
 ·>'I

solutions exist for a given social order. with the same brazen self-assurance. I grown or imported from abroad . Im-
Man's demands on his environment have no wish here to debate the ported fash ions were in the majority
remain constant. whatever the system. legitimacy of either system. and like all imitative acts they falsifi ed
In totalitarian states people's needs are and coarsened the originals.
artificially manipulated. butthis changes An objective comparison undoubtedly
nothing of their essential nature. In establishes that the Stalinallee creates As I see it. one of the vital tasks of this
more liberal societies fulfilment of these a sense of coherent street-space. while study is to follow my criticial com -
needs meets numerous administrative the 'Ouartier de Ia Defense' lacks any ments on the current situation and my
obstacles wh ich have built-in restric- recognisable spatial coherence. It also analysis of urban space with a con-
tions comparable to those of auth ori - indicates that the Stalinallee is not a crete concluding statement. This con-
tarian governments. In the case. of monument which is indissolub ly linked clusion should synthesise w hat we
powerful regimes. the position of with the system of government in have learned in the preceding pages
planning bodies is very strong. By power at the time. It derives from the and attempt a prediction of the type of
virtue of their authority. they can bourgeois boulevard. and seen as such urban structure which I feel has some
instigate and carry out very far-reaching must logically stand in contradiction future potential. I have maintained that
schemes. In comparison. the position to the system w hich produced it. From the town is a reg ional problem.
of planners in a constitutional democ- the point of v iew of urban pla nn ing. Similarly, the grow th of several towns
racy is disproportionately weak. since the only difference between these tw o of different size in the same reg ion has
it is their role to mediate in conflicts of diametrically opposed societies lies in become a problem of national concern.
interest between one group of citizens minor details of standards and tech- As numerous examp les from previous
and another. In reality we can see that nique. chapters have shown. Soria y Mata.
there are only minor differences be- Le Corbusier. Hilberseimer and others
tween the planning efforts of the two What is the current position with re- considered the planning of urban
types of social order. which in many gard to the aesthetic demands made growth as a facet of larger scale
cases produce the same results and if by town planning? There has been a regional planning.
anything can only be distinguished in frightening move towards un iformity ,
their intentions. Let us compare the brought about by the machine age. Before I become more specific about
Stalinallee in East Berlin. laid out The religious faith in the wonders of my own proposals. I be lieve it worth-
under a tota litarian regime. and the technology has markedly declined in wh ile to outli ne the methods and
'Ouartier de Ia Defense' in Paris. The recent years. Environmental pollution administrative structure which would
former is conceived as a ceremonial has contributed towards this decline. facilitate regional planning. A central-
avenue on the. familiar French pattern. Can regions be helped to identify with ised informati on bank must assemble
decorated w ith some ornaments in their urban culture through the art of all the facts pertaining to urban and
doubtful t aste. The latter sacrifices architecture as Sitte envisaged it ? It commun ity development: industrial
rigid distribution of space in order to is correct to say that art in genera l - growth. introd uction of new industries.
appear open. unstructured and gener- music. cinema. theatre. literature. pa int - popu lation growth and movement.
ously proportioned. The individual ing etc. - is subj13ct to the same commuting patte rns. nature reserves.
architectural features in Paris were standardisation as is 'town planning farm land. traffic routes etc. In every
created at incomparably greater ex- for Planet Earth' . The style of the region of Germany this data is already
pense than those of the Stalinallee 20 Pointillistes was imitated everywhere, being collated on a conti nuous basis
years before, yet the result is an just like Action Painting, Pop Art etc. and could therefore be evaluated
embarrassing lack of taste. The orna- Every period in art has its fashions. immediately by such an organisation.
mentation of the Stalina llee. like that However. they were never so short- Since the job of th is body would be to
of the Moscow metro stations. was lived as they are today. Modern coordinate the growt h of c ities in the
intended to beautify the property of aesthetic movements are so limited in reg ions. the imp lica tions of the data
the people within the limitations of their scope and so lacking in substance wou ld have to be tested against
the means available. The parallel aim that they lose all credibility after a very planning requirements.
was to use these buildings to gloss short time.
over the actual bruta lity of the regime. The development models which I
(The same observation could be made German town planning over the last consider appropriate for the future are
of Italy and Germany during the 25 years has come up with a variet y of the linear or cha in systems as con-
thirties.) In the capitalist countries. the fashions with serious implications - ceived by Soria y Ma ta towards the
brutality of monopo ly capital is flaunted fashions which were either home- end of the 19th cent ury. The stunn ing

84
 v1s1on expressed by Soria y Mata in

I his book encompasses an urban plan

which is laid out according to the
transportational demands of urban
growth and so avoids the highly
complex structural network neces-
sitated by concentric devel opment.
Soria y Mata also placed his ideal city
in a super-regional context. Le Cor-
busier took up this idea in Les trois
etablissements humains. The Pampus
Plan of J. B. Bakema is also part of a
super-regional plan for the area be-
tween Rotterdam and the Ruhr. My
proposal for the expansion of Stuttgart
draws upon the same intellectual
tradition. Of course a presupposition
is that our cities are capable of further
expansion. Given the economic situa-
tion in the seventies, it does look as if
the height of the construction boom is
past. The population explosion in
Europe has also fl attened off. This is
yet another reason why planners in
ou r continent should occupy them-

I selves to a greater extent in coming

years with the renewal and adaptation
of existing structures. I also believe
that we must look for ways of carrying
out corrective work on our inhuman
new towns, short of pulling them down
completely. In spring 1974 I worked on
an exercise with students in London
to investigate what alterations could
be made to Cumbernauld new town in
Scotland to create a cohesive urban
structure, with due regard to pre-
existing reality. Sim ilar studies should
be instigated in almost all cities: this
would be a worthwhile ta sk for the
planning departments of our univer-
sities.

85
 ....

..

CHAPTER 3

RECONSTRUCTING
DEVASTATED URBAN SPACE

.l

WITH EXAMPLES FROM

THE CITY CENTRE OF STUTTGART
CHAPTER 3 town in which he lives. even if it is not
his birthplace.
Particu lar attention is paid in these
studies t o restoring the continu ity of

RECONSTRUCTING As an architect I have tried to describe

the spatial bricks and mort ar with
spatial experience within an urban
cont ext.

DEVASTATED which these voids. existing as they do

in so many cit ies. can be filled . At the
I have designed streets and squa res f or
t he pedestria n. harmon ised as closely

URBAN SPACE same time workers in other disciplines

must lay the necessary foundations
for these bricks and mortar. ta iloring
as poss ible w ith the existi ng st ructure
and showing the utmost considera tion
for the legacy of the past.
WITH EXAMPLES t heir plans to suit the requirements of
different loca lities. It would be im- ANY PLANNING I NNOVATION

FROM THE CITY possible f or the architect alone to find

a successful solution to this problem.
So t his work should be seen as t he
IN A CITY MUST BE
GOVERNED BY THE LOGIC OF

CENTRE OF stimulus for a whole variety of lo ng

term scientific research.
THE WHOLE AND IN DESIGN
TERMS MUST OFFER A FORMAL
RESPONSE TO PRE-EXISTING

STUTTGART The spatial concepts which I am pro-

posing here are therefore necessarily
SPATIAL CONDITIONS.

This principle has effective ly dis-

idealistic. They have been worked out
without the mandate of the town in appeared fro m modern town pla nning.
question and are not intended t o be No- one would dispu te t he f act that.
rea lised without qualification. In no w ith the birt h of modern architecture.
sense have I taken the consider- town planni ng as Cami llo Sitte under-
ations of real estate into account. stood it. and the urban space as an
However. all my suggestions are externa l rea lit y decipherable in aesthet-
INTRODUCTION thoroug hly 'practical': that is , technic- ic terms. were sacrificed to a chaotic
ally, lega lly and financially realistic. pseudo- democratic and pseudo-hu-
MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVES The recently completed motorways mane urban ideology. Our cit ies bear
WHICH GAVE RISE will scarcely be affected by the new liv ing and vis ible t es timony to this -
TO THIS STUDY proposa ls. Generally speaking, the the evidence can be unequ ivocally
existing building fabric has also been understood even by t he laym an .
As a result of the devastation of the respected. The only innovation in terms
Second World War. the constraints of local politics is that rather more f ar- The bruta l pow er of capital con trols
imposed during the recons truction sighted forward planning is needed f or th is urban planning for its ow n
period and the subsequent 'car- orien- future urban restoration and recon- du bious purposes. This condemnation
tated' programme of costly civil en- struction on this scale. The very pro- may appear a gross genera lisation. but
gineering projects in the centre of grammes outlined here shou ld t heor- in view of t he colossal blunders of
Stuttgart. the former coherent urban etically be realisable in a city like contempora ry tow n p lanning it can
structure which had been res ponsive Stuttgart within the next fifty years. if scarcely be descri bed as an exaggera-
to local conditions was destroyed to a there is no significant deterioration t io n.
catastrophic extent. The heart of the in present co nditions. I make the
old city. a bare thousand metres across. attempt in my schemes to w in back The tow n plann ing legacy of the last
was broken up into a large number of downtown Stuttgart for the pedes trian. t hirty years - of questionable va lue -
sma ll isla nds battered by waves of without ousting the car in the process. wi ll be a headache for many futu re ·
heavy traffic. In practical terms this means using re- generations. and it requires a certa in
development to weld togeth er seam- opt imisim on my part to believe that
The raison d'ime of these studies was lessly t he isolated areas at those critica l the human instinct for survival w ill be
to fill the gaps separating these isolated points. whose significan ce f or the up to copin g w ith the problem in time
fragments of town as effectively as pedestrian's spatial awareness was to carry out t he necessa ry corrective
possible. This problem must involve eroded in the post-war years because of measures. I hope my optimisim is not
anyone concerned with the fate of the costly civil eng ineering programmes. misplaced.

89
 ·>'I

172 City as it was in 1304. 175 1465. 178 Plan for the Residenz by R. F. H.
Fischer 1782.

173 1350. 176 1490-1 520. 179 Plan for the Residenz by N. F.
von Thouret after 1800.

172-17 9 Stages in the urban de-

velopment of Stuttgart between the
14th and 19th centuries. Taken from
Karl Weidle Der Grundriss von Aft
Stuttgart Atlas E. Klett Verlag, Stuttgart
1961 . Sca le 1 :25 000.
The basis is an 1855 plan. on wh ich
the various stages of growth are shown
174 1393-1450. 177 Late 16th to mid-18th century. in black.

