THE

PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION

PIANOFORTE PLAYING
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 THE

PRINCIPLES OF EXPRESSION

m PIANOFORTE PLAYING

ADOLPH F. CHEISTIANI

NEW YORK AND LONDON

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS
5
Copyright, 1885, by Harper & Brothess.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

G-Q
 TO

FRANZ LISZT
THE GREAT MAGICIAN OF THE PIANOFORTE

THIS WOliK

IN ADMIRATION OF HIS MATCHLESS GENIUS

AND IN RECOGNITION OF HIS SYMPATHETIC KINDNESS

Jb JUntifttllg Instribeb

Br A. F. CHEISTIANI
 PREFACE.

TN writing this work, I had not only the object in view of providing for
those interested in the subject a book of reference, containing a sys-

tematic exposition of the principles of expression in pianoforte playing, but

I also wished to dispel the erroneous popular belief, that expression is a

manifestation of feeling onJ/y, or that feeling is the sole basis of expression.

I shall endeavor to prove that intelligence, not feeling, is the chief re-

quirement iui expression.

Fully twenty years ago, when first the idea dawned upon me, that ex-

pression was based upon principles, and not merely upon emotional im-
pulse or individual taste, I asked myself and others : "What are those prin-
ciples ? How can I obtain a knowledge, where find a clear exposition of
them?
My own teachers had never mentioned the subject, and I venture to

say that the conditions of musical teaching, so far as expression goes, are
pretty much the same to-day, as they were twenty years ago. Every artist

and musician to whom I applied had only private opinions to give on the
subject. I searched in German, French, and English literature for more

substantial information, but was astonished at the almost total absence of

any practical doctrine regarding the laws of expression.

For years I collected every scrap of obtainable information, and, in re-

cording my own deductions, was careful throughout to be guided only by

natural laws, avoiding absolutely (as every teacher should do) personal
inclination. Sifting and classifying this material, I discovered logical con-

nections between many apparent contradictions, and, gradually, succeeded

in systematizing, for my own use in teaching, the leading principles ot

pianistic expression.
6 PREFACE.

After a test of many years, in which the application of these principles

has been most advantageous to myself and my pupils, and thinking that an
amplified exposition of them might be useful to others, I determined upon
the compilation of this work, which, during the last five years, has filled

up the measure of my spare time.

Notwithstanding all the pains I have bestowed upon its preparation, I

am fully aware of its numerous imperfections. But, as the higher the

aim, the further removed must be the point of excellence aimed at, even
as the more we learn, the wider the field of knowledge becomes, disclosing
to us the infinitely small share of merit we may claim in any undertaking,
I can only trust that this book may benefit those for whom it is written,

and leave it to the fair judgment of critics, who, while they find it easy to
detect faults, can also duly appreciate diflSculties.

ADOLPH F. CHKISTIANI.
New Tokk, Janua/ry, 1885.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

mTRODUCTION.
FACE
I. The Motors of Musical Expresmn 11

Emotion and Thought 11

Pianistic Requirements 12
1. Talent 12
3. Emotion, 13
3. Intelligence 14
4.Technique 14
Table of Probable Results 16
Subjective and Objective Conception 16
Expression merely an Agent 17
Emotional Expression. 18
Intellectual Expression 18
Emotional and Intellectual Expression Combined , 19
Which of these Expressions is teachable? 19
The Mechanical Process of Expression 30
The Mechanical Means of Expression 21

II. Aeeents in General 23

Their usual Classification 33
Accentus Ecclesiastici 22
How to give Accents 33
Remarks on Touch 34
Sustained Accents 36
Short Accents 37
When and where to give Accents 29
Classification of Accents 31

in. Ehytlim and Metric 32

Rhythm defined 32
Historical Sketch of Rhythm 34
Metric defined '
42
Metric, the Architectonic of Music 44
 ——— ———
TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAET I. Ehythmical Accents.

PASS
Preliiniiiary Remarks 46
Grammatical Accents 46

Chapteb I. Positme Grammatical Accents 47

Rhythmic Notation of Eminent Composers 53
Chopin's. Notation 5S
Huminers Notation 56
Beethoven's Notation 59
Relation of Grammatical Accents to Time 63

Chapter II. Negative Grammatical Accents eO'

1. Syncopic Accents 70
2. Removed Accents 74
Phrasing (Metrical, Melodic, Rhythmic) 75
First Phase of Negative Accents 78
Second Phase of Negative Accents 83
Third Phase of Negative Accents. 86

Chapter III. Characteristic Accents f 93

Positive Characteristic Accents, 94
Accentuation of the Polka 95
Accentuation of the Polonaise 96
Accentuation of the Bolero 96
Hungarian Music 97
Individual Characteristic Accents 99
Chopin's Accentuation 101

PAET II. Metrical Accents.

Preliminary Remarks 103

Chapter IV. Metrical Formation. General Facts and Bides 105

Regular Periods 107
Irregular Periods 110
Examples of -Regular and Irregular Periods 113

PAET III. Melodic Accents.

General Observations. 13S

Chapter V.— Thematic Accents 141

Thematic Transformations 146

 TABLE OF COlirTENTS. &

PASS
Chaptbe VL —Aeeenta of Sxtremea 154

Chapter VII. Aeeenta of Slurs 160

Chafteb VIII. — Quantitative Accents 171

PAE.T IV. Haemonic Accents.

Introductory Remarks 180

Chapter IX. Accents of Dissonances ; 182

Chapter X. Melodic Dissonances or Accessory Kotes 189

1. Regular Neighboring Notes 190
2. Irregular Neighboring Notes 191
3. Regular Passing Notes 192
4 Irregular Passing Notes , 194

Chapter XI. Harmonic Dissonances 196

Anticipation 19&
Retardation (Suspension) 196
Unprepared Suspensions 300
Accentuation of Dissonances 202
Utility of Dissonances 305

Chapter XII. Modulating Notes 209

Organ-points ._
215.

PAET Y.— Dynamics.

Introductory Remarks 318'

Chapter XIII. The Dynamics of Melody 321

Melody Unaccompanied 331

Melody Accompanied 322
a. Plain Melody, with Simple Accompaniment 32&
6. Plainly Discernible Melody, with Complicated Accompaniment 334
Not Plainly Discernible Melodies
c. 326
d. Hidden Melodies 327
Short Themes and Motives 332
Several Melodies together 334
a. Of Equal Importance 334
6. Of Unequal Importance " 234
 —

10 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Incidental Melodies 237
The Dynamics of Fundamental Basses 338
The Dynamics of Accompaniments 243

Chaptjbr XIV. Crescendo and Diminuendo 343

1. Crescendo in Rising, and Dimimiendo in Falling Motion (Normal) 344
3. Crescendo and Diminuendo in Rotary Motion (Neutral) 346
3. Crescendo toward, and Diminuendo from, an Accented Point (Neutral) 349
4. Crescendo in Falling, and Diminuendo in Rising Motion (Abnormal) 353
a. Ascending Diminuendo 354
b. Descending Crescendo 354
Sudden Dynamic Changes 255

PAET VI.— Time.

Introductory Remarks 259

Chapter XV.—TcKt and Tempo 359

Degrees of Tempo 361

Chaptke XVI. Accelerando and Bitardando 364

Remarks and Examples of
1. Carl Czerny 364
2. Dr. Ad. KuUak 371
3. Matiiis Lussy 376

Chapter 'KYll.— Sudden Changes of Tempo 396

Tetmto and Fermate 393
Buhato 399
 INTRODUCTION.

I.— THE MOTOKS OF MUSICAL EXPKESSION.

THEnotpopular
be accepted
assertion "
as
Music is the language of the emotions " should
though music expressed emotion only for it ex-
;

presses thought as well, and sometimes even thought without emotion.

But if we admit the above assertion, it is because music is the chief art
medium for expressing the emotions capable not only of commanding, but
;

of communicating them to others.

There are philosophers who aflBrm that emotion and thought spring
from the same source, the soul, and are inseparably connected with each
other; while others say "Emotion is weakened by the association of
thought, whereas thought is strengthened by emotion." It is, neverthe-
less, an indisputable necessity that in music both should go together, sim-

ply because emotion cannot be expressed without thought, and thought

without emotion is too cold and positive to fulfil the art object of music.
Emotions are often so deep and powerful, yet so complex and intan-
gible as to be unable of themselves to find an outlet. Thought must first
prepare the way by concentrating them into some definite idea or ideas.
These ideas —conceived by emotion and shaped by thought —
are not yet

the artistic expression of preceding emotions, but simply their first utter-
ances. Full expression is only to be looked for, when thought again has
developed these ideas into a complete art form.
This concentrating and arranging power of thought acts on the emo-
tions as filtration acts on turbid liquids, clarifying and purifying them.
And what the emotions lose in intensity and fervor by this process, they
gain in clearness and homogeneity ; whereas, without the association of
thought, emotions would either pass away unexpressed, or remain vague
and complex, unable to find expression.
" The human mind cannot with impunity surrender itself to the con-

stant domination of any class of emotions, even of the calmest and purest
kind. The perpetuity of a single emotion is insanity." If this assertion
13 INTRODUCTION.

of Taylor is correct, purely emotional music, if such were possible, would

then be the work of a madman, and of course of no value. Hence, purely
emotional music is not to be thought of.

But there is such a thing as purely intellectual music ; for instance,

strictly constructed canons and-fugues, which are essentially scientific works,
void of fantasy and' spontaneity, more the product of calculation than of
inspiration, and frequently written with a total absence of emotion. This
kind of music, though appealing to the mind only, is yet of great signifi-

cance in musical art, not merely as historical form (still accessorily em-
ployed in. masses, oratorios,, etc.), but as instructive form, indispensable to
scholarly training.
It is evident that the art object of music is to appeal to the heart as
well as to the naind, to portray emotions clothed in. musical thought, and
to express musical thoughts conceived by the emotions. Therefore, in
order to be indeed a cosmopolitan language, music must express both emo-
tion and thought. Hence, emotion and thought are intrinsically the
motors of musical expression.
Having thus at the outset referred to these motors, I come at once to
the interpreter, the musician,who is either a composer or a performer,
and sometimes both.
The composer is the primary interpreter; the conceiver of ideas, which
he expresses by the means of thought, aided by theoretical knowledge.
The performer is the secondary interpreter, the diviner of another per-
son's ideas,which he reproduces and represents also by the means of
thought, aided by technical skill.
Leaving the subject of emotion and thought with reference to the com-
poser, I turn, to the executive musician, more especially the pianist.
A pianist, to be an artist, requires certain endowments, qualities and
attainments, which for the sake of brevity I class under the following
heads:
Talent; Emotion; Intelligence; Teghniqtte.

1. Talent implies a peculiar aptitude for a special employment hence, ;

pianistic talent implies a peculiar aptitude for that particular branch of

musical art. Talent depends more on special training and untiring dili-

gence than on intuitive force; for intuitive force is genius.

Musical talent may and may not imply pianistic talent; but, taken
separately, the former is of a. higher order than the latter. A pianist may
be a great specialist without being much of a musician, but to be a truly
great artist he should be an accomplished musician also.
 THE MOTORS OF MtTSICAiL IBXPEESSION. 13

Tke peculiar aptitude which constitutes pianistic talent, conBistB in the

command of certain organs and faculties pertaining to music in general
and the pianoforte in particular, such as a musical ear and memory, etc.,
but more especially in the gift of .fine, delicate touch, which I may call
inborn touch.
Touch, in its vulgar sense, is mechanical, teachable, and belongs to
technique; in its nobler sense, it is a gift, unteaehable, and belongs to
talent, if not to emotion. For, there is a certain timbre in inborn touch
(as in a voice), an indescribable something, emanating, as it were, from the
fibres of the soul, which directly indicates and appeals to emotion. Inborn
touch has an inherent power, which, to a certain extent can move and
charm 1;he listener, even without brilliant technique. When such a touch
has had high training, it becomes the most notable characteristic of the
—
refined artist, and constitutes^ owing to its origin ^the gesthetical element —
of artistic technique. But when this gift is wanting, even the beet trained
technique cannot supply it. Mechanical and intellectual training may be
able to refine the quality of ordinary touch and even elevate technique to
the standard of the virtuoso ; but without the inborn gift of touch, sup-

plying, so to say, the spiritual element, technique would ever lack its

highest element of beauty.

Talent being a gift, is not to be acquired by any effort of mind, nor can
the greatest perseverance compensate for the want of it. At the same
time, without going so far as Buffon, and asserting that "Patience is

Genius," it may be conceded that perseverance will lead farther than talent,
if talent be indolent.
Talent either exists, or it does not ; it rarely slumbers, and if it does
not manifest itself when appealed to, it will never awaken. 1 do not know
of amy ease where talent first appeared in the guise of the ugly duckling
and turned afterwards into a beautiful swan, (as in Andersen's fairy tales).
Talent is the swan from the outset.
2. In the term Emotion, I comprise all that warmth and feeling, ema-

nating from the soul, which can neither be analyzed nor imparted that ;

divine spark, the ^^feu sacre" which is given to some elect natures only
that source of all artistic creation, "fantasy, imagination;" that sixth
sense, " the power of conceiving and divining the beautiful," which is the
exclusive gift of God to the artist. This power of conceiving and divining
the beautiful may in truth be called the sesthetical sense. It involves the

germs and instinct of several minor faculties, such as natural taste and
instinctive discrimination ; these, however, like talent, in order to become
perfected, depend on intellectual training. Then, only, does natural taste
 " ;

14 INTRODUCTION.

become cultured refinement, and instinctive discrimination become sound

judgment.
3. The term Intelligence presupposes capacity, and comprises all musi-
cal attainments that are teachable, viz., skill and. knowledge; and also all

those appreciative qualities required by the intellectual perfection of the

above mentioned faculties, elevating them into cultured refinement, good
taste, and sound judgment. In fact, it requires each and every musical
attainment acquirable by the exercise of thought and mind, including
self-control, mastery of emotion, and repose.
Intelligence aids and corrects talent ; it guides and regulates emotion,
and directs technique.
4. TECHifTQUE is, in a certain sense, the opposite of aBSthetics ; inasmuch
as aesthetics have to do with the perceptions o'f a work of art, and tech-
nique with the embodiment of it.

Pianistic technique implies, in its widest sense, a faultless mastery of

every mechanical difficulty in the required tempo, and without any per-
ceptible efibrt. It supposes correct fingering, (though, as long as the exe-
cution is faultless, it matters not to the listener whether an established,
correct fingering is used, or an extraordinary, unusual one,) and it requires
a precise touch, with the appropriate degrees of strength, and gradations
of strength. i

Therefore, technique comprises more than mechanism. Mechanism is

merely the manual part of technique, not requiring any directing thought
technique, however, requires thought. For example: As to fingering,
which precedes mechanism ; as to tempo, which governs mechanism as ;

to force, which qualifies mechanism as to touch, which ennobles mechan-

;

ism. Mechanism is, therefore, within technique, and forms the mechanical
element of it, as beauty of touch forms the artistic element of technique.
Dr. A. KuUak asks, "Where does mechanism end? "Where does tech-
nique begin ?

I reply : Mechanism ends where thought is added to it. Technique

begins where mechanism has already attained a certain grade of perfec-
tion. A child studying five-finger exercises is studying the mechanism of
pianoforte playing ; only after years of hard work can it attain a certain
technique.
Technique should not seek to shine by itself, and least of all give the

impression of being the performer's strongest point. It is not so much a

question of playing a great many notes with great velocity in a given de-
gree of strength, as to play every note clearly, and in the spirit of the
composition.
 THE MOTOES OF MUSICAL EXPRESSION. 15

A certain professor of music, (in Chicago, I believe,) defines technique

as " the ability to strike the greatest number of notes in the smallest pos-
sible space of time." But, as Kdhler very correctly observes " Even bad
:

pianists can play quickly."

The quality of the true artist is best shown in his rendering of small
pieces, for in larger works —as in scenic painting —the finer details, the
deeper toning, the artistic touches are either overlooked in, or overshad-
owed by, technical bombast, which often covers a multitude of sins. There
are many public performers who manage to get through a difiicult com-
position of Liszt's who could not play decently a simple nocturne of
Field's, because, paradoxical though it may seem, such pieces are too
difficult for them.
Technique, being mechanical rather than artistic, does not of itself

make the artist, and giving evidence of persevering labor rather than of
talent, ranks CBsthetically speaking —lowest among pianistic attainments,
although it is really the them and absolutely indispen-
most brilliant of

sable. But when technique, already faultless, .is qualified by refinement

and poetry in touch and taste, it ceases to be simply mechanical, and be-
comes artistic.
Technique is as indispensable to, and dependent on touch, as touch is
indispensable to and dependent on technique.
Of these four pianistic requisites let us consider talent to be the first.

The remaining three would follow in this order

Emotion, representing the «sthetical element, being tlie highest.

Intelligence, representing the scientific element, coining next.
Technique, representing the mechanical element, the last.

This would be the order viewed from an artistic point, but if viewed
from a popular point, strange to say, the reverse is the case then tech- ;

nique is the highest, intelligence next, emotion last.

Emotion, wlien present, is little understood by the great public, but
when not present, every one feels there is something wanting.
Emotions, being the interior, the innermost part of art, are to the
public the most remote; technique, being the exterior, the outermost
part of art, is the nearest to the public, therefore the easiest understood
and most appreciated. But this is the judgment of the multitude. The
connoisseur judges otherwise.
I have said it requires talent, emotion, intelligence and technique to
make an artist ; what then would be the result if one or more of these
four requisites were wanting ?
16 INTRODUCTION.

The following table will auggest such probable resnlts :

With
 THE MOTORS OF MUSICAL EXPRESSION. 17

Such an artist is Yon Biilow.

I have not thought necessary to mention technique in connection
it

with these two great masters, for with them technique is what it ought to
—
be the means and not the end. But there are pianists with whom tech-
nique is by far the most prominent, and not seldom the only strong point.
These imagine that technique is not only the most necessary requirement
(which cannot be denied), but also the highest (which it certainly is not).
But although the multitude will go into raptures over musical gym-
nastics, yet, as truly as piano playing will win more friends than forte
playing, so will expression always win the palm over mere technique.
Expression is often called " the soul of music " so I may as well call ;

technique " the body " both should always go together. Technique with-
;

out expression has no charms, and soon becomes tedious, like music pro-
—
duced by a music-box, or an automaton a body vnth mechanical appli-
ances inside, but without a soul. On the other hand, expression without
the necessary technique is impossible, because unattainable.
Expression has no existence in itself, and is only called into life when
there something to be expressed; hence expression
is is but an agent or
conductor, emotion and intelligence being the motors.
Every performer (excepting the dullard who expresses nothing) has a
certain individuality according to which he expresses himself. Siich indi-
viduality may not apparently differ from some other person's style of play-
ing, which may even resemble as closely as one leaf resembles another,
it

and yet, aswith leaves, so with players, it is impossible to find two exactly
alike. But although individual expression, with its countless subtle grades
and shades, is as varied as performers are numerous, yet the motors there-
of are in all cases the same. Hence I may classify expression, according to
its motors, into three kinds

Where emotion is without intelligence.

Where intelligence is without emotion.
Where emotion and intelligence are combined.

Let us now examine into the nature and effects of each of these, in
order to determine which is which is indispensable,
of the highest order,
and which may be dispensed with. Let us see which of these expressions
is teachable, and to what extent, and then let us enumerate and examine

the means of expression that are at the disposal of the pianist.

 ;

18 INTRODUCTION.

I. Emotional Expression without Intelligence.

Emotional expression, being impulsive and warm rather than thought-

ful, comes forth spontaneously on the inspiration of the moment, either in

tenderness or passion, in gentle murmuring or wild abandon. Discarding

all preconception or planning, carried away headlong and heedless of
it is

restraint, without taking due notice of either means or detail. Though

sometimes beautiful, yet often caricaturing the noblest and deepest feel-
ings, it generally oversteps the limits of moderation and good taste and
degenerates into the ludicrous, thus converting into positive defects the
P'ery elements of beauty it possesses. Hence, it follows, that left to itself
and unguided by intelligence, emotional expression is at its best only the
fitful effort of exaggerated sensibility ; neither artistic nor scholarly
more often a nuisance than a thing of beauty, and therefore, the least
desirable.
Listen to sentimental lady performers overflowing with emotion, or to
the nervously sensitive, or to the immature musician imagining himself to
be sesthetical. Mark how they proceed by fits and starts ; accenting always
violently, and generally in the wrong places torturing you with sudden
;

and uncalled-for changes from fortissimo to pianissimo, with out-of-time

playing which they believe to be rubato, and with mostly exaggerated
efforts, which, no doubt, spring from their inner feelings, but with which

the mind and understanding have nothing to do.

2. Intellectual Expression without Emotion.

Intellectual expression, being calculating and cold rather than impul-

sive, is essentially scholarly and in all cases indispensable. A purely intel-
lectual performer will analyze a work scrupulously to arrive at a judgment
of its distinctive characteristics and to get at the author's meaning. He
will then form in his mind a plan, even to the minutest details,
and exe-
cute the composition according to that plan, without deviating from it.

"
" Distinct taut distant, clear, taut oh, how cold !

This is intellectual expression in the abstract, yet it has its attractive

side, which is to be found in the perfection of details, as painting in min-
iature; in scholarly interpretation, shading, phrasing and accentuation.
An intelligent musician, without an atom of emotion, can yet, by these
means, make his playing so intellectually expressive and interesting, that
though, to use a German distinction, he may not aiifregen, that is, excite.
 THE MOTORS OF MUSICAL EXPRESSION. 19

he may yet anregen, that is, animate. It must, at any rate, be conceded
that intellectual playing, with the exclusion of the emotional, is greatly
preferable to an emotional performance, with the exclusion of the intel-
lectual. "Who would not rather listen to an intelligent player without
emotion, than to an emotional one without intelligence ?

3. Emotional and Intellectual Expression Combined.

But
" Wo das Strenge mit dem Zarten,
Wo Starkes sich und Mildes paarteu,
Da giebt es einen guten Klang." — SCHrLLBR.
When the fire and impulsiveness of emotion are held in check by the
restraining and regulating influence of intellect ; when the repose and
positiveness of the latter are stirred by the spontaneous inspiration of the
former, the one supplying what the other lacks, both going hand-in-hand;
then this blending of soul and brain, accompanied by faultless technique,
results in the highest attainable executive perfection and artistic beauty.
It may now be concluded that this is the only artistic kind of expres-
sion, and of the highest order.
" Intellectual expression," though indispensable, is merely scholarly.
" Emotional expression " is spasmodic, and may be dispensed with.
In reference to the question, " Which of these modes of expression is-
teachable ? " it must be remembered that expression is simply the agent

of either emotion, or intelligence, or both that these are the motops on

;

which its very existence depends, and that, unless the motor is teachable,,
expression thereof cannot be acquired. Emotion cannot be taught, but,.
as a grain of seed, lacking warmth and moisture, remains an unfruitful
seed till the proper agencies are applied which cause it to germinate,

so emotion (unlike talent) may slumber in the young musician's breast

and burst forth whenever the right chord to the soul is touched. Many
outer influences acting on our inner life, may cause the awakening
of the soul. For instance : Emulation, ambition, sudden and violent
changes, grief, misfortune, and, above all, awakening love. But even
should emotion remain latent, intelligence still is accessible. It is there-

fore intellectual expression only that can be imparted.

The extent to which intellectual expression can be imparted depends ,

on the extent of intellectual capacity ; for as far as this capacity reaches,

just so far is its expression teachable.

Before enumerating the means of expression which are at the disposal
 —
30 INTRODUCTION.

of the pianist, it may be desirable to demonstrate why these means are

more mechanical and less sesthetical than those at the disposal of other

musicians, notably the vocalist and (to a less degree) the violoncellist, etc.
And also, that the pianist, because his means of expression are chiefly

mechanical, needs more intelligence and is less dependent on emotion

than other musical artists.

The mechanical process of expression is to be found in the literal mean-

ing of the word expression, i. e., " pressing out." As a person expresses his
feelingstoward another by a pressure of the hand, so does a musician
express musical feeling by a pressure upon a tone. This tone-pressing,
emphasizing, or accenting, is the chief means and the basis of musical
significance. Although in itself mechanical, it becomes beautiful by
modifying the accented tone through intensifying and decreasing it

(-=rr«ij>r«sri»or=-), and further, by giving color and warmth to the accented

tone, through throwing into it such tremor, passion, pathos, as will give
unmistakable evidence of emotion, and thus express the feelings of the
artist in the most effective manner.
But the pianist cannot express his feelings in so direct a way. Among
all musical artists, the vocalist is best qualified and most able to fiilfill

these conditions. Next would rank the violinist and the 'cellist ; last and
least qualified would come the pianist,, and for this reason ::

While in singing or in violin playing an individual tone can be sus-

tained and modified by crescendo and diminuendo, this power is not

possible on so positive an instrument as the pianoforte. Other instru-
mentalists may distinguish themselves by the foTraation and quality of
their tone alone ; a pianist can alter little in. the tone already made for
him. He is^ able to accentuate, but xmable to modify a tone after the tone
has once been struck. Therefore his accents must necessarily remain
more or less mechanical, depending mainly upon refinement and taste in
touch to give them color, warmth and beauty. There is undoubtedly a
marked difference between the touch of one pianist and that of another
a difference so apparent that a really great pianist may show his superi-
ority in this respect by the striking of even a single note.
Great improvements have been made in the carrying power and, quality
of tone in modern instruments, but " the art of singing on the pianoforte "
has not been advanced by recent pianists. !N^or has the contrivance of
producing a sli^t crescendo, by means of using the pedal after a note is
struck, been improved upon. It may then be inferred that mere touch,
however beautiful, or mechanical devices, however skillful, cannot suffi-

ciently modify the quality of tone in even the best of modem pianofortes,
 THE MOTORS OF MUSICAL EXPRESSION. 21

and that we shall have to wait for improvements in pianoforte building as

yet undreamed of, before a pianist can attempt to compete — if ever —in
tone modification, hence in expression, with a singer or with most instru-
mentalists.
A vocalist has greater facilities. A great diva, though possessing
still

little may, principally by this tone-modifying power, aifect

intelligence,
others with deeper emotion than she herself feels. And when gifted with
emotion she may, in addition, throw such pathos and passion into her voice
as will carry away her audience. She may accomplish this by the simplest
of means, by a little ballad, if only her voice is sweet and true, and the
accents of her delivery are tempered by unfeigned and unexaggerated
feeling.
A pianist may also at times carry away his audience, but can only
accomplish such results under conditional circumstances and by the highest
artistic means. He must be a very superior executant, endowed with rare
intelligence and talent. He needs a first-class instrument, and a small
salon rather than a large hall; and, above all, an audience not only
musically educated, but especially interested in pianoforte playing. With-
out the latter condition the results of even the best pianistic efforts are
often more those of admiration and wonder than of sympathy and emo-
tion, such as a far less intellectual vocalist can call forth.

And much
greater advantages and
yet, although the vocalist possesses
what living singer or instrumentalist is there who is able to
facilities,

enchain and hold an audience of intellectual and cultured people spell-

bound during the two hours' programme of an unaided pianoforte recital,
rendered by a Kubinstein ?
It appears then, that the intellectual efforts of a vocalist are not
necessarily so great as those of a pianist, while at the same time the
That a vocalist
results of a vocalist's emotional efforts are far greater.
(next to a good voice) most needs emotion, and is less dependent on
intelligence, in the same proportion as a pianist most needs intelli-
gence, and is less dependent on emotion. And, while a vocalist may
be great without being very intellectual, a pianist cannot be a great artist

without being intelleotually a superior person.

Having thus shown under what disadvantage the pianist labors with
regard to expression, I now enumerate the mechanical means of expres-
sion. These are Accents Dynamics.; Time.
: ;

Each of these means will be subjected to careful examination, from

which will result an exposition of the principles which naturally govern
expression.
 :

23 INTKODUCTION.

n.—ACCENTS IN GENERAL.
has been said with truth, " Upon accents the spirit of music depends,
IT because without them there can be no expression." " Without them,
there is no more melody in song than in the humming of a bee." Accents
hold certainly a far more prominent place in pianoforte playing than is

generally accorded to them, and it is to be regretted that they are not

made the subject of more careful study.
Theorists mention a conftising variety of accents, most of which,
though differing in name, are really identical but they generally agree
;

in classifying them into two kinds, viz., regular and irregular.

Ebgulak Accents. Ikregttlab Accents.

Grammatical, Rhetorical,
Measure, .Xsthetical,
Bhytlimical, Emotional,
Metrical, Descriptive,
Syntactic, Declamatory,
Syncopic, Pathetic,
Removed {versiJidbene), Oratorical, etc.
Characteristic, etc.

The character and function of each of these will be mentioned here-

after.

An entirely different meaning from the above modern accents have the
old ecclesiastical ones, which depended on, and were subject to, the
prosody of words, and formed the only relief in the monotony of Gre-
gorian chants. These, although out of place here, may yet be mentioned
to give this enumeration greater completeness.

ACCENTUS ECCLESIASTICI.

This appellation was given to the different formulas for intoning the
Epistles, Gospels, Collects, etc., of the Catholic Church service. The
intoning, or chanting, was generally delivered
monotones of equal in
duration, and the " Accentus " consisted of certain inflections at the end
of a period, which period depended upon the character of the words, the
quantity of syllables, and upon interpunction.
J; G. Walther, in his "Musical Lexicon, Leipzig, 1732," distinguishes
eeven kinds
 ACCENTS IN GENERAL. 33

The Accentus was,

1, immutdbilis, when the last syllable of a word neither rose nor fell.
It was, 3, raedixis, when the last syllable fell a third.
It was, 3, gram, when thelast syllable fell a fourth.
It was, 4, aeutus, when one or more syllables before the last one were intoned a third
lower, but the last syllable returned to the principal tone.
It was, 0, moderatus, when one or more syllables before the last were intoned a second
higher, while the last syllable returned to the principal tone.
It was, 6, interrogatus, when in phrases of interrogation the last syllable was intoned
a second higher.
It was, 7, flnalis, when the cantus at the end of a part descended gradually, during
the last syllables, a fourth.

The general idea of classifying the before-mentioned accents (leaving

the ecclesiastical ones totally aside) into regular and irregular is, that the
former are prescribed by the laws of rhythm, and the latter, being de-
pendent on the emotions, cannot be prescribed or indicated by any
definite rule.
Theorists say that the irregular accents (emotional, sesthetical, rhetorical,
or whatever name may be given
them) have their root in the mood of
to
the performer, and that can neither be anticipated nor dictated. More-
over, lacking the appropriate musical indications for the emotions, a
composer cannot indicate them, hence the performer ought to divine them
and accent accordingly, although the accents are not indicated. But this
is only avoiding a difficulty without trying to substitute a remedy for it.

This may be suflScient for the artist or the master, but is quite inadequate
for the majority of students and for teaching purposes. Did it never
occur to the theorists that there need be no iiTegular accents at all ?
What is the use of writing volumes on musical emotion, and then
being obliged to confess that no rules can be laid down for its expression ?
"Would it not be far better to leave the emotions alone, and endeavor to
regulate accentuation on a possible and intellectual basis ?
Inasmuch, then, as a comprehensible and intellectual theory of accen-

tuation does not as yet exist, most playei-s are guided by instinct and feel-

ing rather than by knowledge and reason. Hence accents are too often
overlooked, misplaced, or exaggerated, and the questions arise, How, when,
where and why to gwe them ?

HOW TO GIVE ACCENTS.

The "how to accent," like everything in pianoforte playing, requires

technique, intelligence, and emotion ; but is essentially a question of touch,
 :

34 INTRODUCTION.

because, whatever intelligence and feeling suggest, is transmitted through

the touch.
As a question of touch, it is explainaljle only so far as touch itself is
explainable, and touch can only be explained apart from its emotional ele-

ments. I may therefore state that the above question cannot be answered
under its emotional aspect, but can be answered under its mechanical and
intellectual aspects. Fortunately, technique and intelligence are the essen-
tial elements of accentuation, more particularly in pianoforte playing;
and feeling, although the beautifying, is not the absolutely necessary
element.
further state that the emotional part of " ho^ "
I may to give accents

is the only thing unteachable in the entire subject of accents and accent-
uation, and that all else connected with accents, viz. : when, where and
why to give them, can be reduced to a comprehensible system.
Ketuming, now, to the explainable part of how to accent, I approach
the subject of touch, in its especial bearing upon accents.
The chief object of touch Not that kind of tone
is to produce tone.
which anyone can draw from a pianoforte by sinking a key, but a tone
perfect in all its requirements. These requirements are

1. Purity and clearness of tone.

These belong to the meclianical part of touch, which ia explained in the general
technique of pianoforte playing.
2. Beauty and expressiveness of tone.
These belong to the emotional part —the sesthetical, the indescribable.
3. Correctness of tone.
In respect to force (dynamical),
In respect to duration (rhythmical).
This belongs to the intellectual part of touch.

we have especially to do.

"With this
The purely mechanical part of touch consists in a preparatory finger
raising, and the down stroke of the finger the touch proper. —
But this down stroke, or " Ansehlag," as the Germans call it, must
not be taken literally, as though the key were to be struck ; for, where
expression is required, it should not be struck. Expression requires
pressure —finger pressure. Touch without pressure can never produce
either depth of tone or emphasis. Emphasis is pressure.
Through finger pressure arises what the Germans call " Die Tonbildung
des Anschlags " —the tone-formation of touch.
Through finger pressure the touch receives its proper degree of force,
its duration, its expression.
 ACCENTS IN GENERAL. 25-

A- special -&nger pressure, or stress upon a particular tone, produces the

accent.
The (degree of) force of accent constitutes its quality ; the duration
its quantity.
Thus, quality is dynamical ;
quantity is rhythmical.

FIRST GENERAL RULE OP ACCENTS.

The quality of accents should not surpass the unaccented notes by

more than one degree of strength.

In pianissimo the accent should not exceed piano.

In piano " " "
mezzoforte.
In mezzoforte " " "
forte.
In forte " *' **
fortissimo.

And in fortissimo playing there should still be left enough of reserve

strength for accentuation.
The quality, or force of stress, has nothing to do with the quantity of
accents.
The quantity of accents depends upon the stress being sustained or
not sustained.
If the stress is sustained and (where the instrument permits) modified
^^i.^^
and that indescribable tremor which must be felt
by swelling (^^
to be expressed; may be truly called the expressive accent,
then this
because it is the truest and most direct transmitter of emotion, the nucleus
of musical expression, upon which expression chiefly depends. In the
usual practice of teaching, such an accent is classed among the irregulaV
ones, and variously called :
" rhetorical," " sesthetical," " emotional,"

"pathetic," etc. The name matters little. (See previous enumeration.)

But, as we are here examining the explainable part of accents only, and
an expressive accent, as above described, is altogether impossible in piano-
forte playing, we will call this simply sustained accent.
If, on the other hand, the stress is not sustained, but shortened or cut
off, we call this short accent.

SECOND GENERAL RULE OP ACCENTS.

The quantiiy of accents is of two and opposite kinds.

Every accent is necessarily either
1. A sustained accent. The idea being a swelling of strength —a press-

ing out of tone —:symbolized thus -= (see Dynamics), or it is

26 INTRODUCTION.

2. A short accent. The idea being a sudden decrease of force —a short-

ening of tone. Symbolized thus =- (see Dynamics).

A sustained accent may be likened to a grasp of the hand, which, now

strong and passionate, now gentle and loving, is always expressive of the
giver's mind and feeling. Just so with this accent, which is expressive by
its pressure.
Regarding the touch, it is to be observed that in the action of coming
down upon the key there is a momentary feeling of the ivories, and the
touch is like a pressure seeking to exhaust the depth of the keys.
This tone pressure may be given by finger touch, by wrist touch, by
arm touch, or by a combination of these.
Starting from the principle that the higher the finger is raised the
weightier is the touch, it will be perceived that finger touch is the least
weighty, because the finger can only be raised as high as it is long.
If the strength of finger touch does not alford the desired emphasis,
wrist touch is resorted to.
If wrist touch is not emphatic enough, arm, or even shoulder touch, or
a combination of all these toiiches, may be employed as the occasion Te-
<juires.

But whether the action of striking the keys comes from the fingers,
from the wrist, from the elbow, or the shoulder, the weight of the touch is

in all cases to be concentrated in the finger points. Hence arises the

necessity of tightening the wrist at the moment of accenting, because the
wrist, when firm, lends resistance to the finger pressure, and transmits
the weight coming from the arm or shoulder which would otherwise be
lost.

It is essentially a free-arm touch (by which is to be understood a com-

bination of finger, hand, and freely raised arm), which is most appropriate
and efiective for all purposes of accentuation.
The force of such a free-arm touch can be made to equal almost the
Tveight of the player, and yet is capable of the nicest gradations. It can
be given with no effort, and its mere weight produces a far
little or
nobler tone than could any muscular force.
In reference to the nicety of gradation this kind of touch is capable of,
itmay be worth mentioning that in a Cantilene, when applied to certain
opening notes, as, for example, to the first note in the melody of Chopin's
•"
Berceuse," or Dohler's " Nocturne," etc., such a free-arm touch coming
 ACCENTS IN GENEEAL. 27

from liigh above the keys is of beautiful effect, and can be made to pro-
duce a more refined tone than if the arm had not been raised.
Short accents, like sustained ones, range through every grade of
strength, and through every phase of emotion.
The touch is the same as in sustained accents, with this difference,
however ; whereas, in the latter the power of the tone is supposed to in-
crease, in short accents the pressure instantaneously decreases, the tone
being, so to say, cut off.

Theoretically, relaxation of finger pressure is all that is needed to make

the tone short; for, without raising or withdrawing the finger, without
even quitting the ivories, relaxation of pressure alone is able to cause the
dampers to fall back on the strings. Hence, any subsequent action of
getting the finger away by withdrawing or lifting it, would come after
the tone is already cut off, and would have no effect in making it still
shorter.
But in the actual practice of pianoforte playing, simple relaxation of
:finger pressure does not prepare the next coming touch, and as such prep-
aration is almost always necessary, relaxation is accompanied by finger

contraction, by hand raising, or by both, with even additional arm raising.

The shortness, or the staccato so produced, is called " the positive stac-
cato," in opposition to " the negative staccato," which does not Eequire a
preparatory hand or finger raising for the next touch.
The positive staccato is practised either in the manner of Hummel, by
contracting the finger almost simultaneously with striking the key, so that
•"
touch and go " are really one action. Or, by letting, in addition, the
hand rebound upward simultaneously with finger contraction. This re-
bounding demands a very light hand and loose wrist, and gives to the
touch a certain elastic spring which, though it cannot make the tone any
shorter, yet prepares the next coming touch.
The negative staccato requires simply a pressure, not a stroke a pre- ;

paratory hand raising is therefore not necessary. The hand is brought in

contact with the keys, the keys are pressed down and the pressure is in-
stantaneously relaxed, with just a sufficient rebound to allow the dampers
to fall back on the strings and the fingers to be prepared for the next
pressure. But there is no raising of the hand from the wrist, the ivories

being hardly quitted by the finger points.

This is not only the shortest, but the most graceful staccato, and appli-
cable to every grade of strength and every shade of delicacy.
 — — :

28 INTEODtrCTION.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 14.

Andante.

fe ^ ^=
i3E
W
E^^^ -^ — 7-

The great adaptability of this negative staccato is seen in its fitness for

portamento purposes (also called half staccato), for example in cases like
this:

CHOPIN Impromptu.

^m ¥ calando.

A
-*-"--^

U
--J-

-^
1=

* ^
-? -

S^^^
e^a4— *
^
-^3k
> —i-
When the joining effect oi pedale is added to this manner of touch, it

produces even an almost legato effect.

CHOPIN—Beeceuse.

etc.

The special employment of negative staccato in reference to accentp

will be shown hereafter.
Before concluding these few remarks about touch, the following dis-
tinctionfi, implying a logical principle, are worth observing
The raising of the hand precedes the touch in order to jyre^pare it, and
does not follow the touah to make it short.
Shortness depends on the relaxation of pressure on the accented tone,
and not on the throwing up of the hands.
I eaunot refrain from a warning regarding the throwing up of the
hands, a mannerism of jnany pianists, which does not assist in rendering
their short accents any shorter, even if they were to throw up their hands to
the ceiling, but lays them open to censure for affectation and artificiality.
 ACCENTS IN GENERAL. 39

Many of even the best teachers dwell too much on the subject of hand-
raising, to the neglect of the more important subject of tone-producing.
The constant correcting and admonishing with regard to hand-raising
— a thing as self-evident and necessary as the raising of one's foot in
order to be able to walk — ^leads almost always to more faults, than if the
subject had only been lightly touched upon, or let alone altogether. Does
it follow, because hand-raising is indispensable in octave and other cases of
wrist playing, that at every staccato note the pupil should be told to touch
the keys as though they were of red-hot iron, and be made afraid to press
down a key lest the hand might not get up quickly enough ? Trying to
obtain shprtness of tone at the expense of its quality, by neglecting the
necessary pressure which even the shortest accent requires, is like running
after a shadow and leaving the substance behind.

While the question "How to give accents" was, under its emotional
aspect, inexplicable, permitting but of two general rules, the next ques-
tion, containing virtually everything else pertaining to musical accentua-
tion, is simply intellectual, and permits of precise rules. I am referring
bere to accentuation at large, and not merely to rhythmic-metrical accents,
which have always been regular and teachable.

WHEN AND WHERE TO GIVE ACCENTS.

To answer this completely and comprehensively is equivalent to

reducing musical accentuation to rule. This has always been declared im-
owing to the indefinable in accentuation contained in the "how,"
possible,
where the emotions come into play.
But when this inexplicable part is excluded,, and only the "when"
and "where" are considered, it is then possible to rednice accentuation to
rule.
Why, then, has not this question been answered before ?

Strange as it may no evidence in the theoretical musical

seem, there is

literature of Germany, England, and France to diow that the question

when and where to accent, separated from the "how," as applied to mu-
sical accentuation at large, has ever suggested itself to the few writers

-on this subtle subject, far less has it ever been brought forward, or inves-
tigated.
In the general practice of pianoforte playing the student is- referred

to the composer's- written indications, and, when these indications are

30 INTRODUCTION.

insufficient or altogether wanting, the student is thrown on his own

resources, but, not knowing the principles of accentuation, accents at
hazard, and is almost certain
do so incorrectly.
to The teacher may
suggest some missing accents, or check others that were uncalled for, but
the student is seldom told the reason or ih&jprinciple according to whick
these corrections or suggestions were made.
These conditions of laissez alter, or find-out-for-yourself, continue until
the intelligent student becomes, through long practice, in some measure
familiar with the leading principles of accentuation. The knowledge thus^
acquired rather by discovery than by reasoning is, however, rarely thorough.
Individual fancy is almost certain to assume by degrees the place of dis-
crimination, and sooner or later accentuation is allowed to be governed
altogether by emotional impulses. To follow the latter might be permis-
sible in deciding " how " to accent, but emotional impulses are the worst
of guides in the choice of " when " and " where " to accent.
These are some of the results of the usual system, or, rather, the non-
system of letting the student find out for himself when and where to
accent.
As no systematic method of accentuation as yet exists, it is high time
that an attempt should be made to supply this desideratum.
The few and not very serious efforts which have been made to sys-
tematize accentuation could not help failing, because the fact that the
inexplicable was not separated from the explainable, made it from the
outset impossible to arrive at a satisfactory result. This fundamental mis-
take led to another, an erroneous and unsatisfactory classification, which
in itself alone would have caused failure.

If, then, the present attempt is undertaken in the expectation of better

success, this expectation is based on the belief that the primary causes of
previous failures have been removed, and because the attempt is limited
to the explainable in accentuation.

I hope to bring order and system into the many and often confusing
opinions regarding accents, not by any new method conflicting with natural
principles, but simply by establishing a logical connection between the
natural laws of musical accentuation, and by bringing these laws into a
comprehensible whole.
I am aware that, in a great measure, I am entering upon untrodden
ground, and I approach the subject with all due diffidence. Should I
 ACCENTS IN GENERAL. 31

failin the attempt, I trust I may at least have traced out a system capable
of further development at the hands of one more competent.
As a matter of course, accents should be given only when and where
they are required.
To determine this, depends upon knowledge and mature judgment, and
not upon individual fancy or emotional impulses.
Accents are always required for the purpose of bringing out and
explaining certain points. These points can only belong to one of the
four elements constituting the component parts of music, viz.

