Fundamentals of

genetics

Cell Cycle
Following the Process
Sarah Joy D. Dizon
Instructor
College of Science
Bulacan State University
 KEY CONCEPT

Cells have
distinct
phases of
growth,
reproduction,
and normal
functions

sjddizon2014
 The Key Roles of Cell Division
• The ability of organisms to reproduce best
distinguishes living things from non-living matter.
• The continuity of life is based upon the
reproduction of cells, or cell division.
• Cell division is integral part of cell cycle.

sjddizon2015
 Types of cell division
• Prokaryotes
– Binary fission (Each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome.)
• Eukaryotes
– Mitosis:
• Growth, development & repair
• Asexual reproduction (yields genetically identical cells)
• Occurs in somatic (body) cells
– Meiosis:
• Sexual reproduction (yields genetically different cells with
half the # of chromosomes)
• Occurs in specific reproductive cells
sjddizon2015 • Yields gametes (e.g., eggs & sperm) or spores
 • Eukaryotic cell division consists of:
– Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
– Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm

sjddizon2015
sjddizon2015
 The cell cycle has four main stages.
• The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA
replication, and cell division.

sjddizon2014
• The main stages of the cell cycle are gap 1,
synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.
– Gap 1 (G1): cell growth
and normal functions
– DNA synthesis (S): copies
DNA
– Gap 2 (G2): additional
growth
– Mitosis (M): includes
division of the cell
nucleus and division of
the cell cytoplasm
• Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large enough and the
DNA undamaged.
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
 The Interphase Process of
sjddizon2014
the Cell Cycle
 Interphase
• preparation for cellular division
• considered to be the 'living' phase of the cell,
in which the cell obtains nutrients, grows,
reads its DNA, and conducts other "normal"
cell functions
• majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of
their time in interphase

sjddizon2014
 G0 phase

• referred to the G zero phase or resting

phase is a period in the cell cycle in which cells
exist in a quiescent state
• the cell is NEITHER dividing nor preparing to
divide
• such as nerve and heart muscle cells, become
quiescent when they reach maturity
• Cells then remain in the G0phase until there is
a reason for them to divide
sjddizon2014
 Cell Cycle Checkpoints
• control mechanisms that ensure the fidelity of cell
division
• verify whether the processes at each phase of the
cell cycle have been accurately completed before
progression into the next phase
• important function of many checkpoints is to
assess DNA damage detected
by sensor mechanisms (cyclins and cyclin
dependent kinases)
• uses a signal mechanism either to stall the cell cycle
until repairs are made or, if repairs cannot be made,
to target the cell for destruction via apoptosis
sjddizon2014
 Cell Cycle Checkpoints

The main checkpoints:

• G1 (Restriction) Checkpoint - located at the end of
the cell cycle's G1 phase, just before entry into S
phase, making the key decision of whether the cell
should divide, delay division, or enter a resting stage
• G2 Checkpoint - located at the end of G2 phase,
triggering the start of the M phase (mitotic phase);
check a number of factors, such as DNA damage via
radiation, to ensure the cell is ready for mitosis
sjddizon2014
 Cell Cycle Checkpoints

• Metaphase Checkpoint – or Spindle

checkpoint, occurs at the point
in metaphase where all the chromosomes
should/have aligned at the mitotic plate and
be under bipolar tension

sjddizon2014
 G1 phase
• or Growth 1/Gap 1 phase
• cell grows in size and
synthesizes mRNA and proteins in
preparation for subsequent steps leading
to mitosis
• cell cycle lasts about 18-24 hours, and the
G1 phase takes up about 11 hours
• cell is diploid or 2n
• genetic material exists as chromatin
sjddizon2014
 S phase
• or the Synthesis Phase
• where DNA is replicated
• G1/S transition is a major checkpoint in the
regulation of the cell cycle in this phase (S-p PF)
• create exactly two identical semi-conserved
chromosomes (identical sister chromatids held
together by a centromere)
• Damage to DNA is detected and fixed during S-
phase
• Take about 8hours
sjddizon2014
 G2 phase
• or Pre-mitotic Phase
• third and final subphase of Interphase directly
preceding Mitosis
• period of rapid cell growth and protein synthesis
during which the cell readies itself for mitosis
• the G2/M DNA damage checkpoint consists of an
arrest of the cell in G2 just before mitotic entry in
response to genotoxic stress (such as UV
radiation, oxidative stress, DNA intercalating
agents, etc.)
sjddizon2014
 G2 phase
• DNA damage signals cause activation of
the transcription factor p53, a tumor
suppressor, preventing cancer; “the guardian
of the genome”, role in conserving stability by
PREVENTING genome mutation classified as
a tumor suppressor gene
• Takes about 4 hours to be completed

sjddizon2014
 Mitosis
• The Cell division state
• Cell growth stops at this stage
• focused on the orderly division into two
daughter cells
• Metaphase Checkpoint ensures that the cell is
ready to complete cell division
• Process has several steps: (PMAT) prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, telophase
sjddizon2014
Till the next process….
Cell Division