90
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE Schlossplatz. to take my direction town on a document of the year 1312
TOWN from the ideas of the arch itect s shows a shield with two horses one
responsible for its original conception above the other. The heraldic device
The homogeneous and generously and construction . It would be out of was later simplified to show a single
proportioned developments for the place to launch into an in-depth horse. The settlement came into the
northern and southern parts of Stutt- analysis of the... history of Stuttgart at possession of the Lords (who in 1130
gart emanate from the second half of this point. I will confine myself t o became the Counts) of Wurttemberg,
the 15th century. For more tha n 300 illustrating this development visually. who had bu ilt th emselves a fortress
years these plans shaped the growth with reference to plans. Careful com- on the W irtenberg (above Stuttgart-
of the town. It was only at the begin- parison of separate stages of develop- Untertu rkheim) and took their name
ning of the 19th century with the ment can give more informat io n at a from it.
plans of Thouret among other things glance than can be conveyed briefly
that the development was first pushed with words. Arou nd the mi dd le of the 13th century
beyond these boundaries. Stuttgart received its town charter from
SHORT HISTORY OF STUTTGART Count Ul rich I (1241-65). Count
The major stepping stones for further Eberhard I (1 279-1 325) defe nded
From Bollmann Bildkarten verlag
urban growth were the definitive plans himself there in 1286 and 1287 against
(author unknown).
for the Konigstrasse as part of the the German King Rudolf of Habsburg.
Marstall. the creation of the Friedrichs- Until well into the middle ages In a document of 1286 a mayor and
platz as a result of the layout of the six Stuttgart was overshadowed by the twelve j udges are named f or the fi rst
streets which intersect at that point. much older town of Cannstatt. wh ich time; and the title of 'citizen' (cives)
the building of the new Katharinen - was of much greater importance at the is fi rst used. In the imperia l war waged
hospital. the Polytechnic and the time. The Romans had built a castle by Kaiser Heinrich VII on the Counts
Alleenplatz (now the Stadtgarten). here at the end of the 1st century A.D. of Wurttemberg. Stuttgart fell to the
the Rotebuhlkaserne. the Osterreich- to protect their roads from the Rhine imperia l city of Esslingen between.
ische Platz. the Wilhelmsplatz. the to the Danube through the Neckar and 1311 and 1315. After the end of these
expansion of the Hohe Carlsschule. Rems valleys, and around this a hostilities Count Eberhard t ra nsferred
the Neue Schloss and the monu- civilian settlement grew up. This his f amily seat and the remains of his
men ta l buildings surrounding the settlement not only served as a ancestors fro m Beutelsbach to St utt-
Schlossplatz. the con structi on of the military stronghold and administrative gart. Stuttgart thereby became the
Neckarstrasse and the erection of the centre for the Romans. but also re- most impo rtant place in the county.
cultural buildings bordering it. such as ta ined its importance during the Ale- The town covered more or less the
the W ilhelmspalais. the Staatsarchiv. mannic period. The assembly place and area which today is bounded by the
Landesbibliothek. Staatstheater and judicial centre of the surrounding tribe Ktinigsstrasse. Eberhardstrasse. Karls-
Staatsgalerie. The link- up between of the Alemanni was nearby. It was strasse and Planie. In the 14th century
Stuttgart and the older settlement of here. in the year 746, that the Frank the Leonhards or Essli nger quarter
Bad Cannstatt was achieved through Karlmann carried out a mass execution grew up on the south eastern fringes
the architect Thou ret's ambitious plans of the Alemanni in the area. Only later of this area around a chapel dedicated
for the Schlossgarten. did Stuttgart step on to the stage of to Leonhard. and the 15th century saw
history. the growth in the north west of the
Sound knowledge of the historical Liebfrauen or Turnieracher quarter
development of Stuttgart is of critical According to tradition. Duke Liutolf of (named after a chapel dedicated to the
importance for any new plan. as each Swabia founded a stud-farm (Stuot- Virgin Mary). The latter gradually t ook
period builds as a continuation of what garten) around 950 in a broad section on the character of a 'wealthy' quarter
has gone before. Thus it is that ideas of the Nesenbach valley. and this gave duri ng the 16th and 17th centuries.
which became bogged down at the its name to the settlement and sub- Stutt gart rea lly blossomed for the first
planning stage. or plans once executed sequent town which grew up around time unde r Count Ulrich V (1433-80).
but effaced over the years. may be it. The name first appears in rec ords In 1450 the counts' palace was bui lt
valid for our contemporary redevelop- around 11 60 with a nobleman called on the market place. and the tow n ha ll
ment schemes. Hugo de Stutkarten. The settlement of was erected next to it between 1456
'Stukarten' in its own right is men- and 1458. The collegiate church was
So for example I have tried. when tioned for the first time in a document built as an enlargement of a late gothic
thinking of ways to rebuild the of 1229. The earliest known seal of the ha ll church. and until 1806 remained

91
 under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
parish of Stuttgart. The Leonhards-
kapelle was replaced by a church with
a triple nave. In the upper quarter of
the town a Dominican monastery was
founded in 1473. and the Church
attached to it has been known since
the time of the fleformation as the
Hospitalkirche. Hanslin or Aberlin Jorg
was the principal architect of all three
churches. In 1482. Stuttgart was
officially granted the status of capital
city; in 1495 Wurttemberg was ele-
vated to the position of a duchy. By
this time Cannstatt - granted its city
charter by King Ludwig of the Bava- '- cr-
. c -~
.::1!..
t. · t_
- {..
~ :!..
t..
t.'(..t.
!..

rians as early as 1 330 - had been far ~ - .,_ f t..C..~e;. C.· t.. . v..
;. ~ ~ ~ . ~ . f..-
outstripped by the much newer city of 3.. - (.. .. ..., ./: . . 'to. ""' t.t. '(.. :1)
0
~ ·:~::·:::':':tt:;\ii~~:. '- ~ ~
Stuttgart. •

::·..-,. . :' :_L~;:-:; ~ ;(:!\;..~?.:~ · . t.. t..'1.. t.. ~~ C t

· ~~~~f~\:>
During the troubled reign of Duke
Ulrich (1503-19 and 1534- 50) the
country was shaken by a number of
wars. The repercussions of the up-
rising of 'Poor Konrad' (1514) and the
Peasants' War (1525) were even felt
180 Model of the city in 1600, by Karl Berrer. 191 4 .
in the provincial capital. Furthermore.
Photo: City Surveyor's office.
from 1 520 to 1 534 Stuttgart was under
Austrian rule. 1534-5 saw the be- 181 View of the City of Stuttgart. Grabado de Meria n. 1634.
ginnings of the Reformation. and
~~icfJ.l btr~ta~l~tuU;gnrt
peace was gradually restored in the
country. A new peak of activity was
reached by the builders of the second
half of the 16th century. During the
reign of Duke Christoph (1 550-68)
the old Wasserbvrg of Aberlin Tretsch
was completely rebuilt. and expanded.
Its lovely arcaded courtyard is one of
the most highly regarded achievements
among German renaissance castles.
To the north east of the castle. a
pleasure garden was built during the
reign of Duke Ludwig (1568-93).
embellished by the architectu ral mas-
terpiece of Georg Beer's Neue Lust-
haus. To the south of the old castle.
Heinrich Schickardt added a further
magnificent renaissance palace be-
tween 1599 and 1609: the Neue Bau.
The increase in population also mir-
rored the overall prosperity of the
town. Approximately 4.000 people
lived in Stuttgart in 1400; by 1589 the

92
 .,ot

figure had risen to 9.000. The pri ncipa l

economic basis fo r th is prosperity was
w ine-growin g. Vineyards were planted
around th e va lley, whi le the narrow
v alley floor supported little in t he way
of agricu lt ure. Trade at th is t ime was
largely cent red around the cou rt.
____ ... __ .
'---· . . .r J;I J H.. • 4w.:_.
.,.,
.-
St uttgart. like everywhere else. f ound
its prosperity curtailed by th e 30 Ye ars'
Wa r. and in 1648 its population
amounted t o a mere 4.500. It took a
long t ime fo r th e cou nt rys ide and the
Court to recover from th e effects of the
war. In 1 686 th e Gy mnasium lllu stre
was inaug urated. W ith th e foundati on
of Ludw igsburg by Eberhard Ludwig
(1 693-1733). St uttga rt's posit ion as
·-__-··-.. -- ..-·
_,
·-·- ----.. -·..·-
...
seat of the Court was seri ously

---
._

- ---14- •· - - ·-·
t hreatened . It was only un der Karl
Eugen (1744-1 793) t hat St uttgart
regained its f ormer status as capital.
He commissioned t he bu ilding of the .
Neue Schloss by Retti. de Ia Guepiere
and R. F. H. Fischer in t he late baroque
and rococo style. In 1775 t he library of
1 B2 Ludwigsbu rg was t ransferred to Stutt-
gart. The 'milit ary academy', planned
183 Bird's -eye vi ew loo k1n g up the valley . Stadtarc hiv St uttg art. and laid out on a grand scale by Karl
Eugen. was moved from Schloss
Solitude t o Stuttga rt in the same year.
As the 'H ohe Karl sschule'. it we nt
down in German educat ional history
and bro ught it s f ounder th e reputation
of an en lightened and wise monarch .
It was here t hat Friedrich Schiller re-
ceived his education as a military
su rgeon between 1773 and 1780. and
here t hat he w rote his f irst work 'Die
Rauber'. Vita l to th e cultu ral life of the
Court was th e Duke's patronage of
art. music and theatre. wh ich ran
parallel t o his int erest in education
and learning. W ith the bui lding of
good ro ads Stuttgart also came to play
a more active part in the network of
communications ; f rom about 1705 a
perma nent coaching st at ion was estab-
lished there. At t he end of the 18th
century Stu ttgart's population num-
bered around 20,000.

In t he year 1 803 Duke Friedri ch II

(1797-1 816) was installed as elector;

93
 . ~

on the 1st of January he was crowned

king . At this point Stuttgart became
the seat of the royal court in a state
greatly increased in area by the cession
of numerous territories. This initiated a
new wave of building. The old city
walls and gates were demolished. The
'Grosse Graben' was transformed into
a ceremonial avenue and became the
Konigsstrasse (181 1). Entire new dis-
tri cts of the town were planned and
started by the King's master-builder
Thouret. Between 1805 and 1818 the
royal parks were laid out in the English
style. The same passion for bu ilding
also inspired Friedrich's successor.
Wilhelm I (18 16- 64) . He comm is-
sioned Salucci to build a buri al chapel
on the former site of the Stammburg
Wirtemberg (1820-1 824). The same
architect was respon sible for the royal
country house 'Rosenstein' (1825-29)
overlooking the Neckar near Cann-
statt. and for the Wilhelmspala is in the
town itself (1834-39). Thouret built
the Cannstatt Kursaal between 1825 184 Aerial photograph f rom the south- east.
and 1827 in an extremely restrained Photo : Strahle. Schorndorf c. 1920 from Karl Weid le Der Grundriss von
classical style. Ludwig Zanth was the Ale Stuttgart.
creator of th e Moorish-influenced
Wilhelma (1842- 46). w hil e Christian
Leins designed the Villa Berg (1845-
53) and the Konig sbau ( 1856- 59) . 185 0 ve r a II pI an 1 9 1 3. S c a I e 1 : 35 000.
facing the Neue Schl oss. Other public
bu ild ings were the State Archive. the
Fine Arts Museum. the State Library
and the Mint. Stuttgart at this time w as
the undisputed cultural centre of its
state. Gustav Schwab. Wi lhelm Hauff.
Ludwig Uhland. Eduard Morike.
Nikolas von Lenau. Georg Herwegh.
Ferdi nand Freiligrath and Wilhelm
Raabe lived fo r a time in Stuttgart.
Some fou nd their last resting place
there.

The advance of industry in the second

half of th e 19th century radi cally
changed the economic and social
stru cture of the city. King Friedri ch had
al ready taken the first steps to promote
economic development in his capita l.
However. a perceptible rise in the
volume of trade and industrial activity

94
 ·>'I

only took place after the establishment

of the Customs Un ion in 1834.

A facto r of decisive significance here

was the completion of the railway net-
work w hich served Stuttgart. The
stretch between Cannstatt and
Esslingen went into operation in 1845.
By 1846 the line al ready connected
Ludw igsburg, Stutt gart and Plochin-
gen. The service was extended to
Heil bronn in 1848. and to Ulm and
Friedrichshafen in 1850. During these
years thri ving industries grew up in
Stuttgart in chemicals and pharma-
ceuticals. dyeing and machi nery. In
181 0. · J. F. Cotta transf erred his
publishing house from Tubingen to
Stuttgart w hich. as the home of
t his and the publishers Ha llberger
and Kroner. became the principal
centre in south west Germany for
printing and the book-trade. The
production of musical instrume nts
(piano making) also developed and
186 Aerial photograph from the north- east. attained a considerable reputation.
Photo: A. Brugger, from Stuttgart und seine Nachbarn. Franckhsche The sig nificance of this industrial
Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart 1965. development becomes clear if one
considers the population statistics. In
1830 Stuttgart had app rox ima te l y
25,000 inhabitants; in 1852 the figure
187 0 vera II pI an 1 9 71 . S c a I e 1 : 30 000. had doubled. The number of facto ries
grew from 17 t o 173 between 1 832
and 1861, and the number of workers
employed in them from 600 t o 4.000.
This prosperity continued to grow
vigorously. In the 1880's the founda-
tions were laid for th e Bosch factory
in Stuttgart and the Dai mler plan t in
Cannst att. Since then both companies
have spread the name of their city of
origin throughout th e world.

At the end of the century Stuttgart

with its population of around 175,000,
had become a major city. In 1905 other
local it ies were incorporated into the
city for the first ti me on a large scale:
Cannstatt. which had achieved almost
internatio nal fame during the 19th
cent ury as a spa on the strength of its
rich mineral springs. U nterturkheim
r.::'F i and Wangen. This agglomeration took
'...:!!