Bhythm; Metric;* Melody; Haemont.

Each element requires at a certain instant of time (the when), and
upon some precise spot (the where), an accent. This accent is necessary to
make prominent and explain some especial point or principle of the
element.
Accents should consequently be classed according to the element
which calls for them.
Therefore, as a first step, I commence by classifying accents into as
many kinds as music has component parts

Khythmical Accents; Melodic Accents;

Metkical Accents; Haemonic Accents.

In the subsequent investigation, each class wUl be subdivided into a

number of different accents belonging to that particular class.
In reference to have to observe, and it is important
this classification I
component parts of music, rhythm is
to bear this in mind, that of the four
the element which is everywhere. Every note in a musical composition,
every instant of time upon which an accent could fall, is a part or link of
rhythm, and, therefore, whenever or wherever an accent is given it is
always in a certain sense rhythmical.
And, yet, accents are not all rhythmical, because their classification
depends more upon the element calling them forth and most affected by
them than upon the instant of time they fall on.
Before investigating each one of these four classes of accents, it is quite
indispensable to arrive at a clear conception of
What is Rhythm ?
What is Metric ?

* The word " Metric " (Germ. Metrik) is used in this work throughout as the equiva-
lent of -metrical form."
33 INTRODUCTION.

More especially, becaaise many theorists make no distinction between

these two elements. Also, because the nature and function of th6se two
elements, and their relation to each other, are, as a rule, very little known
or only vaguely understood.

III.—KHYTHM AUB METRIC.

" IJiHTTIIM any motion, especially a regulated, recurring motion ;"

is

-i-\ therefore, "the measure and outline of motion" made clear and
comprehensible, as in music, by "the periodical recurrence of accent."
Among the many often suggested similes, rhythm is perhaps best
likened to pulsation^ and pulsation to rhythm. For rhythm is the pul-
sation of every kind of movement ; and pulsation the rhythm of what-
soever has hfe.
If pulsation gives the fundamental idea of rhythm, the next idea
would be that rhythm is method, for it brings order into every kind of
movement.
" It seems to be a necessity for man, if movements of any kind are to be
sustained, for a length of time" —^that, instead of an undivided flow, the
movement should be divided into parts, and. — "that some more or less

strict law of interchange should regulate the succession of these parts.

More particularly in order that a number of parts may constitute a whole,
or, at all events, a pleasing whole, a certain relation or proportion must be
felt to pervade them. When exemplified in the arrangement of matter
into visible objects^ as in sculpture, architecture; and other plastic arts,
rhythm is usually called symmetry."
Symmetry is one of the chief conditions of a work of art, as necessary
to one which appeals to the eye as to one which appeals to the ear, as
in music and poetry.
Symmetry means " the harmonious proportion of parts to each other,
or to the whole." To obtain this harmonious proportion is the object of
rhythm in music.
" Rhythm is the principle of order in the magic world of tones. It
gives to sound its wavy outlines. It is everywhere, and lends a beautiful
self-balanee to the out-goings of every unimpeded energy. Every art has
its rhythm or something corresponding, and this is why music is so con-
 RHYTHM AND METRIC. 33

genial to every form of beauty, and can so readily translate or transfuse

the spirit of what we feel through other senses than the ear. For
rhythm is the law, or common term, uniting all these spheres, and dis-
tributing their elements in correspondence with one another."
" Music is chiefly indebted to rhythm for its order, perspicuity, intel-
and consequently its power and effect."
ligibility,

Melody and harmony spring directly from the realm of tone, —tone con-
stituting the composer's material, as color- constitutes the material of the
painter, and words that of the poet.
But a succession of tones alone, without some rhythmical arrangement,
would be a doleful monotony, a silly tinkling; as incomprehensible as a
mixture of color on a canvas without some perceptible outline as mean- ;

ingless as a succession of words without some indwelling sense.

To prevent such incoherence, and to avert monotony, is the principal
function of rhythm.
With tones alone, a composer could not express the simplest musical
nor the most insignificant melodious phrase, unless he associated with
idea,
them rhythm, " that special power which raises the raw material of sound
into higher spheres, and makes it an intelligible vehicle of the composer's
idea."
Musical rhythm has a double function

a. Quantitative, and 5. Qualitative.

(German theorists call these functions " extensive and intensive.")

a. Rhythm is quantitative, in measuring the quantity (extension) of

notes in respect to duration —time.
This is the principle of order which

1. Determines the duration of each tone by giving to every musical sound its rhythmi-
cal value, i, «.,
" the ratio which its duration bears to that of other sounds " and ;

2. Arranges portions of equal rhythmical value in such a way as to fit in, and fill the
(metrical) measures, of which a greater or less number make up a musical composition.

5. Rhythm is qualitative, in measuring the quality (intensity) of notes

in respect to dynamics, i. e., as to their strength or power.

This is the grammatical principle of rhythm, according to which aU
rhythmic motion is divided into strong and weak, or accented and unac-
cented parts.
Thus, on the one hand rhythm measures quantity (duration), on the
if

other hand it depends on quality (accents) for its logical significance.

The periodical recurrence of accent, formed of the interchange of rising
34 INTRODUCTION.

and falling, is necessary to give a clear sense of the rhythm, and lend
to the movement its wavy outline.
" This measured beat is like the pulse of life by which we note its
movement." And " it is especially this succession of accent and impulses,
arranged in alternately advancing and retiring waves, which becomes de-
cisive in the formation of a musical work, and in its reproduction."

HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF KHYTHM.

It is generally conceded by musical historians that the earliest mani-

festation of the principles of rhythm, tIz., of measuring and determining
motion, must be looked for in the measured step of the march or the
dance, whence it was transferred to M'ord and tone.
"When word and tone became associated with rhythm, then only was
it that poetry and music emerged and joined the sisterhood of the arts.
The beating against each other of any hard or hollow substances,
warriors striking their swords against their shields, the use of drums,
tambourines, castagnettes, and other percussion instrtiments, all these pro-
duce rhythmical music.
Such jjrimitive music may have been suggested originally by corre-
sponding movements of the body. These rhythmical movements of the
body had produced the dance, as the measured step of warriors, or the
procession of priests, had produced the march. To better accompany these
movements, better musical sounds than loud and jarring noises were dis-
covered in the human voice, and through the invention of musical instru-
ments.
The rhythmical arrangement of these new sounds produced the first

real music. Melody, i. e., a pleasing succession of musical sounds, rhyth-

mically arranged, sprang up, and was made to correspond with the already
familiar rhythmical movements.
'•In thesame manner as the rhythmical arrangement of sounds not
articulated produced music, the like arrangement of articulated sounds
produced the cadences of prose and the measures of verse."
It is not material here to discuss whether rhythm was first employed
in the arrangement of articulated sounds (language) or of inarticulated
ones (tones), since it is obvious that language existed long before music.
 RHYTHM AND METRIC. 35

It is sufficient to state, that when music began to be an art, as among the

ancient Greeks, the '•'•Rhythmopoeia " of the latter (a special science pre-
scribing the laws of rhythm) was solely connected with poetry, and
poetry alone regulated the movements of ancient music.
Music and poetry were not only inseparably connected with each other,
but together with dancing, gymnastics and dramatic art, they became one
art, the art of the Muses.
The principles and entire system of Greek music were, however, so
radically opposed to progress ; the laws of their musical art so absolutely
and despotically prescribed (for example, certain melodies were declared
so inviolable that any alteration of them was punished by death), that, as
Kiesewetter says in his History of European-Orieijtal Music, " If old
Greece had existed undisturbed for another two thousand years, her
music could never have obtained emancipation, or reached the degree of
perfection of modern music."
To modern musicians it is now a plain fact, that Greek music was the
painfully cultivated, yet ungainly child of mistaken parents, who blindly
traced out for it a future entirely opposed to its true mission. "\Ve have
nothing to regret in its demise, and may thankfully exclaim —" Requiescat
!
in pace
The Romans did nothing for music.
The earliest Christian Church, in its 'endeavor to purify music from the
influences of heathendom, discarded instrumental music altogether and
allowed vocal music only.
The next epoch in musical history was that of the Ambrosian chant,
from about the fourth to the seventh century.
This was followed by the famous system of the Gregorian chant, from
about the seventh to the seventeenth century.
Ambros says (Hist, of Music) " The great : vital force of the Gregorian
chant strengthened the entire tone art and gave it the right impulse."
And Kiesewetter says " The system left by Gregory and his assistants
:

was in its simplicity so capable of the highest improvements, that a per-

fect music, like our present, might have been developed out of it, had not
the Wind preference and veneration of the scholars for the old Greek tra-
ditions hindered its development for a long time, by going back to the old
theories."
This hindering influence of old traditions asserted itself indeed for
a long time; for not until the thirteenth century were the first steps
taken towards emancipation, and in the most needed direction, a rhythmi-
cal one.
 :

86 INTKODtJCTION.

The progress of emancipation lasted until the beginning of the eight-

eenth century, when at last, with Bach in Germany, and his great con-
temporaries, Handel in England, Kameau in France, A. Scarlatti in Italy,
modern music began to bud, to blossom, and gradually to-flourish.
Music, until the thirteenth century, meant vocal music; and vocal
music meant church or choral music based upon the principles of the
Gregorian chant, and practised in unison without harmony.
The Gregorian chant was " movement without measure or time," its
mere apology of rhythm (the Accentus Ecclesiastici) was scarcely any
rhythm at all and as it recognized only two rhythmical values, viz.,
;

long and short tones, to correspond with the long and short syllables of the
words, the general effect, though solemn, was decidedly monotonous.
So long as the Gregorian chant was practised with one voice only (in
unison), the old notation of " ]!^eumen " (signs for notes)* was sufficient.
But when polyphonous writing began to develop itself, when (even
in the twelfth century) a second voice was added to the tenor the lead- —
—
ing voice in choral music, then a third, and lastly a fourth voice, each voice
having an independent, measured part, it became absolutely necessary to
measure accurately the rhythmical value of each tone.
Hence arose the measured (mensural) or figured notation as the natu-
ral product of this development.
About the beginning of the thirteenth century, the monk Franco, of
Cologne, invented the rhythmical division of four kinds of notes, by add-
ing to the existing short and long notes (Brevis and Longa) a shorter
(Semibrevis) and a longer note (Maxima).

* Examples of Nbtoveen.

Ground form, or simplex nbtjma, viz., Functus, or •, as sign for shortness.

Virga, T or t or -, as sign for length

Examples of Combinations.

! represented
|e?.
represented the opposite
4/ :

%E^1
^
^vv represented a Tremolo, etc., etc.

These very complicated and numerous signs were first written without lines. Then
with one red line for the note F, in the tenor. Next, with a second, yellow line, for the C
above. Quido of Arezzo added two uncolored lines, making four in all.
 RHYTHM AND METRIC. 37

Taking the hrevis as the unit, the division was this

Mbnsukal Notation.

51
o S

C3

a;

13
C3
38 INTRODUCTION.

€tc., when the longer values, ceasing to be employed, gradually disap

peared."
New values were furthermore obtained by joining notes with a tie,^—^j

and by placing a dot ( .

) after a note. Bars came into use, and with

them compositions were divided into regular measures based upon the
principles of modern-timed division (Germ. " Takt ").

This latter innovation, resulting from the musical imitation and appli-
cation of poetical metre, together with the introduction of rhythmical
accentuation, were the most important and vital points in the emancipa-
tion of the old, and in the transformation of the old into our present
music.
Music had at last become equal to all artistic requirements, and a scope
of hitherto undrea,med of magnitude was opened to the imagination of
the composer.

It may not be out of place to show here in what manner modern

music, through the imitation and adoption of poetical metre, attained in
a great measure the logical and almost perfect metric-rhythmical develop-
ment it has at present.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF POETICAL METRE AND MUSICAL MEASURE.

Poetry Music
is the rhythmical arrangement of articulated is the rhythmical arrangement of unartjcu-
sounds (i.e., syllables), into regulated suc- lated sounds (i. e., tones) into regulated suc-
cession of groups called Metres. cession of groups called Measures.

These depended.

in the classic languages, upon the way in upon the metres of poetry
in ancient music,
which long and short syllables were made to with which they were identical, i. e., on
succeed each other, i. e., on Quantity. Quantity the long and short syllables
;

being represented by long and short tones

respectively.
 RHYTHM AND METRIC. 39

T/iey now depend,

Id modern languages, (as in English,) upon In modern music, on both
tlje distinction of accented and unaccented
Quantity and Quality.
syllables, i. e.,

Oil Quality, (See functions of rhythm.)

Thus, in the lines of : Thus, in the measures :

1. Be'tter fi'fty yea'rsof Eu'rope,

| | |

1-1 r r|r rir r|r r!-

3. Bi'rd of. the |
wilderness, |
bli'thesome
2 A^ r i» p f p f f etc
and I
cu'mberless. |

The accents occur at regular intervals, and the groups

Of Syllables, Of Notes,

thus formed, constitute each :

A metre, or foot. A measure.

1st line, a trochee, 1st line, simple dual time.
2d line, a dactyle. 2d line, simple triple time.

Every modern metre contains an accented Every modern measure contains one
syllable, and one or two unaccented syl- strong part which is accented, and one or
lables. two weak parts which are not accented.
As tha accent may be on tlie first, second, As the accent always makes the begin-
or third syllable of a group, there thus arise ning of a measure, there thus result two
five distinct measures, or feet distinct measures, or times :

two dissyllabic, one dual,

and and
three trisyllabic, one triple,

as shown in the words : as shown in the groups :

(Dissyllabic), Simple Dual Time.

1. fo'lly —corresponding to the classic

'
rochee, A \ Ml I r r

2. recall —corresponding to the classic

iambus. ^ I
1
1 I 1 1 I 1

(From the fact that the accent always falls

on the first part of the measure arises the
necessity of beginning' some movements
with only part of a measure.)
 :

40 INTRODUCTION.

(Tristllabic). Simple Tkiplb Timb.

3. ter'rible —dactyle, 4-11111^

4 confu'sion —amphibracliys,
4^111 r:i|i i:i(

5. absentee' —anapaest. ^1 i|i:i r|iii|

Four or more syllabic metres are mixtures Two measures of simple dual time com
ind combinations of the above. bined, make compound dual time

{Chambers)
e r ri r r|r rir f|

- E rlrir ririr
Two, three, or four measures of simple
triple time combined make compound triple
time ; for example :

-fr » ' • : r I* ' I

.g. I ! I : I I I : ! ! I

+4 f f
-8- LiJ
P \
: ^ ^
P P P \
:
P f P \
:
P f f
JJ
The rhythmical means of musical expression are naturally far richer
than those of poetical expression.
Language has only one positive length and one positive shortness in
its syllables, while in music aiiy note may be length, because it may again
be subdivided, and thus a shorter note obtained.
For example, an eighth ( T ), being shorter than a qiiarter [\) or
a half I f V is a long note compared to a sixteenth ( 5 \ or a thirty-

second ( 1^ ).

And any note may be shortness, because it may be doubled and thus
obtain a longer note.
For example, a quarter / T ), being longer than an eighth ( T \ or a

sixteenth ( 5 ), is a short note compared to a half ( f ) or a whole

note (
1^ )•
 RHYTHM AND METRIC. 41

This multiplicity of values makes it possible to represent musically

every single foot of verse in almost infinite variety. See, for example, the
trochee, a dissyllabic foot consisting of a long and a short syllable, — ~~^.

Taking two short notes for one long syllable, the trochee can be music-
ally represented in triple measure, viz.

m ^
i
a
I
o
I
s>
I
\

I
a (ff

r
I

I
i
^^'^-j

i^
t r u r I r r I
^^^--^

m I r C I [Lii' M e*-5

m jlT
-j^ U
B I a
^ ' 5
V % etc,

Here are a few rhythmical varieties of the trochee, as represented by a

J measure:

5 «>
-3-
—
i
i_LiL
•—
ill! $j |-*
]-^—*—[-•-T—^—*-*-|-»—^T*-*—s i!5_i I r I i"^Ti.^^ L r?
' ' g* <-^-[-<-*-< n/>i
^ J, *
7 -|-
pfp
etc.

When quality measuring is added, i. e., measuring by accented and

unaccented parts, the facilities for varying the rhythmical means of repre-
senting musically the above trochee (or any other metre) are still greater.
An accented note stands for a long note, and thus the feet of verse can
be imitated in a twofold way, viz.

Dissyllabic metres, for example, —— ', can be represented by simple

dual time, ^ \ \, and also by simple triple time,

J j
'. In both
ways in endless variety.

And trisyllabic metres, for example, — ~—' ^'j can be represented by

simple triple time, ^ T i* i*, and also by both compound and simple

dual time, * or '

J f f J ^ ^, etc.
It would be, in fact, mathematically impossible to enumerate all the
rhythmical varieties in which a single foot of verse could be musically
represented.
 —
42 INTRODUCTION.

The subject of rhythm is so intermixed by most theorists with the

teachings of metric, that the greater number of musicians do not make a
distinctionbetween these two entirely different elements. This distinction
was even less frequently made, before the appearance (in 1853) of Haupt-
niann's celebrated work, " Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik," and
(in 1858) of Kohler's " Systematische Lehrmethode." But it is so plainly
proved by these writers, that it would seem as logical to consider melody
and harmony one element, as to consider rhythm and metric as one and
the same thing.

METRIC. (Germ. Metrik.)

" An epithet applied by the ancient Greeks to that part of their

prosody whicb bad for its object the letters, syllables, feet, and verses of
the poem. The metric differed from the rhythmic in that the former was
used only in the form of the verses, while the latter was confined to the
feet of which they were composed."
Ancient music being governed by, and constructed according to, the
laws of prosody, the term applied equally to music.
Metric may be defined as prescribing the laws of metre, and also of
constructing musical periods. (^^ Die Lehre vom Vemynass und vom musi-
kalischen PeriodenbauP^
Rhythmic, as prescribing the laws of rhythm.
Metre is the precise measure according to which the rhythmic motion
in language and in music is regulated.
Rhythm, is the particular nature of the motion within this measure.
The following terms being often used indiscriminately, I will classify
them to avoid confusion hereafter.
Metre, Tneasure, metrum are synonymous, expressing the idea of pre-
cise measure in a generic sense.*
Foot, time, tact are synonymous, expressing the same idea specifically.
Metre and foot (English) are used in reference to poetr3%
MeasxifVe and time (English)
\. ^
Metrum and tact (German)
^
i\ are used
e )

reference
i
^
to music. m
•

" When speaking of musical measure in a generic sense, the German (or Latinl
term " metrum " is more pi-ecise than the English " measure," because the latter is al.so

used specifically, as, for example,

"J measure," " ^ measure," etc. When particular-

izing the metrum, the German word " tact " is also more precise and less ambiguous than
the English "time," because the latter is used likewise in the sense of tempo. I shall

therefore, use the German terms wherever the meaning might be doubtful.
 EHYTHM AND METRIC. 43

Metrum is as indispensable to and dependent on rhythm, as rhythm is

on metrum. Both must go together.
Metrum is the form, the vessel containing the rhythm.
'
Ehythm is the matter, the contents so measured by metrum.
Ehythm without metrum is motion without system.
Metrum without rhythm is system without motion.
To symbolize in simple form the difference between metrum and
rhythm, let us consider the time-beating of a conductor, to indicate the
metrum (specifically the tact), and the playing of the notes (melody and
harmony not considered) to be the rhythm. Thus,

Above this line would be tbe me-

:v; :vj trum, particularized as ^ time.
1 V 3 V 3 V 4 V 6 V 6 1 V 3 V 3 V 4 Y 5 V 6
p p p p f Below this line would be the
r
rhythm within the measure (me-
trum). The line itself is thus the
boundary.

Rhythm is the ever-changing, volatile motion which in its formation

•?.ai> be of endless variety.
Measure is the never-changing, steady form or principle which holds in
check and directs the timed division of its motion.
Rhythm is the product of fantasy.
Measure requires no fantasy.
A measure of music is, by its nature, the unit of metric, as a whole note
is the unit of rhythm.
Both these units are divisible into either two or three parts, with this
difference, however

The parts of the rhythmic unit are re-divisible into halves, quarters, eighths, etc., to the
smallest practicable fractions.

The parts of the metrical unit are not again divisible ; but the unit is to be multiplied (by
either two or three).

Tlie division and subdivisions of the whole note, into halves, quarters, eighths, sixteenths,
etc., give to the rhythmic motion the means of infinite variety.

The division of the measure into dual or triple parts, particularizes the measure.

Hence arises " the tacty

The tact (time) specifies these dual or triple parts of the measure as
60 many quarters, eighths, or other rhythmic values. The dual or triple
 " :

44 INTRODUCTION.

parts constituting a measure may be either simple or compound. Thus

arise four distinct kinds of measure, viz.

-3- -3- -3- 2

Simple dual measure, specified in the tact as
J, J, J, :^^-

Simple triple measure, * * * _t

-2-' 4-' -8-'
4-fr-

Compound dual measure, " " " ^ ^ 4: *

J, 5> 5> t^. etc.

Compound " " "

triple measure, ^, ^, ^^-, etc.

Besides prescribing the measure of rhythm, metric has also the other
function of prescribing the construction of periods.
In the former function the metrical unit (the measure) is divided into
parts ; in the latter function the metrical unit is multiplied and formed
into symmetrical time-groups.
These symmetrical time-groups are formed by uniting

Two measures into a group called a section (two measures).

Two sections into another group called a, phrase (four measures).
Two phrases into a larger group called a period (eight measures).

A period is, in music, what a sentence is in grammar ; it contains a

complete thought.
A number of periods form a part (movement, Satz, Act), and several
parts constitute a whole work.
This system of forming measures into symmetrical time-groups, termi-
nating in the period, and of building up a musical work with periods, has
caused, and entitles, metric to be aptly styled " the architectonio of music."

Art has as its fundamental law the law of beauty.

Beauty presupposes symmetry.
Symmetry is visible rhythm.
Rhythm is audible symmetry, or Symmetrical motion.
Symmetrical motion is the ground-element of music.
Reciting from page 32. " '
It seems to be a necessity for man, if move-
ments of any kind are to be sustained for a length of time,' that, instead of
an imdivided flow, the movement should be divided into parts, and '
that
some more or less strict law of interchange should regulate the succession
of these parts.'
The first of these conditions is fulfilled by metric and rhythm, metric
 RHYTHM ANB METRIC. 45

dividing a composition into symmetrical time-groups, periods, measures

and rhythm dividing the contents of the measures into parts, the parts
into smaller parts, and so on ad infinitum.
The latter condition is fulfilled by the accents of metrum and rhythm.
These accents form the needed law of interchange, which regulates the
succession of the parts.
—
Both metrical and rhythmical accents ^in order to fulfil their functions
— must obey the grammatical principle of accentuation, which consists in
bringing into prominence the first out of every two or three parts.
Metrical accents do this with measures; rhythmical accents, with
parts of measures.
 —

PART 1.

RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

PHELIiMINARY REMARKS.

~r DISTINGUISH two classes of rhythmical accents

Geammatical Accents ;

ClIAEACTEEISTIC AcCENTS.

The grammatical accents bring out the grammatical points of rhythm,

/. £.,they make prominent one out of two, or one out of three parts, in
every rhythmical division.
The characteristic accents bring out the characteristic points of rhythm,
i. e., they make prominent certain rhythmical peculiarities which portray

something characteristic in the rhythm.

I. Grammatical Accents.

The first part in every rhythmical division demands, as Hauptmaon

calls it, "
;
the energy of beginning " hence, the first is the strong part, re-
quiring to be distinguished from the second and third, or weak parts, by
accent.
This principle is an integral portion of rhythm itself, and constitutes
the grammatical principle of rhythmic accentuation.
Grammatical accents are either

a. Positive, or h. Negative.

They are positive^ when given on the strong part of any rhythmical
division, and
They are negative, when given on a weak part of any rhythmical
division.
The positive accents are normal, establishing the rule; the negative
accents are abnormal, departing from the rule.
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 4?

CHAPTEE I.

POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS.

ACCORDIISG to the generally accepted opinion, the object of these

-^^»- accents is to denote the measure.
The real object, however, aceordiiig to the present theory.^ is, to denote
the strong part in every rhythmical division, i. e., the first out of every tivo
or tJiree parts.

The marking of the time is thus not the direct object of grammatical
accents, but the indirect one; the natural consequence of grammatical
principles.
This distinction will hereafter be the subject of special discussion.

Rhythmical division divides a note into two or three smaller notes.

But, inasmuch as a triplet counts only as much as two notes of their
kind, rhythmical division produces vi]-tually a pair only.
The relative importance of such pairs depends on the division to which
they belong.
The pair produced by iirst division is more important; than the pairs
belonging to the second division. Those of the second division are more
important than those belonging to the third, and so on.
Louis Kdhler explains the relative importance of rhythmical pairs,
hence the relative force of their accents, by comparing rhythmic division
to a family.
The first division, or pair, he likens to male and female, to symbolize

the strong and weak. And so on, in every new division, each pair is male
and female.
He does not, however, enlighten us as to the gender of the unit of
rhythm — ^the whole note, from which all division emanates.
48 KHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

Unit.

Wale. Female.
1st Generation, The Parents,

m
r ad Children,

m f
3d Grandchildren,
[__)'
mfmfmfmfmfmf m f m f
^^ ^_l b_ai_^ii^ h^ah_*__l l_>_k_k^ 4th Great Grand-
children,

etc., aif infinitum,.

In triple division (following Kohler's idea) the first part of the triplet
is the male; the second and third, females, which renders the family rela-

tion a little mixed.

Unit.

Malt, Female. Female. Bepresenting

Ist Generation, Parents,

f f m f f / /
P P ^ • f P P 2d Children,
I I I

etc., etc.

It is evident that, with every new division, or generation, the accents

of the pairs (or triplets) become less significant, less strong ; and yet the
principle of distinguishing the strong from the weak is always the same.
This distinction is as essential in music as syllabic accentuation is in
language.
Syllabic accentuation,when wrongly given, omitted, or exaggerated, is
at once remarked but, when rightly given, is simply felt, and not noticed.
;

It is the same with grammatical accents.

They would be missed when omitted, objectionable when wrongly
given or exaggerated ; and should be present, but not predominant, simply
felt without being remarked. They should pervade a musical compo-
sition, as the beating of the pulse pervades whatsoever has life, because
they give a swinging, undulating, human element to a movement, which
would be stiff and machine-like, lacking in pulsation and life, without
them.
 POSITIVE GEAMMATIOAL ACCENTS. 49

This is why a music-box and a barrel-organ, though mechanically cor-

rect, are so tiresome and monotonous.

It is, of course, not necessary to observe every one of these accents,
especially not those of the smaller divisions.
Although the rule implies that the first out of every two or three parts,
however small the parts may be, is to be accented, it would be utterly
opposed to every idea of beauty, if this rule were observed with absolute
strictness.
The very principle which demands this grammatical rule suggests its

modification.
Taking this rule to the letter would restrict all rhythmic motion to a
stiflmess and dryness almost as detrimental to beauty as the monotony of
not at all accenting, which it is the object of grammatical accents to avert.
But taking this rule according to its spirit prevents this stiifness, and
gives the rule a far wider scope than it had before.
l_,^2 1 8 1 2 1^
In every pair, of whatever value, whether °''"
^ f '
f f '
f f '
h' '

the first, as the strong part, is accented.

But, when two pairs are joined, the pair produced by this joining is

of greater significance than the members of each separate pair. Hence,

the great pair is accented, and the accents on the smaller pairs recede ; for

example

>^ . >, . > . >. . • >-

P
I I
P f
I
f
I
p
'^
P P
LJ
P
M M
P f P f

And again, if twice two pairs are joined, the double pairs forming a

group are of greater moment than •

the single pairs. Hence, the groups
are accented, and the accents on the pairs recede ; for example

The same, with groups of more than four notes ; for example:

Here already the minor accents disappear, and yet the spirit of gram
matical rule is observed.
4
 ::

50 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

In the case of triplets, quintuplets, sextuplets, septuplets, or other

groups of whatever number of notes, the grammatical principle is sub-
stantially the same as in pairs, although there is some slight difiFerence in

appearance ; for example :

A Triplet has these accents, f f '

The first note, forming a pair with the second, has " the energy of

beginning," p p ^
The second note, forming a pair with the third, has prominence over
>, ,>.^ .

the third, T I" T

The third note is altogether the weak and unaccented part of the
triplet.

And further The : first pair has prominence over the second pair,

r I I

Therefore, the first note has a double accent, the second note has a

single accent, and the third note has no accent at all, T

f f

In a Sextuplet, the acceflts depend on whether the sextuplet arises

from a pair or from a triplet.
A true sextuplet arises from a triplet, and is accented as a ti'iplet; for
example

^ >6
f P f> P f p arising thus, ff fj ' f

A false sextuplet arises from a pair, and is accented as a pair ; for

example

> 6 > >-— " ^- > 6 >

r ' r f f • arising thus, T f f f or 'J_J f f *
f f

A Quintuplet, being the combination of a pair and a triplet, or a

triplet and a pair, is accented accordingly.

either so, ^_J f ' f or so, f ' f *_/

 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 51

ASeptuplet, being the combination of a triplet and a quadruplet, or

a quadruplet and triplet, is accented

either so, * »
l_f_f f f ^ or so, f f f r i* f
j

A NoNUPLET, being the triple compound of a triplet, is accented like

a single triplet,

either so,
>
*
>9> $ 59>
f f LJLJ L-C-T or so, r f f f f f C—l-T

A group of twelve notes, being the compound of either dual or triple

roots, is accented, according to the roots, in four ways :

1. As a Pair, f >> f f f f '\jiJ f f ^

Teiplet Roots. {^
> "$
2. As a Quadruplet, f ' f ?ff»*fP'^
> > la -
3. As a Triplet,

Dual Eoots.

4. As a Sextuplet, f f F f f * f * f ? f ^

Groups of ten, eleven, thirteen, fourteen, or a greater number of notes,,

are accented on the same principle, according to the dual or triple roots,
which the rhythm suggests.
In complicated cases, where these roots do not suggest themselves
readily, the performer should analyze the numbers, in order to arrive at
the roots. "When these have been found, the groups are subdivided ac-
cordingly, and the accents, when agreeing with the subdivision, will then
be correctly given.
It is, of course, neither necessary to dissect every group or passage to
its primary root, nor is it expedient to accent every pair or triplet. Too
much rhythm very distinct, would be
subdivision, although rendering the
detrimental to fluency, as too much accentuation would impede velocity.
A few suggestions may serve as general directions. The slower the
tempo, the more minutely may these accents be observed (see, for exam- ;
 :

53 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

pie, Beethoven's Sonata Pathetiqne, where this Grave move- f^ , in the

ment, is equal to the o , tempo the
in the Allegro,) while in a quick
chief accents only should be marked, and these even with due digression.
The division of passages depends not alone on grammatical, but also
on melodic and harmonic as well as metrical considerations, and also on
time and tempo.
Attention must here be called to one particular point. When dividing
into parts, groups of notes containing a combination of dual and triple
roots for example, a quintulet or septulet, one of the parts must
:

necessarily have a greater number of notes than the other.

Now the question arises : Shall the larger number come first, or last ?

To decide this, depends on the following conditions :

1. Rhythmically. When the motion is increasing, the larger number comes last ; when
decreasing, the larger number comes first.

3. Melodic. The rhythmic division should be in accordance with the melodic formation, in
such manner, that not only the notes are played in time and tempo, but a melodic
idea be brought out in plastic prominence.
8. Sarmonic To avoid wrong progressions with the counterparts, the division should
also take into consideration the accompaniment and the counterparts.

"With all due respect to the great pianoforte composers, from Mozart to
Chopin, it is quite plain, that, in point of rhythmic notation, the old
masters were often very inexact and careless ; and we have to be very
thankful, that the old laxity of rhythmic notation, notably of grouping to-
gether a long row of notes without any distinct division, is more and more
disappearing.
Rhythmic interpretation, of Chopin's passages, for example, is often a
sore puzzle, and rarely quite clear to the average player. And how could
this be otherwise, seing that frequently a whole passage is suspended, so to
say, on the hook of a single note

TlTOTJTnTTjTJTTT-TTll
f f

Mozart, Hummel, and their contemporaries, even Beethoven, the

great master of rhythm, the minutely exact, conformed to the custom of
their time, and wrote numbers of undivided passages and cadenzas,
leaving them to be interpreted ad libitum. Unfortunately, the latitude
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 53

thus given is not calculated either to facilitate or to improve the reading.

On the contrary, the result is more often that of puzzling the performer,
than of aiding the performance.
Modern composers (whatever the contents of their compositions may-
make their rhythmic notation plain and accurate.
be) endeavor at least to
Many —
of the old abbreviations for instance, the numerous signs for orna-
mentation —are now generally written in full ; and passages, cadenzas, ara-
besques, are no longer left to the individual fancy of the interpreter, but
are represented clearly and unmistakably.
Thanks to the many and masterly revisions of the classics,
careful
notably Von Billow's, and to some of the new Chopin editions, the old ad
libitum style of interpretation (in rhythmic respect), which only too often
resembled the unsteady gait of a drunken man, is giving way to positive-
ness and precision, as far as rhythm is concerned. And that pernicious
ruhato nuisance, that slippery downward course in time-keeping, which
Chopin's disciples and unripe admirers are greatly responsible for, is

happily becoming rarer and scarcer.

A few examples of the old looseness in rhythmic notation, as compared
with modern accuracy, will explain the great advantage of the latter and
the need of representing precisely and unmistakably the composer's ideas
in their correct rhythmic garb. The following illusti'ations from Chopin,
Hummel, and Beethoven will explain this more particularly

CHOPIN—Polonaise, Op. 26, No. 1.

Chopin
54 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

Simple and natural as these passages appear when divided, every

teacher knows that, in their original notation, they are by no means clear
to the average player.

CHOPIN—Vaise, Op. 34, No. 1.

Chopin.

CHOPIN—Polonaise, Op. 71.

Chopin, Original Edition by Fontana.

Comparing Chopin's notation with Klindworth's, the latter, because

more precise, is unquestionably easier to comprehend. If the advantage
of such precise notation over the author's less precise one is apparent even
in these simple examples, the advantage is certainly much more palpa-
ble in the great number of more complicated cases, which the original
editions leave in undisturbed uncertainty.
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 55

CHOPIN—Nocturne, Op. 32, No. 1.

Original.

Klindworth.

Let rigorous musicians grumble at such innovations, on the ground

that those who attempt Chopin should be sufficiently advanced to
to play
interpret his rhythm, each one according to his own conception, thus
leaving room for many different ways, and not keeping to one particular
idea or precept.
It may, however, be replied, that a player who is so far advanced in
maturity and intelligence, as to be able independently and correctly to in-

terpret Chopin, is himself the best judge whether or not he will accept
Klindworth's, or any other editor's, rhythmical interpretation; while
those who are not so far advanced — and their number is by far the greater
—will unquestionably derive a great benefit by having pointed out to
them positively what would otherwise have been doubtful.
We cannot blame Chopin for writing his passages and cadenzas in a
loose, indefinite manner, inasmuch he followed the custom of his time,
as
according to which his notation was quite natural and correct. Hummel,
was inuch more inexact.
his predecessor,
The following examples from Hummel's A-minor Concerto are extracts
from H. Germer's "Ehythmische Probleme."
 — r

56 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

Chopin.
Larghetto cantabile. . loco.
OS «

-^*^n t^frpfh twz

^-
III
^ m -Mtpf=*s
^\t\^^
:< n g <i

i*- delicato.
-j^.^ -

% ?
Germer.
loco.

fe -•=-5-
n:f^:1=
ii^^^,^^i^
:^
i^-H

S& 3^=^-&:^^^-^^$
delicato.

:^=
-r-"'r -i —
The cliaBged time ( g ) is far more in keeping with the rhythm of this

movement than the composer's indicated a: time, and renders a precise

rhythmic division not only possible, but quite easy ; compare, for example,
the accompaniments of the third measure.

HUMMEL Concerto in A-Minor.

Original.
Larghetto Cantabile.

fp

Amended by Germer.

i-#M Ji- T r I — ———

I

h-t~M— — —M—i^ta»bj—i—1—^i^JS™B^3—
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 57

3t H:ttf:^^«._*^^

,_^j
¥r^- -»-^ 1^0 -
^-"—.^-?-
^^•^d^^

:^=cfii .*_!. — pr

Original.
8»a toco.

s-l—h- l^-sr^ |—t-s-!-i-i*TS— .'-•-»

ifflJf^S
^^^3-^

H. Germer.
8va loco.

.» 6 1—f-^' — HH— :^^***5:

P' "^^&J^'
risoluto.

i58fe
J^J-
, 1
-•-

*
—
la.^
#-. •-

I I
58 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

-*-t-a 1
— —»^•-! -
^lfea:^-f^-r_^

-ife^i
-»-l«^ J^-..
-•-^
I ^l=t?= t^-.
p
J.
-a p-i

Comparing the original notation with the revised version, the superi-
ority of the latter in explicitness, and hence in clearness, is so evident as
to need no comment.
Beethoven, the pattern of exactness in almost every particular, is

generally most accurate in mechanical details, and yet we find in his

pianoforte compositions, as in those of his contemporaries, a great number
of passages and cadenzas written in a long row of undivided notes, to be
interpreted ad liiitum.
Far from criticising this historical custom, and recognizing even a
certain utility —though to the //zasfe^f-performer only —in the latitude thus
given, I would call the attention of the reader to the following examples
which show the manner of Beethoven's notation as compared with Dr.
Von Billow's revision. The reader may then draw his own conclusion
as towhich of these two notations is the more comprehensible and useful,

and hence the more desirable.

 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 59

BEETHOVEN -Sonata, Op. 27, No. 3.

Breitkopf and Hartel Edition,

Presto agitato.

A
. , . Tempo
Aaagw. xf^o.

&t
ft e,-;
!
I

!
f r^K"
i
ittri
I

-—^±=t±'-.
I 1 1 1 1 1

ate^ j
t
^3-3 522rJ2. -

Von Billow.

Tempo
Imo.

«A > — -^
--^•J decresc. PP

i?&Si; i£^

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 27, No. 1.

Breitkopf and Hartel Edition.

Adagio.
gio.

Sf p ' 'II I ' ' '_t_Mi^i^iiil li ilBniiiil

PP
Von Billow.
( ^^ ^ of the Allegro vivace.)

sf p
^^Isi^^^
tipE_^^ES^gE^ai^ :

Sonata, Op. 27, No. 1.

Breitkopf and Hartel Edition.

^
Adagio.
—T T-M"^'fc<—^-^ I

iSg^^^^p^^gai
fl--i2r^T:- .
rJ I,
I !

9*-j^t"f'2

Von Billow.
60 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

See also the cadenza of Beeth^oven's Sonata, Op. 31, in G-major, as

exemplified in the chapter of Dynamics, page 245.

BEETHOVEN—CoNcaKTO, Op. 5B, in G-major.

Moscheles Edition.

Tutti.

..it._*M^_*_#_ £

Tutti.

|=^zr^-^^3f^i^=gig „^i?_W
fm wenig zdgemd.
zt
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 61

BEETHOVEN— Op. 58 (same Concerto).

Moscheles.

? ^
1 1 itt Ut Uf^ %tt Ut Ut |££ Ut
PP ad I'Mtum.

Von Billow.
f7S

£r!-i—F rl b-l— -I !
I

, n , I I , I I I . — , .

:<p^fife^-,-?-

The only advantage which is to be recognized in/?'ee rhythmical inter-

pretation over positive reading, based upon precise rhythmical division, is

that the former (at the hands of a master) may be accomplished in many
different ways ; while the latter is limited to the indicated way alone.

But this is no argument against precise notation.

As it is the performer's duty to render faithfully the composer's work
according to the latter's indications, so it should be the composer's duty
to clothe his ideas in such accurate rhythmic garb as to leave no doubt of
their meaning. When this is done, no musician would add to, or retouch,
those ideas. But let there be a question of doubt, and every one, whether
qualified or not, will interpret the composer's meaning according to his

own notion or fancy, generally more to detriment than to advantage of

the composition.
This should not be. Hence, it is better to have all doubtful cases inter-
preted by a master rather than to leave them to the mercy of every petty
musician or amateur.
62 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

These remarks and illustrations, although apparently digressing from

the main subject, have a direct bearing upon it, because the accented
and unaccented parts of any rhythmic motion cannot be ascertained with
any certainty, unless the rhythm is judiciously divided.
I now return to positive grammatical accents, more particularly to
their relation to the time.
"We know that positive grammatical accents have the object of giving
prominence to the first out of two or three parts in every division, and
that the relative importance of these accents depends on the division to
which they belong.
To be more definite, I designate as »

Primary — accent of the 1st rhythmical division

tlie ; as
Secondary — the accents of the 2d division as
;

Tertia/ry— ^thoseof the 3d division, and so on.

The exact dynamic force of these different grades cannot be stated, and
I can only attempt to convey an approximate idea of the relative quality
of these accents.
The quality of primary accents bears about the same proportion to that
of secondary ones as three bears to two ; or one might say, the former
have not quite twice the dynamic force of the latter.
This proportion remains in subsequent accents.
Now, to connect the object of grammatical accents with their time-
denoting effect, it is sufficient to point out the fact that their object is

identical with that of the so-called "measure-accents," viz., to denote the

strong time-parts.
It would thus appear, that, one or the other kind of these accents is

superfluous.
Let us see, which.
Measure-accents, although denoting the specified time-parts, do not go
beyond them.
Grammatical accents, however, denote these time-parts equally well»
and, moreover, penetrate to the smallest rhythmical details.
The latter, therefore, go far beyond the reach of the former and must,
at all events, be retained, while the former can well be omitted.
But, in rejecting measure-accents ( as a separate class ) and accepting
only grammatical ones, a theoretical impediment ( although but a hair-
splitting one ) presents itself.
According to a previous statement,
The measure is metrical, the contents of the measure rhythmical.
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 63

'The former is unanimously accepted ; the latter stateflient has met with
the objection that the specified measure-parts are metrical, and only the
parts of these parts rhythmical.
HaujAinann, "Natur derHarmonik und Metrik," also Kohler, " Sys-
tematische Lehrmethode," express their opinion substantially as follows :

A Meastjke,

1 'V 2 t 3 Y 4 This measure contains four metrical parts,

forming two pairs, each pair
specified as quarters,
Igt Division. » »
having an accent on its strong part.
I I I I

(These accents would be the measure-accents,

and as such metrical.)

Sd Dimsion. Here begins the first rhythmical division form-

Cj' u u u ing four pairs, each having a rhythmical accent on
its strong part.

According to this conception (against the logic of which nothing can

be rhythmical division, hence rhythmical accents, would commence
said),

. with the second division of the measure, instead of with the first. In
other words rhythmic division would start from the
: measure-j^ar^'.';-, in-

stead of having the full value of the measure as unit.

Without disputing the theoretical correctness of such a discrimination, it

may be confidently asserted, that there are as many and as good reasons
for holding the contents of the measure to be entirely rhythmical, as for
considering them to be merely partially so. The plea of metrical time-
parts is but a hair-splitting, theoretical distinction, without any real dif-
ference; it is certainly without the least practical importance, and is

actually the great hindrance to a complete rhythmical accent-system.

The present theory, though admitting the measure-parts to be metrical,
in the sense of a passive principle (/. c, theoretically), yet holds them to

be rhythmical in the sense of active life, (*. e., practically).

Hence, in order to do away with unnecessary complication, it does not

acknowledge metrical measure-accents at all, and knows only rhythmic-
grammatical accents within the measure.
Embodying the above opinions in one fundamental principle, I pro-
nounce the contents of the measure to le wholly and purely rhyth-
mical; .consequently, the measure-parts are also rhythmical, and their
accents likewise. In this view, I consider the full prescribed measure-

value to be the unit for rhythmical division, and I divide the measure,
 ; ; ; :

64 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

immaterial whether simple or compound, as rhythm divides any given

value, viz.