Part 1

MITOSIS
 Cell division
• process by which a parent cell divides into two
or more daughter cells
• In eukaryotes, there are two distinct type of
cell division: mitosis and meiosis
• Prokaryotes undergo binary fission, where
their genetic material is segregated equally
into two daughter cells

sjddizon2014
 Three
types of
cell
division

sjddizon2014
 Mitosis
• purpose of mitosis is cell division: making two
cells out of one
• the division of the mother cell into two
daughter cells, genetically identical to each
other and to their parent cell
• followed immediately by cytokinesis, which
divides the cytoplasm, organelles, and cell
membrane, and later karyokinesis,
which divides the nucleus
sjddizon2014
 Mitosis
• sequence of events is divided into stages
corresponding to the completion of one set of
activities and the start of the next
• was discovered in frog, rabbit, and
cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the
first time by the Polish histologist Wacław
Mayzel in 1875
• a Greek word meaning "warp thread"

sjddizon2014
 Meet the Chromosome…
Diagram of a replicated and
condensed
metaphase eukaryotic
chromosome.
(1)Chromatid – one of the
two identical parts of the
chromosome after S phase.
(2)Centromere – the point
where the two chromatids
touch, and where the
microtubules attach.
(3) Short arm.
sjddizon2014 (4) Long arm.
Meet the chromosome while in mitosis…

Micrograph
showing
condensed
chromosomes
in blue,
kinetochores in
pink, and
microtubules in
green during
metaphase of
mitosis

sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
The Mitotic Stages
 Prophase
• the chromatin condenses into double rod-
shaped structures called chromosomes in
which the chromatin becomes visible
• nuclear membrane (envelope) disappears
• Centrioles have separated and taken
positions on the opposite poles of the cell.
• Spindle fibers form and radiate
toward the center of the cell
sjddizon2014
 Fluorescence microscope
image of two mouse cell
nuclei in prophase
sjddizon2014
 PROPHASE
IN AN ONION
ROOT TIP
(Allium cepa)

sjddizon2014
 Metaphase
• the shortest phase of mitosis
• condensed and highly coiled chromosomes,
carrying genetic information, align in the
equator of the cell before being separated
• Spindle fibers connect the centromere of
each sister chromatid to the poles of the cell

sjddizon2014
 Chromosomes

sjddizon2014
 Anaphase
• chromosomes are split and the sister chromatids
move to opposite poles of the cell
• Anaphase starts when the anaphase promoting
complex marks an inhibitory
chaperone called securin with ubiquitin for
destruction.
• Securin is a protein which inhibits
a protease known as separase.
• The destruction of securin unleashes
separase which then breaks down
cohesin, a protein responsible for
holding sister chromatids together.
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
 Telophase
• final stage in both meiosis and mitosis in a
eukaryotic cell
• Two daughter nuclei form in each daughter cell
• As the nuclear membranes re-form around
each set of chromatids, the nucleoli also
reappear.
• The chromosomes also unwind back
• into the expanded chromatin that is
present during interphase.
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
 Cytokinesis
• process in which the cytoplasm of a
single eukaryotic cell is divided to form two
daughter cells
• usually initiates during the late stages
of mitosis and meiosis
Karyokinesis
• Nucleus is divided between 2 daughter
cells
• takes place during the late division
of a cell nucleus at mitosis or meiosis
sjddizon2014
 Prophase
INTERPHASE PROPHASE

Anaphase
METAPHASE ANAPHASE

Telophase Interphase
TELOPHASE INTERPHASE
ACTIVITY TIME…..
1. _________________ 5. ___________________ 9. __________________
2. _________________ 6. ___________________ 10. __________________
3. _________________ 7. ___________________
4. _________________ 8. ___________________
 3

5
4 2
1
1 – interphase 5 - late prophase 8 - anaphase
2 - interphase / beginning prophase 6 – metaphase 9 - early telophase
3 - early prophase 7 - early anaphase 10 - telophase
4 - mid prophase
 ANAPHASE

INTERPHASE METAPHASE
PROPHASE

TELOPHASE
ADDITIONAL PHASES
Of the Mitosis
 Preprophase (Plant Cells)
• an additional phase during mitosis in plant
cells that DOES NOT occur in
other eukaryotes such as animals or fungi
• the nucleus has to migrate into the center of
the cell before mitosis can begin
• The formation of the preprophase band, a
dense microtubule ring underneath
the plasma membrane.
• The initiation of microtubule nucleation
at the nuclear envelope.
sjddizon2014
 • microtubule array found
in plant cells that are about
to undergo cell division and
enter the preprophase stage
of the plant cell cycle
• first microscopically visible
sign
• phragmosome is a sheet of
cytoplasm forming in highly
vacuolated plant
cells in
preparation for
sjddizon2014
mitosis
 Prometaphase (Animal Cells)
• following prophase and preceding metaphase,
in eukaryotic somatic cells
• the nuclear membrane breaks apart into
numerous "membrane vesicles", and the
chromosomes inside form protein structures
called kinetochores.
• role of prometaphase is completed
when all of the kinetochore
microtubules have attached to their
kinetochores
sjddizon2014
 Prophase Metaphase