95
 ·"~

the city bou ndaries as far as the Nec kar.

In 1908 Degerl och was incorporated
and a f irst st ep was taken in t he direc -
tion of the Filder. The First World War.
the 1918 Revolution- f oll owed by the
abdication of the universa lly popu lar
King Wi lhelm II - and the inflat ionary
period on ly bri efly checked the de -
velopment of greater Stuttgart as an
indust ri al entity. In th e f irst decades of
the 20th century, the bu ild ings were
produced which brought worl d -wide
reno wn to the Stuttgart school of
architecture and its design principles:
.] the Ku nstverein build ing ( Fischer) .
la rge and small aud itoriums of the
Wurttemberg State Theatre (Littmann).
th e new station (Bonatz) . the Tag-
bla tt tower (Osswa ld) and the Schock-
en department st ore (Mendelsohn) . as
well as the Weissenhofsiedlung. Then
the war came. The first air-raids took
place in 1940. fo llowed in 1943 by the
f irst large-scale offensive and in 1944
by the al most total destruction of the
. ".· city centre. At the end of t he war. after
.
- ., 53 ai r- raids. some 60% of Stuttgart
was destroyed . It was occupied by
French troops on the 21st Apri l 1945
and was included 1n the American
occupation sector on the 8th July

·t:{;:
0 .. .........

188 Stuttgart 1855, cf. as it was in

1970.

96
 1945. The clearance of bomb -sites. the
supply of food and energy, and coping
w ith housing problems dominated the
life of the city for the next few years.
In 1950 the German Horticult ural Show
was held here as the first high point in
Stuttgart's recovery. In 1953 Stuttgart
became the capital of the Land of
Baden -Wurttemberg. In 1956 an ex-
tension to the new town hall was built
on the Marktplatz and a new concert
hall for Stuttgart (the Liederhalle) was
opened. Since 1956. Stuttgart's new
landmark -the television tower of the
Suddeutsche Rundfunk. more than
200 metres hig h - can be seen from
miles around. In 1958 Stuttgart's port
on the Neckar was opened. and th is
brought the city and the surrounding
industrial area into the network of
Europea n waterways and connected it
with the great seaports.

At present some 632.000 people live

in Stuttgart. Every effort is absorbed in
trying t o overcome traffic problems.
New buildings and streets are spring ing
up all aro und. And yet Stuttgart still
manages to ma intain its rep ut ation as
'the city between forest and vine·.

189 Stuttgart 1970. cf. as it was in

1855.

97
 190-195 Typical Stuttgart bou rgeo is
houses of the 19th century.

98
 ....
196-20 1 Plinths and ent rances .

•I.

99
 ..
~

202-207 Entrances.

·,

100
 - -~ ...
. . .

208 Wilhelma. 209 l<onigsbau. 210 Villa Berg.

211-213 Balconies.
101
 PRO POSALS FO R THE se. the Feuersee and from there across 214 Sca le 1 : 33 000.
RECO NSTRU CTION OF to the Osterre ich ische Platz. W il helms - Overa ll plan of all new planning
DEVASTATED U RBAN AREAS platz. the Leonhardskirche, Charlotten- proposals.
platz. the Staatsga leri e and back to the 1 Stati on.
I have rest ri cted myself to describing station. For each location. by means of 2 University.
the individual projects illustrated in the plans and mode[?. I have provided a 3 Rotebuhlp latz.
adjoini ng overal l plan . I have beg un in direct compa ri son betwee n its h is- 4 Johannesstrasse. Feuerstrasse.
the st ation area. and made a roun d torical development since the m id - 5 b sterre ich ische Plat z.
t our. as it were, of the new planning 19th century, its present condition. my 6 Wilhelmsp latz.
proposals fo r the university campus . new planning proposals and how they 7 Leon hardski rche.
t he Rotebuhlplatz. the J ohannesstras - f it in wi t h the ex isting build ing fabri c. 8 Cha rlotten-Schlossplat z.
9 Ko nigstrasse .
10 Staatsga lerie.
11 Schlossgart en.

·.'
~
d
~
I
'
~
~
/
(.

'I

-
21 5 Shaded areas have been re-
planned .

102
 r/}
'-
co
0..

216 217 Plan of traffic flow d uring the 218 Compa r i son on sc ale of
early 1 9 50s. 1 : 50.000.
216 Plan showing Second World War
damage.
Black areas: totally destroyed.
Hatched areas : moderate and light
damage.

219 Aeri_al view of Stuttgart t oday.

103
 220 Model from south-east original
scale 1 : 2.500.

221 Model from east.

104
 STATION AREA

The traffic plan of th e city of Stuttgart

restri cts the use of the squares to the
north and west of the station to
moto rised t raffic. wh ile pedestri ans
can only gain access to the station by
subway. In some respects t his may be
a practical arrangement - for example
w hen one has to reach the tube or
local main- li ne st op - but it cannot
seriously be consid ered as a f inal and
satisf actory so lution. If they are un -
avoidable. I am prepared to accept the
below-ground areas as regu lators of
traffic flow. However. they are an in-
adequate substitute f or urba n space
in t he open. Since work beneath the
station squares has recently been
completed. th ere is no point in attempt-
ing fu rther alteration here (see traffi c
plan). I suggest theref ore that a new
level be constructed above the road-
way, wh ich w ill lead away from the
station across the flow of traffic. at the
same leve l as the ra ised station con -
cou rse. The temporary bri dge put up in
f ront of the station wh ile bu il ding works
were in progress cou ld serve as a model
fo r th is proposal (see photo Fig. 232).
The objection cou ld be made that such
-,.;.~
~J:.? ~
t>..~..
J\
.J
a move mig ht con siderably influence
and distort t he v isual effect of the
224 Traffic plan showing overhead 225 New planning proposals. buildi ngs on t he square. At the planning
and underground railways. stage I went in to th i s prob lem
thorough ly , and came to the conclusion
that the gain in terms of how people
p'
experience their environment justifi es
n th e alteration to the existing fa bric and
it s impact.

Certainly th e arch it ects Bonatz and

Scholer would have designed t he
stat ion differently had they been f orced
to accommodate th 1s kind of ra ised
pla tf orm . As the proposer of such a
solution I had to find some means of
expressing the impact of the bu il ding
in a new but equally valid way, w ith out
impairing its significance. In o ld cities
there are countless examples of new
'' 226 Aerial view of station area today. 227 Model of new plans.
and aesthetically pleasing urban types
bein g generated as the result of the
..
II
~

105
 .~

redefinition of spatial limits. On the fallen into oblivion. It was thought

other hand. there are cases of the possible to repla ce them with th e
original appearance of an area being instruments of tech nology and traff ic
altered. w ithout any compensating signals. Sculptors today try to emulate
spatial balance being created. An the architectural scale with over-sized
example of this was the way in which works while faillng to fit them to t he
so many buildings were bui lt around basic elements of surrounding build-
Mainz cathedral over the years. to the ings. One-off shock effects. obsessed
marked detriment of its architectural with structural complexity, are high ly
impact. One result of this is th at a rated. In most cases their impact wears
stranger to the town has to make a off after a short time. And yet I we l-
laborious search before finding the come these statements. even if I
consider much of this contemporary 229 The Ki:inigstrasse. between the
entrance. The expectatio ns raised by
street furniture tast eless and ephemeral. station and ttie Schlossplatz.
the building's silhouette in a pict ure of
the town are rudely disappointed . They do at least prove that t he need
for something over and above pure
The thesis outlined above wou ld functionalism has not been com-
materially affect the planning of the
station in the following ways: on no
account must any further building
obscure the unique propo rti ons of the
arcades. The ra ised platform must be
given sufficient cl earance at this point.
In the very high-level entrance area.
however. the platform can be built
right into the station concourse. This
then means a change in the propor-
tions of the projecting entrance. The
new proporti ons must be carefully
studied. This is t rue of the 'Hinden-
burgbau' opposite the sta tion. a build-
ing of a quite outstand ing architectural
interest in a significant centra l position.
The form of the platform must obey the
228 Arcade on the west side of the
rules of existing structures in such a
I station .
way as to harmonise with their
...
f
character. pletely crushed. As part of the thought
process defining the typological char -
In addition. I suggest that the Ki:inig- acteristics of urban architecture and
strasse should not enter the Ba h n hofs- space artists w ill have to create a new
platz direct ly but through a ki nd of vocabulary with a contemporary mean-
spatial caesura of the type formed by ing . Society will have to provide the
Thou ret's Ki:inigstor (King's Gate) be- means f or this. even if not in the
... fore its demolition in 1924. At this new
'gateway' steps and ramps would link
financial sense. If this argumen t were
not valid. museums. opera houses .
the Ki:inigstrasse with the surface of concert halls and churches wou ld
the new level. change the ir fu nction and become
shops and factories. History offers
At this point I would like to include a enough examples of iconoclasm or th e
few short comments on so-called demolition or recycl ing of hist oric
'functionless' city architecture. Th is buildings. Part of the reason for this
and other types of monument or 'urban was the injustice of social abuses.
decoration' have with a few exceptions When eliminating potentates. the op- 230 No rthern exit of the station.

106
 ·>'I

pressed classes have also tried t o get Stuttgart. Such a measu re seems to be
rid of the symbols of their power. This too easy, and it has never been con-
seems legitimate at the time. but t ime sidered up unti l now. The oppressive
stills the waves of anger and teaches cli mate during the summer months of
men to value the bu ildings of the past t he valley in wh ich Stuttga rt lies
for their arcli'i tect ural qu ality. even provides sufficient justification in itself.
w hen their original fu nctions have even disregarding the un iq ue atmo -
ceased to app ly . The beauty of a build- sphere w hich an avenue of trees
ing alone can justify its existence. creates. I fu rth er propose to continue
(' . .. et c'est utile. puisque c'est joli ' - the li ne of build ings on the south side
Antoine de Saint-Exupery. ) of the Konigstrasse across the Schil -
lerstrasse and up to th e south side of
231 Central station . southern en- Architectu re without explicit fun ctio n. the statio n. They would crea te a semi -
trance. Architects Bonatz and Scholer which I am discussing here. i s a very circu lar spatial stop f or the elongated
1910-27. modest phenomenon. It shou ld be Bahnhof splatz. This f orm is derived
mean in gful w ithin its histori cal con - from the roundel placed in th is location
te xt. appropriate to its locati on and of by N . F. Thouret behind t he Ko nigstor.
The st ati on tower should be pierced to
give direct access f rom the mai n hall
tl t o the Sch lossgarten.