First division, intoone pair (or tiiplet)

Second division, into two pairs (or triplets)
Third division, into four pairs (or triplets) ; and so on.

Every measure, whether simple or compound, has accordingly only

One primary strong part — One primary grammatical accent

Two secondary strong parts— Two secondary grammatical accents ;

Four tertiary strong parts —Four tertiary grammatical accents ; and so on.

The following examples will explain these divisions and their corre-
spqnding accents more minutely :

SLMPLE DUAL TIME.

The Mbasttrb-Unit.

FiBST Division.

Second Division.

Thikd Division.

f P P ' P P P P

FotTETH Division.
1^
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 65

It is self-evident, that, when two or more accents of different grade fall

together on the same note, the more important accent takes precedence,
and causes the less important ones to recede.

COTSTSIDERED AS SIMPLE DUAL TIME. CONSIDERED AS COMP. DUAL TME.

Meastjrb-Unit. Meabubb-Unit.

•8-
"
First Division. First Division.

r
Sbcond Drvisioif. Second Division.
— -~- a^^—

Thikd Division. Third Division.

3 3 3 3

'JJ LLI LL! LLi

etc. etc.

SIMPLE TRIPLE TIME. COMPOUND TRIPLE TIME.

Measube-Unit. Measure-Unit.
4 ?>
-8- I r
FiKST Division. First Division.

f ~r I I

Second Division. Second Division.

Thibd Division. Third Division.

y^yj=i^ etc.
t^ir^ Si^^ iL££i/
etc.

The chief point in the present system of grammatical accents, the

point which alone made such a system possible, is to consider the full pre-

scribed measure-value as the rhythmical unit. Apart from the fact, that
 T

66 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

the usual measure-accents thus become superfluous, the present system

also removes the unnecessary distinction (made by Hauptmann and
Kohler ) between quadruple time and double dual division and likewise ;

does away with the accentual distinction of simple and compound time.
Applied to pianoforte playing, this system is as simple as it is indis-
pensable. It enables the performer to regulate with facility and precision
the different grades of grammatical accents, from the chief measiire-parts
down to the smallest i-hythmical details, in full consciousness of their rela-
tive importance.
A few illustrations will sufiiciently demonstrate this.
CHOPIN—Etude, Op. 10, No. 3.
Lento ma non trojipo.

13 3

legatissimo. ' -— ' —-- >

tj>

J-iLj>ij^J_.L..J_«_J_iL,El2.

iiii-5 I
iP|p-fpir7-|pr|piP|p
The numbers designate the relative importance of the parts' and their
accents.

13S31 MENDELSSOHN— Hondo

2313
capeiccioso, Op. 14,

ifes^-gE^EJ^EggE^
B
p^ It- li ^:__T_T
-^t-f-—-p--
t—^-f-
T--*— *— T—T— 5—
-t-t~%-
 POSITIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 67

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 26.

8 12 3 1 2 1
"" ~~
—
-

Observe the dynamic difference of the two cases, otherwise similar, in-
dicated by the asterisks ^
It is not necessary to further extend those illustrations, inasmuch as any
piece of music taken at random answers the purpose equally well.

Only be remembered, that grammatical accentuation

let it is as neces-

sary in accompaniment as in melody for example ;

The technical difficulty of dynamical discrimination in touch is' proba-

bly the only difficulty in grammatical accentuation. This, however, like
all technical matter, it is not in our province to discusss. Yet it may be
remarked, that discrimination of touch must necessarily be preceded by
perception, because, without the directing consciousness of the required
degree of force, no precise degree of force can be attained by touch alone.
This needed consciousness in touch has been already, in some measure,
supplied through the grading of accents, and will i-eceive still further def-

inition through more detailed explanations in the subsequent chapter on

" Dynamics."
One thing remains to be said, a repeated warning against overdoing
both in reference to the number of accents and the exaggeration of their
dynamic degree.
 — ;

68 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

Moderate and gentle accentuation is always more artistic and effective

than strong and violent emphasis and it would certainly be a less con-
;

spicuons fault, to omit an accent altogether, than to exaggerate it.

Primary accents should not be omitted, nor secondary ones in slow
movements, though they may be omitted in quick tempo or where velocity
is required. Tertiary and subsequent accents are of less importance.
I need not further comment upon the general necessity of grammatical

accents, both as musical pulses and time-indicators but I may add that ;

discrimination of touch, which these accents require, is in itself one of the

most beautiful attributes of pianoforte playing, and the dynamical finger-
exercises, which are needed for the attainment of such discrimination, one
of the best studies and an excellent method for refining and beautifying
touch.
Discrimination of touch is the intellectual, the internal part of technique
finger velocity, only the mechanical, the external portion. Unfortunately,
the majority of people are more influenced by external appearances than by
internal worth. And so it is, that we have
a crowd of pianoforte-players
for whom technique is and a large number of amateurs,
the chief ambition ;

who consider it more desirable to play runs and passages very fast and
loudly, than to play them clearly and in moderate tempo, according to the
player's capacity who imagine that to play a long and difficult com-
;

position imperfectly, will advance them more in the estimation of their

neighbors, than to play a small piece in a finished manner. Such people,
although capable of running helter-skelter over a great deal of difficult
ground, will have to a certainty a defective touch it will be mechanically ;

rough and uneven, and intellectually non-discriminating.

"When, under judicious training, the rough edges of the touch are
somewhat smoothed, and the intellectual part of touch, discrimination, is
about to be taken up, it is then, that the teacher should insist on making
the student observe positive grammatical accentuation in all its dy-
namic details.
The result of making him observe the requisite dynamic grading of
rhythmical accents, is, as a rule, sui-prising, especially in reference to touch.

And yet, it is not so much the touch that will have changed ctnd improved,
as that the intelligence directing the touch will have heen developed.
The awakened consciousness of discrimination ; the proper observance
of accented and unaccented parts ; the careful attention to grammatical
principles — this A-B-C of musical expression these, more than mechan-
ical exercises, will have wrought the change.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 69

CHAPTEE II.

NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS.

THESE accents, falliag on the weak parts of a measure, are given

negatively to grammatical rule, for the purpose of bringing variety
into the rhythmic motion.
They have the same effect in rhythm that dissonances have in hai--

mony ; in fact, they dissonances of rhytliTn, as positive

constitute the
grammatical accents constitute the consonances of rhythm.
-iEsthetically, this kind of accentuation is quite logical. Uninterrupted
harmony would soon become as fatiguing as constant sunshine. A cloud,
a storm, a dissonance —in fact, any kind of diversion — is generally a wel-
come change, a relief. Harmony, after discord, is a new pleasure ; sunshine,
after rain, gives fresh enjoyment. And so with rhythm.
A break in the rhythmic form gives more real animation to a move-
ment and stronger evidence of artistic spirit, than strict observance of
uniformity, or of positive rules, could possibly do.
Contrast, not uniformity, is a condition in every work of art. The
petty artist, the mere scholar, will keep within the boundary of traditional
rules ; the great artist, the creator, the genius will go beyond them.
Haydn, dear, simple Haydn, was accused of employing too many disso-

nances. Beethoven, on this account, was called crazy, and the same fault
was found with Schubert, Chopin, and Berlioz, and is now with Wagner.
As many and as great innovations have been made rhythmically as have
taken place harmonically since the time of Haydn. Foremost among
those who treated rhythm with the widest individuality and disregard of
conventionalism were Chopin and Schumann, who both showed great
partiality for rhythmical dissonances, especially Schumann.
Negative accents, although falling in direct opposition to grammatical
rule, are still grammatical, because, paradoxical though it may seem, they

are really positive accents, which by the composer's fancy have been re-
moved from a strong to a weak part of the time.
The principle of considering negative grammatical accents as removed
positive ones will greatly facilitate the conception and interpretation of
 ;

70 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

many a complicated rhythm, and throw a light of peculiar interest upon

many a mystifying notation.
I class negative accents into

1. Syncopic, and
2. Removed ones ;

both being negative, both being removed positive accents.

I. Syncopic Accents.

Syncope (literally, a cutting off, or diminution) means, in music, a con-

traction.
It is a rhythmical device dating from classic Greek poetry, by which
the long and short syllables of a metre, or the arsin and thesis, were con-
tracted into one long syllable called " Syncope ;'' i. e., the syncope fell on
the arsis (or long syllable) and contained the thesis (or short syllable.)
During the period of the Gregorian chant, this arrangement was re-

versed, the syncope being there formed by the contraction of a weak and
strong part, instead, as originally, of a strong and weak one.
The contrapuntists of the next period employed the syncope also har-
monically and could do this logically, because what is rhythmically the
strong or accented part corresponds harmonically to consonance, and what
is rhythmically the weak or unaccented part corresponds harmonically to
dissonance.
(The corresponding qualities are judged by the ear. The ear can rest
satisfied rhythmically on a strong part, or harmonically on a consonance
it cannot rest satisfied rhythmically on a weak part, or harmonically on a
dissonance.)
The syncope falling, in the Gregorian chant, on the weak or unaccented
part of the measure, it would have been consistent in the contrapuntists
to have made it fall on a corresponding dissonance. This, however, viz.,
the idea of carrying over the dissonance from a weak to a strong part,
repugnant to their feelings; therefore they resorted to the remedy of
v.-^as

letting the syncope commence on a consonance and then become a disso-

nance. They called this "preparing" the dissonance; for example:

^^;^—H-.-^—„^^-j—^^- =^=—.-ST.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 71

In modern music, syncopes are not restricted by any such considera-

tions, but are altogether freely used.
They are always rhythmical and form one value only, through the con
traction of an unaccented and accented note or notes.

Syncope^ Syncope, Syncope,

> A A ^_^ A J^
* \ 111 'S-
T^^ I I

They may appear on either consonance or dissonance ; for example ;

MENDELSSOHN— Song without Wokds, No. 13.

> > > „ft""

—""
J^ p_f_
5^lfit=^;-

-•:r:;-s-
A-

-•~-«- -•:^-#-
-^ ——
-«-:r*
-• -*
I
dt*
P=
'^P^
X-
F55
»-3e uj

s
^M^^Vrr^ -&—S

In antioijjation of the chord to

^^
which the syncope belongs
o
; for ex-
ample :

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 37, No. 3.

te^i: :^: 1-
N^—*- — I

c —J--* 1
A —
.-2;*-

*f .f
.

Ssl^ife^ ist: 2^;:

:=1:

r-^
or in retardation of the chord to which they belong.

SCHUMANN—Datidsbtodlbb, No. 4.

sf sf

i^l
it
u — -u .1 .' .
. .1 ly^^u .1

^-:Ll^^^_
« f 1 m.
-• —T —!—£-•—
ilifit
^-
I-
 :

72 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

Syncopic accent, i. e., the special stress whicli is laid on the syncope, is

given for the following reasons

Every syncope consists of tvpo notes contracted into one.
The regular accent which is due on the second of these notes is impos-
sible, because this second note is tied -— - to the first.

The accent is, therefore, thrown forward and given in anticijjation , for

example, f I f . Such anticipation removes the accent from a strong to a

weak part, causing the syncope to fall negatively to grammatical rule.

The syncope thus produces a dissonance in the rhythmic flow of the move-
ment, but brings through that dissonance variety into the rhythm.

Note. —Another explanation is this : The syncope being a contraction of two notes,
making one long note, is accented by reason of its quantity —
A
3E »
I I I

while the regular accent is given on quality. (See Functions of Bhythm, page 33. Also,
Quantitative Accents, page 171.)

The rhythm is often, by means of syncopation, completely changed, as in

cases like this : '^f ^ '.

f \ f '.
f f \- The effect being 4 within 5 ) or

dual within triple time :

J j*
f f'
' M
For example, in the following illustration from Beethoven's Eroica
Symphony,
rfz
J. , rfz —
\-
I
rfz "^If
„ rfz
\
— .
I
rfz
I.
—.
I
rfz
1. — . I

a—#= -4 <- 4—» -\- » »-{ 0— 9-^0—4— »-\-0—»—»

III»
*-

rfz
'
*-

III
rfz
-ts^
I

rfz
I

rfz
-I fj:
f j^
f-f
r
I T—
rfz
I

ff * .
j.^^ j.^^ ^^^ I
j.^^

the effect is dual rhythm within triple time.

This example serves likewise to illustrate what the Italians call an
^^ imbroglio" or confusion, meaning rhythmical confusion.
An imbroglio is causedby irregular accentuation, sometimes by syncopa-
tion, but more frequently by the intermingling of several voices, each voice
accenting its phrases independently, as though a room full of people were
 NEGATIVE GKAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 73

talking together at the same time, the result being that the grammatical
accents are no longer to be detected by the ear. Hence, a rhythmical con-
fusion.
Syncopation is also effectively employed in accompaniments, while the
melody is not syncopic ; for example :

MENDELSSOHN— Song without Wokds, No. 17.

AgUato.

T^
sP±^2^:
Wr^mrf^^^M^rr'Pr
Or in the melody, while the accompaniment is regular.

SCHUMANN—Cabnival.
Presto.

^m (t)
=^-
It It
r-

iiifelfeElE?; 3=*
e!SEtiEt^t

I
SE -^E^m -r=^i

(I) (t)

^^fe^.S^3E i1=S:
':& =*=t: ii=zt--

Yery striking and effective examples of this manner of syncopation

are to be found in the valses of Strauss, Lanner, etc.
The last example again illustrates how syncopation can completely

change the rhythm. '

It also shows (by the dotted lines, : : ) in what

manner negative (syncopic) accents may be replaced moved back, — so to

say— and become positive accents.
Similar replacements of removed accents occur sometimes by thenj'-

selves ; for example

 : : :

74 KHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

SCHUBERT— MoMENS Musicaux, Op. 94, No. 4.

> >

^
PP.
? ^
-0— ^ -0-
* * f_
y- =F^

This movement continues for fifty-two measures with the same rhyth-
mical regularity. The " Schwerjpunkt^'' or centre of gravity, so to say, in
each measure, which is here the syncope, cannot fail before long to assert
itself, causing the accents to fall naturally upon the ear, as though the
measure were divided as is indicated by the dotted lines.
I will here cite a paragraph from liauptmann's " IS'atur der Harmonik
Tind Metrik," which has an especial bearing upon this and similar cases
If a row (of notes) is to appear syncopic, another non-syncopic one
should exist because without the normal row, to which the syncopic one
;

forms the contrast, the latter would appear as being itself normally ac-
cented, and this line

> I

I I Kill I \

would appear thus

>

I r
This will explain how the replacement of certain syncopic accents
occurs sometimes by itself.
,

2. Removed Accents.

This term (or " verschobene," as the Germans call them,) is really an-
other name only for negative accents ; all negative accents being removed
positive ones, and all removed accents being negative. I shall, nevertheless,
employ the above term in a specific, instead of a general sense, for those
negative accents which are wo?i-syncopic.
Let us see in what way removed accents differ from the syncopic ones.
Both affect the time negatively.
But, while syncopic accents bring out single negative points (syncopes)
dissonating with the time individually, removed accents bring out com-
bined negative points (phrases) dissonating with the time collectively.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 75

Syncopes, being indicated by a tie, -— = _^J_,-, which contracts two

III
notes into one negative point, dissonate with the time individually.

Rhythmical phrases, being indicated by a slur = -f-^-»—r

etc., which contracts two or more notes into so many combined negative
points, dissonate with the time collectively.
Further explanation is here indispensable, regarding

PHRASES.

Musical phrases resemble short sentences in language, and, like the

latter, require to be distinguished by interpunction, in notation, and by
accentuation and breath-taking, in delivery.
We recognize three kinds of phrases

Metrical, Melodic, and Khtthmical.

It has already been mentioned, that a period of eight measures resem-

bles a complete sentence, such as w-ould be followed by a full stop ( ).
.

A metrical phrase, consisting of at least four measures, is generally

half a period, half a sentence, and would be followed by a semi-colon ( ).
•

A melodic phrase is a short melodic sentence, or figure, formed by an

unbroken succession of melodically arranged notes.
The extent or length of melodic phrases is not' so much limited in
number of notes, as in duration of time. Long phrases would be as awk-
ward in music as in language hence, even in instrumental music, melodic
;

phrases do not exceed in length the duration of one breath.

Regarding interpunction, they resemble that part of a sentence which
would be followed by a comma {^).
More about these phrases will be found under Melodic Accents.
A rhythmical phrase is a short rhythmical figure of two, three, four, or
more notes, whicb is indicated by a slur, - — - (the only collective sign we
possess) ; for example, ZS T or ^JLT f ,
etc.*

Several rhythmical phrases, when repeated (generally on diflerent

intervals), form together a melodic phrase ; for example :

* A syncope, containing two notes contracted into one value, i* I i* . is, of course, not a

phrase, tlie latter requiring at least two different notes.

 ::

76 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

fall' B^ I a^ '^ 1 1 all

This example, as a whole, is a metrical phrase of four measures ; it is

also a melodic phrase, when the sound or pitch of the notes is taken into
consideration.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 14, No. 2.

Scherzo,

Frt
iz±
^ ^-"-f
-^— •- -efe iHt-:

The first rhythmical figure, * f I

f ,
which is three times repeated, is a
.
° '
^
rhythmical phrase ; more particularly, a negative rhythmical phrase.
With the latter kind of phrases we have here especially to do.
Shythmioal phrases are either positive or negative. (The French use
the terms " masculine " and " feminine.")
They axe positive, when the first note falls on a strong part of the meas-
ure, and the rhythm agrees with the time ; for example

They are negative —

1. When the on a weak part of the measure, although
first note falls

the rhythm may be agreeing with the time for example ; :

w^M\f^rlrrh\flrr^''~\^\r^^
2. When the rhythm does not agree with the time, although the initial
note may be falling on a strong time-part ; for example

The positive or negative character of rhythmical accents corresponds

with the character of rhythmical phrases, in such a way, that positive
phrases have positive accents, and negative (or removed) phrases have
negative (or removed) accents.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 77

Instead of further explanation, I subjoin a few illustrations of both kinds

of negative (or removed) phrases, including their corresponding accents.

I. Negative or Removed Phrases, not opposed to the Time.

WEBER— Sonata m D-ilmoB.

WEBER^SOiVATA. IN D-MlNOR

feiE ±mk ^-
^^^=^=i^4^'^^
--f

CHOPIN—ETUD3, Op. 10, No. 10.

m
BEETHOVEN— SOKATA, Op. 10, No. -3 (in D-Major),

E^:
^EJ^feJEEgZjg1=T- _H_.-^.
^=^-

pp u—^1 -

^P
^e=
2. Negative or Removed Phrases, opposed to the Time.
WEBER— Sonata in D-Minor.

S^ :j:

l=lliEE
WEBEE^SONATA IN D-MlNOE.

i^s^*t-l?^-f-3=;^ —
78 RHYTHMIC AI, ACCENTS.

BEETHOVEN-SoNATA, Op. 31, No. 3 (in D-Minor;.

-v-v 'W /W V
—# /V

5E
*/

These phrases are opposed to the time, because they denote a dual
rhythm within triple measure.

WEBER—CONCERTSTtTCK.

And here, the phrases denote a triple rhythm within dual time.

Hoping that the respective terms, " negative," " syncopic," " removed
accents," and " negative removed phrases," have become quite clear
will
to the student, I shall now, as a resume of the foregoing, review the entire
subject of negative accents by means of illustrations.
These examples will be arranged into three divisions, illustrating the
tliree phases of negative accents.

FIRST PHASE OP NEGATIVE ACCENTS.

T/>e rhythm teing remnved^ hut still agreeing with the time.

SCHUMANN—Kreislbriana, No. 3.

In this example the rhythm is removed by anticipation. The strong

part of the time is pushed forward, so to say, instead of falling naturally
upon the beginning of the measure.
This is one of the phases of negative accents in which the negativeness
appears more in notation than in effect ; in which tlie removal is an un-
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 79

called for, useless whim of the composer, mystifying the reader, without
being able to deceive the listener.
There is no reason for beginning this movement with an incomplete
measure, since its character, its phrasing, and Schumann's ownforte-mark&
plainly indicate that it ought to begin with the full measure.
If the student will disregard the indicated bars and substitute for them
the dotted lines, : : , the accents will fall quite naturally upon the ear ;

and the rhythm, being replaced in its natural position, will be more com-
prehensible,more clear.
Whereas, by strictly adhering to the bars, in blind veneration for the
composer, the accentuation is abnormal and stili", bizarre instead of natural,
difficult to the performer, and little comprehensible to the listener.

SCHUMANN— Caknival.
Paganini.

An example similar to the former.

SCHUMANN—Fantasia, Op. 17 (C-major).

Original Notation.
Etwas langsamer. =1::;^ — ^^_—
>
^*K
s I-T :— h-l U^-—a— ^-*-^-'- a — 1-5 ^m—^
^-^^ '>
l-\>

—e2i »=tr_^4:_».
-,«
I
fi-
-»^ — — F^ p
sss :<tz

The accents are here removed through syncopation ; but there was not
the slightest occasion for syncopation. The abnormalism of such unnat-
ural accentuation, which in this case is again an uncalled for, bizarre
 :

80 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

mystification, could easily have been avoided, without the least, detriment
to the composer's ideas or to the intended eifect, by a plain notation like
the following

SCHtTMAJSTN— Fantasia.
Altered Notation.
Btwas langsamer. -=:::_

fe^^feS^
IS^ w -^r^'P ::^:3=i
X—jt 9=
Pedal.
rr
— — 5d -^-
M ?E -
p-i

rt=rT
^
»- ^f

-£B^n-=^gg
-#-i ^ P-r
^^
^^i^
But it is almost a rule with Schumann to prefer a complicated to a
plain rhythmical notation. He frequently avoids the latter and invents
the former, simply to gratify a fancy for making the phrasing negative ;

or, perhaps, with the idea of rendering his thoughts more interesting by
obscure notation.

SCHUMANN—Faschingsscbwank, Op. 36.

Original Notation.

gSEEJiE^t^Hg^^EJiEEE

The first part of this movement has the above eight phrases, each one
of one measure.
The second part has these eight phrases, four times, or thirty-two
measures of similar texture.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 81

Notwithstanding the positiveness of the rhythm, Schumann has per-

sistently written all the phrases negatively by syncopation.
Of what use, let nie ask, are here the syncopes ?
Why has the rhythm been removed ? Does the removal bring variety
into the rhythm ?
None whatever.
Does it enhance the effect, or render the idea more interesting ?

ISTot at all.

The syncopes merely serve to make the reading awkward and obscure,
while to the listener they fall quite naturally upon the ear.
To make these eight measures quite clear, without in the least detract-
ing from, or altering the composer's idea, read them in the following way :

Altered Notation.

-J=-v
^^=
m m=^.1=1:
d^ :Si
:a:
E=|=t3
-:«-
5 P
S=

—tS> s— -|^— -(2- (Z-

§^a
=:g:t2±; :^^t
^^ =^t 5^
-^
1^—§1

The second part, consisting of thirty-two measures, or four periods of

eight measures each, should he simpliiied in the same way, with the addi-
tional alteration of changing the last two measures, in each of the four
o
periods, into three measures of -f- time, because the rhythm in those
measures is dual, not triple ; for example :

Altered Notation.

m^^m'^^^^
^

Second Period.
^^ X- !

'-ff^
II II ^^ m
^— h^J^^t
-^-fe. ^- —
- '^4 — |jq I |-_[:p:_g^-g2_J ,-pp — ; -J^^ 4-
-X-

M cA
83 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

I simply advocate these suggested changes as an imaginary operation-,

which will be justified by its result, inasmuch as they cannot fail to facil-
itate the perception of the composer's idea, both to the performer and
listener.
Further examples of this first phase are hardly necessary.

SECOND PHASE OP NEGATIVE ACCENTS.

The rhythm removed, and not in accordance with the time.

SCHUMANN— Abendmusik, Op. 99, No. 12,

feSi a m ±1-155:

±^
(I)
z5±3*-
\^--
-^ir^
±:-t:
^^
The phrases clearly indicate the rhythm to be in dual time, and there-
fore opposed to the prescribed triple time.

The suggested change of bars, : : , brings both the rhythm and its

accents in accordance with, the time, or the time in accordance with the
rhythm, which is the same thing.

•
SCHUMANN—Kbeislekiana.

Ia m i^ P3I ^:^.
ff(t) T fl.^_
! , I

m j^**:^
-h«t--

-r
isz^i:

r r I
fI
3=
I

This is A musician would at once compre-

similar to the last example.
hend the duality of the time, and accent accordingly but the ordinary ;
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 83

student, adhering to the prescribed triple time, is snre to find this accent-
ing against the time a stumbling-block difficult to overcome.

SCHTJMANN— Carnival.

^
|6i 2=t i -t—'V- g
<i) (t)<
'St
»E II^ee^Se l^=E
If^E

Here, also, this little episode gains undoubtedly in clearness, if" its dual
rhythm is understood, and the accents given accordingly.

SCHUMANN— Grillbn.
Schumann's Notation.

|fe^
, ^ II I

,
I I -« «-:^-* a( -•

:^
^t^i^
»
M^E|Eg^E_^^=EaEEF
^ r a.
g^^^fel3
I— ?r r xsj~j gjcT
I r
' If
Altered Notation.

^m-
I I

^.
I

T-
\

a — -ir
•-
I

igei^
d2^ • 1
^

I
84 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

^ Zt=ut.
:S:ez&
i
E3efe«il5=f iSil
ff
Md-Hii
p r "•"*" ^ ' r •-, ,•- II ^
^-
:fei
m
'
^T-r I ,1

In the altered notation I have changed the triple into dual time, in
order to make rhythm and time agree. The syncopated phrases have dis-
appeared, having been moved back into their natural position. The move-
ment, through this replacement, begins with the full measure, and all the
phrases and accents become positive. The interpretation is thus quite
plain, and the composer's ideas, instead of suffering by this treatment, have
really been more faithfully portrayed than by following his own whimsical
indication.
The second part of this movement requires unravelling even more than
the first part ; and I therefore give it in full in its altered notation, without
further remark, excepting the advice to compare this notation with the
original one. The student will draw his own conclusion as to which of
the two notations conveys the composer's idea in the clearest manner.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 85

SCHUMANN— Gbillbn.
Altered Notation.

sa
ife^
^-
laai
'^'Ssi=Ss±% 4-— |;it-

-te=z^T^fe^=T=i=i=:tT-l5--#:-
a^rf
bzbti:
=r=^^=
^fe

:g-
^—e^ ^r_f_,_f-
-• » y»

i^^^^
i»-|'5--^«r"bf^ff^ mf
EEEt

3^*S^-J
ig^^i|ri^EiEJiJi| | 4.-5- -1
-5
—
=«t=a
•-
»- Eg
^""G^

S fes^ :^3E
ri:
feiEl
f-=T=
=5: I^.
^iggE| E!^ :^=
^

-^^
iESt==^=i^ :i^=::t =^=Sz
^ -*t__-*-
l=s:;
5t r^t *

§!fefel :s£.-
5E3E ^ ?-
S-^p^.
I

ffilt^

as??J^t Ed7e25=sE
— m—
iiiliiS
 :

86 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

THIRD IPHASE OP NEGATIVE ACCENTS.

The prescribed time heing entirely mitagonintic to the actual rhythm.

Great latitude is allowed to every composer ; he is not to be dictated

to, or curbed in his flight of fancy. But when it conies to the mere
mechanical part —notation, the composer is as much bound to adhere to
grammatical rules, as the prose-writer or poet is obliged to observe correct
spelling and punctuation.
Let a composer write as many dissonances as he pleases, change his
rhythm as often as he likes, let him introduce confusing rhythmical
episodes, and adhere during these episodes to the general time but, to ;

write a whole movement in antagonistic time, this is stepping beyond the

latitude allowed to a composer. This is a mannerism, a fault, for which
Schumann has often and justly been blamed for example ;

SCHUMANN—DBS Abbnds, Op. 12, No. 1.

i^±.L^t
EEE
lis ^" r^rp"
ad
:lfiiEfEl t^-
'J ^ S=j

9^-fe^
E^P^t m £
i
#=^=N^
One can really not help wondering, why Schumann prescribed here
double ( 4 \ time, when throughout the piece the movement is unquestion-
ably in triple time.
( J )

"Was it to mystify the student, or to enhance the beauty of the

work?
If so, he certainly succeeded in the former, but failed in the latter.
Let the student simply consider the whole piece to be in
( J ) time,
and it will all be plain sailing.
Apropos of this kind of anomaly, Tschaikowsky, the clever and
spirituel Russian composer, has launched a humorous shaft against Schu-
mann, by giving in his " Theme originale et Variations," Op. 19, the fol-
lowing absurd time-indication to one of the variations.
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 87

P. TSCHAIKOWSKY, Op. 19. Var. XI.—Alia SCHUMANN.

Allegro brUlante.

^m >^^t
m^Bt^:^.
T
The notation of time is, of course, absurd, since the measure con-
J-
tains onlj' two quarters.
This is by no means an engraver's fault, or an oversight of the proof-
reader. It must be taken as illustrating Tschaikowsky's sarcasm upon
similar cases, almost as absurd, and occurring in Schumann's works
hence, the heading of the variation, " Alia Schumann."
But Schumann does not stand alone in committing this kind of ab-
normity. I shall cite two cases of Chopin, in which the prescribed time
is opposed to the rhythm of an entire movement.

First example

CHOPIN— Etude, Op. 35, No. 3.

Chopin's Notation.
Presto.

In this well-known etude, either the accents are wrong when given in
accordance with the prescribed time, or the alia breve time is wrong when
the accents are given in accotdance with the rhythm.
Compare the following notation :

Altered Notation.
Presto.

1^^-

molto legato.
 : :

88 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

This change of time is always made by every one who plays the etude
correctly, perhaps made unconsciously ; but the fact remains the same.
The rhythm is the chief carrier of the composer's idea, and cannot be
changed without impairing that idea.
The grammatical accents, which follow the rhythm, cannot be changed
either.
If, therefore, time and rhythm, or time and rhythmical accents, do not
agree — as in the above case —
it must be the time which is wrong. It may,
in fact, be laid down as a general principle, that

It is always the rhythm that decides the time, and not the time which
-prescribes the rhythm.

As a proof that Chopin's alia breve time /

^ ) was incorrect, and mis-
leading, observe that his triplets would have to be accented thus

{te p » p iff p f f 'p

f p

Compare, for example, the accents of Etude No. 8, same opus.

Both kinds of triplets are accented alike, but neither would be in

accordance with the proper rhythm of the F-minor Etude (x^o. 2).

Had Chopin written sextuplets, instead of triplets, it would have been

better ; for example

>6 ^
> > > >
% [nm -
(irrrj
-

but the plainest and clearest notation is always that of writing the whole
etude in ^ time :
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 8^

Second example

CHOPIN—Pbblude, Op. 38, No. 1.

Chopin's Notation.

*J.

This prelude is another glaring instance of negative accents caused bjr

antagonistic time-indication.
On account of the time being unsound from the outset, the rhythmical
notation is unnecessarily complicated, the melody obscured, the accents
removed, and the reader mystified. As a result, this prelude is rarely
quite understood, or correctly interpreted.
The nature of the rhythm demanded that this prelude should have been

written in triple, not in dual time, and more especially, in -g- time. This
would have changed the negative into positive accents, thrown the melody
and caused the accents to fall conspicuously,
into plainly perceptible relief,
yet naturally, upon the ear, without in the least degree altering the in-
tended effect.

As the prelude is short, I subjoin it here entirely in its natural

notation.

CHOPIN—Pkeltjdb, Op. 38, No. 1.

Altered Notation.
Agitato.

—t-0- -m—f —* ' '—t-

!.

?^=
i3^^Epi3^1|3^ ftf
90 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

i^^-
tr-f>- w \-f
—
1

Is^
W^^^^EE^ESEE^f^-E^^i .^m _j-J

m dim.
-^ JPa 3 -

:^fe
¥
> stretto.
#^ ^^
t-
i £Efe

^=5z
^rs.
E^
S ^EE?EE£c.p=^^S-EtE^
a tempo.
^?-*

>
^-=f
^^^^el-%'^
^
^
tfim.
rallent. >

^S3EEi$:iS^±4
>
--T

Ei Sf :^
zle: i:f
^^

:^^^ T C^ *^t=E
=i=±i:
J« #—!— i- ~» 1_« L
S-%:: jj
I

p> I'

^^^^m^^^ ^a-
 NEGATIVE GRAMMATICAL ACCENTS. 91

rallen tim do.

dim.

^h :^=t:
m^^^§^^ 3:
red.-

A composer may succeed in deceiving the reader's eye, but lie caimot
deceive the listener's ear. Accents on a melody so plain as in this prelude
will naturally assert themselves, and fall together with the strong part of
the time, in spite of antagonistic notation.
One more example of this awkward and confusing kind of notation.
Every pianist is know Schumann's beautiful A-minor Con-
supposed to
certo, although not every one may have studied it. Those who have done
so, and have attended its rehearsals with orchestra, may have been sensible

of a certain feeling of apprehension on the approach of the syncopated

part of the last movement, which is the subject of the next example.

SCHUMANN— CoNCEBTO in A-Minob, Op. 54.

Original Notation.
Allegro vivace. Tutti.

-^-i^
-sf-5
5-tt-^
tj ±J±i. m — *- SS-gi^g^iS
r #f T r r 5 ^^
r ' it •, • .

r n
9^ite ^?^z2:
;*i±rf & S^i m 5=5: ±r±±:
f ttl-^ i^^
"Why not simply thus ?

r
«
r r
— «-J—
ifr - ^-^ ^ ^ r ^ It I •, •,

^feifa >^ i*-^ir#-_":

t^i?

The awkwardness of this movement is caused by the composer trying

to force a double rhythm upon triple time. If this movement were merely
 : :

92 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

a short episode, the adherence to the general time (|-) might be excusable,
but since it is the second subject of the finale, and consists of forty meas-
ures, it is not an episode, and the persistence in the general time is hardly
justified.

Itmight be observed, in defence of such rhythmical wilfulness, that

those who attempt to play this concerto ought to be such good musicians as
fully to comprehend the dual character of the rhythm, without being led
astray by the triple time. Yet this is no reason why the notation should
not be made as plain as possible, especially as it is so easy a matter; while,
as the notation stands, experience proves that even the best-trained
orchestra and conductor come generally to some hitch during rehearsals.
A simple remedy would be to contract every two measures, containing
together six quarters, into one measure of -3. time ; for example

M '^^,
i 'm lESi etc.

Or, still better, that the entire movement of forty measures be written
in A time ; thus :

i5=ii
P

This would bring the time in accordance with the rhythm, obviate all

awkwardness, and convey faithfully the composer's

still ideas.
The piano solo would appear thus :

Solo.

ligi^^iiaip^il^i^
^ w=^^ BF^ii^^^
^r

And finish in this way

 CHAKACTEEISTIC ACCENTS. 93

4-^

^fe
'^e3e .a ^3— ?-
'A=^--
w P ^*

TUTTI.

CHAPTEE III.

CHARACTERISTIC ACCENTS.

ALMOST every civilized country has its national melodies, in the form
- of songs, dances, or marches. "While most of these melodies have
remained some of them, partienlarly dances, have been taken up
local,

by the great masters and introduced into general musical literature;

and though many of the original melodies have long been forgotten, or
changed, yet the form and characteristic elements of them have remained.
The most notable traits of these tunes are the rhythm and a peculiar
accentuation by v^hich certain characteristic points of the rhythm are
made prominent.
As it is the above accents which bring out such rhythmical points, the
name given to them seems appropriate.
They impart to the melodies that characteristic element which, though
it cannot be called foreign, because music is a cosmopolitan language be-
longing to all nations, yet is so distinctly national, as to enable any one
familiar with the> characteristics of such airs to recognize readily the
nationality to which they belong.
Characteristic accents are exclusively rhythmical, but cannot be trans-
lated, so to speak, into grammatical accents, because they mark the rhythm
 ;

94 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

in their own peculiar manner, independent of strong and weak time-parts

and we accept them intact, as we accept a foreign phrase, which we should
only spoil by translation.
Therefore, characteristic accents should be considered as independent
rhythmical ones, apart from grammatical rules, and dependent only on the
rhythmical characteristics of national tunes, generally dances, which it is

their object to portray.

But there is also another kind of characteristic accent, similar to the
former in its independence and disregard of grammatical rules, but differ-

ing from the former in so much as, instead of portraying the rhythmical
characteristics of national tunes, it portrays the individual vein of the com-
poser. The former we will call positive ; the latter, indiviilual.

a. Positive Characteristic Accents.

These portray something positive in rhythmical characteristics, some-

thing national, historical, the omitting or altering of which would impair
the character, and, with it, the nationality.
For instance : The accents of a waltz, belonging to that undulating
kind of movement peculiar to the German waltz, if omitted or altered,
would injure its character.
The accents of a mazurka, belonging to the characteristic step or foot-
stamping peculiar to that Polish dance, if omitted or altered, would weaken
the character of the mazurka.
As so it is with the accents of every national dance.
A dance depends upon certain turns of the body. Each turn consti-
tuting a pas ; each pas being determined by a step, a down-coming of
the body, or we might say, by a corporal accent. It is only natural, that
in the accompanying music each corporal accent should be indicated by
a corresponding musical accent. We may thus conclude that to every
musical accent belongs an accent of the body, or, vice versa, to every cor-
poreal accent a musical one. And further, that, if this law is not ob-
served, the music and the dance-steps are not together, not in time.*

* Believing it to be an appropriate quotation, I give here tlie remarks wMcli Charles

Reade makes in his novel, "Christie Johnstone," in reference to reel-dancing. "The
principle of reel -dancing is articulation ; the foot strikes the ground for every accented note
(and, by the bye, weakness of accent which makes all English reel and hornpipe
it is their
playing such and in the best steps of all, which it has in common with the horn-
failures),

pipe, such as the quick "heel and toe, " the "sailor's fling,'' and the "double shuffle," the
foot strikes the ground for every single note of the instrument.". ." Articulate dancing, . .

compared with the loose, lawless diffluence of motion that goes by the name of dancing.
 CHAEACTEKISTIC ACCENTS. 95

The great masters who employed certain national dance-forms for

them
special compositions, or introduced in their greater works, although
describing the general distinctions of these dances, did not adhere strictly
enough to the more detailed characteristics ;and handled the form with
such individual freedom, that it became under their hands an artistic
danGe-form, but ceased to be a dance in the popular acceptation.
Thus, the dances of Bach the minuets of Haydn, Mozart, and Beet-
;

hoven the waltzes and polonaises of Schubert the mazurkas, waltzes,

; ;

and polonaises of Chopin, etc., are artistic forms; and not intended for
practical dance purposes. They are poetized, idealized dances for the
artistic taste ; very different from the dances of Strauss, Lanner, Labitzki,
Gungl, etc., which enjoyment of the masses.
are for the
It is not necessary toexamine here the characteristics of every coun-
try's national music; a few examples, however, of the dance-forms most
frequently met with in pianoforte music may be of interest, and convey
the idea of positive characteristic accents.
The positive characteristic accents of a mazurka are these

> >
 : : :

96 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

The accents of a polka would almost be grammatical, if the measure

were -g-, instead of -^, which accounts for the resemblance between a
polka and a quick-march, and explains why in Austrian military bands
a polka is often played instead of a march, and a march instead of a
polka.
The polonaise is a kind of stately march, or promenade; not a dance,

strictly speaking. Although written in 4- +i'rvio

time, movement is
tiie in
g
eighths ; not, however, in -fi- , the multiple of twice three, with two ac-

cents, but as multiple of three times two, with three accents.

The rhythm of the accompaniment is this

A
f i_^ nn I

Ltd' LLU
> >
with this occasional change, P P f

The accents of the polonaise melody are very characteristic ; for ex-
ample :

Q > > I > >

US f '^'
r

on the first and second eighths in the first measure, and

falling, as a rule,

on the and second quarters in the second measure. This form of

first

accentuation'is repeated, or slightly altered, in successive phrases and the ;

end of a period, or part, has this almost invariable phrase

>
* P p P instead of, f f f f fir
I

These characteristic endings formerly accompanied a stately bow of

the partners to each other, as in the well known-figure of the Lancers.
The iolero, originally a Spanish song, with pantomimic gestures,
became a dance accompanied by castanets, guitar, or tambourine.
The rhythm of the castanets
>
p • or.
L£i' L£&'^ti'
resembles the polonaise accompaniment.
Another resemblance to the polonaise is the prevalence of eighths

{•|) in the movement, and also the syncopic accent on the second eighth
 CHARACTERISTIC ACCENTS. 97-

in the first measure of a phrase or period. The general accents are

these

* c r y'^^jn'iuSiU^'u
But, notwithstanding the resemblance in rhythm, accentuation, and
tempo, there are yet unmistakable distinctions between these two dances.
For example, when a polonaise has this figure

or,
-dtj
the bolero has this one

or, -f— *MM_|t_

L_ta u

The sharp rhythm of the polonaise give to it a state-

points in the
liness, a certain nobleness, which the bolero lacks; instead of which, the

bolero, by greater employment of triplets, has more animation and a kind

of roundness, which the polonaise has not.
The movements and gestures of the dancers are graceful and subtle,
neither stately, as in the polonaise, nor excited, as in the Italian tarantella.

HUNGARIAN MUSIC
represents three distinct elements
1. The heroic-patriotic; as in their marches and martial music.
2. The nomadic, wild, untamed as in their dances and gipsy music.
;

3. And lastly, the sad and wailful ; as in their songs.

These elements are so strangely intermingled by surprising changes in
tempo, in rhythm, and accentuation, that the chief characteristics in the
movements of their music —
more characteristic even than the harmonic
changes — an almost constant rubato, an alternate change of extremes
is

in tempo, of retardation and acceleration, which, in most cases, is brought

to an end by the following characteristic phrase

Andante.

4-
**• nt. UJ

mostly in slow, retarding tempo, but also in quick tempo without retarda-
7
 : : : : ;

98 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

tion; for example, in Brahms's "Hungarian Dances." The following

peculiar rhytlini occurs frequently in their music

> ml ;.i//. I!
»•/;. I/;.
or this syncopated rhythm

(See Brahms's " Hungarian Dances.")

There is nothing very characteristic in English national music.

Scotch national music, however, is more interesting, being rich in
beautiful songs, and in lively and spirited dances and marches.
The following figure frequently occurs in their rhythm

and is their chief rhythmical characteristic.

All their real national tunes lack the interval of the fourth and sev-

enth,which are frequently wanting even in more modern Scotch songs and
dances. This fact is evidently owing to the incomplete scale of the old
bagpipes, which had only these notes: g ah d e y (wanting the c, and/'ji).

It is a strange coincidence, that in the national music of the western

part of Europe the rhythm and accentuation are more steady and regular
than in the eastern part, where they are more nervous, almost spasmodic.
The most numerous and fanciful accentuation is probably to be met
with in the music of the Slavonic races, notably the Polish and Russian
and the most fanciful rhythm is to be found in Hungarian music.
Attempting a comparison, in rhythmical respect, between the music of
the German and the Slavonic races, we would find the following distinc-
tion:
German rhythm, as a rule, begins quietly and increases in animation \,

for example

f I III lUj I ^ I
 CHAEACTJSRISTIC ACCENTS. 99

Slavouic rhythm, in direct opposition, starts in full animation and then

decreases in speed ; for example :

t c^F^Lr I rc '
I

This is not an occasional, but a fundamental distinction in the charac-

ter as well as the music of these races.
The Germans, being phlegmatic, require time and rousing to get en
train ; the Slavs, being impulsive and impetuous, begin in full swing, and
soon subside.

Believing that I have sufficiently explained, although in a rather

sketchy way, what is to be understood by " characteristic accents " in gen-

eral, and by positive ones in particular, I now turn to those accents which
vary from, or go beyond, the positive ones, and belong to the individuality
of the composer, frequently arising out of his nationality.
Many of Chopin's accents, for example, bear the stamp of, and arise
out of, his nationality ; while Schumann's accents are characteristic only
in being whimsical, syncopic, negative, but have nothing national in them.

