Geotechnical Investigation

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0.0 INTRODUCTION
This is an attempt to familiarize young engineers with elements
of subsoil exploration so that they will not feel the site work
as of new kind of work or disappointed to correspond to the
contractor, client, and senior professional engineers. Each site
is different from others with topology, stratigraphy, cost, and
scope of work. So the investigation work may considerably vary
due to these factors. However, a reference is made to each topic
in the appended sheet. These references may work as guides for
fulfilment and widening of necessary skill required to work at
the site for beginners. It is believed that this small element
of presentation/“guide” when consulted with the references cited
in the front page of the text would be enough, if correctly
followed, to face challenges of detailed investigation works at
difficult site conditions with confidence.

1.0 Essentials/Scope of Geotechnical Investigation

The field exploration program begins with or includes inspection
of any available topographic maps of the area and viewing of
aerial photographs, if available, and may include an on-site
inspection to observe surface features and conditions of
adjoining construction. Discussion of the site and area with
local residents may be valuable in determining locations of
filled-in areas or recent topographical changes.
The field exploration will ultimately involve drilling holes
into the ground to determine the stratigraphy and to obtain
disturbed and/or undisturbed soil samples for testing. This
operation, coupled with an on-site inspection, study of maps,
etc., should enable the geotechnical engineer to:
i) Determine the source and nature of the deposits (recent
history of filling or excavation, flooding, and local
geology).

ii) Determine the depth, thickness, and with testing,

composition of the several strata making up the soil
profile.

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iii) Determine the location of bedrock. The quality of bedrock
may also be determined, but this is done only when
necessary due to the excessive cost of rock, compared
with soil, drilling.

iv) Determine the location and variation in the ground water

table or determine that the water table is not in the
zone of design interest.

v) Obtain the quantity and types of soil samples needed to

determine the engineering properties for design. Samples
may range from bags of disturbed soil used for index
properties to undisturbed samples obtained in thin-wall
tubes for strength and settlement tests.

In some cases the exploration program is broken into phases, e.g.

a) Phase-1: Initial reconnaissance(field trip and/or office study

of available maps and other information)

b) Phase-2: Preliminary boring—just sufficient to obtain general

character of the subsoil, obtain index properties, and
possibly perform some strength-deformation tests

c) Phase-3: Detailed program with additional borings and/or more

carefully performed strength/deformation tests

The cost of an adequate site exploration including laboratory

testing and submitting a report to the client which outlines
what was found and the recommendations of the geotechnical
engineer, runs from about 0.1 to 0.3 percent of the total cost
for structures except bridge and dam sites, where the
exploration costs may exceed 1 percent.

Two types of investigation in common practice are:

a) The type when samples are not taken

b) The type when samples are recovered—usually used to

correlate “a” when “samples are not taken” is the principal
method used in Bangladesh. It is slower, more costly, but
more reliable.
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1.1 The Necessity and Objectives of investigation

An adequate ground investigation is an essential preliminary to

the execution of a civil engineering project. Sufficient
information must be obtained to enable a safe and economic
design to be made and to avoid any difficulties during
construction.
The principal objects of the investigation are:
(1) to determine the sequence, thicknesses and lateral extent
of the soil strata and, where appropriate, the level of
bedrock;
(2) to obtain representative samples of the soils (and rock)
for identification and classification and, if necessary,
for use in laboratory tests to determine relevant soil
parameters;
(3) to identify the groundwater conditions.
The investigation may also include the performance of in-situ
tests to assess appropriate soil characteristics. Additional
considerations arise if it is suspected that the ground may be
contaminated.
The results of a ground investigation should provide adequate
information, for instance, to enable the most suitable type of
foundation for a proposed structure to be selected and to
indicate if special problems are likely to arise during
excavation.

1.2 Specification of investigation work

• Normally a specification is prepared by the consultant
responsible for design of structures or facilities to be
provided for the client. A specification should meet
minimum requirement for the design of structures. It should
not be exaggerated as well.
• The specification should include all details necessary for
the investigation work. The subcontractor responsible for
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the investigation work must fulfil all the requirements set
out in the specification without an unreasonable delay.
• The specification includes a geological aspect of the site,
scope of work, detailed study inclusive of boring, CPT,
test pits, sampling, field and laboratory tests. It also
includes the borelog and laboratory test reports within the
scope and time frame.