Describing tow n planning proposa ls

is a ted ious bus iness. and it is aski ng a
lot to expect strangers t o read them.
The y o nly become clear when t hf:l
def ini tive plans are avail able for con-
sultation. as these can provide a
wea lt h of fu rther informa ti on wh ich is
imposs ible to describe in words. The
new level continues round to t he
northern part of the station area and
as an ext ension of th e booking hall
fo rms an open space which cou ld be
particularly valuable as a meeti ng
232 Temporary brid ge put up during
place. A t all times of day and in every
build ing wo rks on the Bahnhofsplatz.
the correct typologica l reg ister for t he season the station is an extremely
surround ing space. A nd in my opinion popular meet ing point for migrant
this holds good for th e 'gateway' wo rkers . These people co uld use this
between the Konigstrasse and t he spot as a f urther sourc e of inform ation
Bahnhofsplatz. to help them on arri val. offer them
cheap places to sleep and fa cilitate
The Konigstrasse should also be cont act w it h t heir compatri ots.
planted with a double row of plane
trees . Th is device allows one t o dis- From this space. a t ra ffice- free shop-
pense with the costly street turn iture ping -street or bazaar would lead on to
which has been proposed. It shou ld the Friedri chsplatz and fro m there to
then become an exclusively pedestria n the university. The pedestrian street is
street. Only an avenue of trees can conceived of as a light 'flyover'
make t he arc hitec tural chaos of th is running along the centre of t he street.
street ha lfway beara ble by screen ing w ith the greatest avail able clearance
it off with its leaves and branches. I betw een it and t he houses. I see the
233 View ot the Friedn chstrasse (left) consider this proposal one of the open pedestri an area as being very
and Kri egsbergstrasse (rig ht). cornerstones of the renovation of na rrow. not more th an 3.5 metres. ln

107
 , ,~

addition. th.ere would be an arcade on buildings necessary to an established

both sides of some 2 metres. The shops university town have not been pro-·
on the 'bridge' could be double- vided here. and it would be difficu lt
storeyed. The junction on the Fried- to build them at this point. It is also
richsplatz would be bridged by the worth considering whether one shou ld
same structure. thus creating a new attempt some integration on the ca m-
space which in its geometric configura- pus of other urban functions. so that
tion would remain faithful to Thouret's activities other than those of the
ideas. In reality. no original building university could be guaranteed. Stu-
survives from the square as he de- dent halls of residence. as well as
signed it. It was completely destroyed re nted and owner-occupied flats
in the last war. The present traffic f low should be provided on the campus .
would not be altered by the new
proposals. The new plans cover the area between
the Friedrichsplatz and the Lieder-
THE UNIVERSITY AREA halle. Konigsbau and Katharinenhos-
pital. Since the potential uses of th is
Since the majority of the university area have not yet been established by I~
buildings will be moved over the next an analysis of its needs. m ')l new
few years to a pe rmanent site in open planning proposals should be seen
countryside outside the town. the pure ly as a hypothetical solution or an
first question is of course whether it abstract exercise. They should help t o
makes any sense to carry out improve- illuminate practical difficulties en-
ments to the remaining institutes on countered in replanning this part of th e
their present site. I am working on the city and a model based on my pro -
assumption that the arts faculties at posals should resolve such problems.
least must be integrated into the town. The central theme of the structure I
Unfortunately what has happened is have proposed was the linkin g to-
th at a large number of ancillary gether of the crucial elements of t he

234 Aerial photo. 237 Traffic plan w ith local main-line

and underground railway network
currently under construction. Shaded
area: pedestrian zones.

239 Aerial ph oto f rom south-west.

:.

108
 university area and their relationsh ip bringin g complete quiet to the hos-
to the existing urban fabric. So I have pital. This dual purpose addit io n above
designed a traffic-free precinct con- street level would serve as an extension
necting the Hahn tower, college build- both to the hospital and the university.
() ings, library, refectory. Liederhall e and
Linden museu1r1. I have planned for a The approach to the refect ory today
sightline to run from the centre of this does not even have the elementary
east-west axis to the Bolzstrasse and saf ety measures of traff ic li ghts or
the Kleine Schlossplatz. These designs, pedestrian crossings. Anyone who
in terms of the he ig ht of the buildings . sees the way in wh ich hund reds of
harmonise with the scale of the t own students ris k th eir lives every lu nch
as it is. This is true of both its old and time to cross the four-lane st reet
its new buildings. The isolated t ower between the university area and the

I
blocks on the Keplerstrasse are inte- refectory wi ll be shocked by this
grated as fully as is the restof theformer scandalous state of affairs. I never
polytechnic on the Huberstrasse . It can cease t o be amazed at how little fuss
/236 be mathematically proved that low - people make, how li ttle they take issue
rise, high-density building can render with such blatant and irresponsible
the use of high -rise building redu ndant. negligence on the part of city planning
departments. I would fu rther suggest
Unfortunately there is no possibility that the Liederha lle and the Linden
now of the Katharinenhospital being museum be connected with the 'cam-
moved from its present site on the busy pus · in t he same way as th e refect ory.
Kriegsbergstrasse. so we must th in k The curved rear elevation of the
in terms of improving it by rad ical Liederhal le gave me the i"oea of creating
structural alterations. This could be a circu s at t he junction of the Breits-
done by building a multi-st orey ex- cheidstrasse and the H olzgartenstrasse.
tension over the adjacent street thus This is th e meet ing point of t he routes
creating two inner courtyards and of pedestrian access from the Herdweg

241 Model of the university area.

238 New plan n1ng proposals.

240 Integration of t he old and the

new.

109
 and the Hoppenl au cemetery, which

L_________nJ then continue across the Buchsen-

strasse di rectly to the old Marktplat z.
I would li ke to add a question at th is
point which is always posed w ith t h is
type of project : 'What is the justifica -
t ion for such a massive and expensive
redeve lopment of ou r stree ts. and can
we be optimistic that this kind of action
w ill rep resent a sound investment?'
Answer : Given t he horrifying extent
to which the spatial logic of the cit y
centre of Stuttgart has been destroyed,
some of the measures proposed here
are the on ly way in wh ich the lost scale
of the c ity ca n possibly be restored . It
24 2 Pl ans of 1st and 2nd floor levels. is certainly true that th ese correcti ve
measu res are more expensive today
than sensible and far-sighted p lans
would have been . But since we cannot
undo the results of t he last th irty years.
we must plan for th e f uture and
dec ide whether - and to what exte nt -
these corrective measures must be
undertaken.

STU DY OF T HE U NIV ER SITY AR EA:

SCHEME BY FRANZ C. D EMB LI N
For some areas in t his chapter. as an
alt ernative to my own plann ing pro -
posa ls. I have included work produced
between 1 973 and 1 974 by arch itec -
tural students under my direction at th e
University of Stuttgart. There is a clear
243 intention in all their designs to revive
_.,,.. . . ,. """
~.: ;,: .'· ··~-· areas w hose spati al qualit ies had been
destroyed. us in g an arch itectu ral vo-
cabulary wh ich on one hand respect s
the ex isting fabric and on t he other
hand opens up fres h poss ibilities for
t he pedestrian in pa rts of t he town
w hich because of t hei r lack of charm
had previous ly held lit tle attraction .

244 Plan of 1st floor level.

110
 .·

250 Isometric section of studen t ha ll of residence.

248
245-248 Sketches of pedestrian
areas.
II \ ·.. 1;.
u ' . ~
·: .. \
,:,
L\ I
'~ "'
.'(
. ·: :..

249 Scheme for the H uberstrasse 1n

the university quarter. 252 Model of new plans. '
111
 THE ROTEBUHLPLATZ
The old U-shaped Rotebi..ihl barracks
were built in the years 1827 to 1843.
Today it stands In danger of demolition.
Architecturally it is modest and dis-
creet. It cannot be said that it is
immediately attractive to the conserva-
tionist. Moreover. after its partial war-
time destruction. the building suffered
considerable alteration during re-
building. For example. the open arcade
running round the courtyard was
walled up. The central section of the
main wiilg has been replaced by a 253 View of the Rotebi..ihl building courtyard.
tasteless modern concrete facing. On
the other hand. the height of the central
wing was increased by three floors. and
the architectural results here were
pleasing. The clarity of the overall form
of the building still remains impressive.
and w ith its locat ion on the boundary
between the old part of the city and
'Stuttgarter Westen' it has an im-
portant articulating funct ion .
The scheme:
I suggest the retention of the original
254 View of the Fritz-Eisas-St rasse 255 View of th e Rotebi..ih lst rasse from
structu re of the Rotebi..ih I barracks. the
from the Rotebi.ihlplatz. w ith the the Roteb i..ih lplatz. with the Rotebi..ihl
reopening of the original arcade around
Rotebi..ihl building on the left. building on the right.
the courtyard and the enclosure of the
courtyard (now built around on th ree
sides) by an architectural device which
will serve a double purpose. On the far
end of the Rotebi..ihlstrasse a glazed
gallery should be built lead ing to an
elongated square contai ning the en-
trances to the tube and rai Iway stations.
The complexity of this scheme derives
from the fa ilings of past architecture.
which never found a positive way of
carrying on the tradition embodied in
257
the development plans of the 15th
century. It seemed to me a matter of
priority to design a structure for this
site w hich might reconstitute its lost
spatial coherence.

At this juncture one must certainly

raise the question of why the space
here was laid out in such an enclosed
way. The answer. I believe. is that
since the overall street plan of Stuttgart
is 'open', any urban spaces which have
a particular functional or architectural 258
256-259 Details of the former Rote-
bi..ihl barracks (now the city finance
112
office) after rebuilding.
 significance shou ld obey a certain
rhythm of their own. The Rotebuhlplatz
is certainly the kind of site to which
t his argument applies. as are the other
squares which I shall deal with later.
I have deliberately drawn on historical
examp les in formulating t hese plans, in
order to show that these spatial types
can retain their valid ity today, irres-
pective of their period and style. A l-
though Bra mante creat ed the market-
place of Vigevano. he did not invent
the spat ial type on which it was based.
A ll that happened was that Bramante
intelligently appli ed the spatial type in
the right place. with due rega rd for th e
historica l conditions wh ich he f ound
there. The same square can be built
using today's architecture. without any
accusation of eclecticism or historicism.
A build in g type is by definition a highly
rational and fully thoug ht out soluti on
to a given architectura l problem, and
one wh ich has been tried and tested
over the course of generations. It·
wou ld be naive of our technological
age if we underestimat ed the value of
this historica l lesson.

The buildings w hich I am exam1nmg

here look as if th ey are meant to be t he
work of a sing le architect. True, the
plans are no -one's work but my own.
and it is ha rd f or me to empathise w ith
263 Traffic plan.
other peop le who might work on them.
However, each element is conceived in
such a way that even a large nu mber of
planners could work on them in-
dependently w ithout seeing their own
personal understanding of architecture
vio lated . Broad spatia l and building
types are all t hat I have def ined. I have
of course produced t his final version as
the culmination to a whole series of
plans.

The quality of the overall spatial

schema discipli nes and determines the
interplay of the individual arch itectural
elements. None of them should play
more than a background role. or they
264 Aerial photo of the Rotebuhl area 265 Model of new plans. wou ld risk seriously damag in g the
as it is today. spatial harmony of the whole.

113
 266 Sketches of the Rotebuhlplatz.

267 As it is today. 269 New p lans superimposed o n pre-

sent layout.

270 Sketches of the Rotebuhl platz.

114
271 The Rotebuhl complex seen from
the west.

11 5
 •>'I

272 Site plan. scale 1 : 1.850. showing

plans for redevelopment of the Rote-
buill building.

116
 , J'l

273 Model. scale 1 : 1.850. showing

plans for redevelopment of the Rote-
buhl build ing.

117
 274-277 Part?al- views of new pro-
posed scheme (model).

274 Th. Heuss Strasse/Rotebuhl - 275 Fritz-Eisas-Strasse.

st rasse axis.

. I

276 On the Rotebuhlplatz today. 277 Entrance to gallery. Ro tebuh l-

strasse.

118
 278-281 Pa rtfa l view~ of new pro-
posed scheme (pastel) .

278 Gallery on Rotebuhlst rasse w ith

ra ilway station.
279 Ent rance t o ga llery, seen fro m the
Rotebuhlstrasse. The Calwer Tor stood
on th is sp ot until the early 19th century.

,t ,,I ' '· '' ~J

280 Square with entrances t o railway

and tube stations on th e present -d ay
Street showin g t he
Rotebuhlplatz. formerly known as the
'Alter- Post- Platz'. comparison between old
and new. On th e lef t is
the Rotebuh l bu ild ing; on
the right new bui ldings.
 STUDY OF TH E>'! R~OTEB'UHLPLATZ

SCHEME BY WILFRIED WALLBRECHT

I
284 Ro of plan. 285 Model of red eve lopment plan.

120
I ,,.,
UCHEME
.. H LPLATZ
• E ROTEB U
STUDY OF TH
BY PUTZ AN D WEB ER

287

~~/A~~~-
V
__ ,
286 Ground plan of pe destrian level.

.
Isometric View of redevel opment
plans.