I. Individual Characteristic Accents.

Musical art recognizes two kinds of music — music, the produc-

artistic

tion of the artist, —and national music, the production of the people.
If we liken music to flowers, the former would be the cultivated, and
the latter the wild flowers. A third kind of music, appropriately called
"trash," provided by publishers, and consumed by that portion of the
public, which, not unlike certain long-eared animals, prefers thistles to
roses, is not recognized, and might be likened to the weeds, which it ought
to be the duty of every artist to uproot.
Artistic music accepts and amalgamates in itself the contributions and
productions of every country, and therefore, having neither geographical
boundaries nor any particular nationality, is universal, cosmopolitan.
National music, however, being the n;iusic of the people, associated
with their traditions, habits, and peculiarities, is local, characteristic to a
particular race, and more a thing of the past than of the present.
It does not matter to what nationality a musician belongs, if only he
has passed through- the same studies of the great masters and is working
 —
100 RHYTHJilCAL ACCENTS.

with the same object as all, to attain the highest perfection in and for his
art ; he is then entitled to be a member of the universal brotherhood of
musical artists.

But if an artist (here, more particularly, a composer) retains the char-

acteristics of his nationality beyond a certain degree, he cannot avoid
unless he has rare originality and genius —
remaining one-sided, according
to the catholicity of musical art. Therefore, a creative musician must, to
a certain extent, renounce or lose his nationality, and have no exclusive
predilection for one style of compositions. But the intuitive power of
genius is always an exception to every rule.
With Chopin, for instance, this one-sidedness was his greatest charm.
His unquestioned genius was always original; his creations, although-
limited to the pianoforte, and bearing the stamp more of a particular than
a cosmopolitan character, marked nevertheless a new era in pianoforte-
playing, and had a powerful influence on the progress of music in general.
!N^ow, to interpret any musical work of a strictly national
correctly
character, it is first necessary to be acquainted with the salient character-
istics of such country's national music, in order to separate what is really

national from what is the outgrowth of the composer's personality.

For instance, in Liszt's Hungarian rhapsodies, in Chopin's Polish
dances, in Tschaikowsky's Russian, or Grieg's Scandinavian melodies,
in the numerous Spanish and Italian serenades, barcarolles, etc., there is
to be found a certain positive national element around which each com-
poser has woven his own personality.
Although it may not be difiicult to perceive the difference between
negative grammatical and characteristic accents, it is not so easy to dis-

tinguish between what belongs to positive and what to individual charac-

teristics.

A few illustrations will, however, better explain this difference than

any lengthened discourse.

CHOPIN— Valsje, Op. 64, No. S.

« Ie^^S
1# ^g0—g- =^^
Valsb, Op. 34, No. 2.

m ^'^
 CHARACTERISTIC ACCENTS. 101

Valse, Op. 64, No. 3.

is^^^^^^g^iig^ _^_^^.

Valsb, Op. posthumous. No. 4.

I I

di
^:
II^E ^ s

I
#-~
^^fe=d=^
-

^ -»-*-

Chopin's accents bear here unmistakably the stamp of the Polish

Ete^Itnzt
T
mazurka, rather than of the German waltz the Slavonic element oozing
;

out, so to say, of every pore. These waltzes cannot be called German.

CHOPIN—Polonaise, Op. 5a

The Same Opus.

^^^^^^^m^.
Polonaise, Op. 32.

.0
-J—^=y=5-p=
—J I

dolce.

^
 ;

103 RHYTHMICAL ACCENTS.

Who ever, before Chopin, conceived such extraordinary rhythm and

rhythmical accentuation as are shown in these polonaises~
yet, one ? And
feels thatChopin is here at home.
After having become familiar with his personality, all becomes quite
natural and easy-flowing, because there is nothing labored or made up
even in his most complicated abandon the ideas are born ready-made,
and entirely free from conventionalism.

CHOPIN—Keakowiak, Op. 14.

_K-, J
r;^;:^_^^7T*_^_^f^t^_r^^_^f??-*,.-u
1*1=8
EONDO, Op. 1. RONDO, Op. 16.

Inasmuch as characteristic accents are altogether irregular and uncer-

tain, thewhole subject has necessarily been treated in only a very general
and imperfect way.
The positive accents of this class permitted merely the mentioning of
certain rhythmical peculiarities, essential to particular national tunes ; while
the individual accents of this class, more irregular and spontaneous than
the former, were quite beyond the control of reasoning.
£ut though it is impossible to lay down any regulation of these ac-
cents, from a rhythmical point of view, we are yet able to systematize
their observance from a melodic aspect, as will be seen subsequently.
In fact, characteristic accents will receive a far more detailed analysis
melodically, than it is possible to give them rhythmically.
 PART II.

METEIOAL' ACCENTS.

PEELIMINAET REMARKS.

~VTTHILE the previous rhythmical accents corresponded, in language,

VV to syllabic accentuation, the present metrical ones correspond to
the emphasis which is laid upon one word of a sentence to make that word
prominent.
" If accent is syllabic emphasis, emphasis is logical accentr
As the emphasis which is given to a word will naturally fall together
with the accent given to a syllable, so does metrical emphasis, which is

given to the beginning of a measure, fall together with rhythmic accent

given to the primary strong part of a measure.
But, as the former is the more important, it has precedence over the
on the simple principle that a stronger accent always dominates
latter,

a weaker one and causes the latter to recede.

Metrical accents have this in common with rhythmical ones, that, like
the latter, they are governed by the grammatical rules of accenting the
strong and not accenting the weak parts which rule includes the principle,
;

that two strong parts should not follow each other, without one or two
weak ones coming in between them.
On the other hand, metrical accents differ from rhythmical ones in this
"Whereas the latter affect the rhythmic motion by giving a clear sense of
its details, metrical accents affect the metrical formation by giving prom-

inence to the musical parts of speech, called

Section ;
Phrase ; Peeiod ;

which, in punctuation, would require a comma ( , ) a semicolon ( ; ) or a

full stop ( . ).

Because metrical accents fall invariably and only on the beginning of

measures, they are frequently confounded with the so-called "measure-
 ! : .

104 METRICAL ACCENTS.

\_Oerm. '
Tact '] accents; " and, vice versa, the accents denoting the meas-
ure are confounded with metrical accents.
It is not difficult to show how inexact such misconception is. For ex-
ample, supposing this thesis were advanced : to denote a measure, the he-
ginn'ing of the measure should be accented.
Would this thesis be correct ? Could it be logically maintained in ac-
cordance with grammatical rule ?

I say, no
If we denoted a measure by accenting its beginning, then, to denote
the next measure, we should have to accent the beginning of that also, and
so on with all succeeding measures.
But, by so doing, we would not observe grammatical principles, ac-
cording to which two accents should not follow each other, without one or
two weak parts falling between them. Hence, after an accented measure
should follow one or two unaccented ones.
Therefore, the above thesis cannot be logically maintained, and ought
to be modified as follows
To denote a measure, the strong part of it should be accented.
This is far from being merely a petty distinction, for it involves an im-
portant principle.
By accenting the strong time-part of a measure (which falls on the be-
ginning), we denote the measure.
By emphasizing the beginning of a measure,we mark the measure as
the strong part of the two hence we denote a sectiov
(or three) measures,

By emphasizing the beginning of a section, we mark the section as the

strong part of two (or three) sections, hence we denote a phrase.
By emphasizing the beginning of a phrase, we mark the phrase as the
strong part of two (or three) phrases, hence we denote a period.
And yet, it is evident that, in denoting a period, a phrase, a section, or
a single measure, the accent falls always on the primary strong part of a
measure, virtually a rhythmical part.
 METRICAL FOEMATION. 105

CHAPTER lY.

METRICAL FORMATION.— GENERAL PACTS AND RULES.

METRICAL formation has two extremes — tlie measure, and the

period.
The former is the unit, the material of which the latter is constructed
the latter is the aim and end of metrical formation, as a sentence is the
aim and end of grammatical formation in language.
A
musical composition is made up of periods, as a literary work is

made up of sentences one period or sentence succeeding another.

;

Metrical accentuation throws these periods as well as their parts, the

phrases and sections, into relief, by proportionate emphasis ; and separates
all these time-groups by breaks, as the parts of sentences are separated by
punctuation.
This accenting and dividing depends, however, entirely on the per-
former's discernment of the different time-groups, viz. : on their exact
terminations ; for, to terminate a group, is to discern it.

But we cannot terminate a group correctly, unless we know its neces-

sary and permissible extent, viz.: the smallest and number of
largest
measures which limit a group.
It is, therefore, necessary to examine the material, the formation and
extent of every kind of metrical group, in order to arrive at the faculty of
terminating, i. e., discerning any section, phrase, and period.

A measure, as the unit of metrical groups, must be intact.

Hence, all metrical groups, whether section, phrase, or period, contain
full measures.
When, therefore, a period commences with only part of a measure
(which it may do), it must end with the corresponding part to make up
the incomplete beginning.
A measure, in musical architectonic, might thus be likened to a stone.
106 METRICAL ACCENTS.

in the construction of a building, both representing the unit of a uniform

material. If a row begin with half a stone, or a period with half a
measure, both should end with the other half, to complete a perfect row,
or a perfect period.
It may be observed, that the beginning of the musical subject con-
also
tained in the measure determines the beginning of all the succeeding
first

groups (sections, phrases, periods,) until the end of a movement is reached.

For, on whatever time-part the subject begins, all the metrical groups
following begin with the same, and end with the corresponding time-
•

part.
Metrical accents emphasize the beginning of measures only, and not
the beginning of any time-group commencing with an incomplete
measure.
Metrical groups commencing with a full measure are said to have a
strong beginning ; and those commencing with an incomplete measure, a
weak beginning.
The endings, also, are either strong or weak, according to the time-parts
they fall on.
A period has, as a rule, eight measures, four sections, two phrases.
This is the most rational, and by far the most frequently employed for-
mation.
Many theorists consider the eight-measured period and melody as the
natural and normal basis of perfect musical form, while others hold the
four-measured phrase to be the ground-form of musical construction.
Lobe, being of the former opinion, goes even further ; for he finds
in the eight-measured period and melody "the nucleus around which is

woven the whole technical work of tonic, harmonic, rhythmic, metric, and
thematic construction, the chief point from which emerges all this technical
work." — (I. C. Lobe, Compusitions-Lehre, Weimar, 1844.)
We, for our part, shaU consider the eight-measured period containing
four sections, and two phrases, as the normal and positive one; and all
other periods, extended beyond the number of eight measures, as abnormal
and negative. "We shall not recognize a group of less than eight measures
as a period at all ; for a period should have at least two phrases a phrase,
;

two sections ; a section, two measures. A group of six or seven measures,

therefore, is only a phrase.
In this view, the eight-measured period is a metrical consonance, as
the positive grammatical accents are rhythmical consonances; and all

other periods are metrical dissonances, as the negative rhythmical accents

are rhythmical dissonances.
 METRICAL FORMATION. 107

The metrical dissonances of irregular periods, however, are by no

means objectionable, but, on the contrary, are quite as logical and neces-
sary as other dissonances.
Metrical accentuation, like phrasing, depends entirely, as has already
been said, on the performer's consciousness of the formation and extent of
metrical groups.
When these groups are symmetrical, having the normal number of
measures, they are readily perceived, and accentuation is exceedingly sim-
ple. But, when these groups are not symmetrical, having an irregular
number of measures, they are sometimes difficult to discern, and render
metrical phrasing by no means easy.
Regular periods and their accents are so very simple, that one or two
examples will be all that is needed.
We shall not, however, get over the irregular periods quite so easily.

a. Regular Periods.

The following example illustrates an eight-measured period beginning

with a full measure.

SCHUMANN—Arabesque, Op. 18.

The accent denoting the period is naturally the strongest.

The accents marking the phrases are of secondary grade, and those
marking the sections are of tertiary grade.
This an-angement accords with grammatical principles, and corresponds
exactly to the grading of rhythmical accents.
108 METRICAL ACCENTS.

EXAMPLE.
Qrading of Metrical Accents in an Mght-measured Period.

I.
 METRICAL FORMATION. 109

two opposite tact-feet, I would call attention to the following episode in

Schumann's " Faschingsschwank," Op. 26 :

J ^ ^
m^^ i^ P -tSI—
-St

The composer, having chosen this iambus as his rhythmical subject,

repeats this tact-foot without intermission, or rhythmical change, during
forty-eight measures, and, moreover, without becoming monotonous.
His method of indicating the accentuation being an unusual one, there-
fore occasionally found fault with, is, nevertheless, not only quite correct,
but deserving even of especial notice ; for by no other means of notation
could the performer so forcibly be reminded of bringing out the iambus,

;
and of avoiding the trochee,

>-
r 1

than by Schumann's way of slurring ( J^ f I J ) the two notes.

The perfonner, though comprehending these indications, may yet he

puzzled how to avoid the trochee; because the latter will assert itself
spontaneously to the ear, although the oppositeeffect is aimed at, espe-

where the iambic foot is repeated for any length of

cially in instances
time. The only remedy, in such cases, is the due observance of that
important rule of phrasing which demands that the last note of any
slurred group shall he shortened to aiout one-half of its value, in order to
produce a break, a termination.
According to this rule, all iambic tact-feet — for example, the subject
of Beethoven's period —should be rendered in this way

and the iambus will then fall unmistakably upon the ear.
 :

ilO METRICAL ACCENTS.

The punctuation, which was attached to both the previous examples of

periods, indicated the incisions, or ccesurw, of the period ; which terms sig-

nify the natural pause or rest of the voice, where breath may be taken, in
speaking or singing, and the hand raised out of position in pianoforte-
playing.
Correct observance of these incisions or breaks is of the greatest
moment in musical phrasing. In fact, phrasing chiefly depends on them ;

because they effect a termination, and, by thus separating the phrase from
the next one, throw it into relief even more effectively than the accent on
the beginning of the phrase alone could do.

b. Irregular Periods.

Metrical formation (counting upward from the. measure to the period)

or metrical division (counting downward from the period to the measure)
has this in common with rhythmical division, that, like the latter, it is

either double or triple.^

In otber words : A Period has either two or three Phrases.

A Phrase has either two or three Sections.
A Section has either two or three Measures.
A Measure, as a unit, must be intact.
Hence arise many conibinations as to the number of measures of .which
metrical time-groups may be formed for example ;

A Section may have two Measures or three Measures, giving two

kinds of Sections.
A Phrase may have
1. Tivo Sections of 2 and 2 = 4 Measures,
2. " " 2 and 3 = 5 "
3. " " 3 and 2 = 5 "
4. " " 3 and 8 = 6 "
5. Or three Sections of 2, 2 and 2 = 6 Measures,
6. " "
2, 2 and 3 = 7
7. " "
2, 3 and 2 = 7 "
8. " - " 2, 3 and 3 = 8 "

* Though simple and irrefragable, this theory has, to the author's knowledge, never
yet been brought forward.
 METRICAL FOKMATION. Ill

9. Three Sections of 3, 2 and 2 = 7 Measures,

10. " "
3, 2 and 3 = 8 "
11. " " 3 and 2 = 8 "
3,
" " =
3J 3 and 3
12. 9 "

giving twelve kinds of Phrases. '

A Period may have two Phrases in 12 times 12 = 14-1 combinations,

or three Phrases in 12 times 144 = 1728 combinations, giving a total of
1872 kinds of Periods.*
These numerous combinations result in this :

The Subject has always 1 Measure.

The smallest Section has 2 Measures, tlie largest has 3 Measures.
The " Phrase 4 " the " " 9
The " Period 8 " the " " 37

All these combinations are theoretically and mathematically correct,

and on of scales up to twelve sharps and twelve
as possible as the carrying
flats. Although many of the long periods are not actually employed,
yet they are a great deal more feasible than scales with eight, nine, or
more accidentals.
Why should not a musical period of the longest possible extent be em-
ployed under some peculiar circumstance, just as well as excessively long
sentences, inasmuch as such a period might serve some bizarre purpose or odd

* A Period of two Phrases may be constructed of

Phrases 1 and 1, Phrases 3 and 1, Phrases 3 and 1,

1 and 3, 3 and 3, 8 and 2,

lands, 3 and 3, " 3 and 3,

and so on to and so on to and so on to
Phrases 1 and 12, Phrases 3 and 13, Phrases 3 and 13,

giving 1 X 13=13 Periods. giving 3 X 13=34 Periods. giving 3 X 13=36 Phrases.

And so on to 13 x 13 = 144 Periods of two Phrases.

A Period of three Phrases may be constructed of

Phrase 1 and any one of the above 144 Periods,

3
3 and so on to
13

giving 13 times 144 or 1728 Periods of three Phrases.

Add to this, 144 Periods of two Phrases.

Total, 1873 Periods.

112 METRICAL ACCENTS.

-whim of the composer ; for example, the spinning-out of the period might
be intended to represent the prolonged agony of the never-dj ing prime
tenore. in Italian opera, or the tantalizing effect of the withheld ending
might have some reason as ingenious as that of an eccentric composer,
of my acquaintance, who, in his " Grande Symphonic Infernale," made
all the instruments descend in consecutive perfect fifths down to the lowest
depth, in order to portray the howling and infernal discord of the damned,
who were hungry and wanted something to eat.
Excessively long periods are certainly not beautiful, but are, never-
theless, quite as permissible as the above intentionally spun-out sentence.
Without advocating the employment of either, the right of existence may
be conceded to both.
Leaving aside theoretical periods of extreme length, and taking into
consideration actually employed ones only, it is difficult, without searching
the entire range of pianoforte-literature, to state with absolute certainty,
Tip to what length irregular periods have j'eally been used.
Periods of nine, ten, eleven, and twelve measures occur frequently.
Also those up to thirteen, fourteen, and fifteen measures ; but here they
generally stop.
Although I do not say that larger periods are not to be met with, yet,
as a rule, I am pretty safe in limiting the extent of generally employed
phrases to seven, and of periods to fifteen measures.
Practical illustrations being usually more instructive,and having
-quicker results than long dissertations, I shall give some examples of reg-
ular and irregular periods, from the works of Chopin aird Beethoven.
"These will cover all requirements.
 METRICAL POEMATION. 113

-mT)
n-1.

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 1 • 1

114 METRICAL ACCENTS.

* 1<mL
Y

JiJd, «wi-

-( (
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METRICAL FOEMATION. 115
METRICAL ACCENTS,
 METRICAL FORMATION. 117

From tluB point, the second part begins. This it is unnecessary to re-

view, as it contains only regular periods.

The asterisk, :{: at the last measure of the fourth period,
, calls attention
to an irregularity of metrical measurement.
Chopin here follows the precepts of Beethoven and other great masters,
who, when it suits their purpose, occasionally add, or take off, a fractional
part at the end of a period, in order to commence the succeeding periods
with a strong beginning, when the previous periods had commenced with
a weak one, or vice versa.

The most appropriate term for designating the metrical work of ana-
lyzing and dividing a composition into periods, phrases, and sections,
would be the word periodizing.
Periodizing is one of the most important aids in comprehending and
interpreting a composition. Being an intellectual acquirement, entirely
independent of emotion or taste, it can be subjected to precise principles
and rules.

The first step in periodizing a composition is to ascertain where each

period ends.

FIRST RULE.

The termination of a period is shown ly the reappearance of the old,

or the commencement of a new subject; hecattse, with the reappearance
of the old, or the commencement of a new subject, another period begins.
By examining the periods of Chopin's nocturne, it will be found
that the termination of the first six periods was determined by the
symmetrical reappearance of the original subject ; and the termination
of the seventh and eighth periods, by the commencement of new sub-
jects.

The next step is to ascertain the termination of phrases and sections.

The rule just given is here equally applicable.
The termination of either phrase or section is likewise to be ascertained
by a symmetrical beginning of the next one, or through quite a new be-
ginning.

SECOND RULE.

Each metrical group should be as much as possible a unit in itself,

Periodizing should 7'espect this unity, and not cut into it.
 ;

118 METRICAL ACCENTS.

The consideration of such unity is of decisive importance when any

doubt arises as to whether

A Section has 2 or 3 Measures,

A Phrase has 2 or 3 Sections, or
A Period has 2 or 3 Phrases

for example; where two sections have five measures, or three sections
have seven measures, and it is doubtful to which of the sections the odd
number of measures belong or, where two phrases have five sections, or
;

three phrases have seven sections, and it is doubtful to which of the

phrases the odd number of sections belong, etc.
Compare now the sections and phrases in our illustration, and ascertain
whether there is such unity in them.
By examining the first period of Chopin's nocturne, we find that it
terminated with the twelfth measure, because the original subject reap-
peared in the thirteenth measure. This gave us a period of twelve
measures.
The first phrase terminated at the seventh measure, by a symmetrical
appearance of the subject in the eighth measure. This gave us two
phrases, of seven and five measures respectively.
The first section was terminated with the third instead of the second
measure, by the evident unity of the second and third measures which
could not be disjointed.
The second, third, and fourth sections had plainly two measures each.
The last section, with three measures, had evidently more right to
them, on account of greater unity, than the fourth section.
This gives us five sections, of three, two, two, two, and three measures
respectively.
If the student will now examine the other periods in the same way, he
will find these rules equally observed, and applicable as well as adequate
for all similar metrical work.
As a second illustration, I choose the allegro of Beethoven's First
Sonata; one of the simplest in form, and composed in his earlier style,
while yet under the influence of Haydn and Mozart.
The allegro begins with an incomplete measure. We may begin the
periods from the incomplete beginning, as we have done before, or from
the full measure, as is generally done. Both ways answer the same
purpose.
Having before commenced with the incomplete measure, we shall now
try the other way.
 METRICAL FORMATION. 119

r-

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a.
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130 METRICAL ACCENTS,
METRICAL FORMATION. 121.
1S23 METRICAL ACCENTS.
 METRICAL FORMATION. 133

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134 METRICAL ACCENTS.
METRICAL FORMATION. 135
126 METRICAL ACCENTS.

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METRICAL FORMATION. 127

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138 METRICAL ACCENTS.

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 METRICAL FORMATION, 129

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130 METRICAL ACCENTS.
 METRICAL FORMATION. 131

i-t-ti

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 :

132 METRICAL ACCENTS.

None of these periods andphrases present any new feature for remark.
The entire movement has been given in order to exemplify the mode of
proceeding in periodizing (in a like manner) other compositions.
In view of aiding the student still more in becoming familiar with this
metrical work, I subjoin a few additional examples.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 2, No. 1.

Mbnubtto. , Trio.

lE^rst Period —14 Measures. Fourth Period — 10 Measures.

3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 6 Measures. 3 Phrases of 4 : 6 Measures.
7 Sections of 23:23:333 5 Sections of 2 3 : 3 3 3

Second Period — 14 Measures. Fifth Period —15 Measures.

3 Phrases of 4 : 6 : 4 Measures. 3 Phrases of 7 : 8 Measures.
7 Sections of 33:322:23 6 Sections of 2 2 3 : 3 3 3

Third Period —12 Measures. Si'xth Period —8 Measures.

2 Phrases of 6 : 6 Measures. 2 Phrases of 4 : 4 Measures.
e Sections of 3 3 2 : 2 2 3 4 Sections of 3 3 : 3 3

Menuetto da Capo.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 36.

Andante con Variazioni. Fifth Period —13 Measures.

First and Second Periods —Regular. 3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 4 Measures.
6 Sections of 3 3 : 3 2 : 3 2
Third Period — 10 Measures.
2 Phrases of 4 : 6 Measures.
—Regular
Sixth Period

5 Sections of 2 2 : 2 3 2 Seventh Period— 15 Measures.

Fourth Period —Regular. 3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 7 Measures.

same Pe
7 Sections of 33:32:223 "
The five Variations contain the
riods.

The fifth Variation has the following Coda Trio.

Coda Period —15 Measures. Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Periods — Regular
Measures.
8 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 7
Tenth Period (second time) —12 Measures.
7 Sections of 23:22:333
3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 4 Measures.
6 Sections of 2 3:33:33
Scherzo.

First, Second, Third and Fourth Periods—

Regular. Scherzo da Capo.
 METRICAL FORMATION 133

Mabcia Punebrb.

—Regular.
First Period
II
: Fifth Period—Regular, including repe-

Second Period— 13 Measures.

tition. ;||

3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 4 Measures.
— Reg^ilar.
Sixth Period

Seventh Period— 13 Measures.

6 Sections of 3 3 : 2 3 : 3 3 "

Third Period— \Q Measures. 3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 4 Measures.

6 Sections of 2 3 : 3 3 3 3
3 Phrases of 4
:
: 6 Measures.
5 Sections of 2 3 : 2 3' 3 "
Eighth Period —17 Measures.
II
: Fourth Period —Regular, including repe- 3 Phrases of 4 6 :-7 Measures.
tition. :|| 8 Sections of 33:233:338

AlttoTigh I have limited the extent of irregiilar periods, as a rule, to

fifteen measures, this does not, by any means, exclude an occasional period
of more than fifteen measures, as exemplified in the Marcia Fun^bre.
The two last periods in the march (containing together twenty-nine
measures) might have been arranged in three periods of eight, eight, and
thirteen measures respectively, in order to avoid the long period of seven-
teen measures.
But there was no need of such avoidance, and, moreover, such division
would have cut into the unity of the seventh period which, being iden-
tical with the second period, required twelve measures, not eight. There-
fore the imity of the seventh periodhad to be repeated.
This left us seventeen measures, which might have been divided into
two periods of eight and nine measures respectively. But here again,
considerations of unity decided that these seventeen measures contained
three phrases of four, six, and seven measures respectively, hence were one
period, not two periods.
Although rare, this is not an isolated case of a seventeen-measured
period, in evidence of which I here give another one.
1134 metkicXl accents.

o
Eh"

p
w
o
OS
METRICAL FORMATION. 135

\s^

w^

li^
I

\El.
136 METRICAL ACCENTS.

The above period leaves not the slightest doubt as to its unity. It is

terminated by a double bar Iw), Schumann's own indication, and is also

shown by the reappearance of the first subject in the eighteenth or next

measure.
by the reappearance of the first
Its phrases also are distinctly defined

subject, after the termination and, by reason of this

of each phrase;
phrasing alone, the period could not be cut into two periods.
The sections, likewise, leave no doubt as to their unity. As a last ex-
ample, I shall periodize the remainder of:

SCHUMANN— In deb Nacht, Op. 12, No. 5.

Seco-nd Period —9 Measures. Thirteenth Period—Regular.

3 Phrases of 4 : 5 Measures. Fourteenth Period — 14 Measures.
5 Sections of 2 2 : 3 3
3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 6 Measures.
—ReguJai^.
Third Period 7 Sections of 22:22:222
Fourth Period— 10 Measures. Fifteenth Period —17 Measures (from begin-
ning).
3 Phrases of 5 : 5 Measures.
4 Sections of 2 3 : 3 3 3 Phrases of 7 : 5 : 5 Measures.
7 Sections of 322:23:23
Fifth Period— 12 Measures.

2 Phrases of 7 : 5 Measures. Sixteenth Period — 11 Measures.

5 Sections of 3 3 3 : 2 3 2 Phrases of 6 : 5 Measures.
5 Sections of 2 2 2 2 3
Sixth Period — 13 Measures. :

3 Phrases of 5 : 7 Measures. Seventeenth Period —Regular.

5 Sections of 3 3 : 2 2 3 "
Eighteenth Period — 10 Measures.
2 Phrases of 5 : 5 Measures.
Etioas langsamer. 4 Sections of 3 3 : 2 3

Seventh Period—Regular. Nineteenth Period — 12 Measures.

Eighth Period — Regular. 2 Phrases of 5 : 7 Measures.
5 Sections of 3 3 : 2 3 3
Ninth Period —Regular.
Twentieth Period — 13 Measures.
Tenth P«n'oc2—Regular.
3 Phrases of 4 : 4 : 4 Measures.
Eleventh Period —Regular. 6 Sections of 2 2 : 3 2 : 3 3

Twelfth Period— IZ Measures. Twenty-f/rst Period —10 Measures.

8 Phrases of 4 : 5 : 4 Measures. 2 Phrases of 4 : 6 Measures.
6 Sections of 3 2 : 3 8 : 3 2 5 Sections of 2 2 : 2 2 2
 METKICAL FORMATION. 137

The examples of periods, phrases, and sections, so far given, have shovrn
us these metrical groups in almost every combination in which they may
be actually met with.

"We have had Sections of 2 and 3 Measures,

Phrases of 4, 5, 6, and 7 Measures, and
Periods of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 17 Measures,

—a suflBciently exhaustive variety of combinations, to cover and explain

every case of metrical analysis.
No composition can be really understood, unless the mind is able to
define its periods, phrases, and sections.
Discrimination of these metrical groups becomes a revelation, and
periodizing is the source of this revelation.
Many an uninteresting, because not comprehended, composition be-
comes of surprising interest, when the finer thoughts of the composer's
architectonic are brought to light.
As the reader's mind discerns these architectonic phrases, so should he,
as interpreter, convey them to his audience through the means of metrical
accentuation, at the beginning and at the proper breaks between the
groups.
Metrical accentuation is only diflScult intellectually, not mechanically ;

for, as soon as the student is thoroughly efficient in periodizing, he will

then also know when and where to accent metrically.
 ;

PABT III.

MELODIC AOOEITTS.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

"A /FELODT is a pleasing succession of musical sounds rhythmically

-L' J- arranged. The character of melody depends mainly on its rhyth-
mical arrangement and the tempo, as by the change of either rhythm or
tempo (or both) the character may be so altered as to produce a different
effect.

Many a lively opera melody has thus been turned into sacred music, '

and the most solemn airs travestied into dance-tunes.

Melody is the golden thread running .through the maze of tones, by

which the ear is guided and the heart reached. Without melody, music
may interest, but cannot charm fortunately, music without melody is not
;

conceivable. The simplest and most monotonous kind of music has melody,
although its character may not be to the liking of every one. The noisi-

est and most complicated music has melody but it may be so laden with ;

external flourishes, or so obscured by internal changes, that few only can

detect and follow the golden thread. Or there may be more than one
thread, as in polyphonous music ; two, three, or four melodies, so inter-
mingled that it becomes an effort, instead of being a pleasure, to follow any
of them. Then may be disjointed and cut into little
again, the thread
bits, where a subject is so twisted, imitated and
as in thematic work,
turned around, that most people perceive neither head nor tail of the
melody.
Thematic work is the artistic manipulation of a short musical subject
an almost infinite variety of transformations, repetitions, additions, imita-
by means of which the smallest subject is developed into a
tions, etc.,

work of art.

Thematic work is the outcome of contrapuntal study. Both contra-

puntal writing and thematic work have their climax in the fugue. The
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 139

fugue, however, although being the highest scientific form, is not the
highest artistic form, but simply an accessory to the latter.
The highest artistic form, in pianoforte music, is the sonata ; in orches-
tral music, the symphony.
It seems strange, but it is, nevertheless, true, that the public cares no
longer for fugues and very little for sonatas. Very few artists attempt to
write either, and yet every one acknowledges Bach's fugues and Beethoven's
sonatas as the unapproachable patterns of these respective classical forms,
while Von Biilow very wittily and appropriately callsthe former " the old
testament of pianoforte literature," and the latter, " the new testament."
Artistically, melody is of the least account, for any one, with very little
talent, can compose a melody ; and it is natural, that the more trivial or
silly the melody is, the more it a^pproaches the taste and understanding of
the multitude.
But not every one can compose a good melody, or harmonize it prop-
erly, still less,work it out into artistic form.
By far the greater number of modern pianoforte compositions are not
artistic, and are written in the simplest of all forms —that of dances,
marches, or songs ; viz.

Four parts (sometimes six or eight), with an introduction at the begin-

ning, and a tail at the end. After this pattern :

Intkoduction First Part, Second Part, Third Part.

;

Trio Third Part, Fourth Part, Third Part.

;

First and Second Part.

C0DA.—(,Mne.)

This kind of musical form every one understands ; each part being a
complete melody of eight or sixteen measures, each melody a separate part.
When one melody or part is finished, another begins, as in a panorama
here is one picture, here is another.
The general public expects something like the above form in all com-
positions ;
plain, fully developed melodies succeeding each other. Hence,
it is not sui-prising that the effect of a really artistic or classical work
should be rather bewildering than enjoyable ; and I can quite understand
how an unmusical, though clever, Frenchwoman, while listening to the
performance of one of Beethoven's sonatas, should remark to her neighbor:
" Dites done, ami, I'introduction est bien longue."
The first educational step towards becoming an intelligent listener, is

the appreciation of variations. This trains the ear to recognize a theme

through all its external disguises, or internal transformations, and leads to
140 MELODIC ACCENTS.

the comprehension of thematic work, which is indispensable for judging

and enjoying classical music.

A
theme is understood to mean the leading melody, but need not
necessarily be a fully developed melody ; for it may be long or short, as in
fugues, and sometimes a simple subject merely.
But, whether a theme be long or short, its thematic treatment is mostly
restricted to a part of the theme only, generally its elementary subject (or
motive).
A subject being more whole theme, has always
easily handled than a
played a greater role in the art of composing than the theme itself and it ;

seems destined to be of still greater importance in the music of the future.

To the prophets of this future school a short subject is of paramount
importance, a fully developed theme of secondary moment. "Wagner, par-
ticularly, is very liberal with his subjects — ^little snatches of short, un-
finished thoughts —introducing many, but developing few. His subjects
are generally in a state of fermentation, but rarely becoming a good, honest
melody ; and when the latter now and then appears, it seems to be merely
a concession to the public.
In orchestral music, the repetitions and imitations of a subject arfe more
plainly discerned, and more interesting, than in pianoforte music, on
account of the coloring of the different instruments. In pianoforte music,
this coloring has to be supplied by accentuation.
Here we come to the first class of melodic accents.
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 141

CHAPTER Y.

THEMATIC ACCENTS.

jV /1~USIC, with only one melody —

whether accompanied or not, whether
-^^-L one person is the performer or a thousand persons is said to be —
homophonous, i. e., one-voiced.
Music, with more than one melody —two, three, four, or more voices
appearing simultaneously or successively, each voice having its own
—
melody, going its own way is said to be polyphonous, i. e., many-
voiced.
All contrapuntal music is polyphonous, its very name implying a
counter-point, or counter-melody.
Classical music is generally polyphonous.
Modern music is mostly homophonous.
Now, with regard to thematic accents, I would call attention to the
difference of " accenting a
theme " and " giving promineace to it."
As a matter of course, a theme should stand out prominently from its
accompaniment and the arabesques that may be woven around it. This
needed conspicuousness of the theme is not, however, a question of accent-
uation, but one of dynamics ; because, when a whole row of notes (as in a
melody) is played louder than another row (the accompaniment), this can-
not be called accenting, for accenting refers to individual points.
Therefore, to accent a theme does not mean to accent every note of it,

but toemphasize the heginning of the theme only.

The emphasis on the beginning is necessary, in order to call attention

to the theme's appearance, or reappearance, after a temporary rest.

When polyphonous music has an accompaniment, the voices carrying
the melodies should have the same prominence over the accompaniment
that the single melody has in homophonous music. But the different

voices, being of equal importance, should be of equal quality, and blend

harmoniously together. Greater power of one voice would impair the
blending, and assert for itself a pi-ominence which none should have, unless
it were a solo voice.
143 MELODIC ACCENTS.

A solo voice in polyphonous music, a cantus firmus in counter-point,

or the melody in homophonous music, need not he accented thematically ;
i. e., the initial note need not be emphasized, because the quality of tone
in all such cases is supposed tobe already sufficiently prominent to assert
itself above the surroundings, without any special emphasis on the opening
note.
Through this simple rule we dispense at once with the greater num-
ber of cases in which thematic accents might seem to be applicable, and
we reduce their application to polyphonous music alone, viz. : where there
aremore than one melodic voice.
Having so far discussed the negative side of thematic accents, i. e.,

where they are not to be given, I now come to the other side —where
they are to be given.
In all polyphonous music, each voice or theme requires an emphasis on
the first or opening note, for the purpose of denoting the themes entrance.
This rale is so simple, that it needs little explanation; none being
necessary with regard to strict contrapuntal forms, such as fugues, canons,
etc. But I shall give a few examples from modern music, showing the
application of thematic accents, when different voices freely iniitate a
theme.
SCHUMANN—NACHTSTtJCK, Op. 23, No. 4

-^L
^feg
,See3ee;3 g ^—^~
"-^ -*—•• =Stf^

ig^^gp im i^ 'n

-^-
EE ^W A-

r I-.J I
»-

SSI Z^EE^^A =t
-^?
--r-

The accents and slnrs in this example are mine. These may explain
the phrasing and thematic accents which Schumann thought it unneces-
sary to indicate.
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 143

It is also of importance to observe that the tone of the theme-giving

and responding voices should be of equal quality, but superior in power to
that of the accompanying notes. This is an imperative condition which
must be complied with, though its execution requires considerable inde-
pendence and discrimination of touch.

SCHUMANN— Waetjm? Op: 12, No. 3.

V' 'V I
1^

rs'- I. 1
n rpg a* * :.l2i»i
s-t^-» -9—1
=i=t zrEri.ir&z:|-gzz:E:zr_^_v^,
^f^z *
 :

144 MELODIC ACCENTS.

This example is similar to the former.

Both are two-voiced (zwei-stimmig) ; the rest, accompaniment.
The imitations are free ; i. e., the intervals of the responses are not
strictly the same as in the theme-giving voice. For example

this being the theme,

nteN^SE

it
and

will
this the response, M•i^
be seen, at a glance, that the steps of the
p^ mm latter are not the same as

those of the former.

I have altered the slurs, in order. to indicate the unity of the responses,
so as to make them correspond with the unity of the theme.

SCHUMANN—Endb tom Lied, Op. 13, No. 8.

Coda.

-^;
II I
I I T I
V r r
(1) Entrance of part of theme. (2) Entrance of first tlieme (enlarged).

Z^SC.
-?=i=
*=f::
rit.
rit..

1. I

.^^SLt^ Eg
i=ji=;
—£^ "T31W' ^ in—^ 5 a
I rr
pj, Besponse.
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 145

I
rit..

321 ^^ gs-m -sSl.

^22r:
^
is^
IE
"5^
Tr
Response.

£^ r — f — 1 1
146 MELODIC ACCENTS.

Or, a theme may be transformed internally by thematic work, in a

multitude of ways.
As it is desirable that the student should be conversant with these
several modes, in order to recognize a theme readily, notwithstanding its
internal changes or transformations, I here give an enumeration of these
modes.

THEMATIC TRANSFORMATION.

Taking the first phrase of Schumann's " Warum?" as our theme,

iin^-t-
we shall see what thematic work can do with it.

1. Simple Modes of Tonic Transformation.

1. The theme may be removed (versetzt) i. e., the opening note may
;

be removed to any other interval, the steps of each note remaining the
'
same.

^izrc^z
1^1^ F=^r=%=^^
2. It may be contracted (verengert) ; i. e., the steps of each interval
may be contracted.

^
3. It may be extended (erweitert), viz. : in the steps of its intervals.

t?^

^=gg
r-ff^
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 147

4. Or inverted (verkehrt).

I
tt'-T--T==|=±:|i
J

2. Simple Modes of Rhythmical Transformation.

5. The theme may be enlarged (vergrdssert), viz. : each interval.

iE^ drffiz -i& — ^ -e> — -r -S> —r-g-

^&i m.
^"^gr^^g^gg^P
I —
6. Or diminished (verkleinert).

fct 2r^
-^
7. Or curtailed (verkiirzt).

or, =11^
E^

8. Or lengthened, by repeating the curtailed theme,

t^Si t=lat

9. Or lengthened, by adding new links to the curtailed theme.

|l^pgg^i^-iig IffiT

10. Or transformed, by varying the whole theme; (this is internal

ariation.)

^-'^i~Vf
f=f=rT-
-ft-
% ?^=^
I
 —

118 MELODIC ACCENTS.

3. Combined Modes of Tonic and Rhythmic Transformation.

Two Modes Combined.

11. The theme may be removed and contracted —1 and 2.

4 — <g /^^ \
e \
—»

12. It may be removed and extended —1 and 3.

^1

i *i=*=

I
--i^ir-
ig=<

13. It may be removed and inverted —1 and 4.

I ^m ^•=
ir^ itr-

14. It may be contracted and inverted —2 and 4.

^^#i^jp§
15. It may be removed and enlarged —1 and 5.

;A=zt
-i: ^
i ^-
I2?=

16. It may be removed and diminished —1 and 6.

f
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 149

17. It may be enlarged and inverted — 5 and 4r.

l_J.i^A_,. l4 ^^5t
^^^0. f^
^p-
^--
'^~^^is: — ±1

18. It may be diminished and inverted — 6 and 4.

— d—^—H—•
2 J '*-T-^
^:
^^
i
,

-I*
r r
19. It may be removed and varied —1 and 10.

^^^m > f:l^^t k^ it!!!uj_,i*i-

zjt=iM=^z*
gFH!=^

20. It may be removed and curtailed —1 and T.

r^_-^=^^:^=.=-=p4^--f-.-^^
150 MELODIC ACCENTS.

23. It may be contracted and enlarged —2 and 6.

&
I
¥=^ :f=^=^ss T !» 1
<9-

24. It may be contracted and diminished — 2 and 6.

^^^S^M
25. It may be contracted and curtailed —2 and 7.

#--2- ^* r
-
^r~^f — r"

26. It may be contracted and lengthened — 2 and 3.

27. It
^^mm
may be extended and added to —2 and
fsr
9.
^

U
^^^^ie£m^z^^^
It
-b»i—

W-
*—»<-
^
r
28. It may be extended and inverted — 3 and 4.

i fei^-f=4^
It :

p "^#:^r^-js^
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 151

29. It may be extended and enlarged — 3 and 5.

i—J.-— -I

30. Tt may be extended and diminished —3 and 6.

f^l
^ r"? J

31. It may be extended and curtailed — 3 and 7.

Fp=|=
r
^i ^

To save space, I give the rest of this enumeration without illus-

trations.

32. A theme may be extended and lengthened — 3 and 8.

38. A theme may be extended and added to— 3 and 9.

34. A theme may be inverted and curtailed—4 and 7.
35. A theme may be inverted and lengthened i and 8.
36. A theme may be inverted and added to—4 and 9.
37. A theme may be enlarged and curtailed— 5 and 7.
38. A theme may be enlarged and lengthened— 5 and 8.

39. A theme may be enlarged and added to— 5 and 9.

40. A theme may be diminished and curtailed — 6 and 7.

41. A theme may be diminished and lengthened— 6 and 8.

42. A theme may be diminished and added to— and 9. '6

43. A theme may be curtailed and lengthened—7 and 8.

44. A theme may be curtailed and added to— 7 and 9.

45. A theme may be lengthened and added to — 8 and 9.
153 MELODIC ACCENTS.

4. Three Combined Modes.

46. A theme —
may be removed, contracted, and inverted 1 2 4..
4T. A —
theme may be removed, extended, and inverted 1 3 4.
48. A theme may be removed, enlarged, and inverted— 1 5 4.
49. A —
theme may be removed, diminish-ed, and inverted 1 6 4.
50. A —
theme may be removed, inverted, and cm-tailed 1 4 Y.
51. A —
theme may be removed, inverted, and lengthened 1 4 8.
52. A theme may be removed, inverted, and added to—1 4 9.
53. A theme may be contracted, inverted, and enlarged— 2 4 5.
54. A theme may be contracted, inverted, and diminished — 2 4 6.
55. A theme may be contracted, inverted, and curtailed— 2 4 7.
56. A theme may be contracted, inverted, and lengthened — 2 4 8.
57. A theme may be contracted, inverted, and added to — 2 4 9.
58. A theme may be extended, inverted, and enlarged— 3 4 5.
59. A theme may be extended, inverted, and diminished— 3 4 6.
60. A theme may be extended, inverted, and curtailed—3 4 7.
61. A theme —
may be extended, inverted, and lengthened 3 4 8.

62. A theme —
may be extended, inverted, and added to 3 4 9.
63. A theme —
may be enlarged, curtailed, and lengthened 5 7 8.

64. A theme —
may be enlarged, curtailed, and added to 5 7 9.
65. A theme may be diminished, curtailed, and lengthened 6— 7 8.

66. A theme —
may be diminished, curtailed, and added to 6 7 9.

67. A theme —
may be curtailed, lengthened, and added to 7 8 9.

5. Four Combined Modes.

68. A theme may be removed, contracted, inverted, and enlarged-
12 4 5.

69. A theme may be removed, contracted, inverted, and diminished-

12 4 6.