1.3 Location, Spacing and Depth of boring

Boring Location is site-subjective: thus hard, fast rules are
not possible. Location generally depends on site topography
and/or proposed location of the structure. In general, borings
should be located to obtain maximum information for the minimum
meterage of holes since this is usually how the client would be
charged.
The purpose (nature of the construction) often both determines
the number of borings and their depth. Buildings require
sufficient borings to delineate “poor” and “good” soil zones by
interpolation of information from adjacent holes. Often the
building corners, if known, and a middle point are selected for
drilling. Additional borings under heavily loaded columns,
machinery pads, and similar may also be required.
Generally at least one boring for a building should extend to a
considerable depth—often to bedrock if practical. The remaining
borings may extend to a depth where the building load stresses
are insignificant if the deep boring has not disclosed any
stratum which may dictate the type of foundation. The depth of
significant stress is commonly taken as two times the least
width of the building (or typical footing for warehouses and
similar) and is based on stress profiles.
Borings for roads and similar are spaced at centerline and may
range from every station to perhaps 100 to 150m. Borings are
commonly 1.5 to 3m below the proposed grade line except in deep
fill sections where poor soils at greater depths may produce
long-term settlements (and pavement bumps) from the fill weight.
Borings beneath large culverts and bridge piers are taken to
substantially greater depths so that the foundations can be

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adequately designed for stability and settlement. Borings in
river channels for bridge piers should attempt to ascertain both
scour and competent soil depth.
The number of borings is highly project—and site—dependent as
well as on the professional judgement of the geotechnical
engineer. The number must be sufficient to give geotechnical
engineer reasonable confidence that the underground conditions
have been identified well enough to make recommendation at a
reasonable risk level. Since any recommendation carries some
risk, the lower the confidence level the more conservative will
be the recommendation. If these are overly conservative, the
owner client often incurs additional design costs which can
exceed the cost of making several additional borings.
The following are not very ethical practices:
i) Making large number of unnecessary borings to obtain a
good fee where the client has essentially said “do what
is necessary.” Also, making large numbers of borings to
delineate “poor” soils when the initial borings have
established that the entire site is underlain by erratic
soil deposits.

ii) Making an excessively conservative recommendation “to be

sure” even when an adequate exploration program was done.
An example might be to recommend a pile foundation when
spread footings could be used.
Thus, we have to keep in mind that:
• A very hard and fast rule is not available for SPACING of
boreholes. It is dictated by available fund, importance of
the structure, and field conditions.
• DEPTH of boring is dependent on size and type of structures
and characteristics of the deposits. Borehole depth is
recommended by some engineering codes and presented in
design manuals and standard texts. It is essential that a
boring must pass through unsuitable strata.

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1.3.1 Guidelines on Number of Borings

At least one boring under the heaviest location of the structure
should be made.
Tables 1 and 2 show, respectively, guidelines of spacing of
boreholes for different construction project types, as well as
the minimum number of boreholes based on building and
subdivision sizes.

Table-1

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Table-2

1.3.2 Guidelines on Depth of Boreholes

The depth of a borehole depends on many factors, such as
foundation type (shallow or deep foundation), structural load,
type of subsurface soils, etc. At least enough depth, for which
engineering parameters are needed in the design phase, should be
maintained. Some guidelines are the following:
• When the settlement computation of clayey soils is needed,
the borehole depth should be deep enough so that the
vertical stress increment Δσ due to the new footing is
about 10% or less of the stress increment at the footing
base.
• Borings should penetrate through unsuitable soil strata
such as unconsolidated fills, peat, organic soils, etc.
• The boring should penetrate into the supporting strata of
piles with a minimum of 5 to 6 m in order to assure enough
thickness of the supporting layer.

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• The boring should penetrate a minimum of 3 m into rock when
encountered.
During the initial stage of boring practice, the termination
depth should be flexible to accommodate unanticipated ground
conditions that might be encountered.