121
 JOHANNESSTRASSE- FEUERSEE and co111merc ial · premises built as high that for this reason alone. extreme
annexes. We must come up with care must be taken with any alterations
solutions to make the coexistence of to the building fabric. I would also
This is a sector of the district known as housing and business tolerable. For suggest that in this kind of district.
'Stuttgarter Westen'. Most of it was example, a large part of the roof area particular attention should be paid to
built during the second half of the 19th above the workshops could be planted the conservation of streets and squares
century. The theme of these proposals o r used as a recreation area for resi - which play a vita l part in t own-
for its renewal is to preserve the grid dents. Children's playgrounds with planning terms . So any new building
layout and carry out structural modifi - extensive pl·ay areas could also be must conform w ith the structure and
cations in keeping w ith contemporary provided at roof -level. In the course of scale of the area. Greenery and orna-
needs. When they were built all the time. underground garages would have mental lakes etc. should also be kept
houses were set three metres apart at to be built beneath the courtyards. in harmony w ith the original plan and
the insistence of the Fire Department. thereafter properly maintained. This
The result of this tod ay is that street It would make no sense to attempt a does not mean that alterations and
noise penetrates unremittingly to 1he sudden and enforced separation of additions are impossible in the event
inner courtyards. Blocking up these activities in an area w hose hybrid of a changed set of circumstances f or
gaps could decisively improve living quality has grown up gradually. The the tow n- planner ; simply that w ilful
conditions. To complicate matters. the standard of craftsmanship and arc hi- and reckless acts of planning van -
inner courtyards contain workshops tecture in some of the buildings is so dalism should be prevented.

290 Scale 1 : 20,000 1913. 291 1972. 292 Model of renovation plan.
 THE OSTERREICHISCHE PLATZ I have adopted Thouret's the me of badly stressed by this problem. It is a
spatial gradation and a gradually curse t o all city -d wellers. each of w hom
intensifying build-up. But I have had resorts t o his own fu t ile protest by
to adapt this sequential approach to the blocking his w indows o r his ears.
Again I have taken Thouret's plans as reality of the new buildings w hich Im potent in the face of st reet noise.
a basis for alterations to this square. surround the sguare. The ho rseshoe- everyo ne takes out thei r unbearable
This decision may at first seem strange. shaped open space with terraced build- neuroses on fam ily and neighbours.
given that not a single original building ings at its edge stretches right across There is only one w ay in wh ich some
is left standing on it. All I am trying to the Hauptstiitterstrasse. which is Stutt - meas ure of t ranquillity can be guaran-
do is to justify the thesis which I have gart's most heavily used arterial road. teed. and that is to provide a t otal shield
outlined in the previous chapter. So there was no reas on to subordinate between people and traffic.
the spatial qualities of the square t o
No period in cultural history holds a those of the freeway. On the contrary, The Osterrei ch ische Platz. Wi lhelms-
patent on spatial types. the freeway had to be disregarded. platz and Charlottenplatz acted as the
Opening up an access road tow ards principal focus for streets connecting
Thou ret conceived of this square as a t he city centre would have been just the old t own with the sou thern parts of
spatial extension to the area behind the as much of a problem. the city. Their purpose is very clearly
city gate. This gate was purely decora- visible fro m an examinat ion of the
tive. having ceased to function as part The small lozenge-shaped square acts street -plan . The layout is plai nly orien-
of the fort ifications. It is interesting. as a kind of distributor: fro m it. the tat ed around these focal points. The
however. that a spatial extension was Bazarstrasse leads to the Wil helms- function of such si tes could have re-
still planned beyond the gate. It was platz: it creates a link between the mained intact to th is day had it not
only this second. smaller square which Tubinger Strasse and the Marienki rc he. been destroyed bv t raffi c. The squares
formed a junction to the street. Un- as well as restoring the former link with mentioned above could even have
fortunately. later building on the out- the southern part of the town . I con - been linked to each ot her by a com -
skirts of the town meant that this clude from this that there is no reas on mercially pr.ofita ble shop ping street.
square - a work of genius - did not why the new communication ch annels w hich could part ially or completely
develop in accordance with the original required should be blighted by traffic span t he ma in road.
plans. noise. The whole town is equally

293 The Marienkirche. seen from the 294 The Osterreichische Platz and 295 The pedestrian·s view.
Paulinen bridge. Paulinen bridge.

v
296 The Marienkirche. seen from the 297 Spatial reality of the pedest rian . 298 The Hau pt statt erstrasse. seen
Osterreichische Platz. from th e Osterreic hische Platz.
1 23
 THE OSTERREICHISCHE PLATZ

299 1855 (Thou ret). 300 1913.

301 1972.

302 Traffic plan.

303 Aerial photo 1969.
304 Model of new pla nning proposals.

124
l

305 The Osterreichische Platz as it is 306 New plans. 307 New plans superimposed on pre-
today. sent layout.

308 Development of the Hauptstatter- 309 Detail of model. 310 View of mode l fro m the south.
strasse.

125
 ..,
311 Site plan. showing redevelop-
ment of t he bsterreichische Platz. scale
1 : 1.8 50 approx.

126
 ·>'~

312
.. M .o d e1 of redevel
Osterretchische PI opment of t he
approx. atz, scale 1 : 1 ,850

127
 313 The Osterreichische Platz itself:
original size pastel.

128
 ·>'I -

3.14 Small
Oster · · squarePIg1vin
.
reiChlsche g access to th
pastel. atz: original size e

129
 ,J'I

.--·
315 Ground plan of pedestrian level. 316 Isometric view of scheme. 317 Gro und plan of one level.

STUDY OF THE
H.ll!~ T \'t'WIIta./IU~

• M~HUII - « IUFTII [R II[ f ~;JI.

OSTERREICHISCHE PLATZ

SCHEME BY
RENATE HUMMERICH

lA 0 0
El IB
~

~
II
~
[;iii
a tOml".
WO+<'tGltH T 'lll
..El

130
 . ;)

319 Hauptstatterstrasse 1880. 320 Th e Leonhard splatz before t he

Second World War.
Photo: Metz Brothers. Bild -Verl ag.
Tubi ngen.
THE WILHELMSPLATZ

THE LEONHARDSPLATZ

The key themes of this project are:

1 To enclose the Wilhelmsplatz.
2 To build arou nd the Leonhards-
kirche a square form ing a un it of
appropria te scale.
3 To restore the traditional profile of
the Eberhardstrasse. along which the
old 13th cent ury citadel walls ran.
4 To assimi late existing road junctions
into t he street plan by means of new
buildings. It is vitally importa nt to
establish this complex site as an
eff ective point of visual orien tati on. 321 1855. 322 1972.
5 Since Stuttgart's nightl ife takes place
in the quarter around the Leonhards-
kirche. any new plans would have to
offer amenities of a not entirely
monastic character. These amenities
should neither isolate nor drive out t he
nightl ife.
6 It is obvious that all these new de-
velopment pla ns should provide for a
certain percentage of rented and
privately owned accommoda tion. and
the local authorit ies are duty bou nd to
ens ure that such accommodation can
be rented at reasonab le prices. 323 New plans. 324 View of model.

131
 325 Aerial photo of the old town of
Stuttgart from the south-west. c. 1930.
In the foreground is Erich Men dels-
sohn's Schocken building.
Photo: Stahle, Schorndorf.

132
326 The extent of devastation of the
o ld town in the Second World War.
Photo: Brugger. Stuttgart.

133
327 The Wilhelmsplatz today. 328 The Hauptstatterstrasse today. 329 The Leo nhardspl atz.

330 View of the Wilhelmsplatz and 331 The Hauptstatterstrasse today. 332 Sieg le- Haus by Theodor Fischer.
old town.

333 The Wilhelmsplatz. 334 The Hauptstatterstrasse today. 335 The Leonhards platz and Leon-
hards kirche.

134
 STUDY OF THE
WILHELMSPLATZ -
LEONHARDSPLATZ -
HAUPTSTATIERSTRASSE AREA

SCHEME BY STEFAN BOHM

The main concern of this scheme is to

reintegrate two parts of the town which
are now completely cu t off from each
other by the broad slash of the
Hauptstat terstrasse. and in so doing
to create a meaningful configuration
of urban space for the pedestrian.
This means robbing t raffic of its
absolute pre-eminence and establish-
ing an impo rtant centre in th is part of
the town by building new residential
accommodation. shops. offices. res -
taurants and cultural and social ameni-
ties. Impo rtant features of the scheme
are a glazed covered arcade. an open -
air theatre and t he replanning of the
Leonhardsplatz.

339 Model of new plans.

135
 STUDY OF THE ,J'I
WILHELMSPLATZ -
LEONHARDSPLATZ -
HAUPTSTATTERSTRASSE AREA

SCHEME BY CHRISTA DIEHL

RE SUll

A IV
4 MAIN
LONGITUDINAL
AXFS
A IV
4 MAIN
LONGITUDINAL

341 / 1-10 Preliminary design alterna-

tives. 342 Criteria for selection of preliminary des ign alternatives .

136
 Dc=J o
3 ~ 3h/ 1 -6
W 1 e 1 msplatz
Design alternatives for the
I
area. - H auptstatterstrasse
··
344 Plan at ground level.

137
 346 Youth cen tre. section and view.

~47 House of the Philosop hers. sec-

tion and v iew.

concert hall. section and

345 Ground plan of pedestri an level.
view.

138
fl t·ttjQ·jl

k ii 'l,ll i~

- ,
349 Office building. section and view.

..._
31
I ~
~ l
1--T-~,
r.
I •
-1 I

I I I II • ,1'

350 Office building. section and view.

351 Sports centre. section and view. 352 Ground plan of one level.

139
 354 Politica l Forum. section and view.

355 Casino. section and view.

I . . ....
-·
..::::~.
C1~ MI··D ... ,_.....
~

356 Small swimming baths. section

353 Isometri c view of new planning proposals. and view.

140
357 Detail of model.

358 Detail of model.

359 Detail of model. 360 Model of new planni ng pro posals.

141
 CHARLOTTENP LATZ
SCHLOSS PLATZ

In view of the developmen t of th is

area today. it is hardly appropri ate to
go on us ing th e term 'square'. I will
t ry to describe the fundamental ele-
ments wh ich wou ld turn t he site bac k
into a mean ingful square f or the
pedestrian. I propose to restore t he
Holle Carlsschule to its orig inal st ate
as bu ilt by Leger and Fischer between
17 40 and 1748 . This buildi ng. w hich
had been on ly parti ally des troyed in
the war. was completely demoli shed
in the 50s to make way for tw o·
additiona l t raff ic lanes. Its archi tectural
qu ali ties were an essential comp lement
to th ose of the Neue Schloss. whose
re ar elevation has lost its spati al
meaning since t he demolition of its
cou nterpart. In response to the tw o
principal w ings of t he ·ca rlsa kademie'.
wh ich w ere only connected to the
central courtyard by bridges. Retti. the
planner of th e Neue Sch loss. hit on the
idea of a pair of recessed sections at
this poi nt in the facade. Since the
prinicpal wings are no longer standing.
this 'arc hitec tural di alogue' has become
meaning less.

At this po int I wou ld like t o recall t hat

in 1927 Paul Schmitthenner to a large
extent rebuil t the fo rmer Orphanage of
1705. directly opposit e the Holle
Carlsschu le. accord in g to its original
plan. At the ti me. th is work was
violently cri ticised by th e 'modern
archit ects' as a reactionary piece of
conservationism. But if Sch mitthe nner
had no t dealt so revere ntly w ith the
bu il din g. th e t own wou ld have felt the
l o~s of an outs tanding building type.

I have chosen th is proposa l for the

reconst ruction of the Holle Carlssc hule
as a point of pnnciple. since I f in d it
incomprehens ible- in terms o f cultu ral
history - that th is bu ilding com plex
should have been demolished simply
to make way for a · road -widening
operatio n. It is true t hat arc hitectu rally it

142
may have lacked the splendour and rich 363 Various alternative
ornamentati on of the Neue Schloss. schemes for the Neue
The central wing was designed as Schloss site by Retti.
a barracks. Yet its spatial qualities c. 1750.
were conceived on a grand scale and After Scholl. Leopold Retti.
they played an important role in the Verlag Bi.irgei,,Ansbach
development of Stuttgart in the 18th (from K. Weidle).
century.