Telophase

Prometaphase Anaphase
sjddizon2014
Let’s check the knowledge..
 4

5
3

1 2
 4. Early
Prophase
5. Prophase
3.
Metaphase

1. Interphase 2. Anaphase
 1

3 4

2
 1.Anaphase

2. Metaphase 4.prophase

2.Late Anaphase
Cell Division

Part 2

MeiOSIS
 MEIOSIS
• special type of cell division necessary
for sexual reproduction in eukaryotes
(animals, plants and fungi)
• Division of the gametes (sperm and egg
cell)
• number of sets of chromosomes is reduced
to half the original number, typically from
two sets (diploid) to one set (haploid)
• Meiotic division occurs in two stages,
sjddizon2014 meiosis I and meiosis II
 MEIOSIS
• Ensures that humans have the same number
of chromosomes in each generation.
• It is a two-step process that reduces the
chromosome number by half—from 46 to
23—to form sperm and egg cells. This is a
reduction in genetic material.
• it is the reduction division of the
chromosomes in gametes

sjddizon2014
 OVERVIEW OF MEIOSIS

sjddizon2014
 Vocabulary Words…
• Diploid - two sets of chromosome, usually
one from the mother and one from
the father; 2n
• Haploid - has a single set of chromosomes;
n
• Gamete - reproductive sex cells
• Homologous chromosome - a set of one
maternal chromosome and one paternal
chromosome that pair up inside a
cell during meiosis; consists of two
sjddizon2014
chromatids
 Vocabulary Words…
• Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) -
the exchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes that
results in recombinant chromosomes

sjddizon2014
 The Stages
Interphase: Before meiosis begins,
genetic material is duplicated.
Growth 1 (G1) phase: Growth phase where
the cell undergoes normal. At this point cells
are 46 chromosomes, 2n.
Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is
replicated.
Growth 2 (G2) phase: rapid and additional
growth is needed by the cell before
Meiosis.
sjddizon2014
 A 2-Part Division
Meiosis I
- separates homologous chromosomes,
producing two haploid cells (n chromosomes,
23 in humans), and thus meiosis I is referred
to as a reductional division.
-A regular diploid human cell contains 46
chromosomes and is considered 2n because it
contains 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes.

sjddizon2014
 A 2-Part Division
Meiosis II
- an equational division similar to mitosis will
occur whereby the sister chromatids are
finally split, creating a total of 4 haploid cells
(23 chromosomes, n) - two from each
daughter cell from the first division.

sjddizon2014
 First Division
Prophase 1: It is the longest phase of
meiosis. Duplicated chromosome
condenses. Each chromosome consists
of two, closely associated sister
chromatids. Crossing over can occur
during the latter part of this stage.

Metaphase 1: Homologous
chromosomes align at the equatorial
plate.

sjddizon2014
 Recombination
of genes

sjddizon2014
 First Division
Anaphase 1: Homologous pairs
separate with sister chromatids
remaining together.

Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are

formed with each daughter containing
only one chromosome of the
homologous pair.

sjddizon2014
 Second Division:
Gamete Formation
Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.

Metaphase 2: Chromosomes align at

the equatorial plate.

sjddizon2014
 Second Division:
Gamete Formation
Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and
sister chromatids migrate separately to
each pole.

Telophase 2: Cell division is complete.

Four haploid daughter cells are
obtained.

sjddizon2014
 Second Division:
Gamete Formation
One parent cell produces four
daughter cells. Daughter cells have
half the number of chromosomes
found in the original parent cell and
with crossing over, are genetically
different.

sjddizon2014
sjddizon2014
 REFERENCES:
Cummings, M. R. 2014. Human Heredity: Principles and Issues (10th ed., pp. 28-
29). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Mader, S. S. 2007. Biology 9th Ed. McGraw Hill Higher Education, Boston, MA,
USA.
Raven, Peter H; Evert, Ray Franklin; Eichhorn, Susan E.2012. "Section 1. The
Biology of the Plant Cell – 3. The Plant Cell and the Cell Cycle". Biology of
plants. pp. 58–67.
W H Freeman.2000. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th edition. pp. Section 13.4.
Raven, PH; Evert, RF; Eichhorn, SE (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New
York: W.H. Freeman and Co.

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells - R. Rappoport (1996), Cambridge University Press

Animal Cell Cytokinesis - Glotzer (2001), Annual Review of Cell Biology 17, 351-86

The Molecular Requirements for Cytokinesis - Glotzer (2005), Science 307, 1735
Animal Cytokinesis: from parts list to mechanism - Eggert, Mitchison and Field
(2006), Annual Review of Cell Biology 75, 543-66