1.3.3 Further on Boring Spacing and Depth

The number of borings for a project, or the spacing
between borings, is related to the type, size, and
weight of structure planned, the extent of the
variation in soil conditions that permits “safe”
interpolation between borings, the funds available for
the boring program, and possibly the demands of a local
building code. Generally, these same considerations
apply to the depth for borings. A primary purpose of
borings is to establish the presence, location, and
extent of “good” soil suitable for foundation support
and to determine the possible existence and extent of
“poor” soil that could have an adverse effect on
foundation performance.
Where poor soils are present, the type of foundation
selected would be based on circumventing the location
of poor material or would be designed to minimize the
effect of its presence.
If an extensive thickness of poor material overlies
good soil or rock, deep borings will be required. Where
a sufficient thickness of good soil exists close to the
ground surface, borings may not have to be deep. Even
for this condition, however, it is wise to plan some
deep borings to reveal conditions at the greater
depths, because a deep material that could have an
adverse effect on the structure might exist. Where deep
borings are necessary to establish the depth at which
good foundation soil can be found, soil sampling in the
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poor material can be minimized or omitted to help
reduce drilling costs.
Because most building projects are unique to some
degree, certainly with regard to location, no set of
rules can be made for planning a boring program that
ensures answering all of a designer’s or construction
contractor’s questions. Where there is much uncertainty
about subsurface conditions, a preliminary
investigation can be made to obtain general information
on the area. From this initial information, a more
definite or final exploration program can be planned.
For projects extending over a long horizontal distance,
such as a highway or a dam, borings for a preliminary
investigation may be on 500 to 1,000 ft or 150 to 300 m
spacings.
The final program may eventually require borings on a
100 to 200 ft or 30 to 70 m spacing.
With building projects, borings for a preliminary
investigation may be located near the planned
boundaries of the building area, with a few borings
being drilled at intermediate locations. A final
program could include borings at building corners and
at important interior locations, with spacings not to
exceed 50 to 100 ft or 15 to 30 m, depending on
conditions encountered and building code requirements
with regard to maximum spacing.

1.4 Personnel engaged in the work and their

qualification

• All personels in the investigation work must be well

trained and capable of doing their work with confidence. A
lack of knowledge may lead to unbearable situations.
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• A supervising engineer should be capable enough to foresee
a possible outcome of the investigation work being carried
out. At the site the engineer oversees boring work, soil
encountered, performance of the equipment, safety of the
workers, progress of boring, temporary storage of soil
sample, etc.

1.5 Instrumentation and safety at site

• The contractor must provide adequate boring tools at the

site. Lack of enough tools may lead to unnecessary delay,
collapse of the borehole, misuse of manpower, etc. A boring
equipment essentially consists of a steel tripod long
enough to accommodate drill rods, pulley, steel rope,
pumping device for circulation of mud water, driving hammer
assembly, cutting shoe etc….
• The foreman and the labourers must use PPE during work.
Visitors will use the PPE to approach the working location.
The working area must be clean from any foreign substance
spreaded over the area. Additional safety should be
provided with the boring conducted at offshore areas.
• Safety of the general public and the environment should be
duly considered.

1.6 Program of work

The contractor or the subcontractor for investigation work will
provide a schedule of work before onset of the work. The
schedule will include the field work, expected date completion
of field work, lab work, submission date of field log and final
report.
A supervising engineer adheres to investigation work and works
out causes of any delay and reminds contractor for such delay.
The engineer checks shifting of soils to storage at the
laboratory and pursues the laboratory work and checks the boring
log submitted by the drilling company.

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1.7 Duties of a Supervising Engineer in the field

A supervising engineer generally performs:

1. Select exact locations for boreholes

2. Oversee mechanical process of drilling
3. Follow up SPT Procedure, sampling, and other in situ
tests
4. Field description of soil
5. Current progress rate
6. Note extent of strata: loose/soft and hard/dense soil
strata
7. Interpolation and checking for adequacy of boring
program
8. Shifting of disturbed and undisturbed samples to lab
9. Pursue progress of lab works and advice
10. Checking of borelog submitted by driller (initial and
final)
11. Checking all reports submitted by the contractor
before acceptance

1.8 How is a boring work done in the field?

A wash boring equipment generally consists of a steel tripod, a
pumping device for circulation of mud, mechanical driving
assembly including a cathead, drill rods, cutting shoe and some
other small tools.
The drill rig is first located. The other instruments are then
placed nearby so as to make ease of working and ensures easy
circulation of drilling mud. Other working tools are suitably
placed for easy working condition at the site and ensures safety
of operation.