I have made use of the exceptional

spatial character of the area between
the Akademie. the Orphanage and the
Stadbibliothek to create a clearly
defined t riangular square. The Bazar-
strasse. leading from the Leonhards-
ki rche. does not meet the square
directly. but shortly before doing so
broadens out into a little circus. The
smaller buildings on th is circus block
off the direct view from the Bazar-
strasse to the Charlottenplatz. The
transition from one to the other lies
between two round towers. from which 364 Retti's plan for the
the axes of the Bazarstrasse and the Neue Schloss.
Konrad-Adenauer -Strasse lead. The After Scholl. from K. Weidle.
Charlottenplatz is surrounded by an Engraving by Claude
arcade. The Stadtbibliothek (or Wil- Lucas. Paris 1750.
helms - Palais). built by Salucci between
1834 and 1840. harmonises with the
rest of the buildings around the square.
and nowadays its main front entrance
is once aga in accessible as originally
planned.

The west side of the Neue Schloss is

an open U-shape with slightly pro-
jecting lateral extensions which scarce -
ly contribute anythi ng to the spatial
qual ities of the site. A modest centra l
projection accentuates the strength of
the main facade. The busy street com -
pletely cuts the building off from th e
Karlsplatz opposite.

I propose to rou nd out this spatial

fragment by introducing a bu ilding
which will be a mirror- image of the
facade of the Neue Schloss described
above. The east wing of the castle.
whose facade faces on to the park. is
sim ilarly given spatial coherence by
avenues of trees (as pl anned by
Thou ret). This site. with the facade of

143
 ·""
the castle in t he backg round. wou ld
make an admirable spot for an open -
air theatre. The steps where spectators
would be seated happily forms a qui te
natural transition between t he higher
plane of the street and the level of the
square. The primary function of new
buildings on th is square and on the
Charlottenplatz shou ld be a cultural
one.

Between the Neue Schl ossplatz. the

A lte Sch loss and the Ka nzlei (Chan-
cellery) l have plan ned for a fu rth er
365 The Charlottenplatz. with the 366 Salucci's Wilhelmspalais 1834-
new bui lding . to give spatial coherence
Staatstheater in the background and 39.
to t he Schlossplatz in th e same way as
the Wilhelmspalais on the right. t he Kunstverein building. This had
always been Retti's intention. as we
can see from his original plans.
Fischer took the same idea almost to its
logical conclusi on and linked his build-
ing plans directly with the A lte Sch loss
and the Kanzlei. H is plan for the
northern end of the Sch lossplatz is
worthy of note. The arc hitects Leins
and Kn app built the imposing Konigs-
bau on this site between 1855 and
1859. a bui ldi ng wh ich looks like a
relic of th e famous Roman colonnaded
streets of Palmyra and Timg ad.

The Schlossplatz cou ld also be en-

367 Th e Charlottenplatz. with the Or- 368 View of the Planie. with the Alte closed by a pair of gateways. w hich
phanage (1705) restored by Schmitt- Schloss in the background. would provide a spatia l boundary
henner on the left and the Neue between the squa re an d th e entrance
Schloss on the right. to t he Konigstrasse. As l have alrea dy
said. I believe that the Kon igstrasse
.........-......
.................. sh ould be planted w ith t rees. except
-- ...... _.
···- ······~· t owards th e Schlossplatz end. There is
still a mass of detail to be gleaned from
the ove rall plan. especially as regards
those points where o ld and new build-
ings meet. but it is impossible fo r me
t o go into them all.

, _
- ~l~,. - '\ \.\W\\:a~'-""
~
369 Facade of the Neue Schloss 370 The Charlottenplatz. with t he
facing the Hohe Carlsschule. Leonhardskirche in the background
and th e Orphanage on the right.

144
 ..,

371 372 373

374 375 376

371 1855.
372 1972.
373 Traffic plan.
374 Aerial photo 1969.
375 Model of new
planning proposals.
376, 377, 378 The area
as it is today, showing new
plans and their super-
imposition on existing
377 378 layout.

145
 .~

379 Charlottenplatz- Schlossplatz,

scale 1 : 2.000 approx.

146
 ·>'l

380 Charlottenplatz- Schlossplat z,

scale 1 : 2.000 approx.

147
 ·>'~

......._
381 382 383
MODELS OF PLANS FOR THE
CHARLOTTENPLATZ AND
SCHLOSSPLATZ (PARTIAL VIEWS)
384 The new Charl ottenplatz from th e
381 Overall view from the south-east. north-west w it h tile Orphanage on the
382 Plan ie axis: on the left the right.
Schlossplatz, Neue Schloss, Ho lle 385 The same sq uare fro m th e south -
Carlsschule; on the right (foreg round) east.
the Alte Kanzlei (Old Chancellery), 386 The Bazarstrasse loo king across
Alte Schloss. Karlsplatz, Orpha nage; the Holzst rasse, and the entra nce to th e
(background) the new Charlottenplatz Charlottenpl atz.
with the Wilhelmspalais. 387 Looki ng along the Konrad-Aden -
383 View from the north-west. auer-Strasse towards its junct ion with
In the foreground the Collegiate Church the Charl ottenplatz. with the Landes-
(13th- 15th centuries) and the Sch ill er- bibliothe k and Haupt sta atsarc hiv on
platz. t he left.
384

385 386 387

148
388 389 390

388 The 'pendant' to the west facade

of the Neue Schloss and the open-air
theatre.
389 The Konigstrasse and the gate-
ways separating it from the Schloss-
platz.
390 The Schillerplatz (bottom left);
Alte Schloss (ri ght); boundary sep-
arating the mediaeval town from the
new Schlossplatz (top).
391-394 Other detai Is of model.

392 393

149
 .~

395/1-11 Sketches of the Charlotten-

platz- Schlossplatz scheme.

395/1 Composition of the Charlot- 395/7 Monument in front of the

tenplatz. Orphanage.
395/2 Small circus adjoining the Char- 395 / 8 Open -air theatre on the w est
lottenplatz. side of the Neue Schl oss .
395/3 The Charlottenplatz. seen from
its narrowest corner.

~
I
1

395/9 The Charlotten platz. seen fro m

the entra nce to t he Stadtbibliothe k.
395/4 Small circus looking towards 395 / 10 Mock arcade on the west side
the Bazarstrasse. of th e Neue Schloss.
39 5/5 The Bazarstrasse. 395 / 11 Them e : small circus w ith
39 5/6 Sectiofl of the q,arlottenplatz. objects.
'-' L:

150
 ,.,
396 Design for the seat of t he Stutt -
gart court as execut ed c. 18 30.
Pen and wash drawing b y Th ouret.
from the Stadtarchiv collecti on (from
Paul Faerber: Fr. von Thouret. ein
Baumeister des Klassizismus. Kohl -
hammer-Verlag Stuttgart 1949) .

,.

Univ~r s H at~ a T ennica

BH'• ··tv ! ._ ._A
151
 STUDY OF TH~CHARLOTIENPLATZ A REA

SCHEME BY OTIO HIPPI N

1'0"'0'0
0 .~
-- ......"~
o.~

397 New street-level plan. 398 Pedestrian level.

399 View of roof level. 400 Isometric.

! I
I

·c:t-J
I 152

II
 THE STAATSGALERIE

In my new plans for this section I have

t ried to integrate the existing arts
buildings on the Konrad-Adenauer-
Strasse into a coherent spatial pattern
and to plot an axis w hich will link them
overall. The former Neckarstrasse was
conceived by Thouret as a kind of
'cult ural street' on the model of the
Unter den Linden in Berlin. Since the
site remains as prestigious as ever -
located as it is parallel to the Kon ig-
strasse and the Schlossgarten - there
is every reason for it to be further
improved. Among other things the
famous old natural history collection
could be restored to its original
location. instead of being uprooted
and given a new home outside the city
area. as is currently planned. The
elegantly proportioned Staatsgalerie
building. designed by Gottlob Barth 401
between 1838 and 1842. is now
effectively cut off from its immed iate
surroundings by a new underpass
w hich has been built on its doorstep.

401 Engraving by Willmann (1871)

from the Stadtarchiv collection. In the
foreground is the Museum der Bilden- 402 403
den Ku nste ( Staatsgalerie). w it h t he
Mint opposite. 404 405
402 Barth's Staatsgalerie (1838-43).
403 The Konrad-Adenauer-Stras se.
formerly known as the Neckarstrasse.
On the left. the Landtag (State Parlia -
ment) on the site of the Holle Carls-
schule. the Staatstheater; in the back-
ground the Staatsgalerie; on the right
the Alte Landesbibliothek and the
Staatsarchiv.
404 The Staatsgalerie seen f rom the
station.
405 View of the Neckarstrasse.

153
 The new road -bed was la id so close
t o the building th at no room re mai ned
f or a sidewalk. The incredible idea f or
solving t his prob lem w as to const ruct a
pedestrian subwa y t hrough the cella r of
th e two wings of the ga llery. Since th e
complet ion of w ork on the new traff ic
system. the museu m has recorded a
marked decrease in th e number of
visit ors.

407 1910.

41 2 Museu m der Bilde nden Kunste

and M int. both on th e Necka rstrasse.
408 1972. 409 Traffic plan.
as t hey w ere in 1855 .

411 Model of new plans.

154
 ....
THE SCHLOSSGARTEN

The park. as originally laid out accord-

ing to Thouret's plans in 1812. was
deformed to a frightening degree in
preparation for the 1961 National
Horticultural Show. A so-called 'up-
dating' took place. It was a deficient
understanding of how to deal with an
existing historic site which led to this
absurd act of wanton deforestation. I
am sure no-one ever dreamt up the
idea of forest clearances on this scale
in the park at Versailles or Schwet-
1 ' ~ 1
zingen. IHJNOt5CAE:!T£ t.i' C Ji,~t.U

There was another comparable act of 413-415 Changes in the layout of the Schlossgart en smce 1808.
destruction in the incomprehensible
deforestation of Ludwigsb urg castle
near Stuttgart in 1968. 416 Thouret's plan 1805. 417 The present st ate of 41 8 My proposals for
the Schlossgarten. redevelopmen t.
There are plans for the next National
Horticultural Show to be held in the
lower grounds of the Schlossgarten in
1976. I trust that history will not repeat
itself then.

My proposal is to restore the Schloss-

garten according to Thouret's design.
The photo on the next page shows the
avenue of plane trees in the lower
grounds. It is now 162 years since
they were planted. The impression
produced by this green space. now
that the trees have grown to their
present size. surely bears comparison
with the spatial glories of an archi-
tectural masterpiece. The man-made
and the natural must reciprocally
support. complement and enrich each
other.

155
 41 9 Avenue of plane trees in the
lower castle grounds. planted in 1812.

156
 ..,

EPILOGUE TO THE CHAPTER 420 Vi gnett e fro m J. Sauter's etching.

'Warhaffte Cont erfactur der FOrstli chen
RECONSTRUCTING DEVASTATED Hauptstatt Stutgarten' , 1592.
URBAN SPACE

In the course of our stroll through

various parts of St uttgart for which I
have suggested possible approaches
to reconstruction, I have deliberately
skirted around the development of the
town in the post-war years of re-
buildi ng, and have restricted myself to
documenting its present state w ith
plans. aerial shots and photos. I hope
that this material. together with my
new planning proposals, has spelt out
my views unequivocally, and that I
can omit any critical comment on the
gradual process of destruction which
Stuttgart has undergone. People w ill
rep roach me fo r having energetically-
almost desperately - attempted to
create patterns of urban space re -
quiring such enormous investment
that no loca l authority will risk bank-
ruptcy by putting them into practice.
Without a doubt. contemporary t own-
planning. with its total disregard for
spatial problems. is a more attractive
proposition in the current socio-
po litical climate . It is no co incidence
that priority is given to traffic and the
other trappings of techno logy, rather
than to people's need for a tolerable
urban environm ent. Of course. not
everyone in a town will assign the
same importa nce to the poetic or
musical elements of urban space.
Experience also indicates that the
inhabitants of old towns whose original
state has been preserved do not take
the same interest in the ir quality as
outsiders. It is quite superfluous that Text of vi gnette Fig. 420
they should. since the spectacle forms
the backdrop to their daily lives. They Stutt ga rt in WOrttemberg,
are entirely at one with their environ- Famous capital of that state.
me nt and the history which is so inti- Lies also in a fa ir valley ,
mately bound up wi th it. The source of Graced by v ineyards all around.
this feeling of identification is t he May God preserve
architecture of the town and its com- The beauty of its form at noon.
plex sce nario. As in other German
cities. Stuttgart's inhabitants and physi- ... may God PRESERV E the bea uty
cal environment were thrown into of ... FORM . . :

157
 ,J'l

chaos by the Second World War. The

awa reness of historical values was
extinguished by the enormity of the
devastation and remained impotent in
the face of the pressing need to re-
organise the essential e1ements of the
town. These have now been restored.
but I am clearly not alone in asking
whether some elements may not have
been overlooked in the rush to rebuild.
Yet previously. through a mixture of
people's unwitting laziness and the
familiarity of its appearance. the town
had been taken for granted. Only one
or two theorists had devoted them-
selves to t he full range of the town 's
interests. and so nobody was pre-
pared for 'zero hour' when it came.
Developments over the last thirty years
have made it abundantly clear how
short-sighted was the idea of the
supposedly perfect 'functional com-
mercial city'.