70. A theme may be removed, contracted, inverted, and curtailed-

12 4 7.

71. A theme may be removed, contracted, inverted, and lengthened-

12 4 8.

72. A theme may be removed, extended, inverted, and enlarged-

13 4 5.

73. A theme may be removed, extended, inverted, and diminished-

13 4 6.
 THEMATIC ACCENTS. 153;

7.i. A theme may be removed, extended, inverted, and curtailed

13 4 7.

75. A theme may be removed, extended, inverted, and lengthened

13 4 8.

16. A theme may be contracted, inverted, enlarged, and curtailed^

2 4 5 7.

77. A theme may be contracted, inverted, enlarged, and lengthened

2 4 5 8.

78. A theme may be contracted, inverted, enlarged, and added to

2 4 5 9.

79. A theme may be contracted, inverted,, diminished, and curtailed

2 4 6 7.

80. A theme may be contracted, inverted, diminished, and lengthened

2 4 6 8.

81. A theme may be contracted, inverted, diminished, and added to

2 4 6 9.

82. A theme may be contracted, inverted, curtailed, and lengthened

2 4 7 8.

83. A theme may be contracted, inverted, lengthened, and added to

2 4 8 9.

84. A theme may be enlarged, curtailed, lengthened, and added to

5 7 8 9.

85. A theme may be diminished, curtailed, lengthened, and added to

6 7 8 9.

5. Five Combined Modes of Transformation.

86. It may be removed, contracted, inverted, enlarged, and length-

ened—! 2 4 5 8.

87. It may be removed, contracted, inverted, enlarged, and added to

12 4 5 9.

And so on.

I take this enumeration from Lobe's " Compositions-Lehre " ("Wei-

mar, 1844), giving it without alteration or addition, excepting the illus-

tration.
Although this is, by no means, an exhaustive enumeration, it conveys a
fair idea of the extent and capabilities of thematic work, and is more than
sufficient for the present purpose.
 :

154 MELODIC ACCENTS.

Most of these modes are classed and taught under " Imitations" these
being part of contrapuntal study, preceding fugues and canons.
Imitations are either strict or free.
When both the value and the steps of each note are precisely imitated,
it is called strict imitation ; otherwise, it is free imitation.
The former is naturally restricted, while the latter is almost boundless,
reaching to an extent where the imitation leaves hardly a trace of the
original theme,and the transformation ceases almost to be an imitation.
To all those interested in, and desirous
of, becoming familiar with

thematic work, I recommend Lobe's excellent treatise, which deserves to,

and probably would, be more generally known, were it not overshadowed
by the author's later and greater work, entitled also " Compositions-
Lehre," published in four volumes, at Leipzig.

CHAPTEE VL
ACCENTS OP EXTREMES.

nV /TUSIO, more particularly, melody, being a succession of ascending and

-^-*~ descending sounds, must now and then in its motion reach some
extreme high or low point, on which it is natural that the voice should lay
an especial stress.

This stress —here called accent of extremes— is generally the culminat-

ing point of a crescendo.
By when ascending, and
a natural law, the stress of the voice increases
decreases when descending yet this rule has its exceptions as well as any
;

other rule. The very opposite may be necessary. Descending notes may
require a crescendo, and ascending ones a diminuendo; therefore, the
lower extreme has also a right to emphasis.
It seems hardly necessary to explain " extremes," yet I will illustrate
them symbolically, thus
 ACCENTS OF EXTREMES. 155

In this zig-zag motion, the turning-points are not all accented, at least
not so perceptibly as to deserve the name of accent ; because a melodic —
accent being like a knot in the thread of melody which is tied for the pur-
—
pose of calling attention to it too many knots, or accents, would rather
mar than improve the thread of melody.
"When a crescendo has reached the culminating point, which it is neces-
sary tomark by special emphasis, it is desirable also, and quite natural,
that this extreme point should be slightly dwelt upon, in addition to the
given emphasis.
This imparts to the accented point a more pronounced emphasis than
it is possible to give without it.

But dwelling on the accented extreme must not be exaggerated ; for

example

WEBER— CONCBRTSTtJCK, Op. 79.

s* * +-«!-. ^
±^ !-« !-«-)-«f-«-l-
-^-^t-^- f^-r- _^_t-«-
d== r

i t.-t S==! i l l

ff ^f

=^t=p: if^

Anothei means of increasing the effect of extreme accents is that of

which falls on the extreme point, be succeeded
letting the emphatic force,
by suddenly diminished strength, instead of by a general diminuendo /
for example
 ; : ; ; :

156 MELODIC ACCENTS.

MENDELSSOEQf— Concerto, Op. 25 (G-Minor).

>
>

, f £^ ^^ t:^^ ^gjg:^ gl^^ A^^ g^jgg tttf:

fP
* b*

1^*
"^H*-
Sf.
9!te Se :^i=t:

#
^^^^p^g^
Observe now the motion of the two last examples

The ereacendo culminates in a slightly

Wbbbk. sustained fortissimo, succeeded by a

'vm/iA/^/wiAA. diminuendo.

The crescendo culminates in a slightly

Mendelssohn. cut-off forte, and is succeeded by a sud-

den piano.
-tp

When, in giving an extreme accent, these means are combined, viz.

when
1st. The culminating point of a crescendo is strongly accented
2d. A slight dwelling on the accented note is added
3d. And the emphatic force of the accented point is succeeded by sud-
denly diminished strength

then, the effect is of the most pronoitnced kind, even if the performer has
only very little strength at his disposal.
For it is never so much the banging and pounding of undisciplined
crude force, which produces such good effects, as the judicious and calcu-
lating grading of strength, the holding back, until the right moment
arrives.
 ACCENTS OF EXTEBMES. 157

The dwelling upon, or rather, prolongation of a note is a necessitj to

an extreme accent ; without it, the impression would be that of a passing
crescendo, instead of an accented point.
It is not, however, so much the dwelling upon a note, or the sustaining
of it, which is needed, as the prolongation of the accented point. There is
considerable distinction in this.

For, instead of sustaining the accented extreme note, the latter is fre-

quently cut short, like a sharp smack, and then prolonged by a waiting, viz.,
the note is cut short, the time on the extreme point is prolonged. This
necessitates a slight accelerando and shortening of some of the succeeding
notes, in order to make up for loss of time. See, for example, the follow-
ing from Mendelssohn

Composer's Notation. Altered Notation.

>

According to the alteration, the first note of the group belongs to the
preceding slur and is a terminating extreme, instead of a commencing
one, as in Mendelssohn's notation.
Although such alteration is occasionally of good effect, as in the above
example, yet it is always a liberty taken with the composition, wiich
should only sparingly be resorted to.

The accessory means of marking extreme points, by shortening and

prolonging them, may be quite justifiable occasionally, but must not be
abused, as it so frequently is.

About the time when Schulhoff 's once favorite, " Souvenir de Yarso-
vie," appeared (twenty-five years ago), was quite the fashion to throw
it

off, so to say, the extreme point of ascending runs, and then pause a mo-

ment. But, like most fashiions, this method became exaggerated to such an
extent, that it reached the height of affectation, and, fortimately, was
checked by an awakening better taste.
No nation abused this way of shortening little runs, and pausing after
it, so much as the French and no composer's works suffered by it so
;

much as Chopin's for example

; :
 — : ;

158 MELODIC ACCENTS.

CHOPIN—Valse, Op. posthumous, No. 4 (Op. 69, No. 1).

^a^a^^^^^gEg^ etc.

This little waltz has three ascending runs of a similar character

— —
m f=E§z^E*=it
's
• '^^
bi. K— 1
ff

These runs illustrate admirably the excessive affectation, with which

the pianoforte-playing public used to spoil such passages, through prolong-

ing beyond measure the little rest, 2 after the extreme note.
, (I cite this
example, in memory of personal aiHictions of this sort during a residence
in France.)
Excessive waiting, after a shortened point, is always bad ; while the
little pause, when given in moderation, has a beautiful effect.
The shortening of an extreme note may be quite necessary, even when
not indicated, or when the contrary is indicated for example ;

CHOPIN—Valse, Op. 64, No. 1.

P-Q__u_^_ — ^ , I
I—i-H I I
i-T-j- I I i-l-T—I—I—!—l"T~i r s-'^'--,

The shortening of the extreme B-flat (which is not Chopin's notation)

gives a finish, a certain cachet to the ascending passage, which seems to
 ACCENTS OP EXTREMES. 159

me so natural and indispensable, that I cannot believe Chopin could have

intended it to be otherwise.

His own slurring,

|
.jjj^^^^' , cannot be correct.

because the B-flat evidently terminates the run, and could not be preceded
by a break on the G-flat, as Chopin's notation calls for. Hence, the B-flat
should be included in the slur.
It is another thing, however, with the second B-flat, two measures fur-
ther on. There, the slur, instead of ending, commences a phrase, and the
B-flat is not shortened.
Another contrast would be that of playing this little ascending run,
the second time, diminuendo.

The shortening of an extreme note is also efiectively employed as a

means of giving new and pith to extreme
force points, when similar
groups or passages are repeated for example ; :

CHOPIN—Vaise, Op. 34.

First time.

i»^
As a rule, any group or Jigui'e, when repeated, should he rendered in
a different way, to avoid sameness.
This is especially necessary when any little phrase or figure occurs
three or more times in succession. (See, for example, Chopin's Fourth
Prelude, which, simple as it appears, requires very serious study with re-
spect to discrimination of strength.)
One repetition unchanged, might pass but two repetitions without a
;

change become monotonous, and necessitate alteration.

Such alteration may be an augmentation or diminution of emphasis,
a lengthening or shortening of the extremes, etc.
In the majority of cases, it is that of increasing intensity toward the
last repetition, such as : piano, mezzoforte, forte.
 : : :

160 MELODIC ACCENTS.

But the alteration may be made in many oliher ways, as the occasion
demands, and without following any stereotyped rule.
So far I have considered these accents of extremes as referring solely
to the highest and lowest notes of runs and passages ; their range, how-
ever, is a much more extended one, for one may aimost include in them
the next class of melodic accents.

CHAPTEE VII.

ACCENTS OF SLURS.

HERE, likewise, the extremes are accented. Not, however, the high-
est and lowest notes; but the first and last, or the opening and
Unishing notes, in any slurred group.
Although a slur, in its general meaning, is simply a legato indication,
yet (in lack of amore appropriate collective sign) it has also the special
function of grouping together a number of notes into a unity, which we
call a phrase.
The accentuation of a ^lurred phrase may be exemplified by the throw-
ing of a stone
> Motion. >
a . a
The opening and finishing notes, or the two extremes of the slur, are

the strong and accented points.

The opening extreme has the energy of throwing ; the terminal note,
that of contact ; and the legato motion within should be as smooth and
even as the flight of the stone.
The accents on the opening and finishing points envelop the motion
and define the limit of the slur, by denoting the limit audibly.
The two extreme points, however, are not of equal force.
The opening point is strong, when falling on a strong time-part

And weak, when falling on a weak time-part

 ACCENTS OF SLUES. 161

In a like mariner, the endings are either strong or weak, in accordance

with the time-parts they fall on.

FIRST RULE.

a. Strong beginnings and endings of slurred groups are al/ways ac-

cented.

This is explicit enough.

b. Weak
beginnings of slurred groups are accented only when com-
mencing a leading subject, and descending.

This I exemplify by the following illustrations :

WEBER Rondeau of Sonata, Op. 24, in C-Major

^^^^^^ 5§3E3
E^S
WEBER—RONDEATJ Bkillant, Op. 62.

tfL-n^^

grazioso.

c. Weak endings are never accented.

The opening note of a slur, when accented, has the weight of touch,
drawing after it, so to say, the succeeding notes; of course, decreasingly.

The mechanical operation is this : The touch comes down on the keys
from the arm, with or without the aid of the wrist ; and, while the fingers
alone are playing (without pressure), the arm follows the direction of the
fingers.

"When the initial note is not accented, the touch begins gently and in-
creases toward the culminating point of the slur, which is either in the
centre, or at the end of the slur, viz.

either so, Z , or so.

11
 —
163 MELODIC ACCENTS.

But the most important thing to be observed in a slurred phrase

more important even than the accent denoting its beginning is the short- —
ening of the final note, in order to denote the termination of the phrase.

SECOND RULE.

The final note of slurred groujjs, whether accented or not, should he

shortened to about one-half of its noted value.

This rule has few exceptions.

To terminate a phrase comprehensively, it is absolutely necessary to
shorten the final note.
If the final note were not shortened, but sustained, this sustaining
would prevent or suspend the termination, anid necessitate a drawing-over
to the next note, or still further, until a rest were reached, where the finger
could be raised and a cessation of sound effected. Hence, the final note
is only then really terminal, when followed by a rest. And it follows, that
a slur (as phrase-indication) should not terminate with a note that is to
be sustained, but should end either before or after a sustained note.

For example, this slurring,

f f f f I F , is faulty ; for it does not effect

a perfect termination, and, to be correct, should be either so,

p ^ ^ ^
I P ,

or so, rrrr >

or so, r r r r \\ "^^ etc.
\\ f
A considerable part of musical interpunction depends on a due observ-
ance of this rule, and if composers were to follow it, their slurring would
be more exact and rational than it now is.

If it be irrational to terminate a slur with a sustained note, or a note

prolonged beyond its value, it is also irrational to terminate the slur with
a long note, viz. : a longer one than that preceding the final note.

THIRD RULE.

It is a natural, though unwritten law, that the terminating note of a

slurred group shall he shorter than the preceding one, or, at least, shall

not surpass it in length.

Starting from this rule, the slur is best terminated when the final note
is the shortest of the group ; whereas the termination becomes less and less

definite, less precise, less satisfactory in proportion as the final note in-

creases in duration.
 ACCENTS OP SLURS. 163

Compare, for example, the following slur-terminations

1. This is best

2. This is good

3. This is allowable :

4. This is doubtful

5. This is bad ;

Here the excep-

tions come in.
6. This is worse

Nos. 1 and 2 of these terminations do not require explanation.

No. 3 is " allowable," because, the final note being shortened to one-
. half of its noted value, it becomes thus reduced to equal the value of the
preceding note. /
J^o. i. This sltirring is only doubtfully correct as a phrase-indication,
but may pass as a legato-mdica.tioii, especially when in practice the final
note is shortened a little more than half its value.
Beethoven, who may be taken as a pattern of correct slurring, gen-
erally avoids it, though he employs it occasionally, when he cannot other-
wise indicate a legato. For example •

Sonata, Op. 14. Sonata Pathetiqtte.

Sefe ii^^
i f=^P I^Zt: 4
JSTos. 5 and 6. But, when the final note is of such disproportionate
length as here (eight, or sixteen times as long as the preceding note), the
slurring is either

a. Wrong., because not being far enough extended, or too far extended.
h. Or it is incorrect, because belonging to the few exceptions where it

can be logically accounted for.

These exceptions will be discussed further on. For the present, I shall

exemplify a few cases where the composer's slurring is incorrect.

 — :

164 MELODIC ACCENTS.

I. The Slurring not being far enough Extended.

MENDELSSOHN— Capriccio Brillante, Op. 23.

Incorrect.

Correct.

^^^E^^&=Z=bi^^t= etc.

sf >~ p

WEBER Invitation to the Dance.

^ j-^^S^F^^^gE should be
Incorrect."
so,
^^^^^ Correct.

A slur may also be extended to a rest ; for example

CHOPIN—Ballade, Op. 33.

fc^r?=4=^
I ^:9:
S&
-3=f=X

Would not this slurring be more correct ?-

^^ ——
2^^rp=i=p
8—4 « 1-*
-O-
f=:--giziz?__g-L
-•—h—»— T-'*-

It is certainly quite logical, and suggests itself naturally to the intelli-

gent performer.

2. The Slurring being too far Extended,

The following illustrations are from Klindworth's edition of Chopin.

 ACCENTS OF SLURS. 165

Maeche Fxmi)BRB, Op. 35.

The Slurring, as written :

^g^=^
=
^fft^i^ F=saBte --^

As it ought to be :

g^P=^am^&g ^g^^ :?z==5=

NOCTUKNB, Op. 9, No. 2.

As written

rt^ as _:^ii^S7!f
?=zr=?E=
i ^^3t -h—t—

^
As it ought to be :

2: - 1?^

^r=?= :t=f:

NOCTUHNE, Op. 9, No. 2.

As written :

—h—i-^l—-tJ^i—^h-
H1===B -f-^ Zi=3ll

%^W=£ ^^^^^^^
As it ought to be :

i^lfl^^|*Lifi •^1-

NOCTUKKE, Op. 9, No. 3.

As written : As it ought to be ;

1^ ^^^
-#-^» :?z=

l^r-^^-^-
W4
^ l
 : — —

166 MELODIC ACCENTS.

Sonata, Op. 58.

^
I
r
r

These are only small instances, but such may be counted by the thou-
sand, and are to be met with in almost all pianoforte works.
Schumann is very careful in his slurring Chopin is less so. Only
;

Beethoven is here, as in other cases, a rare example of correctness.

Glancing through Beethoven's sonatas (latest Breitkopf and Hartel
edition), with a view of discovering any little misuses of slurs, I have
failed in finding any which could not be logically accounted for for ex- ;

ample :

Sonata Pathbtiqtjb.

Beethoven's Way of Slurring. Alteration of several revised Editions.

'^--^-
EFE
1^^^
^ m
-•-te-

X The extension of the slur becomes

correct, when in actual practice the final
note is so shortened as to be' equal to the
previous one.

———
' I —"
—\ s ! »-r

IH
1-^
:^=«:
-'-•5*-
*s*-

The extension of the slur is subject to the

same condition as in the previous example.

We may, finally, accept the following principle

The slur extension to a longer note them the last hut one is correct,
when the last note admits of heing shortened to at least the equal duration of
 ACCENTS OF SLUES. 167

its preceding note. Where the last note does not admit of such shortening,
tJie slurring is either wrong, or ielongs to those which require a
exceptions
logical foundation.

EXCEPTIONS.

1. The first allowable case, where a slur may logically end with a much
longer note than the preceding one, and where the final note is empha-
sized with a weighty, pai-tly sustained touch, is the ending of a group with
an iamhic foot, P p, -~^ — , which has abeady been explained.

Such an iambus, instead of appearing separately (as a group of two

may be adjoined to any number of preceding notes these and the
notes), ;

iambus forming together a slurred phrase of which the iambus is the ter-
minating foot for example ;

BEETHOVEN— Sonata Appassionata, Op. 57.

^T¥=^^=^- -f — ^-
^"^^ "
¥ -Jtz

The phrase ends with this iambus, \

'^
f ^ , which is instinctively

executed, as here indicated, viz., with the insertion of a short break; and
it would really be technically impossible to render the repetition, in
octaves, otherwise.

M^
i EF?:
E
All iambic phrase-endings are, of course, similarly treated in perform-
ance ; for example

CHOPIN—NOCTUENB, Op. 37, No. 1.

ffeg^S^^^SiS
BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 10, No. 3.

^i^^^^sp
 : :

168 MELODIC ACCENTS.

Iambic phrase-terminations occur as frequently in music as in poetry.

They are the natural contrast to the more general trochaic endings, and
justify many a phrase-slurring which would otherwise be a violation of the
general rule.
2. The second exception is a sustained bass note, at the end of a de-
scending passage, or phrase ; for example

CHOPIN—Ballade, Op. 23.

ma ir
:^s^ hcsb

Zr -Tt.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 10, No. 3.

^FpnB=^ I2ZI ^-
^3^
r r 5
Such a bass note cannot be curtailed, for harmonic reasons.
Thisway of slurring, however, is not perfectly correct, although usage
has made it legitimate. Yet it might be easily avoided, and so altered as
to meet all requirements.
To prove this, I take the examples given above.
In Chopin's descending passage (as in other similar ones) the sustained

bass note, at the end of the slur, is not really the terminating not& of the
phrase, but the initial note of a new (the next) phrase, and falling acci-
dentally together with the final note of the previous phrase, as here exem-
pMed

Chopin. -^—.•-«

Bbbthovbn.
 ACCENTS OF SLUES. 169'

In orchestral or polyphonous music, such descending phrases would be

terminated with a proportionately short note; while the sustained note,
commencing the next phrase and falling together with the terminating
note of the previous phrase, would be taken up by another voice or instru-
ment. In pianoforte music, however, these two voices are drawn into one
note, to save the trouble of writing two notes. This has become legiti-
mate by long usage, but is, nevertheless, averse to the laws of slurring.
Looking upon the case from a strictly logical standpoint, there is na
escaping from the fact, that, when a slur ends with a sustained note, the
slurring is somewhere defective.
3. The third exception is accounted for by the ornaments of melody.

Musical ornamentation is, in one sense, the division of one (the main)
note into a number of smaller ones ; for example :

This note, T , is ornamented (or divided), thus ;

— ^ «
I \ I

ev9

-£Ef^'

Now, inasmuch as the total of ornamental notes represents, rhythmic-

ally, the value of the ornamented main note alone, the whole of such a
group is really as much a unit as the one note originating the group.
When, group of ornamental notes precedes the terminating
therefore, a
note of a slur, the whole group may be considered as one note one value. —
The slurring thus receives a new scope of freedom, and yet Rule 3 is,
logically, not violated.
According to this principle, terminations like the following may be
considered as equalling the opposite ones.

jVt^

equalling this
 :: : : I

170 MELODIC ACCENTS.

CHOPIN— Op. 27, No. 3.

Sva.'

equalling this
|6g
and so on.

Arpeggios may be counted as chords and, therefore, do not infringe the

rules of slurring ; for example

CHOPIN—BAiiLADE, Op. 47.

t!^*

P^ -t--
t^=t:
-+- **-. i^L.
-f-tfc
^-i- !->-
it=t=t=t::
—

In cases, where the intervals of a chord are employed melodically, as

in the following example

CHOPIN—Ballad, Op. 23.

;es:
iPfp=f=r- e==2:
5=*
-,_^_
s^
T
I— ?
the intervals may also be considered as an arpeggio, or the slurring as
falling under the last exception, viz., by taking the harmonic notes col-
lectively, and considering this figure :

X -^f-
1^1
as being substantially this

^:=k-
^»(^
T—T
 QUANTITATIVE ACCENTS. 171

Notwithstanding exceptions, it is in every case, and always remains, a

necessity to shorten the final note of all slilrred groups sufficiently to pro-
duce a comprehensible break because, without a break, a final note is not
;

final, and there is no termination and without a termination there is no

;

phrasing.

CHAPTEE YIII.

QUANTITATIVE ACCENTS.

T
I
^HESE are as imperative and important as grammatical accents.
-L They are, properly speaking, rhythmical, arising from the quantita^
tive function of rhythm, as grammatical accents arise from its qualitative
function. But I prefer to give them here under a melodic aspect, be-
cause, rhythmically, they are already covered, partly by positive gram-
matical, partly by syncopic accents.
The fundamental principle of quantitative accents arises out of the
near and natural relation which exists between quantity and dynamics, or
between duration and strength.

FIRST RULE.

Any note of longer duration than another requires dynamic prepon-

derance (i. e., accent) over the shorter note, in the same proportion that the
duration of the longer note hears to the duration of the shorter one.

In other words : strength goes with length.

The longer a note is, the more stress it requires.
On no other instrument is this principle so essential as on the piano-
forte ; for, to sustain a note on the pianoforte, it needs to be struck with
sufficient force to cause it to vibrate the required length of time ; and, as
a matter of course, the longer the note is, the more forcibly it has to be
struck.

1. Accenting on quantity—or length,

2. Accenting on quality— or strength,

are fundamental principles of accentuation. And, if we add

 : —

172 MELODIC ACCENTS.

3. Accenting on extremes,

and, as we see further on,

4. Accenting on dissonances,

we have thus four fundamental principles of musical accentuation.

I might have classified accentuation as well, perhaps, according to these
four principles, as in accordance with the four elements of music (rhythm,
metric, melody, and harmony). But, having chosen the latter classifica-
tion,and holding that to be, after all, the better one, I merely mention
here the importance of these four fundamental principles, that they may
be distinctly remembered as the basis of all accents.

Let us, now, see how this principle of accenting on quantity works in
practice, and in connection with slurs.

Groups of Two Slurred Notes.

a. When two slurred notes are of the same value, the fiirst note is

always weightily accented, and the second note is shortened.

This rule holds good for both notes ; it is immaterial, on what time-
part they fall. For example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 14.

|n=|$dg^
^^e:^ig^ F-»-|»-4 i-»-»-s-
=5^^— S—1«-
tztzt
Positive Accents.

f^^M^^^ ^^
^
-~ Negative Accents.

The slur denotes the accentuation; and a special sign, either of

forzando (>) for the first, or of shortness (•) for the second note, is
unnecessary.
1). "When two slurred notes are of different values, the larger note is

the accented one, and the smaller note is shortened ; immaterial, which of
the two notes comes first, or which conies last.
 QUANTITATIVE ACCENTS. 173

This is exemplified by the two opposite tact-feet

The trochee, ^ f executed thus and

, :
f "f "f ,

The iambus, f fi> , executed thus '

T 1 f
'

The shortening of a smaller note iefore a larger one is a new principle

to us, as we have hitherto shortened final notes only.
This new principle is of far greater force and consequence than, at
first sight, may be imagined.

Groups of Three Slurred Notes.

1. When the three notes are of equal value, quantitative considerations
are not at all needed.
2. When the three notes are of unequal value, the chief stress belongs
to the longest note.

—^— * ff This is wrong slurring, and should be thus : —f~P 'p

—^—^-^r- This coincides with syncopic rule.

—[g—» - This agrees with positive grammatical accents.

' I
I

The principle of giving dynamic prominence to quantity applies chiefly

to short groups of two or three notes, rarely to long groups.
In reference to the quality of quantitative accents, it has been stated, in
substance, that the stress of any note is proportioned to the duration of the
note.
A long note is a relative idea merely, inasmuch as even a short note

I
5 ) is long, when compared to a still shorter one j
5 or 5 1

Shorter, however, than any note is a rest, or silence.

Therefore, any note coming after a rest is always long, compared to the

preceding silence.

From this arises another kind of quantitative accent, and hence the fol-

lowing rule.
 : :

174 MELODIC ACCENTS.

SECOND RULE.
a. Any note preceded by a rest is to be considered as a long note, and
requires an accent.

The quality of such an accent is proportioned to the value of the

accented note ; for example

r '^
f ^ r

This rule opens an immense field for practical application, and requires
no special illustration.
As a consequence of this rule follows this appendix:

b. The note succeeding a slurred group is accented.

The final note of a slur being shortened, the succeeding note is, virtu-
ally, preceded by a rest ; for example :

Written. Bxeeuted.

This gives again an endless variety of examples.

Another consequence of the rule is this

c. A repeated note is accented.

Because a note, before being repeated, is shortened ; for example ;

'Written. Bxecuted.

As it is, same note twice, without

technically, impossible to strike the
shortening the first one, the repeated note is thus actually preceded by a
break or rest. It is from this fact, that all such cases are brought under
the present rule.
In singing, also, this rule is naturally observed.

Lucia. -
1^ ^^ ^ =r=^
 QUANTITATIVE ACCENTS. 175-

"What numberless times have we heard this hackneyed opening phrase

in Italian opera for example
; :

SONNAMBTTLA, SONNAMBULA.
> 5.
• —"^
•'

PrRATBS Ltjcia.

fej
-i«— *-4=*=P^
=t:i-t=t EE -^ H:=t
'vW=F- 5E=^=
g
and so on.

It is quite natural, that the oftener a note is repeated, the more the
accent loses in force. In all quick repetitions on the pianoforte, as in
Eosellen's sentimental "Reverie" and such like " Tremolos," the repeti-
tion notes cease altogether to be accented in conformity with the rule.
The observance of the present rule necessitates many a break at the
end of a slur, which, though generally self-suggesting, ought, nevertheless,
to be clearly —at all events, correctly —
indicated by the slurring for ex- ;

ample :

WEBER—Sonata, Op. 49 (in D-Minor):

The Coimposer's Slurring. As it ought to he. As executed.

: i!^^g^i^^ife»-#^f^
The Composer's Slurring. As it ought to he.

#»* Pf
In accenting repeated notes, it should be remembered that the short-
ening of the note 'preceding the accent is as important, and even more
essential, than the accent itself for example ,•
 :: :

176 MELODIC ACCENTS.

CHOPIN—Concerto in E-MDroK, Op. 11.

Core espreesione.

m r~r~rj- 1=t
CHOPIN—Pkeludb,
3=

No. 11.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 53.

The abbreviation of a note (before repeating it) differs greatly as to the

degree of its shortening.
The degree of such shortening depends on tempo, and the abbreviation
should agree with the rule of appoggiaturas, which says
" The slower the movement, the shorter should ie the appoggiatura?'

Written

eS:s:
J<
^-.
J^»-.—w¥¥¥^^
it=t
^-
Ada^w, Moderato. AUegro con nwto. Presto.

Executed

-^
-nnnsr- i^
,^,^_^ ; — *•*-/ r^=t^ -^^
(E. D. Wagner— " MusikaMsche
^
Ornamentik.")
i±

Applying this rule of appoggiaturas to repetition notes, which is per-

fectly sound, we establish the maxim that
The note preceding its own repetilion is always shortened more or less,

correspondingly to the tempo heing slow or fast.

But we can go still farther.
The principle of abbreviation is evidently an essential principle of
quantitative accentuation, as embodied in the following rule.
 QUANTITATIVE ACCENTS. 177

THIRD BtTLE.

A note 'preceding a longer note than itself, or preceding its own repeti-
tion, is shortened to about one-^half its value.
This shortening is regulated by the tempo in such a way, that, the
slower the movement, the more the note is to be shortened, and vice versa ;
for example
BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 36.

^
Written.
Maestoso Andante.

:5=PT^
^iiiifeg§L^j

Played.
Maestoso Andante.

^ i
fel^sne^iiB^fcig ^i^
BEETHOVEN— Sonata Pathetique.
Written. Played.
Grave.

fe
Written.
Grave.

p ^ r ^ I
4^ ^-5 ff

Grave.
^> .. —
.>

m£^ L_i rr^^ f/^

Such abbreviations are as necessary as they are historically correct.

They are in accordance with the precepts of the older masters, notably
Bach, Handel, etc., and Yon Biilow points them especially out in his

edition of the Sonata Pathetique.

13
 : : :

178 MELODIC ACCENTS.

This rule has, however, the following exceptions :

The note preceding a longer one is not shortened, i. e., there is no rest
or break after it.

1. In all cases of appoggiaturas ; for example

executed thus,

-^-^-•-
I

2. Or in any legato group in which the break, occasioned by the short-

ening of the last but one note, would be detrimental to the unity of the
group and the desired legato ; for example

-p—•-

As a general guidance, it may be stated that the rule has exclusively

reference to two notes only, viz. : the shortened one and the succeeding
longer note, with the object of making these two notes appear as an iam-
bus, but not otherwise intei'fering with the unity of a legato group or
phrase.
As to its application, I subjoin the following additional examples

MOZAET— Sonata in B-Plat.

THALBERG— Andante.

fea ^^ ^~
• —a-
'^rr-r •=•
 QUANTITATIVE ACCENTS. 17a

CHOPIN—Ballade in A-Flat.

fe^^-^j-^ etc.

To better perceive the point I wisii to convey through these examples,

they should be compared with the original notation.

I have given only a few illustrations of quantitative accents and the ;

whole subject has been passed over more rapidly than its importance
might seem to warrant. But, as its rules are so simple and their application
so self-evident, I thought it unnecessary to add any further explanation.
Moreover, the subject of quantitative stress will be taken up again in
the subsequent chapter of dynamics. But I feel bound to repeat here that
quantitative stress, viz., the regulation of stress in touch, according to the
quantity of the note —the proportioning of the one to the proportions of
the other— ^is of the utmost significance to touch and musical accentuation
in general, and to intellectual interpretation in particular.
 — : : ;

PART lY.
HARMOWIO ACCENTS.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

HARMONY, in its most general significance, means Concord, Accord

and, in a narrower sense, simply " Chord."
Accepting this definition as the most appropriate for our purpose, we
include in it the two opposite elements

CONSONANCE AND DISSONANCE.

Consonance is " and dissonance, " disagreement." " The

agreement ;"

exact limit of consonance, or the point where dissonance begins, seems

not definitely fixed, if fixed it can be. To define consonance to be agree-
able sounds, and dissonance the reverse, as some do, is clearly absurd,
because they both essentially belong to harmony or concord, or, as the
Germans more properly call it, '
Die Kunst des Wohlklanges,' in which
there can be nothing absolutely discordant."
The general significance of consonance, however, is confined to con-
cording intervals ; and that of dissonance, to discprding intervals.
The concording (or consonating) intervals are
Every octave, perfect fifth, perfect fourth, major and minor third, and
major and minor sixth.
The discording (or dissonating) intervals are
1. Every second, seventh, and ninth.
2. Every augmented and diminished interval.

Inasmuch as consonance and dissonance presuppose the simultaneous

sound of two or more notes, it is evident, that, when either of these terms
is applied to a single tone, it can only be in reference to the harmonic

relation of that single tone ; for, without such relation, a single tone is

neither concording nor discording, but simply true or false (in pitch).
 INTRODtJCTOEY REMARKS. 181

Chords are either consonant or dissonant.

They are consonant, when all the intervals are consonating among
themselves, as well as collectively, counted from the bass note ; for ex-
ample :

A chord of three notes, to be consonant, must contain three consonant

intervals ; for example

cons. cons. cons. cons. cons. cons.

c e g] g b d; f a c.

One of four notes must contain six consonating intervals ; for example

cons. cons. cons. cons. cons. cons,

c e g c; d f a d.
cone. 1

1
183 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

The two elements of haruiony are not merely opposed to each other, as
concord and discord, but are antagonistic also in other respects.
Consonance is not only '-concord," "unity," "euphony," etc., but also
—
"repose," "quiescence," "rest," and is ^by nature soft, gentle, peaceful. —
Therefore, consonance does not require to he made prominent hy har-
monic accent (except where consonance appears dissonatingly).
Dissonance is not only "discord," dissent," "variance," etc., but also
—
a " disturbance," " challenge," "defiance," and by nature loud, energetic, —
contentious.
Hence, dissonance demands to be made prominent by harmonic accent
(except when dissonance has no harmonic value, as in passing notes).
Consequently, we recognize only " accents of dissonances."

CHAPTER IX.

ACCENTS OP DISSONANCES.

"~|V /TANY theorists believe that the feeling of dissatisfaction, produced by

-Lt-L the dissonances of music, arises from the mind not being able, with-
out difficulty, to comprehend at once the arithmetical proportions of the
vibrations. The foundation of dissonances, however, is generally allowed
to be more sesthetical than intellectual. In music, dissonance may be
called a necessary sesthetical evil, which is used for the purpose of pro-
ducing pleasing contrasts with their resolutions."
A
dissonance, in music, like a thorn in the flesh, something foreign,
is

which must be removed like defiance, it is

; something aggressive, which
must be appeased something contentious, which must be transmuted into
;

good understanding something jarring, which must be euphonized.

;

In fact, a dissonance must be converted into a consonance and this ;

conversion is called, in musical parlance, " resolving.''''

Resolving a dissonance means to cause it to progress by the nearest

step (upward or downward) to a consonating note.
A diatonical dissonance is resolved diatonically the nearest step down-
ward, which is either a tone or semitone.
A chromatic dissonance is resolved chromatically the nearest step up-
ward or downward, which is always a semitone.
 ACCENTS OF DISSONANCES. 183

Diatonic dissonances are : every second, seventh, and ninth, in whatever

diatonic scale ; for example, in C-major

Seconds. Sevenths.

ii^^^# i=p=P^^
Ninths.
0- *.
=t
^ r I
I '

In any of these intervals, it is either the upper or the lower note which
dissonates. In either case, the dissonance is resolved the nearest diatonic
fitep downward for example
;

Seconds.

SES
Good.
^^^mGood. Bad.

Sevenths.

-^—*-±- — 4-
»i-

Good. Bad.

The ninths are treated like the seconds.

Chromatic dissonances are more numerous. It is not necessary to
enumerate these, and any diatonical interval becomes
sufficient to state that

a chromatic dissonance by being augmented (raised), or diminished (low-

ered). As this can only be done by an accidental (|, x, b, W, tf), a chromatic

dissonance is necessarily an accidental note (although not every accidental
note is a dissonance).
The naUiiral laws of resolving accidental intervals are these

1. Any accidental sharp (fl)

or double sharp (x) resolves upward, in con-
tinuation of its ascending tendency.
2. Any flat (?) or double flat (S^b) resolves downward, in continuation

of its downward tendency.

3. A natural (J})
resolves either way.
 : :

184 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

a. In a scale with sharps, where it lowers, it follows its downward pul-

sion, by descending.
i. In a scale with flats, where it raises, it follows its upward drift, by
ascending.

There are, however, exceptional cases when accidentals are not neces-
sarily so resolved. These are the following:

"When an accidental is .a consonance.

1.

2. "When more than one accidental occurs in dissonant chords for ex- ;

ample, in the chord of the diminished seventh, where only one of the acci-
dentals is regularly resolved (upward), while the other may proceed either
way ; for example

^1!- V4
^t
^=g m^ f. -Mz

f
^M
3. "When an accidental is interchanged from one voice to another, it is

sufficient, that the last-coming dissonance is regularly resolved.

r * ^^^u

4.
Hekselt.

When
f^^^^ =te^E
»-*-

the same dissonating note occurs in more than one harmonic

^
-^
^

part simultaneously, only one of the dissonating notes resolves regularly,

while the other one proceeds in an opposite direction.

.
rg_ rn:im
i =1=
%
In dissonating sequences, or sequences of dissonances- which will be
5.

explained under " Anticipation," further on for example ;

i0m^^^4 r-^:

*f
 ACCENTS OF DISSONANCES. 185-

Without accidentals, a composition would remain in the same key,

while the introduction of an accidental is the advent of one of three things.
1. The accidental note may be merely an accessory (passing) note of
no harmonic value.
Or, through the accidental a direct change may occur into another
2.

consonant chord, when the accidental is a consonance.

3. Or, the accidental may effect a modulation, when it is a dissonance,',
modulating dissonance virtually, a leading note, a sort of
specifically a ;

bridge from one diatonic to the next over the intervening semitone. For
example
An accidental C|f is the leading or modulating note to D,
" "
Ci^ " " " " to Eb-, etc.

"With the hope of explaining all this more clearly, I give a practical
illustration pointing out the progression of every dissonance and accidental,
note therein.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 37, No. 3.

Adagio Sostenuto.

n 3 4 5 6 7 8 ^^__ 1(
Jt tiii

^;
»-'
— itt^
^"^ —^-0
> -+-*tr—^-^
* 5
I — «-l
— «-l *-i — «-;
•; — rf — f — f — F\
— I

j
I I

iil a: "5
:3=
H:
-251- IF
1. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh, dissonating witti tlie key-note C-sbarp ; descends.
2. Consonance. Key-note of D-major,
3. Consonance. Major third, ascends,
4. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh, descends.
5. Diatonic dissonance. Retardation of the previous C-sharp ;
dissonates as lower
second with D-sharp, resolves downward to B-sharp.
6. Consonance. (The chord being G-sharp, B-sharp, D-sliarp.)

7. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh, descends.

8. Consonance. Major third, ascends.

9. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh of the key-note G-sharp, descends in next measure.

186 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

* S — »•
#--
j -r
a — -a- m
——a-r-g^9 —-; —
-m i
F 3^1^ ^ ^ ^
- - -a

tP tP t5' cP p^ Cl-'

lite
3=
^=
S IS2Z
I
2

P: ^^§b=::^g=iS^ ^
7:
^
^h- m i
¥^
^
^^

1. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh, descends.

3. Consonance. Direct change from E-major to E-minor.
3. The key being E-minor, this D is a consonance belonging to the G-major chord.
4. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh, descends.
5 and 6. Consonance.
7. Consonance, according to notation ; but, a diatonic dissonance (seventh), if the nota-
tion is erroneous. (See 8.)
8. This B-natural was probably an engraver's fault originally, and, very strangely, has

never been rectified in any edition. There is no reason why the previous C-nat. should
descend to this B, and form octaves with the bass while it would be altogether more
;

Beethoven-like if the C remained, and then ascended to the next C-sharp.

Either so,

'0^ V^ fp t^
mm.
w^ww ^%=r

mF p^ r-r M-

9. Chromatic dissonance. Ground-note of diminished septime chord, A-sharp, C-sharp,

B, Q ; becomes a major third (or leading-note) in the last quarter of the measure, and then
ascends.
10. Chromatic dissonance. Diminished seventh, descends.
 ACCENTS OP DISSONANCES. 187

11. Consonance.
13. Consonance. Key-note of dominant septime chord, P-sharp, A-sharp, C-sharp, E.
13. Diatonic dissonance. Seventh, descends.

im ZJSZ.

^^-ms
^

sfi # r
v s - ' * *" —
'-•i ^=^1•—
I

fe^i
'X
^ w i
^^LJ^^cr^'srs'sj'^D^ararT

I. Consonance. Minor third.

3. Consonance. (Minor third) having a strongly dissonating eflFect because, disso-

nating with the C-sharp, it naturally resolves downward (following its tendency). (See 4.)

3. Consonance. Perfect fifth, but dissonating (as lower second) with the C-sharp ;
it

resolves downward.
4. Interchange between treble and bass (see 3). As a lowered sharp, this chromatic
interval follows its downward tendency by descending.

5. Consonance.
6. Consonance. Direct change from minor to major.
7. Chromatic dissonance. Ninth, descends.
8 and 9. Consonancef
10. Chromatic dissonance. Ascends. (This is an accessory note, or a free suspension
interposed between the previous C-natural and its resolution B.)

II. Consonance.
The dissonances in the next measure are repetitions of 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11.

It is not necessary to proceed further with this illustration ; for, by-

taking up at random any piece of music, and examining the progression of

—
dissonances notably of accidental notes
— ^the same principles as the fore-

going will be found to prevail viz. that every diatonic dissonance de-
; :

scends, and every chromatic dissonance either descends or ascends, accord-

ing to the tendency of the accidental.
 — :

188 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

Eeturning, now, to the accents of dissonances, I commence with the

general rule

Every dissonance should he accented.

This rule is not so simple as it appears ; because not every discording

interval is a harmonic dissonance. Therefore, the question arises : "What
is really a harmonic dissonance ?

In modem music, dissonance is divided into essential (harmonic) and

accidental (melodic) ; the former arising fundamentally ; the latter, from
passing notes, anticipations, etc.

Therefore, to make the rule more definite, it should be modified, thus

RULE ONE.
Every harmonic dissonance should be accented, whereas melodic dissonances

are to he passed over unaccented.

It now remains to be shown what constitutes a harmonic, and what, &.

melodic dissonance.

I. Melodic Dissonances, or Accessory Notes.

Nbighboking Notes a.
i *•
Regular.
1.
6. Irregular.

Passing Notes ^^^''^-

2.
V' { b. Irregular.

2. Harmonic Dissonances.
1. Anticipatioks.
»• Prepared-Strict.
3. RETABDATioifs i
I. b. Unprepared —Free.
3. Modulating Notes.
4. Okqan Points.

The accentuation will be explained, as we go along.

 MELODIC DISSONANCES. 1,89

CHAPTEE X.

MELODIC DISSONANCES.

THESE have the general name of Accessory notes.

all transitory, non-harmonic notes which enrich
Accessory notes are
and ornament the melodic parts of the composition for example ;

WEBER.

The notes marked x are accessory ones, melodic dissonances of no

harmonic and to be passed over lightly.
value,
Accessory notes are of two kinds either they stand ieside a harmonic
;

note, as in an appoggiatura, or a trill, — »—f— *— — ^— ^— •—,^

-g—^-
or a turn, 'f f ' ; or they lie hetween two harmonic tones, as in

a scale

f. f, f,

-tz±z

In the former case, they bear relation to only one harmonic tone; we
call these neighboring notes (or tones).
In the latter case, they bear relation to two harmonic tones we call ;

these passing notes.