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A schematic diagram of a wash boring set-up is shown in the
diagram below. Sump may be a portable container (not often used)
or a pit dug on site.

Fig.1 Wash Boring

A cutting shoe is fixed at the toe of the drill rods. It hits

the ground at the bottom of the hole by upward and downward
motion of the drill rods, mechanically operated. More often a
twisting motion is manually applied at top of the drill rods
immediately after falling at the bottom. This is done

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simultaneously with the circulation of bentonite mud and the
drilling work is in progress.
In rotary drilling, a twisting motion is applied at top of the
drill rod by the drilling machine through a rotating gear
arrangement. The twisting motion along with static vertical
pressure of the drill rods transmitted to the drill bit at the
bottom of the hole cuts the soil with a minimum disturbance
underneath as opposed to wash boring where the underneath soil
is disturbed by repeated drops of the drill rods(chopping). The
cuttings come out with the mud water at top due to circulation
of the mud. A reverse circulation of drill mud can also be
applied in which case the cuttings are flowing through the hole
of the drill rod.

1.9 Common types of Invesigation Methods in Bangladesh

Two types of boring are common in Bangladesh.
a) Wash boring
b) Rotary drilling
Wash boring is very popular and cost effective. It has some
disadvantages as well. However due to its simplicity and ease of
operation it is mostly preferred and widely used.
Rotary drilling is superior to wash boring and costlier. It is
suitable for wide range of soils and rocks. It is more reliable
and preferred by engineers when more accuracy is demanded for
sampling and field tests. The diameter of the borehole is more
controlled in this type of boring and it is recommended when
volumetric measurements are made at different depths of the test
hole to estimate elastic parameters of the soil with the help of
some pressuremeter devices.

1.10 Selection of the appropriate type of boring

The selection of type of boring depends on:
a) Cost of the structure to be built
b) Allocated time for exploration
c) Desired precision of sampling and testing

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d) Provision of more field tests such as vane shear,
seismicity, electrical resistivity, pressuremeter tests,
etc.
e) Ground condition (strata)
f) Field condition, accessibility etc.

1.11 Importance and function of a qualified supervisor

The supervising engineer must be familiar with the program of
working at site so that he/she can guide the field team to avoid
unwanted situations during investigation. The engineer will be
checking the field borelog time to time and checking the field
identification of soils in the strata. The engineer shall
oversee the laboratory work and advice wherever necessary. A
borelog shall include all information about the site and events
during the work. All reports, the field and the laboratory,
shall be checked by the engineer.

1.12 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

It is a versatile and most preferred field test recommended by
engineers. The reason of its versatility is that it is
correlated with other engineering parameters required for
design. Moreover, a large number of publications are now a days
available for estimating potential earthquake induced parameters
with correlated N-values.
A stainless steel split spoon sampler having dimensions of OD=
51mm, ID= 35mm, L= 460mm (min) with sharp tip is employed for
the test. It is driven vertically at known depth with a steel
hammer of 140lb (63.5±0.5kg) in weight with a free falling from
height of 30in (760±10 mm) by repeated drops. The number of
hammer drops for each 6in (150mm) is recorded and the number of
blows required for the last 12in (300mm) i.e. the number of
blows per ft is called the standard penetration resistance or
SPT- N value for the soil.

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Fig.2 Schematic diagram of an SPT split-spoon sampler.

Fig.3 Recovered specimen in an SPT split-spoon sampler.

After the sampling procedure is completed, the drilling is

advanced to the next sampling depth with casing and the same SPT
procedure is repeated at desired depths. Typically, SPT sampling
is performed at 1.5 m (5 ft) intervals or at the depth where
material change is observed. SPT will normally be halted when
more than 50 blows are required for 0.152 m (6 in.) penetration
or 10 successful blows do not produce any advances (refusal).