The material included in this chapter

was assembled as part of a course I
was teaching at t he lnstitut fur Zeich-
nen und Modellieren of the University
of Stuttgart under the direction of
Professor J. Uhl. It forms an intro-
duction to the thematic presentation
of a programme written up in the
lnstitut during summer 1973 and
worked at over four semesters. in such
a way as to suggest the maximum
possible range of alternative schemes
to students.

The projects presented here were

exhibited at the 1973 Triennale in
Milan. in 1974 in San Sebastian. in
1975 at the Art Net Gallery in London
and the Stuttgart Kunstverein. They
have also been published in a number
of architectural periodicals.

158
 CHAPTER 4

APPENDIX
 ·>'I

CHAPTER 4

APPENDIX

STUTTGART A ND THE A XE S
OF ITS DEVELOPM ENT

After my exhausti ve description of t he

plann ing problems of Stu ttgart's t own
centre. I wou ld like to add a chapter
dea ling with possible ways in which
outlying areas of Stuttgart might be
developed. This research. like the rest. Key
has not been sponsored by the city OewciOJJmenl Areas - tno slmded a•eJs are 111e
~uuucsted conccnuauon 1ones on the edges of tho
authorities. It was undertaken of my c•l'f These 1ones are closel•t connected bv A B =-nd
C rouds
own accord and so - like the preced ing
chapter - should be regarded as an A B& c IOoJc.J~
idealistic set of solutions . The basic
assumption underlying a plan of this
kind is of course that circ umstances 42 1 Axes of development in the Key
w ill di ctate fu rthe r urban growth . Greater Stuttgart reg ion (see key). Zo nes w •th a tendency to bec ome more dense

Since the turn of the century. the

popul ation of Stuttga rt has grown
~ Fhght P >U:o

(~
fro m 175.000 to its present size of
more than 700.000, and t hat of the
central Neckar va lley area (the Greater
fiJ /Axes o f hncor or ch> lll d cvclo pmcnt/ cxpon51on

Stuttgart reg ion) from 1.5 million in 424 Model for urban development in
1950 to 2.2 mi ll ion inhabitants in 1966. the Central European context.
This growth resu lted mainly from the
migration of population caused by the This complex structural intensification
industrial expansion of the reg ion. If of public and private communications
this industrial growth stagnates as it will have a far-reach ing influence on
has in the last two years. the effect is 422 Bui lt-up areas in the Greater future town and city development
to put an immediate brake on· the Stuttgart regio n. policies. Like transportation. urban
population explosion. I am not com - planning - both in the cities and smaller
petent to offer a f orecast abo ut this. commun ities - must be harmonised
but I do feel inc lined to believe that and coord in ated w ith the larger reg ion-
there will be a lot more changes in al plan.
Europe before the next two huhdred
years are out. A nd why should we not Howeve r fa r-f etched this model may
envisage 'realistic' plans fo r th e future seem. I fee l it t o be of the greatest im-
on this kind of time -sca le? For I live in portance if we are t o avoid the forma-
hope that the human race w ill not have tion of further chaotic. unplanned
been altogether wiped out by t hen. complexes such as the Ruhr valley.
The plain of the Rhine between
So let us consider the development Karlsruhe and Frankfurt is already well
plans for Stuttgart as a blueprint f or a 423 Linear city development system on on the way to becoming a similar kind
more or less distant future. the Soria y Mata model. of development.

161
426 high building density are closel y de- selves and spatial patterns can be
It was also important to simulate a f ined within a fixed framework. On f reely articulated. Each neig hbourhood
democratic planning process. Areas of the other hand. the buildings them - unit contains approximately 12.000
425 Photomontage showing section
of development to the west of Stuttgart
city centre.

162
 ·>'I

_,

inhabitants. The length o the roads So the commercial and cultural centre, trians from any irection. A high-speed
along which new developments are the backbone of the linear develop- railway w ill link the individual sub-
located varies between 1 and 1.5 km. ment. is easily accessible t o pedes - centres.

163
427 Town centre. Stu ttga rt/hor
Leinfel-
and
den. 1971. Scheme by aut
AIC (Architektur und lngenieur Co-
operativ. Stuttgart).

165
 PROJECTS FOR A NEW TOWN
CENTRE FOR STUTTGART/
LEINFELDE N BU ILT OVER
UNDERGROUND AND MAINLINE
RAILWAY

This structure is desig ned as an alter-

native to the shapeless spraw l of our
cities. It ensures that urban con centra-
tion will be feasible in the vicinity of
efficient road s and railways, as well as
future high -speed modes of tran sport.
Without the presence of these channels
of communication the w hole idea is
absurd. The structure lays particular
emphas is on the creation of continuous
and integrated pedestrian areas. M y
model. which envisages the entire
completed structure from the outset.
contains a variety of spatial situations
of this type, each realised with very
distinct architectural means.
427
Both schemes were submitted as
entries in a competition for a new
town centre. The jury found them
excessively monumental and they were
eliminated in the first round of selec-
ti on.
The main criteria for both pieces of
work were:
1 The creation of a coherent but
varied system of urban space.
2 The preservation of the human scale
in the height of the buildings and the
spatial continuum.
3 Individual elements of particular
significance have been all owed to
interrupt th is scale.
4 Traffic and pedestrian areas have
been laid out on different levels.
5 These projects should be regarded
as blueprints embodying certain archi -
tectural principles. They contain ele-
ments co rresponding to specific
build ing types, w hich coordinate th e
building and development process. It
is w rong, therefore. to assume that
these plans ca n only be meaningful if
seen as the work of a single architect.

428 Scheme by Leon Krier.

166
 ·>'~

POSTSCRIPT FOR ARCH ITECTS authors to absolve themselves of a passive. simply looki ng forward to
cu ltural culpability w hose magnitude having his tastes met by a specialist.
'LETS PUT ARCHITECTURE BACK and threat to their position they fully and a specialist alone. who has de-
IN ITS PROPER PLACE' recognise. And because it is bad form voted his whole life to the lamp prob-
socia lly and professionally to point the lem. and as a result may reasonably
This was how a dozen or so of finger at one's .colleagues. only one of be expected to know something about
Germany's most eminent architects the demands of their man ifesto was it. Let's leave out the question of the
concluded a New Year's manifesto on aimed directly at architects. and then utility and functional adequacy of the
architecture in 1974. published in a only to exhort them to remember the said lamp. Our customer is offered
number of architectural peri od icals. At superiority of their mission. This is such a wide range that after visiting
the same time a yea r later. w hen asking both too much and too litt le ! three or four shops. he masters his in-
architects were not alone in having decision and in desperation makes a
lapsed into melancholy, I was prompted I don't want to let the writers of this choice which suits his wa llet. For even
to draft a reply to their rallying -cry. I 'mea culpa' off the hook yet. I must the untutored customer soon realises
hope it will be clear by now to everyone stress that I am not on ly attacking that well-designed lamps are always
w ho has read my book just what I mean eminent. award -w inn ing. successful expensive and that the protracted
by the city and its architecture. I have architects . but also the generation search for a good. reasonably priced
made extensive use of illustrations to which has not yet made its mark on article often comes t o nothing. Whether
bring out my full meaning. I believe the German building scene. It is he is buying shoes. hats or furnitu re.
that many of my arguments can be irrelevant for the architect to bemoan the same problem is all too familiar to
strengthened by a postscript in the the fact that his client has no under- him.
form of a manifesto. What has dis- stand ing of design problems. and that
figured our cities to such a degree is the architecture produced on com - We have all had experience of the
not only the loss of urban space dis- mission must necessarily reflect the lamp buying syndrome. and have all
cussed here but also the mediocrity of taste and preconceptions of his client. asked ourselves w hich criteria govern
the architecture. My brother Leon. Most clients ca n be talked round. this kaleidoscope bf kitsch.
who teaches architecture in Lond on. where there is suffi cient professional
has made a great contribution through conviction and commitment on the Basically. the problem of the qua lity of
his application of fundamental theor- part of the architect. although of course the lamp is closely re lated to the prob-
etical tendencies. The worth of these this will eat into his fees. And let's be lem of the quality of a building. Who is
tendencies will be demonstrated by the honest. fewer and fewer of us are pre- responsible for the mediocrity of the
debate on a professional level wh ich I pared to take this first step. How merchandise: the manufacturer. the
hope will be stimulated by this book. terribly revealing it is that no-one can designer or the consumer? The manu-
My arc hitectural work has acquainted be expected to comply w ith this out- facturer and the designer set up a
me w ith the li kely opponents of such rageous demand - except poets and cl iche- ridden customer profi le based
a theory of urban space. They w ill not dreamers perh aps . on their questionable market research.
be found in the ranks of those who use They deliberate ly use sed uctive de-
or live in our cit ies. but will spring from How many of our colleagues have the signs. almost totally divorced from the
the mass of 'specialists' . For it w ill be strength of character to turn down function of the object. to increase
they who wi ll see their irresponsible a commission when the client refuses sales. And who can criticise the con -
treatment of architecture challenged. to accept the quality which the de- sumer for making a wron g choice when
signer would like? I am arguing then he is confronted with such a prolifera-
(1) ARCHITECTS ... that we. as architects. should face up tion of trash? ·
to the responsibili ty which is ours
Every building is designed by an from the moment that we put our name The architectural client fi nds himself
arch itect. They alone are responsible to a feasible design. and that we should in the same position!
for their creations. and in my opinion stop laying the blame for our own in-
only they can be held accountable adequacy on the wicked client's door- I am constantly aware that laymen
wh en gross errors occur. step. Let us put ourselves in the position expose the negative qualities of our
of someone who w ants to buy a lamp. bu ilt environment with unerring cer-
The architectural manifesto to which Our hypothetica l customer has no tainty, simp ly as a result of their com-
I have referred re ads too much like a professional expertise in the production pa rison of old and new. The response
feeble attempt on the part of its or sale of lamps. He is therefore quite of the professional t o this criticism