 W : : ;

190 HAEMONIC ACCENTS.

Botli neighboring and passing notes have again this distinction, that,
when occurring on a weak time-part, they are regular transitions ; and
when happening on a strong time-part, they are irregular transitions.
Although, and just because accessory notes have no harmonic value,
they are indispensable in melodic figuration, in filling in, and softening
harmonic steps. They enable a composer to give a number of successive
notes to a single sustaining chord, whereas, without them, each melodic
note would require a separate chord.
They are employed in any one of the harmonic parts (soprano, alto,
melody or accompaniment diatonically or chromatically
tenor, or bass), in ;

on a strong or weak time-part in fact, they may occur anywhere and

;

everywhere.
Let us, now, examine each special kind of accessory notes.

I. Regular Neighboring Notes.

Germ. JUTeben-N'oten. Fr. Notes voiaines.

The function of these is, especially, that of embellishment, and also to

bring greater activity and flow into the melodic parts.
A neighboring note is always the nearest note to the tone which it

embellishes. The latter we call the main tone.

The nearest note is, of course, the second, which may be the upper or
lower second, either diatonic or chromatic ; for example

i It

The C is here the main tone which is being embellished, the D being
the upper, and the B the lower neighboring note ; both being diatonic
ones.

i — 3 j=

This A is here the main tone ; this B-flat the upper, and the G-shai-p
the lower neighboring note ; both being chromatic ones.
A diatonic neighboring note may be a whole or a half tone distant from
its main tone ; a chromatic one can only be a semitone from it.

The musical notation, or, so to say, the spelling of chromatic neighbor-

ing notes, should be in accordance with the rules of resolving accidentals,
and avoid wrong progression ; for example
 MELODIC DISSONANCES. 191

fett
Wrong.
^
Eight.
^ Wrong.
E^^i =at
Eight.

A neighboring note may appear freely before, or after, its main note,
but must always go back to it, so that the main note is the last. This re-
turning need not follow directly, as another neighboring note, or another
main note, may be interposed ; for example

i ^^=p or, ^ -i-

±==
rf^t: £=

If both the upper and lower seconds are employed, the embellishment
becomes, of course, richer for example
; :

*=F—
This leads already to great variety of combinations. More elaborate
employment of such notes produces the usual musical ornamentation
(Germ. Manieren, Fr. Agrements), such as, " the turn," " mordent,"
"trill," etc., which it is unneccessary to exemplify.

2. Irregular Neighboring Notes.

Germ. Weclisti-Noien. ,

All that has just been said about regular, applies equally to the irreg-
ular neighboring notes. The only difference being that the former occur
on a weak part of of measure, whereas the latter happen on a strong part.
Further explanation needs but a few illustrations.

WEBER—FiKOT Sonata.

•^ '•*•• -•- I
I I I
I

31
 : :

19a HARMONIC ACCENTS.

All the accented notes are here irregular neighboring notes.

Weber was very partial to, and much blamed for, his too frequent em-
ployment of such " Wechsel-lSToten," as the Germans call them.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 49.

a- '^ -0- ^ X I'f.i^f

;§E^=^

i -Mz

The accents on such neighboring notes are due, for several reasons

1. —
Grammatically because the notes fall on strong time-parts.
2. —
Melodically on account of the slur.
3. —
Harmonically (as we shall see further on) on account of "the free
suspensions " —" retardation " —" Yorhalt."

3. Regular Passing Notes.

Germ. Bureligangs-Noten. Fr. Notes de passage. Lat. Transitus regularis.

The step from one harmonic tone to another through intermediate non-
harmonic notes is termed " transition " (Lat. trandUis). The intermediate
notes are called " transient " or " passing notes." In other words : a passing
note is the neighboring note of two different tones between which it lies.

They and chromatical.

are diatonical
Supposing the C-major chord to be the underlying harmony of a
chromatic scale,

xo'ox X '^x X
C»dt|;Ef#G#aSbCbl^a^Gl^fEl7d^C,
the notes marked x would be chromatic passing notes ; those marked 0,

diatonic ones.
A change of key naturally effects a change in the diatonic and chro-
matic character of the passing notes.
Correct spelling is here as necessary as in neighboring notes; for

example
 MELODIC DISSONANCES. 193

Wrong. Eight. Wrong. Eight.

pf^lf#^Fft^^
'--'-•fi

Eight. Eight. Wrong. Eight. Eight.

In the good old time when counterpoint reigned supreme, unprepared,

non-harmonic notes, i. e., freely introduced dissonances, were permitted
only on a weak time-part. Such dissonances were called " passing notes "
(Durchgangs-Noten), in opposition to the notes on the strong time-parts,
which were called " accented notes."
The term '-transitory" was not applied to all non-harmonic notes,
without taking into account the time-parts they occurred on but, in order ;

to make a distinction, those occuring on a weak time-part were termed

transitus regularis ; and those on a strong part, transitus irregvlaris.
Some theorists consider as " transitory " every melodic note which has
no harmonic value, on the ground, that such notes progress always to the
main note immaterial, whether they bear relation to only one main note,
;

as the neighboring ; or to two, as the passing note. Originally, however,

the name " passing note " signified the intermediate tone, in stepping from
one tone to another higher or lower one. This is the narrower significance
of the term, which most modem theorists accept as the correct one and it ;

is in this sense, that I have dealt with the subject.

The recognition of passing notes is so simple and easy a matter as to

require no further explanation.
A few illustrations may, however, not be amiss.

DUSSEK Diatonic Regular Passing Notes.

fe

^ gF^B ^
= diatonic regular passing notes.

13
 : —
194 HAEMONIC ACCENTS.

BEETHOVEN— C/iramattc Regular Passing Notei.

ft-

^s
I

The notes, marked " o," are diatonic ; those, marked " x ," chromatic
passing notes.

4. Irregular Passing Notes.

Germ. Wechsel-Noten. Fr. Notes de passage, hat. Transitus irregularis.

Ital. Note Oambiata.

In strict (Palestrina) style of counterpoint, dissonances on a strong time-

part had to be prepared by being held over from a previous consonance ;

for example
X
-A
121
i zzzz.

A however, was conceded under certain

freely introduced dissonance,
conditions and termed "Note Cambiata," or simply, " Cambiata " (the verb
"
of which signified to change," Germ, wechseln hence the German term). —
The concession of such a free dissonance arose from the circumstance,
that was thought unmelodical, in one- voiced chanting, to sing downvrard
it

the interval of a fourth.To avoid and soften this step, another interval
was interposed and it was considered more melodious, that this should be
;

the second, than the third ; thus,

Cambiata.

^^^i"- 3g instead of, '-^^- iffii

l$i ^ :^| -^

This principle vs^as retained in two and more voiced counterpoint, and
considered as obligatory, until the eighteenth century, when, with the
modern (Bach) style, this and many other restrictions disappeared.
freer
The terra "Cambiata" is now obsolete, its former significance having
 MELODIC DISSONANCES. 195

paased away. Dissonances may now appear freely on any part of the
measure.
All that has been said, regarding regular passing notes, applies equally
to irregular ones ; the dift'erence being merely the time-part they fall on.

MOZART— Sonata in C.

^t^jij^f-^=f^
MOZABT— Sonata in C.

110 .

»(i) * (a)

Seventh. Seventh.

The notes, marked 0, are regular those, marked x irregular

; , passing
notes. The notes, marked :{; are also passing in substance thus
, ;

* (1) * (2)

=Sd3*
*^-±^i. :|^iiy
Further on, we shall see that irregular passing notes and free retarda-
tions are identical.
Now, with regard to accentuation.
It is evident, that all melodic dissonances (falling on a weak time-part),
viz., all regular accessory notes, whether neighboring or passing, should be
passed over lightly "and unaccented whereas the irregular ones (falling on
;

a strong time-part) are accented both grammatically and harmonically.

The harmonic emphasis required on the latter kind of notes is of great
moment, and will be especially dealt with by-and-by under Retardation.
 ; —
196 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

CHAPTER XL
HARMONIC DISSONANCES.—ANTICIPATION AND RETARDATION.

AN"TICIPATION (Gerin. Vorausnahme, Fr. contre-temps) signifies

- the anticipated entrance of one, two, or more intervals, hefore the
chord to which they belong. Any interval of a chord, introduced in ad-
vance of the chord, being an anticipation.
Anticipation diifers from syncopation in this only, that the former is

harmonical ; the latter, rhythmical. In fact.

Anticipation is harmonic syncopation

Syncopation, rhythmical anticipation.

The French term contre-temps refers to the rhythmical meaning the ;

German term Vorausnahme, to the harmonic meaning. Retardation —

Germ. Yorhalt, Engl, suspension—
is the retarded entrance of one, two,
ormore intervals, after the chord to which they belong.
Retardation refers both to harmony and to tempo.
With the latter significance (ritardandu) we have, at present, nothing
to do.
In the former sense, the Germans call retardation " Vorrhalt," i. e.,

holding before a chord an interval belonging to a previous chord.

They also use the term "Nach-halt," i. e., holding after a chord an in-
terval belonging to it.

These two terms are often confusing, because, though apparently of

contrary meaning, they express virtually the same thing.
(Those who are German scholars should not confound " Yorhalt "
retardation, with " Yorschlag " —
appoggiatura ; the latter being simply an
unaccented accessory note, whereas the former is accented.)
Bearing in mind that and retardation /oKow*', the
antici'p&tion precedes,
chord to which they belong, I repeat a few examples already given under
Syncopation, in illustration of both.
 HAKMONie DISSONANCES. 197

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 37, No. S.

mm
I I
I

fel;
I m-
5
*/^ 3 ^5 ••:

9izl2:.kz3:=ai._:i=i;

The melody is liere in harmonic anticipation with the bass.

^
i*
SCHUMANN

££
••
Davidsbundlek.

P —T-*—
I ..i

at* 4- ^^^ -I-

=c =t=t

(1) Anticipation. (8) Retardation.

The melody is here both in retardation and in anticipation with the

bass, or in either alone. This explains how the German terms, " Vorhalt
and " Nachhalt," may be confounded.
Anticipation is frequently an embelh'shment, merely for the purpose of
introducing a melodic note in a more indicatory manner ; for example

SCHUMANN—Nachtstuck. SCHUMANN—Tbaumekei.
Anticipation.

t t
^^91^

gi

Anticipation.

Anticipations of this kind are shortened, on account of the note being

repeated (quantitative accents), but are, of course, not accented.
Or, the melody is altogether anticipating the accompaniment, in this
way:
 h : — —

198 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

SCHUMAJJN— The Mbkkt Peasant.

im ^ -?—?-8-
tizr:
-? — — ±-j-i—^^
« •-

epE ^^^
SCHUMANN—PiEST Loss."

*— #—i»=p-
i t=5t=t

PI 6=^=
'$: -i - - m —
^^ '- ^ ' jj:^:==g

The accentuation is here simply grammatical.

Anticipation also leads to many harmonic liberties, in the way of pro-
gression ;
for example, to sequences of septime chords.

P — =P=^^
1
*t
r—^h
i_« fet
t^e
^r^sfwi^?Fpi=%
t=*

.^=5=.^
5^ ^-^ j=^^
S^S: =F=^ -r^?-
3=SEE^E^
The above progression, without anticipation, would appear in its nat-
iiral order, as follows

f—\2^—^^-^0-
Bj^g^gEE^
f-

The notes in example b, marked by a cross (

x ), are the anticipated
ones in example a.
 HARMONIC DISSONANCES. 199

Observe, also, the descending sharps in example a. Though appearing

wrong, the order of succession is quite correct and logical when explained
by the natural progression of example i.
Such kind of anticipated progression is frequently employed in modem
compositions ; for example

CHOPIN—Bailadb.
Betai-dation Anticipation
(VorhalC). {Torausnahme).

mt^ U- zpn

-H-h-
^^.
r-^ ^= ^
HENSBLT—Etddb.

=?=t:

S!!«SS3 C££l3

itefe =9%
^-^iF I • I

Anticipation.
I

Very need be said regarding the accentuation.

little

Anticipations do not require to he harmonically accented. An antici-

pated note, when it is a consonance, has, as such, no harmonic prom-
inence. "When it is a dissonance, it is either melodical and transient,
hence, passed over unaccented ; oi-, it is harmonical, falling on a strong
time-part (which is very rare), when its harmonic emphasis is entirely cast

in the shade by other and stronger demands for accentuation, such as gram-
matical or syncopic.
Hence, we may say : anticipations are not harmonically accented.

It is diflferent, however, with retardations. These are always ac-

cented.
Ketardations or suspensions (these terms are synonymous) are either
prepared, or unprepared.
Prepared susj?ensions are identical to what are termed, in counter-

point, "prepared dissonances."

 —
200 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

To accent these is, of course, impossible, owing to the tie. The em-
phasis, however, is not omitted, but is anticipated by syncopic accent.
Unprepared suspensions, or freely introduced retardations (in German,
"freie vorhalte"), are the strongest of dissonances.
This class of suspensions occurs in three ways
1. Melodically, as an irregular passing note (wechsel-note) ; or, har-
monically, gradually prepared, step- wise introduced, so to say; for ex-
ample :

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 23.

1?* f-^1
 HARMONIC DISSONANCES. 201

RUBINSTEIN—Etude.

HILLER—ZlTK GUITABKE.

m lfc==tV!!iti=s-_-
^-
P

iLS^a^l -N •-
-1^.

^ =^=

The emphaBis on totally unprepai-ed suspensions is always of a more

pronounced character than if the dissonance were partially prepared, as
the foregoing kind.
3. Or, the suspension is anticipated (struck in advance), without being
tied ; for example, in this way

HENSELT— Petite Valse.

X

ttM
ii
r
MENDELSSOHN— Song wiTHOirT Woiids, No. 7.

a=^ --^:
:fczi
£ -^'
r 'I

,_,.r;^^^,a^^j3^-=5_=A^
SPt' >T r i
T
 ; ; ::

202 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

This anticipation, however, does not soften the unexpectedness of the

suspension, nor the force or intensity of its accent. On the contrary, it

rather adds to the emphasis ; because, as the anticipated note has to be

shortened, by reason of its being repeated ; thus

Mendelssohn.

This causes the suspension following to be accented

^^^ tf

also, by reason of
its greater length. (See Quantitative Accents.)
Now, it is but logical, that, when accentuation is required on several
grounds, the emphasis is stronger than if it were called for on one ground
only. And, as always in the case of unpi'epared (free) suspensions, several
reasons unite to demand emphasis ; for example
Harmonically—the dissonance
Rhythmically—t}xe strong time-part
Melodically—the or the quantity of the note, or both.
slur,

So is their accentuation not only, invariably, a very pronounced one,

but there is hardly anything else in music which demands more impera-
tively dynamic prominence, than suspensions. And suspensions, it must
be remembered, are really the only kind of dissonances that are accented;
as, vice versa, accented dissonance (excepting organ-points) is a suspension,
or an irregular accessory note, which is the sauje thing.

Let us, now, suppose the student to be quite competent to recognize

every kind of suspension, and, consequently, to know perfectly

WHEN" AND WHEEE

a dissonance ought, and ought not, to be accented. Yet, this knowledge
would not include the consciousness of

HOW
to give these accents.
Although " how to accent," as a general question, has already been
declared inexplicable (page 24) yet, I think, it would be both interesting
;

and beneficial to the reader to pause here, and investigate the difficulties
—
which render a solution of the question even in merely its special bear-
ing on dissonances impossible. —
 HARMONIC DISSONANCES. 203

How to accent, apart from its emotional element, has a direct reference
to
1. The quality, or dynamic stress, of the accented note;
2. The quantity, or xhythmical duration, of the accented note.

To determine merely the former, and simply in cases of dissonances,

requires already the following considerations:
JECarmonically, the dissonance itself; upon the principle, that the
greater the dissonance the stronger should be the accent.
Orammatically, the time-part the dissonancefalls on upon the princi- ;

ple, that strong time-parts are accented, and weak ones not.
Melodically, the position of the dissonance, viz., whether it is in the
treble or bass, in an inner or outer voice, in an extreme or not- extreme
position, etc. upon the principle, that the accent is more important in the
;

melody than the accompaniment, in an outer than an inner voice, at the

climax of a crescendo than at the beginning of one, at the extreme of a
passage than in the middle of it, etc.

Quantitatively, the duration of the accented note; upon the principle,

that the longer the duration the greater should be the stress of the accent.
Also the phrases, slurs, tempo, etc., must be considered.
PI ere already, from the outset, we are burdened and hampered by so
many considerations, as to make it, apparently, impossible to arrive at
any system by which to regulate the quality of accent.
To simplify the matter, however, most of these considerations may here
be put aside ; not only because they have been treated already, but because,
in examining the accents of dissonances from a harmonic point, as we are
doing, we may as well confine ourselves to harmonic reasons.
Therefore, I take into account the dissonance itself only, and make that
alone the subject for investigation.
A dissonance is accented on harmonic grounds, simply because it is a
discord (page 182).
Since this is sufficient cause to call for an accent, it stands to reason,
that tJie greater the discord, or the cause, the stronger should ie the accent.
If, therefore, we could set iip a scale of dissonances, grading them ac-

cording to their greater or less acuteness, we might then also establish n,

scale of accents corresponding to the scale of dissonances. But this is

hardly possible to do, as we have no reliable standard by which to measure
the acuteness of a dissonance. ("We cannot even determine the point
where dissonance begins and consonance ends.)
Supposing we made the ear the standard :

The result would be vastly different with different individuals.

 —
204 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

One person would consider as more or less harsh a dissonance which

another would think more or less mild. Or, the same dissonance, strikiug
the ear unexpectedly and alone, would have quite another effect from that
which would produce, coming well prepared or covered by other sounds.
it

The would be quite as great, as taking pepper alone, or

latter difference
taking it mixed in a dish.
Now, some people like pepper, and others do not.
It is the same with dissonances.
To establish a scale of the latter, according to the standard of the ear,
is therefore simply impossible.
we measured the acuteness of a dissonance by reason-
Supposing, then,
ing, and started from the hypothesis
A dissonance is the greater the nearer it approaches a perfect consonance.
Yet we could not establish a scale upon it.
The above supposition, paradoxical as it may appear, is, nevertheless,
quite correct not only in music, but also in most conditions of life when
;

applied in the sense of disagreement.

In music, the most perfect consonance is the octave or unison. Now,
if two persons sang or gave on any instrument the same note in unison,

or in the octave, and one of the two notes were out of pitch, then the
nearer the dissonating note to the consonance, the greater, the more aggra-
vating would be the dissonating effect.

In of all dissonances is an impure consonance.

fact, the harshest
Without considering minute fractions of a tone, it is evident, that the
nearest semitone to an octave or to a prime is more acute than any note
further removed from the consonance.
—
And yet, the harshest of dissonating intervals a major seventh and
—
minor second would strike the ear more naturally when well introduced,
or covered by surrounding sounds, than a far less acute interval would doy
when appearing unexpectedly. In the former case, the greater dissonance
would actually be the smaller in the latter, the smaller dissonance would
;

virtually be the greater.

Hence, we cannot establish a scale upon either of these propositions.
And again, supposing we started from the principle, that the more a
dissonance is prepared, the less it is acute ; the more unprepared it appears,
the more it is acute.

This, being both rational and, to a certain extent, even practical, may
be received as a general rule (probably the best that can be given) ; but,
although this rule may be of some service, it is not sufficiently definite
to establish upon it an approximate scale.
 HAEMONIC DISSONANCES. 305

In fact, we are forced to the conclusion, that reason cannot invent, nor
science discover, a reliable standard by which to measure the relative acute-
ness of dissonances. Hence, we cannot regulate the quality of their accents
accordingly.
But there is yet another harmonic basis (instead of acuteness) to be
examined, viz. : the utility of dissonances.
The utility consists in the dissonance being either a color-giving,
piquancy conferring, harmonic contrast, or, in being the means of modu-
connecting link or bridge from one harmony to another.
lation, a
Now, whereas a dissonance, in its acuteness, is an antagonistic element
in harmony ; in its utility, it is the pith and quintessence of harmony, ful-
filling a friendly aiding function.
Dissonances, then, are to be viewed from two aspects : from a positive
side, i. e., their utility, and from a negative side, i. e., their acuteness.
Having before taken the negative side as a basis, we now try the posi-
tive side.
The utility of dissonances, as already stated, consists in

1. The dissonance being a harmonic contrast, either

a. One of beauty, or mellowness ; for example :

HBNSELT—POEME d'Amocb, Op. 3.

tt
I
1^:
te s
-»

T? I
• I

m«s^W P^-
#^H=

T
h. Or one of expressive harshness ; for example

SCHUBERT—Am Meekb.

c. Or, in the dissonance being a modulating agent (see next

chapter).
206 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

Mellowness and harshness, in harmonic respect, are relative ideas, merely

depending on personal taste ; and it is evident, that innumerable grades and
shades exist between the softest and the harshest dissonance.
Having found it impossible to measure the acuteness of dissonances, it

is, of course, more impossible to define the finer grades and shades of
still

harmonic contrasts. And, as the dynamic stress of hannonic accents must

naturally correspond with the mellowness or harshness of harmonic con-
trast, we must, therefore, altogether relinquish the attempt of regulating
or determining " how to accent," in reference to the quality of accents.
But we have not yet completed this investigation ; for we have still to
ascertain if it is not possible to arrive at some discrimination, in reference
to the quantity of accents.
Regarding quantity, it has been laid down as a fundamental law of
accentuation (page 40), that every musical accent must either be "sus-
tained " or " shortened."
It may, now, further be stated, that this quantitative distinction is vir-
tuallyall that can be subjected to rule and reasoning, both in the general

question of " How to accent," and in the special question of " How to
accent dissonances."
Such distinction is of considerable aesthetic importance, and a valuable
adjunct of artistic musical expression.
It has already been shown that a dissonance must be resolved, and that
the resolution terminates the dissonance. It is the same with suspensions.
The resolution terminates the suspension.
Suspension and resolution ought, therefore, to be taken together as a
unity ; the latter being analogous, in music, to a dissyllabic word (or foot)
in prosody.
Thus, a dissonance with its resolution foims either a musical trochee,

f r (- ^)
Dissonance. I Resolution.
Suspension, f

or a musical iainhun,

Dissonance. I Resolution.
Suspension, f

Each of these two feet is the vehicle of almost the opposite emotion.
 HARMONIC DISSONANCES. 307

A trochee expresses sometliing pathetic and deep —a sigh, or the pres-

siare of emotipn.
An iambus, on the other hand, expresses something joyful and light
an effusion of pleasure or lightheartedness.
Notice, for example, the difference of these two feet in a polonaise

ISEp^
Iambus.

How joyful, brilliant, and bold this opening iambus appears, compared
to the stateliness, intensity, and pathos of this terminal trochee

ISi ¥ -ti^

The following illustrates a mixture of both these feet in a slow move-

ment
BEETHOVEN—Keeutzer Sonata.
Trochee. Iambus. Iambus. Trochee.
Trochee, i

^ ^—y^ —^— -•f-T--g'—^"-^-T-T-

f I I

Whatever doubt may be had, as to the iambic foot being gay or aspir-

ing, it cannot be denied, that the trochaic foot is never gay, but always
serious, pathetic, sighing.
The unity of a dissonance and its resolution represents, in most cases, a

musical trochee.
Now, it should be borne ia mind, for it is an important principle ot

expression, that, analogous to prosody, the two notes (or syllables) which
form the trochee should not he separated, hut closely joined.

Hence, the rule

Every accented dissonance {or suspension) should he sustained and
slurred over to its resolution.

Ample illustration of this rule will be found in the next chapter.

 :

208 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

The reverse treatment, arising from the opposite or iambic foot ; for

example

CHOPIN—Polonaise.
Iambus.

HUMMEL— Concerto (A-Minor).

Iambus.
>

f=
 MODULATING NOTES. 209

CHAPTEE XII.

MODULATING NOTES.

DESIGNATE by this term certain accidental notes which, on account

I of their modulating function, require to be accented.
Referring to page 185, we find that in every composition " the intro-
duction of an accidental is the advent of one of three things," viz.
1. The accidental may be merely a melodic accessory note of no har-
monic value.
2. Or, through the accidental a direct change may occur into another
consonant chord, when the accidental is a consonance.
3. Or, the accidental may effect a modulation, when it is a dissonance
virtually, a leading-note, a sort of bridge from one diatonic tone to the next,
over the intervening semitone ; for example

An accidental Cj| is the leading or modulating note to D,

« " " " " " '
B\^.
C|7

It is with the latter kind of accidentals we now have to deal.

In modulating from one key to another, it is only necessary to intro-

duce euphoniously the dominant septime chord, or, simply, the leading
note of the key into which one desires to modulate.
This leading note is, of course, an accidental (foreign to the scale),
which to introduce is easy enough in transitions to near-related keys but ;

which becomes diflScult, requiring both ingenuity and experience, when

modulating into distant keys.
How to do this, so as to avoid harshness, and cause the transition to
fall naturally upon the ear, depends chiefly on the composer ; but also, in

some measure, on the performer.

Especially in direct transition, where the softening interposition of
modulation is wanting, the performer has to make the transition not only
palatable, but attractive, by judicious phrasing.
Judicious phrasing demands complete separation, by a break, between
the»old and the new phrase. The old hartaony (old phrase) should termi-
14
 :

810 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

nate ritardando ; the breath-taking pause (or break) between the old and
new phrase should be prolonged, in proportion to the strangeness of tlie

transition ; and the new phrase should then begin a tempo ; for example

SCHUMANN—Faschingsschwank, Op. 26.

a tempo.

P Si
^=j=^
tm ^
rit.
Tf
>- >-^-
5f-=
--^
?fe5E ti=^S
T
The phrase ends riiard. After a slight pause, the new phrase begins a tempo.

little "ni." and the pause, "^," here suggested, were not ob-
If the
served,and the movement should be played on in time, the effect, instead
of being artistic, would be spoiled, and the interpretation would give evi-
dence of immaturity or crude perception.

SCHUMANN—Arabesque, Op. 18.

Here, again, the performer can greatly soften the rather unexpected
transition by a preceding ritardando and a slight pause f/^) on the Djj, just

before the double bar, ff . This D|, which is enharmonically carried over

as Et?, is the connecting link between the old and the new harmony. By
sustaining it, the transition becomes comprehensive, and the change of
key a pleasant surprise rather than a harsh one.

The practice of retarding hefore, and pausing hetwee^i, direct transi-

tions, is not onl/y appliGoble, but necessary, in most cases of sudden

changes of key.
On the other hand, when a modulating dissonance softens and prepares
the transition, the transition cannot be called a direct one, and a break is
 MODULATING NOTES. 211

not necessary. But the modulating note, which has been compared to a
bridge, should be (like every bridge) a strong one, and therefore must be
clearly emphasized to call attention to the harmonic change. Also, as an
important desideratum, it is, most cases, desirable to sustain the accented
in
dissonance until its resolution, even when this is not indicated for example ;

SCHUMANN—Faschingsschwakk, Op. 26.

I^
=1=

"uT ^^ S
=»f=
^ »fi ^^
§i-^-=^J
^^
I

The accidental F|, in the second measure, is here a modulating disso-

nance, leading to G-minor in the third measure. This r|f is not only har-
monically accented, but may actually be joined to its resolution G, so as to

produce this trochaic effect.

i :p:
Such treatment, though not indicated, is both proper and logical be- ;

cause it would be highly unsatisfactory, and certainly not euphonious, if

the dissonance disappeared, evaporated, so to speak, before having reached

its resolution.
Thus, the following principle may safely be accepted^
The sustaining of an accented dissonance {suspension or modulating note}
until its resolution, whether indicated or not, is both desirable and proper, in
every case where it is technically practicable, providing no interposing harmon'i^
holds the resolution in suspense.

For example

MENDELSSOHN— Song without Words, No. 9.

m
I

=/=
3
r "^^^t
J.
3C
iS =^

Here, the sustaining of the modulating dissonance is indicated.

 — : —
212 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

JENSEN— The Mill, Op. 17, No. 3.

^z
i ==l: -:t

>
c>f-2-——F-f— ^ i
» „ I— g— ^— ^ ._^_i«_^

Here, the carrying over of the Cti, in the bass, is not indicated in the
original.
When the sustaining of a modulating dissonance is technically inapossi-
ble, the modulating note should, at least, be strongly emphasized, so as to

make it clearly perceptible ; for example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 53.

B. Harmonic Effect.

iiE^sii
-^M:
^^^E^

-^
Eii ^

& rP^zJI^ — — It » *'^p—» * ^:^-w-p —

Under A, where the leading dissonances cannot be sustained, the har-

monic basis, as under ^, should be borne in mind, and an approximate
effect aimed at, through accentuation.
Cases, like the above, occur in great numbers, but are far more fre-
quently overlooked than attended to.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 58.

Sondo. eresc. !}S

5E5E

S
9^^^^^
u
 MODULATING NOTES. 313

O; ^^ __ •

^f

Attention is here called to the C-flat and D-flat, under the two asterisks
(:{:). In the Biilow edition of this sonata, these two points are con-
sidered as imitations, and a foot-note says
" The imitations in the first and second voice are to be brought out by
special accentuation."

Fully recognizing these points as imitations, I ascribe to them addi-

tionaland greater importance as modulating notes. In this view, I do
not only accent them, but sustain and slur them over to their resolution
thus

_ -I

With this trochaic effect

A.

i -^: i >^

This effect overshadows even the indicated sforzcmdo or the real leading

notes, D-natural and E-natural. It is true, Beethoven did not prescribe

such treatment, but, the reasons being logical, and the effect gratifying,
any one, excepting a pedant, should find therein suflicient justification for
a liberty not nearly as great as would be freely accorded to any vocalist.
Very frequently, the accidentals which occur in a bass-part or an inner
 # :

214 HARMONIC ACCENTS.

voice bear no indication of either emphasis or sustaining. But this

should not hinder the interpreter from both emphasizing and sustaining
the accidental dissonance, until its resolution is reached ; for example

CHOPIN—Etude, Op. 25, No. 2,

^^- :^^
Is 3tjtif:
Si
and
m
> ^ _J>-
^.
m Efe^ 3EEt

The notation of the two separate little phrases (a small sample of the
thoroughness of Klindworth's edition of Chopin),

m
§!-^ Ei: _,_lto ,z

is not to be found in the original version, but is decidedly an improvement,

because it calls attention to points that are generally overlooked.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata Pathetiqttb.

m I^eSI^^^
S ^^^F ^E^E
*=4— ^=X
S '^0
^ife^: y »J m
»
d
»-
-y rt 1. -?—W—
a— 8-

ps =t==g

^ -l—^i=-lfe^^^
^^^^^ S* '^r*-
.,
T
I

*.

'^p-
!
|
-

=:=:=^
r :
I

*/^:
 MODULATING NOTES. 315

A similar example, in which the crescendo and accentuation of the

modulating accidentals in the bass (here passing notes) are not indicated
in the original edition.
It is, of course, impossible to give examples of all the instances in
which accidentals are to be, or are not to be, accented. The only guidance
is the dissonating character of the accidental, viz., the accidental being
accented when it affects the harmony dissonatingly, and not accented when
the harmony is left unaffected by it.
Finally, the student should bear in mind that all accented dissonances
are either suspensions (retardations) and, as such, irregular neighboring notes,
which resolve into their main note, and form, together with the latter, a
dissyllabic foot, viz., either a trochee or an iambus or they are modulat-
;

ing notes and, as such, irregular passing notes, which, together with the
previous and terminating note, form a trisyllabic foot, having the accent
on the middle syllable, as in the classic amphibrachys, exemplified by the

word "iSb - na ta" in music, thus :

Dissonance.
Leading Note.
Modulating Note.
Bridge.
InegtUar Passing Note.
Accidental.

OEGAN-POINTS.

The term " organ-point " signifies a sustained ground-bass (either the
tonic or dominant), iipon which a cadenza is formed of different chords or
harmonies, which may or may not accord with the organ-point ; for ex-
ample :

BACH Gavotte. Arranged by Saint-Saens.

P^BFs^fe
Pea.
^ M~m^t^'
'i»^

Pifl

15
 :

216 HABMONIC ACCENTS.

i^^mk^^^
w \^US p m ^^i
Ff5^=#
-i^e
t=fiS=

±% -*-^
gs
,.a. .^P:^^

The term is alsoemployed to designate any sustained note (Germ.

liegende Stimme) which may occur in any one .of the harmonic parts, in
the soprano, alto, tenor, or bass.

In organ playing, any sustained note (liegende Stimme?) is simply struck

without being accented, the tone retaining its volume by merely being
held down. In pianoforte playing, however, a sustained tone cannot be
made to retain its volume, but inevitably becomes weaker every moment.
Therefore, quantitative accentuation has to be called into requisition to
give a sufficiently strong impetus to the vibration of the strings, so as to
sustain the tone as long as possible.
This accentuation of organ-points can hardly be considered as being
called for on harmonic ground, but rather on quantitative principles. "We
may, therefore, pass over these organ-points, withoutany further explanation
or exemplifying.
But there is another kind of organ-point, occurring in pianoforte music
exclusively, which, on account of its extending over a number of measures,
cannot be sustained and, therefore, has to be repeated, i. e., struck over
again.
This, it may be desirable, to point out by a few examples

CHOPIN— Polonaise in A-Flat, Op. 53.

^m^^^ 1 a s 4 5

The Organ-point is here D in the Tenor, during six measures. | And here, E-flat in the Tenor.
 MODULATING NOTES. 317

ii ^^
a^^-Ep^^E^^E^^-E
9i*rf
Modulation. I Organ-points are here
D, E-flat, E-natuial. | P in tlie Tenor. G-flat in the Teuor.

12 13 14 >

Organ-points are here—

F in the Tenor. |
C in the right band, during eight measures.

CHOPIN Polonaise in P-Shakp Minor, Op. 44.

E5=jE
^^ -•^-

Ei^ ^^

The organ-point is here the A in both hands, during nineteen meas-

ures. This is followed by an eight-measured period, containing the cliief

theme, after which the same organ-point on A is repeated during sixteen

measures, with harmonic variations; and then the second movement,
tempo di mazurka, commences.
It is with these organ-points as with most accents proper recognition ;

precedes actual execution, and is the chief requirement of correct interpre-

tation.
 : :

PART V.
DYl^AMIOS

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

DYNAMICS (from the Greek^ dvvaficg, power,) " is that division of

mechanics which contains the doctrines of the motion of bodies
produced by force." In a wider sense," the science which investigates the
action of force." Applied to music, it refers to, and is understood to im-

part, the power or intensity of sounds.

" He is master of the dynamics of music who knows how to give to
each and every sound that power which the subject requires, including the
soft and loud, the crescendo and diminuendo, the abrupt and gentle, and

every other possible variety."

There are five principal dynamic degrees :

1. Pianissimo, 3. Messqforte,
2. Piano, 4. Porte,
5. Fortissimo,

and six dynamic tones

1. The organ-tone, symbolized thus , which commences, con-

tinues, and ends with equal degree of power.
2. The crescendo, —==II, commencing soft, and gradually increasing.
3. The diminuendo, 11::==
— , commencing loud, and gradually de-
creasing.
4. The swell (or espressivd), —=: ::==—, which is a union of cresc. and
dimin.
5. The pressure-tone (or sustained accent), <, which is a very sudden
crescendo.
6. The explosive tone (or short accent), >, which is an instantaneous
diminuendo.
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 219

That each of the five dynamic degrees is a relative idea merely, is evi-
dent, from the fact that science has not as yet discovered the means of
measuring definitely the power of sounds. It is, therefore, impossible to
specify positively the exact limit of what \& forte, or what is piano.
This inability, however, is not to be regarded. On the contrary, by
leaving a wide range for individuality, it enables even delicately organized
or physically weak pianists to attempt playing compositions requiring
great power, which, otherwise, would be beyond their reach ; and to play
such pieces as well and effectively, though not as loudly, as other, more
robust, pianists.
The great point, in dynamic respect, to be aimed at, without which no
pianist can be an artist, is not so much the attainment of immense power,
but that of having one's touch under such perfect control as to be able to
say:
This is my pianissimo y this, my piam.o / my tnezzoforte ; my forte ;
my fortissimo.
Such discrimination of touch, when judiciously applied, converts mere
mechanism into artistic technique, and is not only of far greater moment
than the most marvelous execution without such discrimination, but con-
charm of pianoforte playing, the secret of success, such
tains the true as
execution alone could never attain. In fact, the proper application of
dynamic degrees and tones constitutes the heauty of musical expression.

"We have enumerated five dynamic degrees and six tones. Regarding
the latter, it must be mentioned that, in pianofore playing, the organ-tone,

the crescendo, the diminuendo, and the swell, can only be produced on a
succession or a plurality of notes. Without discussing whether the term
^'
tone," applied to a plurality of notes, is a fit one or not, we simply accept
it, want of a better term.
for
But, by thus applying the idea of dynamic tone to a succession of
notes, we find that two of the six dynamic tones may be dispensed with,
viz.

1. The orga7i-tone, which is not only impossible, but, on account of its

continued sameness, undesirable, in pianoforte playing.

2, The swell, which does not consist of one, but, really, of two dynamic

tones.

This leaves us only four dynamic tones in pianoforte-playing, re-emi-

meratedj thus:
 — .

220 DYNAMICS.

1. The crescendo.
")

2. The diminuendo,
3. The sustained accent, < or a.
4. The short accent, =- or '

Regarding the five degrees, it has been mentioned, that they are rela-
tive merely —
in other words, proportioned to each other. "When, therefore,
the exact power of one degree is ascertained, it should be comparatively
easy to find the others.
As a mariner can tell every point of the compass by knowing one of
its points, the north; so, a pianist should be able to determine every
d^ree of his strength by' knowing one of its degrees —that of his extreme
fortissimo.
When sure of this extreme point, a pianist can then, by his intelligence,
direct the mechanism of touch so as to grade the other dynamic degrees,
from this point downward, to the softest pianissimo.

Let us suppose that a pianist has correctly determined what is to be his

fortissimo, his. forte, his, piano, etc., and that his touch responds unfailingly

arrangement now, the question arises, when and where

to this intellectual :

ishe to employ each particular degree, including the crescendo and dimi-
nuendo, the abrupt and gentle, and every other dynamic discrimination.

Our first step in systematizing the accents of music was to classify

them according to the four elements of music. This classification, how-
ever, cannot be applied to dynamics, because
The theory of musical dynamics has to do with melody alone.

Although the other elements call for accent (which is a dynamic tone),
yet, the degree of power of every accent is regulated by the proportionate
power of melody the latter being really the lawgiver.
;

Melody, beside being the only musical element which requires the
other dynamic distinctions, crescendo and diminuendo, etc., as well as ac-
cents, is, moreover, that element which governs and determines the proper
degree of force of every musical sound.
In fact, we have dynamic power of the tones of melody
to consider the
as the normal power ; all dynamic discrimination
and, consequently, that
starts from, and is relative to, this normal degree.

Accepting this statement as a leading principle, we base upon it the

principles of dynamic discrimination.
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 221

CHAPTER XIII.

THE DYNAMICS OP MELODY.—MELODY UNACCOMPANIED.

SIMPLE melody, in music, is like a nude figure in painting. Both re-

quire the touch of a master, and need a truer, purer conception as
"well as execution th^n if the melody were clothed in harmony, or the
figure in drapery.
Many a painter excels in painting gorgeous draperies; or pianist, in
playing elaborate accompaniments —each so gorgeous, or so elaborate, that
the subject itself But few artists
seems to hold but a secondary rank.
approach the perfection which is unadorned form or simple
needed in
tune. The true artist, only, can hope to paint the nude in classic purity
the finished pianist, only, can expect to play a plain melody with dynamic
perfection.

The intelligent playing of an unaccompanied melody is, dynamically,

almost entirely a question of accentuation, with the addition only of cres-

cendo and diminuendo, and sudden dynamic changes.

The first thing to be considered is the opening degree of power of the
melody.
As the opening degree progresses, its intensity rises above, or falls be-
low, that of the opening degree. But the opening degree is really the
normal, or rule-giving, proportion of power, to which the subsequent de-
grees are merely relative.
As no what is forte, or
positive rule can be laid down, in reference to
piano, etc., must be allowed to individuality, and each per-
great latitude
former must himself decide upon the exact degree of power with which
the melody begins, according to his own conception of what is/orte, or what
piano, etc.
Unaccompanied melody does not really belong to the province of the
pianist, and, except as a contrast, is hardly suitable to his instrument.
 :

222 DYNAMICS.

Even those solo melodies which are most suggestive of emotion, and almost
self-expressive, so to speak, can only be inadequately rendered on a piano-
forte, although the interpretation be masterly ; for example

CHOPIN—Bttjdb, Op. 25, No. 7.

Lento.

I II \ JS- 1-0-1 ff
•-
^.— .S3 '
'
'
'
in.^ ^ IJ

CHOPIN—Ballade, Op. 33.

_-t_.tL._-?V
tztbcut^E Lj :i
I r=r J

feS^t^EE^ ijizc:

E^E^S
Could any pianist, however great, draw from his instrument such ten-
der tones, and produce such a deep impression, as a good violoncellist
could do, in playing these measures ?

Surely not.
But, the moment the melody is accompanied, the piano can hold its

own. Take, for example, the recitative in the larghetto of Chopin's

F-minor Concerto. Could any other instrumentalist surpass, or even
equal, the pianist, in rendering this recitative with orchestral accompani-
ment?
I think not.
But the real sphere for pianoforte music is certainly " polyphony."

MELODY ACCOMPANIED.
Polyphony is the proper domain of the pianist, the realm in which he
issupreme, and in which no other instrumentalist, not even the organist,
can compare with him.
The organist, with all his great advantages, yet lacks many of the
facilities and most of the finer nuances of the pianist, notably that of ac-
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. aas

centuation, instantaneous dynamic, discrimination through touch, and that

most important condition of expression -pulsation.
Without further comparisons, we will now examine what the pianist
is able and expected to do, in dynamic respects.

In the study of accents, we had to do with dynamic distinctions of

single notes only, or with special points. Here, however, leaving aside
accentuation, we have to deal with dynamic distinctions of whole series of
notes, or with collective points.
The series of notes which, collectively taken, require dynamic consid-
eration, viz., each a distinctly different power, are :

1. Melody;
2. Fundamental Basses;
3. Accompaniments.

Melody and basses, like the outlines of a picture, should be plainly

and the accompaniment, or inner voices, subdued.
perceptible,
The proportion which these different powers bear to each other is, as
follows :

1. Melody, being the principal constituent of a composition, invariably

demands primary power.
2. The fundamental basses, coming next in importance, claim second-
ary power.
3. The accompaniment, as the general servant, should be kept in the
background and receive the least, or tertiary, power.
Accepting these proportions as the rule, we shall see by illustrations

how this rule works in practice.

a. Plain Melody, with Simple Accompaniment.

DOHLER— NoOTtJENB.

^
Primary.

isi^ m.
m.

»a=^3=s=
ESp
-A 0-

n.
 ;

224 DYNAMICS.

Primary. BEETHOVEN— RojfDO.

tr
•:^ir=^^^z
-^•—0-^-
i^ SS?
m.

afSEfegj; 1^ — ^—

Theoretically, it is easy enough to say : Give to the melody primary

power ; to the basses, secondary ; and to the accompaniment, tertiary
practically, however, this is not quite so easy, for technical reasons. But,
leaving technique aside, there still remains the intellectual difficulty of
properly locating each voice, hence each dynamic power.
Although this presents no difficulty whatever in simple cases like the
last examples, where the melody is unmistakable ;
yet, when the leading
melody is doubtful or hidden, as happens frequently, its discernment as-

sumes the proportion of an intellectual task which to solve correctly not

every pianist is sufficiently thoughtful or capable.

i. Plainly discernible Melody, with Complicated Accompaniment,

THALBBRG— SONNAMBULA.

^^i>rrEr.z>§zt=&

§lfe^
^-- — ' '
'
n^FFT?Ff^h 1 n I

:
I
—
ii^
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 235

MENDELSSOHN-LISZT—Wedding-march,
Sva

8va..