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A correlation between blow-count and soil condition is shown in

the following table:
Table-3 Correlation between Soil Conditions and Standard
Penetration Test

The SPT originally devised to correlate properties for

cohesionless soils, had been extended for applying in cohesive
soils as well. The following Table shows such use:

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Table-4 Relative Density/Consistency with SPT N-values

Terzaghi and Peck suggested that the relative density for very
fine or silty submerged sand with a standard penetration value
N' greater than 15 would be nearly equal to that of a dry sand
with a standard penetration value, N, where:
N = 15 + 0.5(N'-15)
If this correction was not made, Terzaghi and Peck suggested
that the relative density of even moderately dense very fine or
silty submerged sand might be overestimated by the results of
standard penetration tests.
In gravel deposits, care must be taken to determine whether a
large gravel size may have influenced the results. Usually, in
the case of gravel, only the lowest values of N are taken into
account.
The standard penetration test also can be employed in stiff
clays, weak rocks and in the weathered zones of harder rocks.
The SPT N-values are corrected for:
a) Energy delivered to the drive rods
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b) Energy losses due to length of rods
c) Effect of overburden pressure in sands
to obtain corrected N values. Normalised N values are used for
correlation purpose by research workers and designers.

Applied driving energy to the SPT sampler is somewhat

inconsistent. Full energy to push the SPT probe is W∙h
(= 623 N × 0.762 m = 475 N∙m = 475 J). However, it is
nearly impossible to transmit the full energy to the
sampling tip due to the type of hammer, the efficiency
of hammer drop mechanism, operator’s skill and habit,
size and length of drilling rod, confining pressures
around driving tip, etc. The energy efficiency has been
reported to vary from 30% to 90%. It is commonly
adopted to obtain the corrected N60 value as the
standard N value, where N60 is defined as the N value
under 60% of full driving energy (i.e., 475 J × 0.6 =
285 J). To obtain the N60 value, first, several
correction factors on SPT equipment should be applied
to the measured N value:
N60 = N ∙(Em/0.60)∙(CB∙CS∙ CR) … … (1)
Where,
N: measured N value

Em: energy efficiency of hammer (Table-5(13.3))

CB: borehole diameter correction factor (Table-6(13.4))
CS: sampler correction factor (Table-6(13.4))
CR: rod length correction factor (Table-6(13.4))

After obtaining the N60 value using Equation (1), further

correction on N values for the effective overburden stress at
the sampler’s tip is needed. For two identical soils at
different depths, the measured N value will be higher at the
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deeper depth due to higher confining stress at the sampler’s
tip, and thus this should be corrected.

Table-5(13.3) (Energy Efficiency)

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Table-6 (13.4) (BH Diameter, Sampler, and Rod Length Correction
Factor)

Where the SPT is to be related to soil parameters used for

foundation design, the field procedures utilized for driving the
soil sampler require consideration, because the driving energy
transmitted to the sampler is affected by the type of drive
weight, the dropping procedure, and other factors.
In the United States, several types of drive hammers have long
been in common use: the relatively long, thin safety hammer; a
short, large-diameter donut hammer; and the now seldom-used
pinweight hammer (see Fig.4 (16)).

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Fig. 4 (16) Types of driving hammers and procedures used for

soil sampling in borings [338]. (a) Pinweight hammer. (b) Donut
hammer. (c) Safety hammer. (d) Manual procedure for lifting and
dropping drive hammer weight.

The effective energy (or energy ratio) delivered by the safety

hammer is about 60 percent of the theoretical simple energy (the
value based on the product of hammer weight and the falling
distance). The donut hammer has an energy ratio of about 45
percent. For the same soil, then, the donut hammer would require
a greater blow-count and thus would be indicating a higher
resistance. In many other countries using equipment with a
performance similar to the safety hammer, a proposed standard is
to use the energy ratio of 60 percent as the international
reference value [213] and identify the blow-count as N60. Soil
parameters determined from penetration testing (empirical
relationships) would be matched to the 60 percent energy ratio.
For example, a field blow-count using the donut hammer would be
modified by a factor of 0.75 to be compared to results from the
safety hammer and to relate to the 60 percent standard.