167
 · >'I

hedges the centra l question w ith Whatever form architecture may adopt. out on paper. From time immemorial
remarks like: it must always create the same architecture has been rea lised through
'We are constrained by economic aesthetical ly controlled impression as the medium of drawing. These draw-
viability, technology, traffic. pol itics .. .· the example from nature mentioned ings have always been produced
But none of these constraints justifies above. I have yet to see a tree which manually, which is convenient but
the superficial trea tment administered looked aesthetica fly wrong or defec- slow. This laborious method is similar
to our patient 'architecture·. We have tive. The same is true of landscape. to the creative process of the painter.
always known the patient in this ailing musician or author. Science has yet to
condition and have difficulty in imagin- Architecture should engage interest prove that the design process can be
ing him healthy. not on ly because it is fa shionable or effected w ith the help of electronic
nove l. It shou ld also remain sensit ive aids.
The call for 'more design' in our man i-
to changing fu nctional requirements.
festo indirectly raises the question of Question: 'Why should the architect
and be characterised by features whose
what the nature of that design should not attempt to meet his schedu les in
intrinsic strength is such that the over-
be. Just as in our example of buying the shortest possible time with mini -
all effect is not harmed by signs of use
the lamp, in architecture design is open mum expense and maximum profit?'
and wear and tear. Only a handful of
to many interpretations. Above all we
masterpieces which have survived Answer: 'He defines objectives which
must establish what role it plays in an
from the past show us what the true by their very nature are to do with
overall architectonic system. The three
qualities of architecture should be. meeting man's most central needs as
most important determining factors
Our age has an extraordinary dearth of an individual and member of a social
w hich characterise architecture are
such examples. group. These needs are not purely
function. construction and f orm. None
of these factors takes precedence over functional in character. but also have
Let us emphasise yet again the prin- ethical. soci al and cu ltural impli cations.
the others and none ca n be neglected
cipal conclusion of this section: that Th is means something more than the
in favour of another. In the design
the architect. and the architect alone. normal ru n of consumer goods . Archi -
process each aspect must be developed
is responsible for the form of his work. tecture supposedly has an u nlimited
in parall el and neither orga nisation.
construction nor form can be con - lif e. and so w ill stand for an unknown
The remarks which follow deal w ith length of time in a landscape which
sidered separately. Thus architecture.
the origins of 'second-rate arc hitec - will be affected by it either positively
as a result of th is coordinated process.
ture' and the audience to wh ich my or negatively. Every building. no matter
must always provide a meaningfu l
remarks are addressed consists of its how private it is intended to be. has a
expression of inner structure. without
authors: the architectural profession. role to play in public space whether it
necessarily exposi'ng the 'innards'. The
form of the human body has always likes it or not. and God knows it is
(2) PLANNING TIME . .. li able to become a permanent cultural
been the prototype for structural
is clearly someth ing which most of my irritant.'
principles in architecture. In addition. colleagues cannot manage to fit in. The
nature provides us with countless other
fee scale which architects have set up In the field of architecture then. the
models w hose visible aesthetic quali-
in fact only covers the cost of the most most basic laws of commerce and
ties are perfectly in accord w ith their
perfunctory work. If we look at the management cannot be appl ied liter-
biological system. problem from this point of view. ally. The time f actor is norm ally re-
Quite simply. the concern for f orm is no-one can be reproached f or showing stri cted by these laws. but in this case
the fundamenta l problem of architec- too little concern for architecture. It is must be relaxed to all ow the complex
ture. and one which cannot be solved essenti al th at the reform of the fee interp lay of function. constr.uction and
in purely verba l terms. The architecture scale. which has been under discussi on form t o be adequately deve loped. As a
we are talking about must be illustrated. in pa rli ament for years. be settled once rule. those designers generally re-
if only through drawi ngs. So any and for all . This is not to say that we garded as outstanding need as much
polemic on the subject in the form of a cou ld necessarily look forward to time as possible before handing their
manifesto must rem ain a piece of better architecture as a result. Time is designs over to the builder.
empty and esoteric trivia. and the of the essence in the planning pro-
notes I am writing now should also be cess. and the architecture of the thirty (3) BUILDING TIME . . .
seen in that light. However. this in no years since the war has suffered from is another important factor m the
way diminishes the value of a dis - being bui lt prematurely before the creation of architecture. It is almost
cussion of form. underlying ideas had been fully worked entirely dictated by the financia l plans

168
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of the client and so often exerts are simplified. Technical optimisat ion bru tal gigantism is a phenomenon of
disastrous and inescapable pressure on will all too easily lead to an over- our t ime. Never before in the history of
the design team. One of the favourite stepping of the limits which man. as a building has there been an age in which
selling lines of the speculative builder fixed point of reference. can tolerate. ident ica l elements have been repeated
is an emphasis on rapid building time. both physically and psycholog icall y. horizontally and vertically w ith so little
Apart from increasing the likelihood of Here we come up against the problem variation as they are today. Without a
repairs. this consideration will cease to of scale. which w ill be more cl osely doubt. this is the product of purely
be relevant in the fu ture. examined in its own right at a later mathematical ca lculation. From a pure-
point. ly pragmatic po int of view I would have
(4) THE MONOPOLY OF some fa ith in it if large projects were
PLANNERS ... The fascination of our historic cJtJes structured to enable many smal l archi-
Not only is architecture usually planned derives from the almost infinite variety tectural teams to work on them . These
and built too hurriedly; also. too few of their spatial forms and the bu ildings groups of super- individua lists would
architects try and design too much in which shape them. Every age rational- have to be able to work togeth er in
the time available. Here again. the ises available technology in its own such a way that their product (for
profession has fallen into the trap of way, and this applies equally we ll to example, an estate of 500 units). when
succumbing to the temptations of the timber-framed buildings as to la rge completed. wou ld seem to come from
free market economy. Work com- brick or sandstone structures. Archi- a single mould. with the gain of greate r
missioned has become gigantic in its tecture has never suffered as a result of vari ety and without ruin ing the client
scale. The public sector. in an attempt this: quite the opposite! The w ealth f inancially.
to keep on top of the work. looks to t he of expression results a'bove all fro m the
design team to solve the problem fact that the scale of projects came Muc h has been said recentl y about
rationally. completely and unanimous- within the compass of the indi vidual partic ip ation. In t his book. I am argu ing
ly, by working flat out and drawing on architect. that enough time was avail- in f avour of the participation of ou r
the full range of its professional able for detailing the often endlessly many unemployed architects in the
expertise. complicated building elements. and important building schemes of our day.
that the client also understood and My only fear is th at the prof ession is
I have no wish to question tile promoted architecture as an art-fo rm. not susceptible to change from within.
capability of the well-organised tea m. People still knew how to build in ways I feel that ou r education has not
By and large, post-war architecture in appropriate to both the town and the equ ip ped us fo r this. The legis lators
Germany has been carried out in a country. In the towns. buildings were cou ld do something towards helping
perfectly organised way. The virtue of expected to participate in a dia logue t his crippled profession to its feet by
organisation has not been in short with the substance of the past and not encouraging participati on through the
supply in this country. But the uniform to stand disconnected from t he basic establi sh ment of appropriate com-
dreariness of recent large projects structural elements of the town as th ey petitions.
produced by these teams has driven do today. sustaining their own pecul iar
even the layman to the barri cades. existence in permanent isolation. Every (5) PLANNING AND DESIGN IS A
Thi s is a good indication of the new urban build ing must obey th e CRAFT . . .
healthy commonsense of those who overall structural logic and provide w hich is exercised at the drawing-
use buildings and gives rise to the a formal answer in its design to pre - board. Any architect in charg e of an
hope that the reform of architecture is existing spatial conditions! office who spends most of his time on
possible as a result of outside initia- management and gett ing j obs loses
tives. I have said that architecture I would go as far as to say that this is a not on ly the habit but also the abi lity
cannot be marketed like any other con- key formula which. if correctly inter- to draw. Many of our colleagues are
sumer product. We must learn from preted. may radically cure our un - actually proud of this and point to it as
history that large-scale projects are balanced ideas. a tribute to th eir success. I know of no
not automatically better handled by good architect who has drawn badly:
correspondingly large teams. The laws I have suggested that the complexity and none who has fa iled t o cultivate t he
of the production line cannot be of our historic towns is somehow tied art of drawing with the passion it de-
appl ied to the design and production up with their scale. This involves serves. The perfection of the spatial
of architecture. Large-scale projects private housing as well as palaces of idea is di rectly linked with perfection in
cannot be dealt with rapidly - even by more generous proportions. The com - drawing. Skilled management and
large practices - unless the problems pulsive addi ction to unarticulated and verbal adroitness are of no use here.

169
 Anyone who opts out of the discipline (7) SCALE ... tion of the past and also characterises
of drawing has forfeited his pro- features prominently in all these re- our relationship with the future. The
fessional status. marks. I do not want to fulminate wish to cut oneself off from the
against large complexes and tower heritage of the past is extremely short-
blocks. as people used to rage against sighted. By doing so. one deprives
(6) ARCH ITECTURE IS NOT A the railway and the steam engine oneself of thousands of years' worth
FASHION ... eighty years ago. I only want to of experience. At the beginning of the
to be discarded like a worn-out shirt in suggest that tower blocks for example century, the pioneers of the modern
exchange for a new one. But this is also take up a lot of space which has movement frivolously flaunted this
exactly what happens today. On the no further justification than to pro- attitude. And yet all of them had
international scene. architectural 'styl- vide a setting for the tower block. The enjoyed a sound education and were
ing' changes as fast as the cut of open space gained has never been put very knowledgeable about history.
trousers. A style which hits England to appropriate use. Empty green spaces Their attitude can easily be dismissed
one year will reach Japan the next. between tower blocks inhibit com- as a defiant reaction. intended above
apparently refined in some respects. munication as much as the bui ldings all as a harangue against their position
We live in an era of unlimited techno- themselves. Stre ets and squares on a in society, and against their fellow
logical and formal potentia l. and it is sma ll scale have for thousands of years students at the Akademie who re-
precisely this illusory progress which proved that they work ideally as zones mained stuck in their old ways. It was
reveals itself as the Achilles· heel of the of communication. By 'small scale' I a different matter w ith the pupils of
age, which bears all the marks of an mean distances easily covered on foot. these pioneers. and with their students
experimental period of expansion. And or (where height is concerned) the in turn . They felt able to do w ithout
yet we treat this freedom a bit too number of levels accessible by stair. the grounding which had fitted the
lightly What I optimistically refer to as This all sounds very old -fashioned, but pioneers for their transformation into
a period of expansion is seen by others must be seriously taken into account if 'moderns'. And we today, armed with
as a symptom of cultural decline. due respect is to be paid to the fixed our pitifully inadequate know-how.
unit of 'man' which we alluded to must make up for a great dea l that has
Without wishing to pass judgment on earlier. This factor concerns me al l the been neglected . I have a faint sus-
these views. I would simply like to more since most of the tower blocks picion that a new pioneering situation
offer a word of warning against seeing with which I am familiar were built wi ll grow out of this.
everything in black and wh ite. Neither th at way for no very good reason.
technology nor anything else has ful- They are little more than billboards in We have learned how little is achieved
filled the hopes placed in absolutes. an unusually favoured position, an- by technological advance and how
Adolf Loos' attack on ornament was nouncing on the skyline the power of rapidly the glow of new inventions
in its way as immoderate and im- a company, a city authority etc. We are fades when they are backed by nothing
plausible as the blinkered interpretation sick of such idiocies; no -one cares more than technological novelty. This
of the slogan 'Form follows function·. about the way they flaunt their wealth. does not denigrate the usefulness of
The truth in architecture has much in With their superior view over town and experimental technology: it simply
common with the philosophical di- country side. many have become puts it into perspective. Care must be
mensions of existence: neither can be physically comfortable islands of lone- taken that it does not attempt on its
discussed superficially. Fashions can- liness. own to initiate new development while
not be pinned on to them. I believe making unjustifiable claims for univer-
that future generations will have little We are still not well enough informed sality.
hesitation in getting rid of our archi- about the effect of this type of building
tectural blunders. Our generation is on people's lives. I find man too I would go so far as to maintain that
bequeathing to its children a vast valuable to be used as a guinea-pig . nowadays it . is more useful to imitate
rubbish dump of non-recyclable build- But others do not share my scrup les something 'old' but proven. rather than
ing materials. I am repeating my on this score ! Since I have had to turn out something new which risks
request to architects to control their children of my own. my attitude to the causing people suffering. The logical
individua l arrogance. not to allow problem has changed. and attractive building types and
themselves to be caught up in super- spatial structures left to us by anony-
ficial fashions and to bear in mind the (8) OUR DEFECTIVE SENSE OF mous architects have been improved
fundamental features of architecture HISTORY ... upon by countless succeeding genera-
which outlive all fashions. is to blame for much false interpreta- tions. They have matured into master-

170
 ,J'I

pieces even in the absence of a single However. not all the blame should be
creator of genius. because they were laid on architects. whether they are
based on a perfectly refined awareness involved in building or administrati on.
of building requirements using simple To be fair. some of the rubbish shou ld
means; the result of an accurate be dumped back in the universities.
understanding of tradition as the for it was there that the wh ole
vehicle for passing on technical and avalanche started rolling.
artistic knowledge.

All my dire warnings inspire consider-

able gloom. and one fears that it will
prove impossible to do justice to the
demands I have outlined.

171
 .I

172
 ·>'l

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.. -· - "· IAN. 100'3
174 Un t v-e r sihll ll < r eflnice Ia~f
BIUb10TECA