=5S
^i*^!3^
=P=t ri^^
:£i*
^S^Eg

^
The coasciousness of what is melody, and what is not, in the thousands
of instances like the above, may be very plain to the performer ; and yet
the melody may not be at all clear to the listener. Abstracting again
technique from our consideration, and allowing technique to be correct, the
dynamic one. Not that the
fault is generally intellectual, specifically a
melody has been played too softly (for it may even be pounded, vdthout
making it clear) but that the accompanying flourishes have been played
;

too loudly —
that was the fault.
No passage or embellishment around a canto can ever be in good taste
or of good effect, unless they are played in subdued proportion to the
melody. They should be transparent as trelliswork, delicate as arabesques,
— an ornament, not an encumbrance. This is a maxim universally ac-

cepted, the gist of which holds always good, even in fortissimo playing.
In fact, I may lay down this other rule

No passage or flourish should be played fortissimo, i. e., with the per-

former'' s greatest power, unless it occurs alone, and cannot drown another voice

of superior importance.
Playing accompaniments in subdued proportion to the melodji
brilliant

need not, by any means, be a sign of weakness or effemiuacy, nor need

such accompaniment remain within the limit of piano; but they should
never arrogate a prominence which does not belong to accompaniments.
15
 : : :

236 DYNAMICS.

c. Not plainly discernible Melodies.

Of these I distinguish two kinds

1. Those which are evidently intended by the composer as melodies.
2. Those about which it is doubtful whether the composer premedi'
tated them as melodies.

FIRST KIND.

The following are a few examples

SCHUMANN—Novelette, No. 3.

^*w^
I

\\
^\ ^---r

If*
f5»:.—
\ \^^
I -|j»-

^
!
#1--

w^m
feE
ib*.
i:t
-t*'-

The melody, being somewhat obscured by the change of hands, is evi-

dently intended to be thus

4-fc

When so recognized, primary power can then be correctly located.

TSCHAIKOWSKY—Babcabolle, Op. 37, No. 6.

jiU ^9-
f^|^-T=^^J^r^^t-:
—I?— :=i=*?
-t» i-
:fc:t
-^—#-

;i
-r*— -- ipi
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 237

^^^11
9^=1=
<F «-~^
|
- •^
i=*
£&
,*?
*—^-
*-^'_J.
saii^ 1^1
^•ia*zr!!=

Unencumbered, the melody would appear thus

l^s^^^i ^-•- 3^^33=

^J^
j:fi
and this would be the response esi^ i^Utt:

Although these few examples are naturally inadequate to illustrate the

numerous cases in which the melody is so obscured that it is not readily
discerned by the ordinary reader, yet they prove sufficiently the necesr
sity Bf searching for, and .finding, the melody, before bringing into play
dynamic discrimination.

SECOND KIND.

Hidden melodies about which it is dovhtful whether the composer, premedi-

tated them.

CZERNY—L'EcOLE de la VELOCiTii, No. 15.

1^^
Melody.
>

'^ ^^.^^^^^^^^^
t
^^^-^sti^zH J--9-
* t
^ -' — w— cr«r
 4

238 DYNAMICS.

it=t:
1^
W—
*f-=Sg.^^^J^^g:p^g
I I

z:=^
i
ii=feE :b2=
tf3» iz
iP^-=

i==^
i
Sao

E^ --^^i^^=^=^W. r-^-0- -'?->?-

—b-^y-#—?—5-?- ——
i ^: j ->_^ —f. 7 r
? f^-^-"

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 53.

r'=>^z^^i=
Ie^^e^! :t^=t=

r-i-'^l
•»
I
I

-m-

Melody.

i Wif
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 239

yg.-* *-:H-

m^E^£^-^r
^-
——
— •==• -•
w^'^S
» •-
*

»^»s>-
.--

i =w=

IffiT

sempre dim,.

^ -3^z
-r 5-3 1 T
5**3

i22r
_^_^
i dearesc.
=^=^

BEETHOVEN—Sonata, Op. 53,

M.M. i = 116.

.^__._^_^__ -_^__^_^__^

ppi t r f?
 —

230

CHOPIN Allegro db Concert.

sva.. loco.

i^^^iiife^ip*^^
1*^1^^
mi^
;| R^-- ir
=1 i-

K-:?
Melody.

ES --=C
1
L-S*Z
1

3^=3E
 THE DYNAMICS OP MELODY. 331

Such kind of bass melody is very frequent in Chopin.

CHOPIN—Etude, Op. 10, No. 5.

#.?:.<e.
^^^
iSi -j ? — ill ill
'^^~

ffl tempo- poco cresc.

P ^

mB i
I5?g
-4=f- — 1^
1—
-t-

Melody.

^ mf
 ; : ; *

232

Whether the composer intended such hidden melodies, or not, should

never deter the performer from following his own interpretation, provided
that it is based on sound reasoning, and not on impulse merely ; and that
the conception does not materially interfere with the composer's special
indications. Far from being a liberty-taken with the composition, hardly
enough of importance can be attached to the discovery and the bringing
out of hidden melodic strains. Far better, to give prominence to those
little melodic touches, though the composer does not indicate them, than

to pass them over unrecognized.

SHORT THEMES AND MOTIVES.

In those parts of a composition which lack a leading or fully developed

melody, the principal theme, or even the mere motive of that theme,
should be treated with the same dynamic consideration, i. e., receiving
primary power, as though either theme or motive were an entire melody.
For example, in Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 53, the chief theme of the
last movement is this

-^ i-2- — jT-'-^- r—^—t-— —^—^— =|— "I ,

~
^ e

or, rhythmically merely, thus

> .
m ^ » \ f \ \
,t
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 233

This theme occurs in several harmonic garbs during the movement ; of

course, always as the primary idea. But, even when the mere motive of it

appears, f 1 f j no matter how often, or how disguised, the motive

f

should always receive a dynamic importance equal to that of the entire

theme ; thus

Secondary.

^1^^^.
|i^^ sempre piamsmmo.
.._te

m±
I^B=^
--^i^
mi
Primary.

In this illustration and the succeeding sixty-two measures, the iigure,,

CT
fact, it is),
,

and should
is to be treated as if it

in every case
were the leading melody (which, in

have precedence in power over all other

matter. Also here

Secondary.

Primary.

The motive, f 1 f ^ , has always primary power.

I can, of course, merely hint at these matters, as to explain them fully

would require However, all that has been said in

oral communication.
reference to the dynamic rank of themes and motives, will bear application
to any sonata or other piece of music the main point being, that any
;

part of a leading theme claims primary dynamic power over its surround-
ings, the same as an entire leading melody would do.
 — :

234 DYNAMICS.

SEVERAL MELODIES COMING TOGETHER.

This occurs in two ways ; either the melodies are of equal dynamic im-
portance, or one voice is the principal, the other (or others) being second-
ary.

I. Several Melodies of Equal Importance.

This happens more particularly in duos, trios, etc., written or arranged

for the pianoforte, but may happen temporarily in any composition. Ex-
amples are not necessary. One word of advice, however, may be given.
If the melodies are really played with equal power of touch, the
upper one, by reason of its higher pitch, will naturally be the more
acute, and thus predominate. To avoid this, and in order to properly
balance the melodies, the lower one can well bear, and even ought to re-
ceive, so much greater emphasis as will cause the perfect blending of both
voices, so that neither of them shall predominate.

2. Several Melodies of Unequal Importance.

A good example of these is the following

CHOPIN—Polonaise, Op. 36, No. 1.

Secondary.

£ts:
t-V3 •— 1

Tertiary.

V -^ -^h- -^ ?^
^Ji=tz
Pite
Primary.
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 335

Also this

CHOPIN—Ballade, Op. 28.

Primary.

~4-

pii -^=^
W^\ -a—
^5rtr-r-^-p-p-r-p-f=g2:g
--^
• • —'—

Secondary. II.

i!ig^-3S=3^EEEg!EpEj3

^^ ^ I.J--
J^

^: ^?E!Ep
fe

,i=*=:
i •» •
-¥ —•
I
•-
I

£
i?=t=t 4=
ii5^3 3^^=^
The dynamic power, which is required on each of these melodies, is, of

course, regulated by the relative importance -wdiich is assigned to them.

One of the melodies being considered the principal, the other is naturally
its counterpoint, or second in importance ;
hence, second in power.
Now, it happens fi-equently that the counterpoint, when of a brilliant

and ornamented character, is, so to speak, made too much of, to the detri-

ment of the melody or ccifitu.s Jinnus.

Therefore great care must be taken, that the chief melody is not smoth-
ered by its brilliant or ornamental surroundings (whether appearing as
counterpoint or as variation) ; for example :
236 DYNAMICS.

WEBER— Sonata in C, Op. 24.

Secondary.

HENSELT—Variations de Concert, Op. 1. Var. 3.

Secondary. ^
Con moio. legato.

^^-.-^^if^fif ff tt^-
n±:.
-^-»-
i^ztz
-*-* -r^'^-Pg
Primary.

V i
•
i

S
>r^
T^
— r-^,

•
rri I V J
gift PItir:; :[:=
P
marcalo U canto.

BEETHOVEN—Sonata, Op. 53.

Secondary.

ttQ^-^j-^-ujj-jp": ^=,t^=s
i dolce.
=g^=S p *??•
tS*E
*=;:

Primary.
-te"-

Melody.
*
is *
^
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 2:37

^h^E-mJ^Ef^E^^

The importance of deciding positively "which of two simultaneous

melodies is the principal one can hardly be overrated ; and the necessity of
bringing this perception clearly before the listener, must be evident to
every one. And yet, this A-B-C of dynamics is more often neglected
"

than attended to, the secondary melody (particularly, when in the treble)
being allowed to come out as if it were the principal one, while the latter

(especially, when in an inner voice) is kept in the background.

The last example from Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 63, furnishes an in-
stance of such intentional or unintentional mal-interpretation ; most pia-

nists, even those of high standing, giving to the counterpoint in the treble
the chief significance, and leaving to the cantus firmus in the left hand
either a secondary rank, or no significance at all.

This proves again that intelligent perception should precede and di-

rect the mechanical execution.

INCIDENTAL MELODIES.

These are imperfectly developed melodies, little melodic snatches, or

short phrases, occurring incidentally as the second to a primary melody.
Though generally plainly perceptible, they are not unfrequently hidden in
the inner voices or accompaniment, and thus are not always recognized
for example
CHOPIN— NOCTUENB, Op. 55, No. 1.

Primary. ^~^ ^
i i

-• J-J-
S
s>-
fe ^i
t=^S4:
3=i
-^V-
^i?=f I
--f^

Secondary.

The secondary melody is here plainly discernible.

238 DYNAMICS.

CHOPIN—Etude, Op. 35, No. 1 (Sixteenth Measure).

^
Primary.

^
B
^-

r^f^f^ T^ ^-r»?- -rt^i'

h-H-

im=i^ Secondary.
-^^

And here, it is completely hidden, perhaps not even premeditated by

the composer.
The bringing-out of hidden melodies, or even of mere fragments of
them, is always permissible, though the composer may not have intended
them. would be absurd to say this is not allowed, for that would nega-
It
tive individuality,and confine interpretation to straight lines merely.
Exactly because such fragments have not been indicated, the bringing-out
of them, where they were not expected, gives evidence of artistic intelli-
gence, and is sure to denote, on the part of the interpreter, a certain refine-
ment of thought which cannot fail to be appreciated.
We ought not to blame a composer, for having omitted to indicate
these intentional or unintentional inner thoughts. "We might as well re-
proach a poet for not explaining every passage in his writings;'

THE DYNAMICS OP FUNDAMENTAL BASSES.

The power of fundamental basses is only slightly inferior to that of the
chief melody, and is equal, if not superior, to that of secondary melody or
counterpoints.
On account of their inferior penetrating power, compared to treble
notes, fundamental basses can bear a slight excess of power, without fear
of overshadowing melodic notes in a higher register.
The additional emphasis given to fandamental basses would also be
justified,on account of grammatical and quantitative principles.
Schumann's saying " An den Bassen erketint man den Musiker "
:

("by the basses one recognizes the musician"), which he intended in

reference to composers only, might be applied with equal truth to pianists.
Many of these, if put to the test upon this maxim, would fall grievously
short in what is to be expected from a musician, viz., that the basses
should be distinctly heard.
Fundamental basses must, naturally, either remain stationary, or move.
The former we call " organ-points," the latter " progressive basses."
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 339

Progressive basses generally constitute melodic phrases, and these

should receive the prominence which is due to melodies. As these phrases
occur entirely in the extreme lower voice, they require even more stress
than secondary melodies. In fact, if the stress were as great as that given
to the chief melody, the power would not be too excessive ; for example :

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3.

CRAMEB—Etude (Bulow Edition), No. 7.

feE
llE
-?l-f-
&1=S^^S3
*k<-f-
i-1^^— #-
*—
_^-*-*- •-*•
*-+-4— 4
« -
—l-fc
te»-H«-
I I
I
- L
-t-f-
^— 4— -t-f-
4—4—
**-
J— 4—

—Lri2_^ — ——t
'
' ' '

——-=!==-— ^-M^J
Bass Melody.
 : — —
240 DYNAMICS.

There are also cases in which the fundamental basses positively require
the greatest dynamic power. This occurs
a. "When the basses constitute a continuous melody, which takes the

part of second to an upper voice, as in a duet between a bass and higher

voice ; for example

PRUDENT—Lucia.

|iSI

Ben legato il Basso.

iii?:l=3
^pin:T=pi
r-^- ——
' '

--I 1
— I
F 0-'-i — i—M 1
i

i
•--H a

n 1
^ *1

The greater stress given here to the bass melody has not the object of
overshadowing the upper voice, but of balancing with it, so that both can
be plainly distinguished as separate voices.
h. The basses may also have primary power, when the chief melody is

not a singing one, but an ornamented, running melody, as in the following

*
etude ; for example :
 THE DYNAMICS OF MELODY. 341

CHOPIN—Etude, Op. 35, No. 3.

feS;
SE^g^^ir^^S^^gp^
3

§_w^^# i^^
w
li^

9: it^
Lte The Basses having Primary Power.

i^^*^*

feaE^a-EEEEt
;s?
£A^ f: :?:^H«. t
i=P=t
. *l2fL_*-_,

P^ =^ — tz*:

§fte

Klindworth (in his revised edition of Chopin) is quite right in connect-

ing these bass notes, by giying to each the value of an entire measure.
This altered notation is both logical and in confirmation of general prac-
tice.

c. Or, when the progression of the basses represents an independent

motive ; as, for example :

BEETHOVEN— Sonata Appassionata, Op. 57.

AgitaU). I I-
A.
4^
ffl==

la^^i^pi^^ppi
16
 "

242 DYNAMICS.

There are also other instances in which the fundamental basses de-
mand special prominence ; but, as these can neither be enumerated nor
classified, the only guidance for determining their dynamic power must be
their melodic importance, always remembering that any melody in the
extreme bass can bear stronger stress than melodies occurring in a higher
register.

THE DYNAMICS OF ACCOMPANIMENTS.

These I may dismiss with a simple word of warning.

Accompaniments have no dynamic rank at all, excepting a negative
one, that of being least important.
Although this maxim is a very simple one, still it is often forgotten,
and more faults are made in playing the accompaniment too loudly, than
in playing the melody too softly.
This warning is particularly to be remembered during periods of an in-
creasing intensity, or crescendo, because there is always the danger to be
guarded against, of increasing the power of the accompaniment beyond its

tertiary degree,and thus making it too prominent.

Professor Wenzel, of the Leipzig Conservatory, used to repeat over and
over again to his pupils, " Do not put the expression into the accompani-
ment !

Let the student follow old Wenzel's advice, and always keep the accom-
paniment in its proper dynamic rank.
 CRESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 243

CHAPTEE XIY.
CRESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO.

AS the different degrees of tone-power give to a composition the needed

-^^^ dynamic colors, and accents the finishing touches, so do crescendo
and diminuendo represent the gradations in the coloring, and sudd(?n
dynamic changes the contrasts of light and shade.
Crescendo is an increase of power or intensity, the result of a pressure
of emotion (not of motion, for that is accelerando).
Diminuendo is the reverse.
Crescendo, in its climax, reaches the height of excitement or tone-
power, and diminuendo attains perfect repose or softness.

Not only does crescendo commence on a softer, and end on a louder

tone, but it begins on a lower and ends on a higher one.
Diminuendo being the opposite.
This is simply a matter of fact, which has its parallel in every-day life.

I remember a little scene at a European fish-market. One of the fish-

wives said something which displeased another one. quarrel ensued, A
immediately a crescendo of both their voices commenced, not only by an
increase of lung power, but by a simultaneous rising in pitch of the voice,
until, at the climax, the loudest as well as highest screaming was attained.
At moment, a well-dressed customer approached and, as business
that ;

was evidently paramount to passion, the women instantly calmed down.

The voices fell in a surprisingly short diminuendo both in pitch and power,
and the height of crescendo was succeeded by a sudden lull.
Here, then, we have, not an instance, but a natural law, which is
instinctively followed by humanity, and, when transferred to music, givea
us the fundamental rule :

Every melody or passage ascending demands a crescendo / and every

melody or passage descending demands a diminuendo.

According to this rule, every crescendo in a rising motion, or diminvr-

endo in a falling motion, is normal, regular, positive.

And every crescendo in a falling motion, or diminuendo in a rising
motion, is abnormal, irregular, negative.
 — : :

344 DYNAMICS.

In other words : the former make the rule, the latter are exceptions.
Other kinds of crescendos and diminuendos, yet to be explained, axe
neither normal nor abnormal, and may be designated as neutral, and
counted among the exceptions.
These exceptions, however, have quite ,as much right of existence as
the rule itself, and, like other negative matters in music, are not only
necessary as contrasts, but particularly needed in many instances, where
normal crescendos or diminuendos would be out of place.
To point out these instances, I begin by classifying crescendo and dimi-
nutmlo into the following four kinds

1. NoEMAL KnsTD Orescendo in rising, or diminuendo in falling motion.

2. Neuteal Kind — Crescendo and diminuendo in neutral motion, i. e., mo-

tion which neither rises nor falls.

3. Netjteal Kind — Crescendo toward, and diminuendo from, an accented

point.

4. Abnoemal Kind — Crescendo in falling, or diminuendo in rising motion.

Each of these four kinds will be reviewed in the order here indicated.

1. Crescendo in Rising — Diminuendo in Falling Motion.

(JVormal.)

This kind is so easily understood, and so self-suggestive, that it is

almost superfluous to illustrate it. The extreme upper note in any group
or phrase is the terminating note of the crescendo, and, in returning, the
initial one of the diminuendo ; for example

MOZART. MOZART.

^^Bte fM^^^^g
When this is not the case, the dynamic gradation is not normal.
I subjoin, however, one other example which will, likewise, re-illustrate
the rhythmical arrangement of a cadence, which by the composer was left

to the tender mercies of ad libitum interpretation (see page 60).

 CRESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 245

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 31, No. 1, in G-Major.

Altered Notation.
/T\

I &=!; ^^i^i^^^^^ii
pp

P^fii
£=t^
i5=2E

0- r-+-J~*"^±z. t—!—f-™— !—I— *— i

—h'h- *+—*-«-^-!— *— —!-*^+—t—
I

^f=f

9^=?:

-m/^
^^^ ^^bi^B^fa^
'
mf

§[iEEE -7— -?=F

The interpretation of this cadence demanded, before all, a comprehen-

sible rhythmical arrangement. The latter prepared the way for proper
phrasing ; and, through the phrasing, the melodic outlines of the cadence
 : : : ;

346 DYNAMICS.

were thrown into relief. The crescendo and diminuendo suggested by the
ascent and descent of the arranged movement were thus easily and accu-
rately located, which could not have been done without previous phrasing
nor the phrasing, without previous rhythmical arrangement.
(The student is advised to compare the original notation of this cadence
with the altered version.)

2. Crescendo and Diminuendo in Neutral Motion.

(Mutral.)

Any motion which does not actually ascend or descend, but continues
spinning around in about the same tone-circle, requires swelling and de-
creasing, to give it color and variety ; for example

which would be very tame without such dynamic accent.

Or, a tremolo like this

MOZART—Fantasia.

^ 0- -0 • •-
=t=t=t=t=
ill
A" —•^
=1
^
«
1
^
1=
-•_J_*_

i^=
-it
ep

Or, a note several times repeated

CHOPIN—La 01 DARBM, Op. 2

CHOPIN—NocTTENE, E-Flat.

i ± .ki
 CRESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 247

CHOPIN— SCHEKZO (B-Flat Minor).

!-=_ J (Analogous.)
u.
I I |

-± qS'
M_
m-^ ^ •o^ ?£:

mp

^-?:K^
fe'Sgfe
i\7bf, as in Klindworth's Edition :

jsL i j^i-
a.
±: i J
te

Or, a rolling, spinning-around motion :

CHOPIN—Valse, Op. 64.

^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^j^ :^
fe -^^^z;^- ^^:X:X=X^A «-;-3q^;

etc.

CHOPIN—NOCTUKNB (E-Flat).

— — —^T
i ' ; -. -.
T-T-; : ; -. ;
: —
: I
'
—*< m I k-j-

sfe

rait, e smorz.

SCHUBERT— Clavierstuck.

isfe?=e^t
i^^EHS
pp^
^=^^^§e^Se^S^^P-
i4===:t==— 1^===^--
rnf

-l-l-^Hiziz.—"•--

m/'
* -& -^
S- ^
si-
""
4
pp p
248 DYNAMICS.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 7.

—^-1— 4— #"*— -I— A-^

g=L^_=L^Ea£E£^
g
m/^

BEETHOVEN— Sonata Pathbtiqub,

* 3f
'P-/»- !^-F-f -*- -•- ^SS:-?^ iipci^:::t—
EfcE?^;
=F=
PP m/^ />? mp

-4-' mm^^m^
5 5
Melody,

=«''^
Efe
r-

to which the following ground-hass is analogous :

^i
^^m=i^^=^S^m ^^^
-<9-
^^^7 I s^ ^^
f ^F I

Such rolHng motion may be met with in almost any composition.

Although every one of such instances demands dynamic coloring, yet
not every instance calls for the same kind of coloring.
Dynamic gradation, as we know, consists of either

Crescendo,

Diminuendo,
Both combined, 6., the Swell.
 CEESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 34t^

Thus, we have three ways of coloring.

Now, let it be noted, that any neui/ral motion which does not start
from, or move toward^ an accented pointy has its climax {or swell) in the
centre of the motion. (See the given examples.)
But, if the motion has its climax, i. e., its greatest stress, at the begin-
ning, sf im^:- — or at the end,
; :^ sf then there must be no
swelling in the centre.
This brings us to the third kind of dynamic gradations.

3. Crescendo going toward, Diminuendo starting from, an

Accented Point. {Neutral.)

MOZART—Fantasia.

MENDELSSOHN—Rondo capeiccioso.

H f .f f^—f^f—f.,^

MENDELSSOHN- Spinning-Song.
^'^•^•^
^^^^™^-^- —
0
I j J^J^^n
#=iz
:= _J-^/,^^ :ilaL^^=g^r^
L iJL I

j^
I

In these illustrations, crescendo only was needed. In the following^

both crescendo and diminuendo are required.
 H '

250 DYNAMICS.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 7, E-Flat (Breitkopf & Hartel Edition).

Mitwre.

•^ * ^Tt :ji»- tjV ^*- •!;* i^-w- :^V ly-r 5-*-

E^
*• *•' *• 5'

«^ f#=f^^
EE^^^^E^ i
^-p-Pi^—fia=:^
*
r*--4
^-

XT
:i*» 5^ 3^ 3^ i^ 3 -r ^ *

^fe^^
=i^?^ ^=4-- ::t

T^-» »
2^-9- — !-• H-* t-l-* — '
!-d !-d ^-d
'
!-d —I

hd
1— hd^—
1
— —
:^* 5* ;?* :;* 5* :?

^^
i tf ^
W ^31^*-^
^^^
fel7

:i:?
:

p;)

iS^^^p^^^^g^
 CBESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 351

I have not added any creso. or dimin. signs, in order to give the exact
notation of Beethoven, according to the latest Breitkopf and Hartel
edition.
This example is also another instance of " hidden melody," which, as
a iirst consideration, should be brought out with unmistakable clearness.
The harmonic foundation is broken into triplets. These triplets bring
animation and vigor into the movement, as the crescendos and di/minuendos
give dynamic coloring to the melody. But, to give this coloring intelli-
gently, the. melody pure and simple must first be precisely fixed.

s^s:
Imt t t=x
?
?5
^5
^=«: M- \—

ff^P

(1) = Sudden change. (3) mp = meteopiano, a degree bet ween piareo and meseoforte.

Then only can dynamic gradation be accurately located.

The principle of increasing the stress toward, and decreasing it from
an accented point, is applicable to the shortest groups or phrases as well
as to extended ones ; for example
 :

252 DYNAMICS.

Special Gradation.
ion. )
no means a contradiction.
Genera] Gradation
ion.)

f Special Gradation.

General Gradation.

Special Gradation.

General Gradation.

;: Special Gradation.
r^^»
General Gradation.

These examples show that special gradations may be within a general

crescendo or diminuendo. By means of such " wheels within a wheel,"
the player is enabled to render tonic repetitions, or sequences, each time
in a dynamically different measure ; for example

MOZART— Sonata in B-Flat.

Tnp General Crescendo.

 CEESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 253

Observe the variety in the special grading, while the general tendency
of crescendo is kept up.

MOZART— Same Sonata.

ji^^ ^^^i^EgE^a^
^ b^ 17 jA VA A ^tz^fL
^£ -t-2— 5z =t^=± -?— ^3^^
General Crescendo.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 31 (in E-Flat;.

|
I
I,!
I
J

mm iizrfS:
i^=f^
I I I
—'
^
<Jj^i
tr-Ut^-:F^-i
=t=B
mp—<:;mp:
fcp^
III
2JZ
I m/'-
"m

^^^^^^^
^ T,-J-4-4

^ m/'
ki- 4- i-kts.

mp-
.•-T-fc

-r-"i
^
p. General Crescendo.

4. Crescendo in falling, Diminuendo in rising Motion.

[Ainormal.)

This kind of gradation, though theoretically abnormal, is still quite

logical.
When the higher extreme of a downvirard motion is stronger than the
terminating extreme below, of course the downward gradation is a dimi-
nuendo, and normal. But if the higher point is the weaker, the lower ex-
treme the stronger, the downward motion is then, logically, a crescendo.
And, likewise, if a rising motion begins with the strongest stress, the
rising movement dying away, then the upward gradation is properly a
diminuendo.
It is, therefore, the relative power of the two extreme points, which
determines the mode of gradation.
A few examples may complete the explanation
354 DYNAMICS.

Ascending Diminuendo.
CHOPIN—Valsb, Op. 64, No. 3.

Tnf

,^^.^ _^_ ^^ptftf t

m^^^- k%

mf_
l

pp

BEETHOVEN—EjjEDTZER Sonata.

L^tz^tf:^^ ——— — — —1__

i^ ;&^
-\—h I i
I I I

mp mf pp

Descending Crescendo.
CHOPIN—Valsb, Op. 64, No. 1.

Sva. loco.

m^_
pp

WEBER— Sonata in D-Minoe.

-f—f
-Jz:z:

W^
fff--= ff

CHOPIN—iMPEOMPTtr, Op. 39.

^^^^^^^^^ f rnf
SostenMto.
 CRESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 355

SUDDEN DYNAMIC CHANGES.

The object of such changes is evidently contrast ; and the composer's
intention, in this respect, is in almost all cases plainly indicated.
Looking upon the effect of such contrasts from the point of good
taste,and judging them by their appropriateness and beauty, we find that
any sudden forte after piano is never beautifal or appropriate, unless it
comes at the beginning of a phrase.
For instance, a phrase having terminated p or pp, a new one may
begin forte ; whereas, if a sudden forte occurred within a piano phrase,
the effect would be like that of a sudden slap in the face.
On the other hand, a sudden ^mtio after 2, forte may happen anywhere,
at any moment, without being offensive ; for example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 37, No. 1 (in E-Flat Major).

I ^^^ :feE«z ^^
B::i:fi::
-» a —
r -* « m a*-

Reverse here the dynamic contrast, and mark how ugly the effect
would be.
Therefore, a sudden /bri!iS immediately after ^«a%o (if at all) should be
given very reservedly, and in full consciousness of its fitness.
This principle coincides with the warning given with regard to exagger-
ated accentuation.
In fact, the following may be safely laid down as a general principle

Piano after forte, = fp, is never offensive, and usually of good effect.

Forte after piano, = pf, is almost always oljectionahle, and generally

incorrect.

As a proof, if proof is needed, the sign pf never occurs, while the sign

fp is frequently met with.

It may be taken for granted, that a sudden /or^e following a diminuendo,
IZr f is in very questionable taste, and should be avoided, as either
the diminuendo or \h.Q forte is surely incorrect.
 p ;

^56 DYNAMICS.

For this reason, the following example from

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 28.

#* R-a^V Lg->
; f=aa-
I =^i=r=s= itriz
r
!.•-=— *f-

ii|=p--^ ^
:;=r
q r

should have this descending crescendo,

|S==J-#—

although the crescendo is not indicated in the original notation.

The sudden •piano following a cresc, -==.
opposite, however, a ._p, IS

frequently of beautiful effect. Notably "the older masters Haydi., Mozart, —

—
and Beethoven were quite in the habit of employing the dynamic effect
for example:

MOZART— Sonata in A.

U^ -i
1 1
-J :* ^ •r

mt -I—
H
I— ^— ^-
i

-w—w—^-
1

I*—iz

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 38.

sempre staccato.
 CRESCENDO AND DIMINUENDO. 357

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 31 (in E-Flat).

'mm^M I f

§^ T^==:
w" j:' j^ ^ -^ ^ ^- ^ t-* -
In every one of such instances, however, a slight break, or breath-
taking ( ) is needed between the final crescendo and the succeeding piano.
,

This is to be effected by hand-raising and a very short rest, ==C^. —

The same punctuation is needed when similar instances occur in modem
compositions ; for example

CHOPIN—Polonaise, Op. 53.

. > r. > I > r. > 1 > , > , ( ' )

1^

^=^=1
^^
CHOPIN—NocTUBNE, Op. 55, No. 1,

:TO 1i
^^
is
te^ s
^J^ -**'
:1=

it 7^
*i •?
*
^* ^

§^ifel=3=
^'
4=« 1=

HENSELT—Ettjde, Op. 3, No. 3.

12^
^t;
1^ ^^B^^
5^ :t=
poco rii.
t-
F=nt =1^ =£:

17
 — :

258 DYNAMICS.

In cases, where little groups or short phrases occur over again, it is.

frequently an appropriate contrast to repeat the group or phrase piano or

pianissimo, in the manner of an eche. When this mode of contrast is so
conceived and, after due reflection, decided upon, the interpreter is then
quite justified in carrying out his conception, although the composer may
not have given such indication ; for example

See illustration of Beethoven's cadence (page 245) ; also the following r

MOZART—Sonata in A. Alia Turca.

AUegretto.

HANDEL The Hakmonious Blacksmith.

fttSz p S^f^fg^
mf < f>

ite
I
~f

%
a
p (Echo.)

: n
&
mf p (Echo.)
 PART YI.
TIME.

rTlHE term, " time," is used, musically, in a threefold sense.

-L In a general sense, it signifies rhythm; in particular, it means-
tact and terrvpo.
Rhytlim does not here require any further explanation.
"We have, therefore, only to do with the two latter meanings.

CHAPTEE XV.
TACT AND TEMPO.

TACT has been generalized as " a particular rhythm, exclusively-

adapted to music," but would be better explained as "a specific
rhythm within a definite tempo." Still more closely defined, tact is that
prescribed portion of a musical rhythm within a definite tempo, which
serves as standard of measurement for the whole movement.
I need not go into explanatory details. These would be a repetition
only of what has already been said on the subject, under " Rhythm and
Metric." But I would remark that tact is the smaller measure of time,,
within the larger measure of tempo, and is of greater consequence than
tempo. D. G. Turk (Klavierschule, 1789) says in reference to execu-
tion " Tact-keeping is more important than velocity " and Moscheles.
: ;

Op. 70) declares, " Tact

(Studies, is the soul of music."
To keep tact means :

Elementary — To give to each note its proper duration (really, a rhyth-

mical matter).
 : :

260 TIME.

Then —To play the notes in obedience a regular beat, makingto the
beat the master, the notes the
(i. e., fingers) servant.
And finally— To beat accordance with a
in rate of speed. definite

It is universally conceded, that tact-keeping is the chief and most im-

perative requirement of every musical performance, more essential even
than playing the notes correctly.
Far better to sacrifice a handful of notes than to stammer but, ; still

better, to modify the tempo by taking it slower and playing the notes cor-
rectly, than to keep up the tempo and sacrifice clearness.
Thus we may conclude, that tact-keeping is more indispensable than
either clearness or tempo, and clearness more essential than tempo.
Hence, the order would be
First, tact ; then, clearness ; and last, tempo.
Tact-keeping is so elementary a condition, that, as a matter of course,
any one aiming at expression is supposed to be a perfect master of it.

Strict time-keeping involves naturally strict adherence to a chosen

tempo ; though it does not imply that the tempo is the correct one. Thus,
several musicians may play the same piece in perfect time, yet, each one in
a different tempo, and neither in the composer's intended one.
On the other hand, playing out of time (now faster, now slower) in-
volves playing out of tempo.
But there is this diiference :

The tempo may be intentionally hastened or slackened by a master ; or,

the steady time-keeping may be unintentionally interrupted by a bungler.

Out-of-time playing may, thus, be either an allowable liberty, or an
inexcusable fault.
Tact, as everything else in music, has its positive and negative side
uninterrupted, perfect time being the positive ; occasional, imperfect time,
the negative.
The former is called in German :
" Taktfestigkeit " or " tact-strict-
ness ; the latter, " Taktfreiheit " or " tact-freedom."
Now, as much as tact-strictness is indispensable to a musician, so is

tact-freedom essential to the artist.

Dr. Marx says, " Tact-fi-eedom, not strictness, is a law of nature, and
based on the waveJike pulsion of the emotions."
But freedom must not be confounded with license, carelessness, or

remissness. On the contrary, the fact should never be lost sight of, that
absolute strictness,, machine-like perfection in time-keeping, is not artistic.
Taking it as granted, that the student is " taktfest," *'. «., capable of
 TACT AND TEMPO. 261

keeping strict time, I take Tip tlie question of tact and tempo from its

negative (or artistic) side —that oi freedom with -underlying strictness.

Tact-freedom implies tlie faculty of hastening or slackening the tempo,

knowingly and intentionally, at such temporary moments as the character
of the movement not only suggests and justifies, but even requires. To
which must be added the ableness and certainty of returning to the normal
tempo, whenever needed.
This shows expertness and masterly control.
On the other hand, out-of-time playing implies the weakness of hast-
ening the tempo, unknowingly and unintentionally, at any random moment.
To which may be added the danger of running away, and the certainty of
not returning to the normal degree.
This proves inexpertness and bungling incapacity.

TEMPO.

Tempo imparts the degree of rapidity with which a piece is to be exe-

cuted, and also the adherence to that degree.

In the latter meaning, tempo is synonymous with time-keeping (or

tact), while in the former significance it is independent.

In this independent sense, tempo has five fundamental degrees (anal-

ogous to dynamics).

1. Yeet Slow Largo, etc.

2. Slow Adagio, etc.

3. Moderate Andante, etc.

4. Fast Allegro, etc.

3. Yeby Fast Presto, etc.

Each of these degrees is usually indicated, at the beginning of a move-

ment, by some conventional Italian word or -words.
These refer, however, more to the general character of the movement
than to the absolute degree of rapidity for example ;

" Andante cantaUle," " Allegretto grasioso," " Allegro con brio," etc.

"Without going into any details of this supposed well-known musical

terminology, I pass on to the more exact method of indicating the com-
poser's intention as to tempo, viz., to the beat of the metronome.
The test of a metronome iswhen set at 60, it
that, shall beat seconds

the unit of the beats, whatever their number may be, being always a

minute.
 —
262 TIME.

Thus, " M. M. J =
112 " signifies that 112 beats of the metronome,
each representing a quarter-note ( J), are to fill up the space of a minute.
In principle, the metronome is, mathematically and astronomically, as
correct as any good clock is supposed to be.
The unit being always a minute.
A minute being the 60th part of an hour.
An hour, the 24th part of a day.
A day, the 365th part of a year.
And a year, the time it takes the earth to go around the sun.
Here we have a which it has as yet
positive standard of measurement,
been impossible to discover for measuring the degrees of dynamics.
In practice, however, a metronome is seldom as correct as a good clock,
but that is not necessary.
Our is said to be forty quarter-notes in a minute
slowest time our ;

fastest,two hundred and eight quarter-notes in a minute. And this cor-

responds' to the figures on the dial of a metronome, which begin at 40, and
end at 208.
The choice of tempo is a matter of great moment, and should be decided
upon more in accordance with the intrinsic character of the composition,
than extrinsic effect particularly, as a mistaken tempo will injure a per-
;

formance more, than a well-chosen tempo, alone, could benefit it.

Subjectiveness and objectiveness — as the Germans are fond of saying

play a great role in the choice of tempo, and, frequently, even a greater
one than the composer's positive indication.
I^ow, as a rule, these indications should be obeyed ; and only where
there is any reasonable doubt as to their genuineness should the inter-
preter consider himself justified in substituting his own tempo, unless he
means to place his judgment above that of the composer.
It is a strange thing, that errors, in respect to tempo, like errors in
dynamics, are more frequently committed in the direction of going too far,

than of going not far enough.

In dynamic, far more faults are committed in playing too loudly, than
in playing too softly ; and, in tempo, far more mistakes occur in playing
too quickly, than in playing too slowly.
Such tempo-faults are not only committed by immature piano-players,
who hurry mostly from nervousness, but also by technically-finished
players; more particularly, the virtuosos, who wish thus to display their
technique in a more brilliant light.
The true artist does not go beyond the limit where beauty ceases and
 TACT ^ND TEMPO. 263

pyrotechnics begin ; while the mere virtuoso, catering for the public, un-
fortunately prefers pyrotechnics.
Although it is not in my, or any person's, power to lay down a rule
with regard to the choice of tempo, I may give a general warning against
overdoing, by advising the careful player never to take any tempo too fast,

but always a little slower than his technique is able to execute. There
should always be a margin left for eventualities, such as nervousness, indis-
position, fatigue, etc. This margin should be employed in paying attention
to other matters beside velocity, such as listening to one's and im- self,

proving the execution through an always discriminating touch and ever-

watchful intelligence.
At all events, the fact is not to be disputed, that, only when the per-
former's powers are far beyond the piece, can he expect to play it fault-

lessly.

Playing should not be laboring, but playing, in the literal meaning of

the word.
If the performer can impi-ess the listener with a feeling of confidence
and ease, he will probably succeed in giving pleasure but the moment he ;

awakens a feeling of uneasiness in his audience, the chances of success are

hopeless.
Therefore, moderation in tempo, like moderation in dynamics, should
be the ruling principle. Kepose and self-command should always hold in

control the mechanical portion of the performance. Even in the fastest

prestissimo, or in the most passionate abandon, the mind must be the mas-
ter, the fingers only servants.
Tact-freedom comprises all those transgressions and infringements of

tempo, which are deliberately resorted to for the

strict time, including
purpose of imparting artistic variety to the stifiness of unchanging meas-

ured motion.
Such permissible transgressions I enumerate as follows

1. ACOELEBANDO. 3. StTDDEN TeMPO ChAIJGBS.

2. RrrAKDAiJDO. 4. Tenuto and Fekmata.
5. Rtibato.

Each of these we shall now successively investigate.

 :

264 TIME. •

CHAPTEE XVI.
ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO.

IPTJEPOSE treating these subjects in an entirely different manner

from that hitherto pursued in this wort, viz. : by citing what others
have said about them, and merely adding a few glossaries.
The few writers who, to my knowledge, have written to any purpose
on the application of accelerando and riiardando are

1. C. CzEEKT, in his " Pianoforteschule," Op. 500, Third Part.

2. De. Ad. Kullax, in " Die Aesthetik des Clavierspiels."

3. Math. Lttsst, in his " Traite de I'expression musicale."

Let us begin with Czemy.

CzEENT, wh.0, on account of the almost incredible number of his veloc-

ity exercises, is frequently styled " the Man of Velocity " (der Mann der
Gelaufigkeit), was also, undoubtedly, both in his musical and theoretical
works, " der Mann der Praxis," viz. : the practical.
The theoretical portion of his great " Pianoforte-School," notably, its
Third Part, which treats " Von dem Vortrag," was not only, at the time
of its appearance, the first literary work on the suhject of in-
and foremost
and expression (Vortrag), but remains to the present
terpretation, style,
day one of the most notable and complete treatises on those subjects.
Notwithstanding Czerny's manner bf treatment being now generally
considered somewhat superficial, we have nothing clearer or more prac-
tical. He is, beyond all, too little of an idealist, and too much of a realist,

ever under the mantle of vague phrases to attempt going beyond his own
or his reader's depth. And, though he rarely enters into close details or
explanations, yet, as an old practitioner (Practicus), he has the good sense
to go straight to his point.
The third chapter of the Third Part is entitled, " Von den Veranderun-
gen des Zeitmasses ;" more particularly, " about the uses of accelerando and
ritardando."
 ACCELERANDO AJSTD EITAEDANDO. 265

After some preliminary observations, in which he says: "Ifot only —

ereiry composition, but every part of a composition, expresses some definite
emotion," (?)
" or" (as he prudently adds), " at least, permits such emotion
to be subjoined by the interpreter or through the interpretation," he men-
tions a number of emotions which require a ritardnndo, and others, an
accelerando. Going then from the inner purport of a composition to its
outer structure, from the sesthetical to the material part of his subject, or
from the spiritual to the tangible, he feels at once more at home, and be-
comes precise and clear. He begins
" Many, in fact, nearly every place or point in a composition, which is
susceptible of tact-freedom, can bear more than one mode of employing
ToMentandos and accelerandos, without any one of these modes being abso-
lutely faulty or inappropriate. So, for example, can the following little
melody be interpreted in four different ways :

CZEENT— Andante.

p I
dol. cresc. *' dim. P
^
Pi I \
k
J
-IB-.

^
B--
=t:
•^

POTIE DIFFERENT WAYS OF INTEKPBBTATION.

1. In tempo throughout.
2. In tempo .... vn poeo ritenuto amorzando.
3. In tempo poco aeederando railentando.

4. In tempo molto rita/rdando

Then he asks
" Which of these four kinds of interpretation may now be the best ?

Leaving this an open question, he gives the good advice

"When any musical idea, any group, or phrase, or passage, recurs,

in various places of a composition, then the performer is not only at lib-

erty, but it should be his duty, to alter the mode of rendering at each
repetition, in order to avoid monotony. But, in deciding upon this varia-
tion, he has to consider what precedes and what follows, and then deter-
mine his mode of rendering accordingly.
" Biiardando is, as a rule, far more generally applicable than accele-

rando, because it does not impair the character of a piece as much as a

too frequently recurring accelerando would do."
 : :

266 TIME.

In reference to the employment of accelerando, Czerny gives no rule at

all, mentioning only that ^^accelerando is used in ascending movements,
;
and announces passion and agitation " but, regarding ritardando, he is

more diffuse, giving the following rules

" Ritardando is most appropriately employed —

" —Before the return of a principal theme.
Rule 1.

" —On those notes within a period which lead the begin-
EuLE 2. to
ning of a phrase or even a mere section.
Rule — On accented long
" 3. followed by shorter ones.
notes,
Rule —Before going over
" 4. a into just beforedifferent tact, i. e.,

the change of time begins.

" Rule —Immediately before a pause or
5. rest.

Rule — On the diminuendo of a part which was just before very

" 6.

lively, as also on brilliant passages, when suddenly a run occurs which

requires a soft and delicate rendering.
"Rule —On embellishments of many quick
7. all which one notes,
finds get comfortably into the
it difficult to measure of time. strict

Rule — Occasionally,
" 8. on the ascending
also, of an crescendo especi-
ally emphasized leading an important climax or to an ending.
part, to
Rule — On very humorous,
" 9. or parts or pas-
capricious, fantastic
sages, toelevate character.
their
"Rule —Almost wherever the composer has marked
10. '
espressivo,^

and
" Rule —At the end of every long
11. on every cadence trill, as soft in
general.
" As a matter of course, all that is said with regard to ritardando refers
equally to such synonymous words as ^
rallentando, ritenuto, smorzando,
calando,^ etc."
Here he gives the foUovsdng example, with his annexed remarks

^m
AndantlTW

il
m
^i-t-ki-'-'—m-

dot.

4—J-
i&E =i=t
 ACCELERANDO AND EITARDANDO. 367

•^
r T
1st Measure. — Strictly in tempo.
M Measure. —The last three eighths are to be almost imperceptibly retarded ; because
the next measure brings a repetition of the first, or chief, motive (Rule 2).

3d Measure. —The last arpeggio-chord should be slightly retarded.

4th Measure. — The last three eighths
should be played with a little more warmth
{almost accelerando), which diminishes in the next measure only.
Sth Measure. — The embellishment, according to Rule 7, a little rita/rdando.

|«ESE^ag:^5E3^;fe- Itti »-r-^-,i

E&a^

=feEefee
loco.

ttsirt
M a 5=5=1:

6th Measure. —
A ritard. on this kind of embellishment is always permissible even —
necessary —as
a preventive of an awkward or hasty rendering, and an assistance in per-
forming the quick notes in a delicate, graceful manner, as though the notes were gradually
vanishing.
Toward the end of the embellishment only, should the ritard. become perceptible,
and a slight pause should be made on the G-sharp, the last note but one.
7th and Sth Measures. —
Strictly in time.
268 TIME.

11 13 13

i
«M
-r f
^^^^
f-»-^t-*lv
-#—•- i^^
T77
^ f-t^r-fi^
pi#
^^^
9<A Meamre. —With warmth and strength ; consequently, almost accelerando.
10th Measure. —The second half of this measure, more quickly.
11th Measure. —A ritardando, and the
little dissonant chord very
last softly ; because
every dissonating chord (when piano) is more effective if played in this way.
ISth Measure. —The first three eighths in tempo, but the last five eighths decidedly
ritardando, inasmuch as they lead to the theme (Rule 1).

13th Measure. —In tempo.

II jt ^ ~ ^ ~ « =1 7 -
4 •
 ACCELERANDO AND EITAEDANDO. 369

—
14th Measure. The first quarter is already rather rita/rd., which increases consider-
ably in the second quarter while the eight upper notes should be strongly marked, and
;

crescendo. The formate, /r\, lasts about three eighths, and the subsequent run is moderately
fast, delicate, and diminuendo, until the last eight notes become quite prominently ritwr-
dando.
15th Measure. —The first half is in tempo, the second half rita/rdando, while the end
of the embellishment should softly die away. The ritardando is here most necessary, as
"the measure contains the soft and tender finale cadence.
Last Measure. — Quietly, in tempo.
The following observations should be well considered

1. Although theme has a ritardando in almost every measure, yet

this
the prevailing time of the whole should never be vacillating or unsteady
(especially in the accompanying left hand), so that the listener is never in
any doubt about the proper time.
2. As every part is to be performed twice, so, the second time, each
mode of rendering, consequently, every ritardando, may be given more
prominently, whereby the whole gains in interest.
" JEluLE 12. —Every sudden modulation, or change of key, should be
made apparent, by a change of tempo also for example ;

-^— d \
^^^ ^ ^
S
' ^
=^^

3=
 — : — ^
370 TIME.

The first five measures, in tempo.

In the 6th Measure, gradually rita/rdando.
In the 7th Measure, a quieter movement, -which must not, however, depart too much
from the prescribed general tempo.
In the 8th Measure, gradual return to the first tempo.
N.B. —Although the first example are repeated, it would not be
two measures in this
well to render them the second time piano, because these measures are succeeded by an-
other piano.

The reader will perceive by this, that every rule of expression depend&
on minor circumstances.
"Rule 13. —If the new key is to he rendered forte, and the modulation
to it piamo, then the new key should enter in tempo, or even a little accele-

rando,' for example:

Moderate.
-*—
ife t =t=t
« '^^ff-^m
I rT~rT
poco ritard.
in tempo can anima.
ff
-^ ^
s r^—
»^

—^When the
" ^^
^^
-r^-fjh
^
"KuiiE 14. transition into a theme is composed of staccato
notes or chords, a rita/rdando would be quite appropriate toward the end ;.

but, when the transition is composed of rapid or legato notes, then a strict
tempo, or, according to circumstances, even an accelerando would be more
suitable ; for example

I
AUegro.
-a ,

J
%
^^1^^^
—iw — — iyd-H-t=M
^-^
-^-j-M-^
1-^- •
ritenuto.

-t^ * *
 ACCELERANDO AND RITAEDANDO. 271

Ben marcato.

SECOND EXAMPLE.
Allegro.

-
i T^ f i =<«=

Tema.

:td=^
aempre piU di fttoeo. /^/^

:^ -+ 3^3=
=l: i

The riiardando, in the first example, might also be given in a very

prominent degree {molto ritard.), and with a great deal of humor, if the
character of the whole permit such mode of expression.

DR. A. KULLAK, ON ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO.

Dr. Ad. Kullak (brother of Theodore, the celebrated pianist,) is as

hyper-sesthetical, as Czemy is essentially practical.

His last and best literary works, " Das musikalisch Schdne, Beitrag zur
^sthetik der Tonkunst," (Leipzig, 1858,) and " Die ^sthetik des Klavier-
spiels," (Berlin, 1861,) contain, according to the critic in Mendel's Mus.
Conv.-Lex., " beside a great deal that is far-fetched, much that is worthy
of notice." In his "^sthetik des Klavierspiels," Dr. Kullak makes the
 :

373 TIME.

fiame mistake which so many others have made, viz., he treats musical
interpretation, expression, etc., too much from an idealistic, and too little

from a realistic side. (The reverse of Czemy.)

He burdens and obscures his statements vrith perpetual and hindering
reflections on feeling and mood, and cannot get over the (for once and all)

.unanalyzable, unteachable portion of his subject His ide- —the emotions.

alistic leanings lead him to the use of overwhelming phrases, which, though
they give evidence of the author's fine sesthetical sense, are not calcu-
lated to give the reader a clear and practical explanation of his subject.
Omitting Kullak's high-flown phraseology, I give here only the main
points of his observations on rallentamdo and accelerando.
"Either, the contents of a piece express certain emotions, which de-
mand a rallentando or accelerando j or, the outer structure of the compo-
sition renders such tact-transgression necessary."
" In general, a unity or steadiness of time should prevail."
" And yet, special time-transgressions are of essential moment to musi-
cal beauty ; notably, the rallentando is of such expressive significance, that
it is rarely missing in any work."
" We proceed to the chief cases in which a rallentando is employed :

" 1. Every note in melodic declamation, which is sufl&ciently significant

to be emphasized, receives a rallentando P *
He gives here the following examples

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 26. Sonata, Op. 10.

Thema. i^^j l^^ Tit.

'^ Tit.
»^ * f *
MENDELSSOHN— Song withodt Wokds.
Book 1, No. 1. Book 5, No. 1.

^^^ Tit.
^ WTf^X UUU Tit. rV-f-V

B^^P t 7 s •-

I
p
* This rule, whicli Dr. Kullak considers of particular importance, refers to the slight,
almost imperceptible tenuto (ten. a) av fermate {<^) on single notes, which leads so easily

(especially with singers) to unsteady time-keeping, and does generally more harm than
good. (See subsequent chapter, Tenuto and Fermate)
 ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO. 273

BEETHOVEN— Sonata in D-Minok.

tJtdr:
I ^
Adagio.

=fcJ^
^-^^ m 5 ««.5:

HUMMEL— Op. 18.

^ £:J:£attg^-^-^rfF^mfp>ea
-i'i'P toB.

BEETHOVEN—Sonata in B-Flat, Op. 3S.

" 2. Hallentando is also there employed, where a thought terminates.

Also, either at the actual ending of a piece, or at such parts of a piece
which indicate an essential division." (Compare Czemy's Kules 1 and 2.)

For example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 26.

fcfc=t
S
tiif
ig-r=J==J^
m -O-'"
BEETHOVEN— Sonata in D-Minoe.
Mnale.

18
^^^^^^^
 : :

274 TIME.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata m G-Majoe, Op. 14.

ifeTi riTi
ife^im
A

t1-
S^ wn poco rail. a tempo.
i:

" Accelerando is, in general, not so permissible as ritardando.

" The inner reasons whicli demand an accelerando consist in the ascent
of the physical motion that is deposited in the tone-work, and in the rise
of emotional activity. The outer reasons concern the charm of variety,
or the brilliancy of sensuous effect.
" The ending of a thought is more fittingly depicted by ritardando than
by accderando. Tet, there are cases where an accelerando, at the end of
a composition, is quite appropriate.
" For example, Chopin's Scherzo in B-minor (toward the end), and the
finale of Beethoven's Sonata Appassionata.
" Beethoven, however, not content with a mere accelerando, prefers to
give the closing measures as a separate {piu presto) movement.
" A
gentle accelerando, in this sense, suggests itself very naturally in
the '
Cantilene '
of Schumann's F-major Novellette

accel.
^3^
" And in the second movement of Schumann's G-minor Sonata

accel.

"Accelerando is, employed in places where

as a rule, appropriately
brilliancy succeeds quietness. For example, in concertos and other con-
cert-pieces, where the passage-work commences after the Cantilene.'' '

" Also in places where unessential passages are inserted between essen-
tial themes. For example, in accompaniments, or cases like the follow-
ing:
 ACCELEEANDO AND RITARDANDO. 275

MENDELSSOHN—Pr^luditim (E-Minor), Op. 35.

L,|J!i.

'iTja'-'-*— tit
P^ -etc.

ce le

SCHUMANN— Sonata (G-Minor).

^=
-m^1^ S T

First movement, the first eiglit measures, before the entrance of the bass-theme.

" This includes most of the brilliant cadences by Liszt, Eaff, etc.
" Repetitions of a musical thought are usually rendered in a changed

tempo. The first time, accelerando/ the second, ritardando.

" Accelerando and ritardando are analogous to crescendo and dimi-
nuendo. An ascent in pitch, a rise of emotion, suggests naturally a cres-
cendo and accelerando as means of expression, just as a calming-down sug-
gests both diminuendo and rallentando.
" The union of accelerando with crescendo, and of diminuendo with
rallentando, is most natural and occurs very frequently, especially in slow,

expressive pieces for example

; :

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 10.

Adagio.

" Accelerando, however, may go with diminuendo, and ritardando with

crescendo.
" Brilliant passages which become softer and softer are a charm of a
peculiar kind.
" The addition of a rallentando to a crescendo adds greatly to the signifi-

cance of the expression ; for example

276 TIME.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata Path^itiqub.

£te
 ACCELERANDO AND EITAEDANDO. 277

" If, in this kind of passages, the executant, following the impulse of
accelerating, does not hold back the movement, he runs the risk of being
precipitated with headlong velocity;
" When, however, descending groups of similar contexture occur at the
end of a piece, this danger of following one's natural impulse disappears
the impetuosity loses itself, so to say, in space, without impairing the
rhythm or the movement.
" The movement, or rather, the gait of execution, is then similar to the
march of a foot-traveller. As the traveller regulates his step according to
the ground he passes over, so should the executant modify his movements,
to conform to the structure of the composition. But, however even or
uneven the surface may be, which the traveller passes over, if his course
is long, fatigue will come, and paralyze his march and his step will become
;

re-animated only at the appearance of the desired end, which excites all
his strength, all his energies.
" From these physiological analogies ensue the following principles."
(So far the ideas are excellent, but the rules now following are far from
being what Lussy considers them, viz., adequate to the purpose. But the
reader may judge for himself.)

"One should Accelerate—

" On several pathetic (?) -notes in succession, or on a single one
1.

being exceptionally of great value, at the beginning or in the middle of

$, phrase.
" 2. On several similar notes or groups, having an exceptional ascending

or descending progression.
" 3. On passages which present, exceptionally (in the middle of an an-

dcmte or adagio), a simple contexture provoking agitation, passion.

"One should Retard—

" 1.one or several consecutive pathetic notes, which occur so sud-
On
denly, at the beginning of a phrase, that one has neither time nor scope to-
make a spirited dash (^prendre ilan).
" 2. In consequence of fatigue, exhausted strength, and expended elan,

in an ascending or descending course.

" 3. On passages which present, exceptionally (in the middle of an
allegro), an expressive contexture, provoking calmness, gravity, sadness.
" A. On pathetic notes and passages, on temporary repetitions, and on

dissonating neighboring notes (suspensions), which occur at the end of a

phrase.
 : —— S f : ^ :

278 TIME.

" Before undertaking the application, in detail of these principles, let

us make an observation of capital importance.
" The rallentando or accelerando which pathetic notes are susceptible of
depends
" a. On the position of notes. A note, exceptionally repeated several
times, exacts at the beginning of a phrase an accelerando ; at the end, a ral-
lentando.
" b. On the general contexture of a piece. "We have said, one hastens
or slackens on passages having an eocceptional upward or downward ten-
dency. But, if the general contexture of a piece is ascending or descending,
one neither retards nor hastens ; for example

AUBEE Un Joub db Bonheur.

r 73l

^^rrft I

-»—* S S
^^^*^''sAs'-:i:
!
^^^^^m
?>^
ifS^ ii? ^ES3 -s^
—?-J 1
•-H-

" Nevertheless, if, in- a piece of ascending contexture, the motive of the
first phrase is repeated in the next phrase with a more lively accompani-
ment than it had at first, then one should accelerate ; for example

I
^ X
,i=3=-g^:—*
t=F=t f-
-.h--
s^

Tr "^ f 3
^ 5
^
*•

^ :p^=M^L-^
=t
acceUerando.

i —-.r^ -^- « — H-+5—

1.-J-^-^-^ > J— p^
 ACCELEKANDO AND EITARDANDO. 379

" c. On the number of parts or instruments executing a composition.

The soloist may
permit himself modifications of the general time which
the orchestra does not admit.
" d. On the sense of words in singing. The tempo to verses expressing
sadness, melancholy, etc., should be much slower than to those expressing
joy, happiness, triumph, etc.

"OF ACCELERANDOS.
" I. Accelerando, resulting from several pathetic notes in succession or a sin-
gle one having exceptionally a great value.

" One should Accelerate

" 1. On a note of great value, exceptionally occurring ; for ^example

MOZART— Don Giovanni.

m fc-;spEfe^
trE^E^i =^ ^^S=^^^ ?--:i=f= -«3=t:

^^^^^^^^^
rail.

I
-^
V=X
f-
^i^^ accd.
?==?::r. ^^=?2

" 2. On a note exceptionally repeated several times in succession, at the

beginning or in the middle of a phrase ; for example

MOZART—Fantasia in D-Minor.

£j^Tf^a=t:=tJ&=L-L-Lj-«-^
^5q=«= :=L
— *-*tabd=e:iJ: ipi
I
accel.

" 3. On a group of notes exceptionally repeated, if the bass is moving

•either upward or downward ; for example
 — — : ^
280 TIME.

pSE^JEE^E ^^^^^^^ accd.

rh^. i d=
?^
BELLINI— NoBMA.

4#i
fe^-'iS^-5^^-'^f^^^^?i^^N
acod.
i^— '*^^

as 5 g
1 r"T^T^ U4±±t i-±i
i iifa
:: irfti*iw I -d^rd- ii±3d
i
" But, 'if the bass remains stationary, there should be no accelerando.
" i. On upper neighboring notes (suspensions), when they are several
times repeated, at the beginning of a phrase ; for example

BELLINI.

accd. • accel. . - - rii. etc

"6. On modulations, i.e., during modulations; for example:

FIELD Fifth NocTmiNB.

1 2 g * iff—

&z
f

* *

l^=M^ -^
^SS ^
^-#
^ accel.
=t=t

^.
r=E

^-^^ 1-^
-^ — «-
 ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO. «81-

BEETHOVEN— Sonata PATrfTiquB.

a tempo.

" 6. Ou descending groups of small valued notes, at the end of a phrase,

if the note which succeeds such descending group is of larger value, or if
it is followed by a suspension ; for example

WEBER—Obbsok.

accel. rcUl.

CHOPIN—Maztjrka, Op. 7, No. 3.

m "
4=t±i

7.
^p-

On
iniq=:t

melodic guides {guides mModiques) of a simple, uniform con-

-¥

texture and of short duration ; for example :

MOZART—Fantasia.
|3

aecel.

" II. Accelerando, resulting from similar notes and groups ha/ovng an
exceptional ascending or descending tendency.

" One should Accelerate—

" 8. On notes which progress exceptionally, stepwise, in an ascending
movement ; for example :

HATDN.

^-A
IB?e:
\
-p^--
3^ii
 : — — — : : ;

282 TIME. ,

FIELD Fifth Noctuknb.

g¥¥=^
I acoel.
:t
0---

" 9. On notes which, at the beginning of a phrase, progress exceptionally

npward or downward, and having, as junction or pivot, a stationary note
for example

WEBER Invitation to the Dance.

Si
^m^—TziH m *-i — •-T-*
^=^
" 10. When, at the beginning of a phrase, the melody or bass progresses
exceptionally in contrary motion, immaterial whether approaching or going
apart from each other ; for example

KUHLAU—Op. 88.

-^
-I
—
»
^
!
f-
1-
^P^
J -m- -0-

-MeM^ ^k>-J^
^f?=f=i?*-

i£t:

^^
=t=?

PIE^^^^ *
'^^^^i='r
s^^^
accel.

" 11. On similar little rhythmic groups, exceptionally repeated, in

either ascending or descending motion ; for example

CHOPIN—Maztjkka, Op. 6.

^fs^^^g^gj^^fj^^
 ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO. 383

*' 12. At the end of a rapid movement, on a group of notes which are
several times repeated, while the bass remains stationary ; for example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 27, No. 3.

ife=g^t^ i

»ferd<p—
1»
accel.
It
-S>—r-

i
^3t
EIgMM^
3=^-
aecel.
^
MOZART Mbntjet from Sonata in A.

^Jt=£:
=t=^
roll.

MI =^
*i ^
" 13. On groups, or traits of similar texture, ascending or descending, at
the end of periods in quick movements ; for example

MOZART— Sonata in F.

i^^^m^-^^^^ip^
i.^-*-

m ^=^n =i^h=*^
*-f-
;r=t rf^
" III. Accelerando, resulting from passages which present, exception-

ally, a contexUire provohing agitation, passion.

" One should Accelerate

"14. On passages containing little values, and on similar, uniform
.groups which have the character of playfulness in the midst of expressive
phrases composed of larger valued notes ;
for example
 : : —

284 TIME.

BEETHOVEN— Sonata PATHfiTiQTB.

I

m
i?--

e^E E6 a^
^=M^:

•^ 7 L-J ^^^ ^F ^rrrpP

On phrases exceptionally accompanied by stationary, unbroken
" 15.
chords,coming after a phrase in which the chords were broken, or in
which the harmonic parts pursued a steady, regular course for example ; :

FIELD Fifth Nocturne,

i s^ i^iit
^^^^
i^HPSIIi
—^ 8 uPEby^jn^i^^^ i..4
gj_i =r^ r-r- r^=r =p=r=p=r--p=^

" 16. On syncopated phrases and passages, with intervening rests ; for
example \

MOZART—Fantasia in B-Minor.

^«^.^
MOZART— Sonata in F.

" lY. On exceptional phrases and passages of a syncopated contexture ;

for example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata, Op. 26.

^s^mm^^m^^^^ accel.
###. -fiif-^*. *:t
 ACCELEEANDO AND KITAEDANDO. 285

" 18. On phrases, exceptionally accompanied by ascending and de-

scending arpeggios ; for example

MENDELSSOHN— EoNDO Capkiccioso, Op. 14.

piU mosso.

After these rather problematical rules, Lussy goes on, with much self-

satisfaction :

" Here we are only at the end of the first part of this chapter. There,
where Czemy gave only one rule, we have found eighteen, several of
which are in flagrant contradiction to his rule. Evident proof, it seems to
us, that even the greatest masters have given but a cursory glance at the
question.

"OP RALLENTANDO OB RITAEDANDO.

"I. Sallentando resulting, in slow or moderate movements,' from one

or several 'pathetic (?) notes, occurring consecutively at the beginning of a
phrase or slurred group.

"One should Retard—

" 19. On the rest which follows the first note of a little stoccafc-phrase,
if the note is the highest of the little phrase, and is followed by a note of
the same value ; for example :

SCHULHOPF.
Effect.

m
S ^^^^^^
teoE W-.-#— »>-#
I I H ^
Htard. '*

SCHULHOPF.
Effect.

^m -»i 1—d-h —^=*-

rit.
? ^
 : — :

286 TIME.

" 20. On the initial note of a little leffato-Tphra,se, if it is, exceptionally,

a higher note, the preceding phrases or groups having commenced with a.

lower note : for example

MOZAET.
/TV
'
Bffedt. .
f f

Effect.

^
=?5=&

=^
^^^=t rallent.
b L

" Of course, in rapid movements one should absolutely abstain from

dwelling on any high initial note.

WEBER Invitation to the Dance.

AUegm vivo. *- *-
*
pg f
^^ *-

" It would be absurd to dwell on the extreme F beginning the third

measure, on the pretext, that it was the highest note of the phrase. We
have heard, however, this fault committed by some of our most celebrated
professors.
" 21. On the rest which follows the first note of a phrase, if the note
is a repeated high one and arrived at by the jump of a large ascending
interval, followed by a lower note ; for example

MOZART—Sonata in F.
 ACCELERANDO AND RITABDANDO. 387

CHOPIN—MAiiuKKA, Op. 7, No. 1.

" 22. On the rest which follows the highest note of an ascending
course, followed by an inferior note ; for example

CHOPIN— Op. 7, No. 4.

fc± m
r2=4
ri^~i= r\ \-i-\-0-^0—g-'- c
3

1
*-/Ts
1 s—*—a-^ — I—
Se
rail. stretto.

" 23. On the upper suspension of a group which, though occurring at

the end of a phrase, yet belongs to the next phrase as the attacking or
initial note (note d'elan) ; for example:

CHOPIN—Mazurka, Op. 7, No. 3.

^^^^^^^^m
" 24. On the first notes of a phrase,
>

when the phrase commences with

a sudden change of key or a character ; for example

AUBER Un Jotjr de Bonhedb.

^^m3-d^m^m^^^^?3m £-£ »-»

-» * —r — •—#-|—Hg-
Ift^iL ir-=i: i:zi
& fe-:-.

m: 5=t=t=:S=t
Ht.
S>— '((&—-

MOZART—Fantasia in D-Minoe.

-fi +^—rMr
5bE?^fc=5=t^
'^^^^-tr ?-rs— »

ilC~7?^ i EEii
 : :

•288 TIME.

"RaUentando, resulting from one

II. <yr more pathetic notes in the
midst of a phrase.

"One should Retard—

''
25. On an exceptionally high and acute note, being the companion
of a lower note ; for example

AUBER—Hatb4b.

jf lggg^^^^iglil^ ^— h*— T—•-

3^*;
—•-
—— — — »-j-^-q-
—3-7-1=*-^—
=^^ ———
=t=i: S t^^^
rail.
I 1
- I , 1-

" 26. On the note which replaces, exceptionally, a higher or lower one,
changing thus the direction of the preceding rhythmic design for ;

example

MOZART— Sonata in A, Fifth Var.

X

^s^ :&=M=t=t:
^=f^^
=#=•-
W
i 3^1 P ^=t

" III. Hallentando, resulting at the end of an ascent or descent, from

fatigue, exhausted strength, or expended dash {elan').

"One should Retard—

" 27. At the end of an ascent or descent, especially, if the rhythmic
design has just changed ; for example :

CHOPIN—Op. 30, No. 2.

[Si:
=p^
-jrr^jJ_J =4:
mm^^^^^^S:. ^
rra=3=3=^ i,^U^ J =*=?: i^^tgtai
^ ^If r 111 ^'
r T I

m ^^^ &--J=
0^ — It- Efe:
5z=Sf=t
rail.
I !i
 ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO. 389

CHOPIN— Op. 7. No. 3.

^^ '"^
r Iziszl^ k«r^ bfiT^ *

" At the end of these examples, one retards not only on account of ex-
haustion, but, also, because the design of the last quarter in the finale-
measures has changed its direction (see x ).

" 28. On a suite of ascending notes, when they are followed by a

lower note in a downward jump for example ; :

BEETHOVEN— Op. 49.

-.»-? -

accd. rail.

MOZART.
> ,
> i>

^^^^_^^ ./«— #-7-^-»;

t=f
-
r-^^ -ff
t:±=^--
ratt. *

"29. On descending groups immediately following ascending ones;

for example

BELLINI— Norma.

pgE^g^igpg^^gas^
F*!*

" 30. On a group of notes following high notes ; for example

MEYERBEER Robert lb Diablb.

&3EE
19
^^^^^m^
 : : '

290 TIME.

"IV. Rallentamdo, resulting fi'om an exceptional contexture provoMng

calmness, sadness, reverie, etc.

"One should Retard—

"31. On expressive singing-passages, presenting larger valued notes
and fuller harmony than before, when they occur, exceptionally, in an
allegro composed of smaller valued notes; for example:

MOZART— Sonata in F.

^^
< lAik lento.

i It
!"
" 32. On expressive passages provoking reverie, interposed in the
midst of a lively movement ; for example

CHOPIN—Valse, Op. 18.

i ]7i t? 3 0—f—0—r-T-
mena mosso.
±j'*
I
hJ ¥ hfc=± ^S
E^&i

" 33. On passages in a minor key having previously occurred in

major ; for example

BEETHOVEN—MooNxiGHT Sonata.

^^^^^m —
-a-
rallent.
U
¥ n^J ^

MOZART—Fantasia Sonata.

i ffi±±=^
=^
y I rJ^ ^
 ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO. 391

" V. Rallentando, resulting from one or several pathetic notes, at the end
of a section or phrase.

"One should Retard—

" 34. On the large valued note which occasionally precedes the finale
note, especially if it has a trill ; for example

Air Ancibn.

»?— ^ ?=3^
#-• #
—yz
I E^S
•-=— !-
-*
'f-p—s
W^ :2sz

" 35. On a note exceptionally repeated several times in succession ; for

example

BEETHOVEN— Sbkbnade.
^-fvtf
-•-3-»^*-F-'«+

ratlent.

" 36. On the high note, at the end of the last but one measure, if it is

syncopated, sustained, or chroinatic ; for example

DONIZETTI— Lucia.

^-;r rtoj'i^ E^ -•-h-^

ruUent.
^
" 37. On an upper suspension, in the last but one measure ; for ex-
ample :

AUBER—La Mtjette.

;^^^g|^^^g^^^^ :£^^^^33 rallent.

^
CHOPIN— NocTUKNE, Op. 55, No. 1.

^ ^f=m^r
rallent.

::tP5F
*- -•— * —#
:^5^=5:

rcUlent.
 : : —
f
: ^ » ^ : ;

292 TIME.

" 38. On temporary repetitions, at the end of the last but one meas-
ure ; for example
MOZART—Fantasia.

iH =^ -+-MM
=FIh?-
-0 — 0-3-0- -^

7-0«.
— i^^rt
CHOPIN—Valse.
roB.

Km ^'4 ^ < ^—;j—»i— l-

xW—

" 39. On the last but one note, if the last is a temporary repetition
for example

CHOPIN—NOCTUBNB, Op. 55.

i&£ ±=t±i =t
2z=i3t&4iti E!S:

^4S^
MOZART.

A:
raS.

" 40. On the repetition of a short design occurring in the last but one
measure, especially if the design contains suspensions ; for example

DONIZETTI—LxjciA

f-— f-^ f mr
^fg=^=gfff!rff^?!g . <=>

i =&
" 4:1. On exceptional quarter-notes, in the last but one measure ; for
example

pi^ -
>

f
>

ralleiU.
—j—
> >
i^^
/T\

^ ^E^I^Eg^^
rdUeiit.
 ACCELERANDO AND RITARDANDO. 293

" 42. On little values, occurring, exceptionally, at the end of a phrase,

or in groups containing temporary repetitions or suspensions; for ex-
ample :

MEYERBEER—Htjgubnots.
> > > > >

m^^^m^^^§^^^^mr^'^^^&^ S.
rodent.

BEETHOVEN—Moonlight Sona.ta.

^^
^^ f=f=^-^
|^-»^^
ZStL
^— ^

zt=*z
f

^
rait,

i •-

" But, when the small values are simply ornamental notes, which to-
gether ta.ke the place of a large valued note, there should be no ritardando.
" 43. On the last groups of notes descending, stepwise, to a finale
note ; for example

MOZART—Don Juan.

P^ ti3=&=Ei^=fetdn^
" 44. On the descending notes, at the end of the last but one measure
for example

ROSSINI.

^^=a=£^=g
SES
rallent.

" 45. On the last notes preceding an incomplete' ending (Germ. UVug'
schluss) ; for example

SCHUBERT— Adieu.

^^^ -^T ^-*

'Oil.
 :

294 TIME.

MEYERBEER—ROBKRT.

^^^^s-m roll.
::^=

" 46. On the end of a phrase presenting, exceptionally, several har-

monic parts, resolutions of dissonances, retardations, counterpoints for ;

example

WEBER—Obkbon.
—
ME P^^ I
>v

^^S
~~~~^raa.

^m^=^ zsz m ^
MERCADANTB.

rail.

m r^=r^ irff^ lie:;

g-^-^

" 47. On the last notes of a melodic guide containing an upper suspen-
sion, a repetition, or notes turning on a pivot (des notes pivotales) ; for ex-
ample:"

CZBRNY—Op. 139.
Notes pivMaks.

—
k^
^EEt
i*
•
^ ^^=^^P^P=^
^a2fen.

MOZART— Sonata in A.
 ACCELEEANDO AND RITAEDANDO. 295

" 48. On organ-points, syncopes, or large values, whicli occur at the

end of embellishments or ad libitum cadences ; for example

BEETHOVEN— Sonata PATrfTiquE.

^j^^- .^^^A^-=S-^^^^^m^f^^^-
I Effi
fp
cresc.

" 49. On rhythmical repetitions, i. e., on designs and groups of notes

consecutively repeated at the end of an expressive phrase for example;

CHOPIN—NOCTTJMIB.

^m=^^-ixmt±^
PHfe=P*f^-=ri •[
pi-|>4 *fc^ I
aiM
rati.

" 50. On final chords, with rests intervening ; for example

BEETHOVEN—Sonata Path]Stiqub, Op. 18.

g^^ P r-
ff
:t=

raU.

i^^^^s^^^e ^
«l

So far, Lussy and his rules.

296 TIME.

Having thus quoted Lussy verbatim, I neither refute nor advocate his
rules ; because there is much in them which is good, and much which is

dubious.
Perhaps, if these rules were properly sifted, curtailed, and better classi-
fied, many useful principles might be deduced from them. But, attempt-
ing, asLussy does, to cover by a particular rule almost every instance in
which either accelerando or ritardando is applicable or required, is even more
problematical and hopeless, than attempting, as some grammarians do, to
teach by rules the gender of French or German nouns.

The numerous and heterogeneous quotations from Czerny, Kullak, and

Lussy, have, doubtless, given the reader ample material for becoming ac-
quainted with the leading principles which govern the uses of accehranda
and ritardando. And, it is hoped, the student ^vill now be able to select
from the many given rules those that are practical and generally fitting ;,

and to take at what they are worth those that are only casually fitting, or
based on personal taste.

CHAPTER XVII.

StJDDEN CHANGES OF TEMPO.

THEviouspresent subject
chapter.
is, really, the adjunct and complement of the pre-

1. Ritardando or rallentando, etc., means : gradual, not sudden decrease

of tempo, viz. : getting slower, not already slower.
Accelerando or stringendo, etc., means : gradual, not sudden increase of
tempo, I. e., getting faster, not already faster.

Both meanings are analogous to crescendo and diminuendo.

The former does not signify /oT-te, but piano, —=:, becoming ybrte.
The latter does not signify ^I'ano, hwi forte, >=— hecommg piano. ,

It is both strange and true, that the distinction between gradation

and sudden change is frequently overlooked.
Tempo has its sudden changes as well as dynamics.
 SUDDEN CHANGES OF TEMPO. 397

A suddenly faster tempo is not an accelerando.

A suddenly slower tempo is not a ritardando.
I do not refer to those general changes of
tempo which occur at the
beginning of a new movement, or sometimes within a
movement, but to
those temporary changes within a movement which are frequently con-
founded with gradation, viz. : to the words,

Piii —more ; and Meno — less ; and others.

These, coupled with other tempo-terms, signify an abrupt, not a gradual

change of speed ; for example

Piu mosso, Piu vivo, Piu allegro, Piu presto, Sbretto, etc.,

signify : faster, at once faster ; and

Meno mosso, Piu adagio, Piu hnto, etc.,

signify : slower, at once slower.

The difference between such a sudden change and the gradual change
implied by accelerando and ritardando, etc., is frequently of great impor-
tance, and is surely worthy of careful notice.
2. The second distinction is this ,

The words, accelerando and ritardando, are, strictly speaking, appli-

cable only on a plurality of notes, and not on an individual note. To ac-
celerate, or hasten over, an individual note, is absolutely wrong, because
the rhythmical duration of the note would be curtailed and disregarded
hence, the effect would be that of bad time-keeping, instead of permissible
tact-freedom.
Thus, Lussy's Kule 1 (based probably on the bad habits of singers) is.

certainly incorrect.
To retard an individual note or rest, although substantially permissible,
is, nevertheless, a misapplication of the idea of ritardando ; inasmuch as
an individual note, or rest, may be dwelt on, sustained, prolonged, but
cannot really be retarded, i. e., become slower.
Long habit, however, has so accustomed musicians to this misapplica-
tion of the word, that very few even think of, and, still less, point out this
difference which, though small, is well worth observing.
The result of accepting this difference is to bring every ritardando on
single notes or rests (which KuUak considers of great importance, and
Lussy exemplifies by a large number of illustrations) under a separate
classification, viz., under the following heading
 : : ;

^98 TIME.

TENDTO AND FERMATE.

The meaning of these terms implies a dwelling on, or sustaining of, a
special point —a note, a chord, or rest.

But, while tenuto more employed within a movement,

(ten. or a ) is

feriiiate ('^) [French point d'orgue, point d' arret; Germ. Suhepunkt
It. corona] is chiefly used at the end of a musical period, or cadence, and

requires the longer duration of the two.

The exact duration of &fermate ('^) cannot be stated, as that depends
on the character and tempo of the movement. But, as general guidance,
the principle may be accepted, that in slow movements a fermate prolongs
a note about twice its value while in a quick movement it prolongs a
;

note at least three, even four times its value.

The fact, that tenuto and fermate refer to individual points merely,
renders these terms and indications analogous, in reference to time, to what
sforzando {sfa, fz, rfa, etc.,) is, in reference to dynamics. The latter
referring, likewise, only to individual points.
In fact, everything connected with time has its similitude in dynam-
ics ; for example

There are
 SUDDEN CHANGES OF TEMPO. 299

CzEENT—Kules 3 and 5 ;

—Rule and
KiTLLAK 1 ;

LuBSY—Kules 34 and subsequent ones

and remarks bearing upon

also to the this subject, as given under " Ac-
cents of Extremes " {q. v.).
The observations and examples thus recommended are quite sufficient
for the intelligent student, while it would be useless to enlighten the
sleepy-minded, by entering into more explicit details.

RUBATO.

Suhato, robbed or stoleii hence, rviato tempo, or ruhamento di tem,po,

;

robbed or stolen time. The Italians have also ccnii/rortempo, and the French
contre-temps, as synonymous terms, both signifying agwmst the time. It
may also be observed that the simple term, rubato, is generally used in
preference to rubato tempo.
Rubato may be described in several ways.

1. Any temporary retardation or acceleration is rubato.

2. Any negative grammatical accentuation (for example, syncopation),

by which the time becomes robbed of its regular accents, is a rubato.
3. That capricious and disorderly mode of performance by which some
notes are protracted beyond their proper duration and others curtailed,
without, however, changing the aggregate duration of each measure, is a
ruhato. •

The first of these three definitions requires no further observation.

The second, likewise, has been fully explained already, under Negative
Grammatical Accents.
But the last mode, which is, in fact, the real rubato, as it is usually un-
derstood, will receive particular notice.
This latter mode of performance is the rubato of Chopin very beauti- ;

ful and artistic when in its proper place and limitation, but very ugly and
pernicious when out of place, or exaggerated.
It may be executed in two ways :

1. Both hands in sympathy with each other, i. e., both hands accelerat-
ing or retarding together.
2. Or, the two hands not in sympathy, i. e., the accompanying hand
keeping strict time, while the other hand alone is playing rubato.

The latter way is the more beautiful of the two, and is the truly artistic

rubato.
 :; : :

300 TIME.

Chopin's often reiterated counsel to his pupils was substantially this

" Let your accompanying hand be your conductor, and let it keep time,
even while your other hand plays rubato. "
Acting upon his own advice, Chopin was always a very good time-
keeper and, in spite of using the greatest tact-freedom and taking the
;

widest rubato liberties, his tact-transgressions never overstepped the limit

of moderation or offensively interrupted the general tempo. It is, there-
fore, all the more to be regretted, that a large number of his admirers and
unaware of these well-known traditions,
imitators, forgetting, or perhaps
imagine ihey are portraying the style and personality of the master, by
spasmodically changing the gait of movement, at any moment, generally
an uncalled-for one. They thus misrepresent and caricature the very
thing about which Chopin was most particular, viz.

Tact-freedom within strictness

Tact-strictness within freedom.

There are musicians, who, believing absolute strictness to be an essen-

tial quality, rarely indulge in a ritardando or accelerando ; while others,
fancying strictness to be equivalent to stiffness, hardly play in time at all.

Of these two extreme classes of performers, the first is not quite so

objectionable as the second ; because who would not rather behold the
straight-laced, rigid marching of a well-disciplined soldier, than the un-
steady, vacillating gait of a musical rhapsodist, intoxicated by conceit or
ignorance.
The former, the realist, tnough he cannot interest, is, nevertheless, a
musician ; whereas the latter, the idealist, exasperates the listener, and is,

in reference to time-keeping, simply a nuisance.

"Without discussing such extreme cases, which should both be avoided,
let us remember that the proper course to be pursued, in this respect (as
in everything else pertaining to musical art), is to keep a juste milieu —
the golden mean —^between exaggeration and tameness.
Accepting this course as the only proper one, we find the surest and
best safeguard against overdoing, in either direction, in Chopin's advice to
his pupils, as already quoted. In fact, we cannot overrate the importance
of, or pay too much attention to, the principle of Chopin

" One hand should be kept in time, while the other hand retards or
accelerates."

Now, it may be said that this is impossible. But such is, by no

means, the case. Listen, in Italian opera, to a first-class singer, and notice
 SUDDEN CHANGES OF TEMPO. 301

how steadily the orchestral accompaniment proceeds, while the soloist re-
tards and accelerates, at almost every moment.
It is just this steadiness and general not-giving-way of the accompani-
ment which the soloist needs and desires, expecting only from the con-
ductor that he will follow, or either wait for him, at the tenuto or fermate
points. Just so should the pianist keep time, and yet be free in time.
How well Thalberg understood the art of singing on the pianoforte,
those who heard him can bear witness. And how little the majority of
modern pianists knpw of it, is shown by the unsteady way in which they
play accompaniments.
When Thalberg played a melody, it stood out in bold dynamic relief;
not because he pounded, but because he kept the accompaniment duly
subdued. And when he accelerated, retarded, or embellished his melody,
the accompaniment proceeded with steady, unwavering precision, unaf-
fected by the emotion displayed in the solo parts.
This method, far from being stiff or rigid, is not only rational and
musical, but beautiful and highly artistic never provoking and exasperat-
;

ing, as out-of-time playing with both hands, but always gratifying, at-
tractive, and possessing a peciiliar charm, which would be entirely lost, if
the accompaniment were dependent on the melody, instead of independ-
ent of it.

This refers, of course, chiefly to homophonous music, and, particularly,

to that kind of modem music which has a rhythm,
distinctly characteristic

such as dances and all descriptive modern pianoforte compositions.

[Rhythm, being the real life of music, must be imperatively preserved,
and not mutilated by fanciful or sentimental changes, at variance with
the general character of a composition.
As the idea of a composition lies chiefly in its character, and the
character is depicted in the rhythm, to mutilate the rhythm would be de-
facing the idea.
What is a waltz, a polonaise, a barcarole, or a lullaby, without the
appropriate rhythm essential to each ? And though, it may be argued, a
waltz, a mazurka, a polonaise of Ohopin, for example, is not really a dance,
but a poetized dance-form ;
yet, it may be answered, the rhythm must,
nevertheless, be kept up, or the idea becomes a travesty and a farce, instead

of being a poetical portraiture.

I remember reading somewhere, I think in Spohr's auto-biography, that,
at an evening-party, Hummel, the pianist, was coaxed by some young
ladies into playing a waltz, for them to dance to. Hummel being in one
room, while the young folks were dancing in another, kept on playing,
303 TIME.

and, at the same time, conversing for nearly an hour ; and, though diversi-
fying his musical subjects in every imaginable way, letting even a little

fugue creep in, yet he never relaxed or changed his time or tempo, and kept
the merry feet a-going, until .the young ladies came in a body to thank
him, and crown him with an improvised wreath made with the flowers of
their bouquets.
Now, although I do not intend to cite Hummel as a model as regards
poetical interpretation, yet I mean to say that to play a waltz in waltz-
tempo could certainly not impair the poetry of either the composition or the
performance ; while it is simply absurd to imagine that playing out of
time, with the impression of its being nibato, could produce a more poet-
ical effect.

Let the student try an experiment with a dance, choosing a waltz the —
most pensive, melancholy, undancelike one. Let him play it, first, in the
usual lackadaisical manner of sentimentalists, i. e., placing sentiment above
the character of the composition and then play the waltz, again, in the
;

character of a waltz, i. e., keeping time with the accompaniment.

Comparing the effect, or better, judging the effect by the impression
which each of these modes of rendering has upon competent listeners, the
verdict, as to which is the most pleasing and acceptable, is scarcely to be
doubted, and should be convincing.
Awaltz must be a waltz, however opposed the sentiment of its music
may be to its rhythm. "Whatever rubato liberties may be taken with the
melody, the rhythm (time) must be kept up, at least, in the accompaniment.
What holds good in the case of a waltz is equally exigent in any other
piece, in which the character .is portrayed by the rhythm, such as:
marches, mazurkas, polonaises, barcaroles, lullabies, serenades, etc., in-
cluding even nocturnes, romances, and songs without words ; in fact, every
style of modem composition.
There is,, perhaps, no one of the great pianoforte composers, whose in-
dividuality is better adapted to rubato, or whose creations more require the
use of it, than Chopin ; and among Chopin's works there is probably no
class of composition more susceptible of rubato, than his mazurkas. In
these, one may find perhaps the strongest illustration of his personality, iu
reference to rubato liberties.
If the student will try these mazurkas, or merely the earlier ones (Op.
6 and 7), and can succeed in playing them, each hand independently, the
one in time, the other rubato, he will then understand what an artistic
rubato signifies, and that its first condition is to guard against sacrificing
the character of the piece for the sake of sentiment.
 SUDDEN CHANGES OF TEMPO. 305

Character is the internal life of a piece, engendered by the composer

sentiment is the external impression, given to the work by the interpreter.
Character is an intrinsic, positive part of a composition ; sentiment, an
extrinsic, personal matter only.
Character is innate, steady, precise ; and, inasmuch as it is wholly ex-
pressed by the rhythm, more particularly by the time and tempo, the
rendering of a piece can only be true to the character, if the time and
tempo are generally upheld.
Sentiment, on the other hand, is extraneous, unsteady, varied ; and,
though it may be appropriate and true, yet it is frequently inappropriate-
and false.
It is, therefore, necessary to keep the sentiment under control, and to
always maintain the character. In fact, sentiment should never be al-

lowed to assume a prominence over, or be detrimental to, the character of

a composition.

The End.