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Fig.5 (17) (a) Automatic hammer on drill ring. (Courtesy of

Central Mine Equipment Company, St. Louis, MO)

Over the past decade, a newer type of equipment, the

automatic hammer, has become common on drilling rigs, a
change offering speed and safety, see Fig.5 (17). Most
of the empirical data relating SPT results to soil
properties is based on information developed from the
safety hammer and the donut hammer (i.e., relating to
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N60). Automatic hammers are more efficient than the
safety and donut hammers in having the free-fall drive
energy transmitted into the string of drill rods for
advancing the soil sampler (about 90 percent compared
to about 60 percent). Accordingly, for identical soil
conditions, the blow-count N will be lower where the
automatic hammer is used. Job site comparisons suggest
that the ratio Na = 0.75Ns be applied as an
approximation to convert data (where Na is the blow-
count for the automatic hammer and Ns is the blow-count
for the safety hammer). The relationship factor becomes
important where SPT results will be correlated to those
soil properties associated with predicting soil
behavior or used for foundation designs and other
studies (for example, if Na is 20, the value of Ns is
estimated to be 27 and studies should be based on the
Ns value).
From investigations of cohesionless soil deposits, it
is recognized that measured blowcounts will be affected
by the soil depth being sampled. For identical soils,
the resistance to penetration at a deep location will
be greater than the resistance value developed for a
shallow location because of the influences of greater
overburden and confining pressures and different
driving energy losses in the drill rods. Field blow-
counts, Nfield, can be corrected for the depth effect by
applying a correction factor, CN, obtained from Fig.6
(18) or approximated from the expression:

When is the effective soil overburden pressure expressed in

tons per square foot [208]. Therefore:

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Fig. 6 (18) Curves for determining correction factors, CN, to

apply to field SPT blow-count values
[198, 257].

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1.13 Total No. of blows and Termination Depth

Questions arise on these points.
• A restriction may be made on total number of blows. Usually
not more than 50 blows are applied to penetrate 150mm of
the spoon. Thus in cases where SPT values appear to be very
high it is a reasonably good practice to record the
penetration in mm for 50 blows.
• The termination depth is defined in the specification or
literatures for design of pile foundation. Normally it
should lie within a hard bed for an end bearing pile. It is
generally good practice not to terminate any borings for
buildings in soft strata or any stratum with significant
amounts of organic material. Both of these types of
materials are subject to large time-dependent settlements
and may control the foundation design. Caution is also
necessary to ensure that borings to bedrock actually
terminate on that material and not on a suspended boulder.

1.14 Sample disturbance and its remedy

Causes of sample disturbance:
a) Impact load on the sampler during sampling
b) Hard or dense stratum that cannot be easily penetrated by
the sampler
c) Use of inappropriate sampler
d) Change in moisture content at the time of test
e) Disturbance caused during shifting of sample to the
laboratory
f) Extrusion of sample by compressing it at the laboratory
It is not possible to avoid all the reasons mentioned above.
However, it can be minimised by taking proper care during boring
and by choosing correct sampler and sampling technique. Often
the later would cost extraordinarily to offset the allocated
budget.

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1.15 Sample collection, preservation and transportation

Disturbed samples are immediately identified, labelled and
placed in a box before shifting it to the laboratory.
Sampling tubes containing undisturbed soil samples are cleaned,
waxed at both ends to prevent any loss of moisture, marked and
placed under cushion in a cool place before shifting to the
laboratory.
Samples should be shifted to the laboratory as quickly as
possible and care should be taken during transportation to
prevent any shock.

1.16 Soil identification in the field

Only a qualified personnel is allowed to identify the soil. This
identification is reported in the borelog. Supervising engineer
is responsible to check for correct field identification before
borelog is prepared.
The identification shall include:
a) Colour
b) Odour if noticed
c) Consistency(stiffness or hardness)
d) Secondary constituents as qualifying term for the main
composition
e) Main composition of the soil written preferably in capital
letters
f) Bedding plane (optional)
g) Gradation of coarse grained part of the main composition
(optional)

1.17 Procedure of soil identification in the field

The upper part of the soil in the spoon is disregarded. Only the
lower part is considered to be representative and examined and
tested.
A) Recognize the colour of the soil.

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B) Observe the structure of the soil; it can be mottled or
homogeneous.

C) Recognize the principal constituent. If it is sand, check

for grittiness and recognize the size of sand whether it is
fine, medium or coarse.

D) If the principal constituent is fines then proceed to

ascertain whether it is clay or silt. Clay is identified by
stickiness at palm of hand when it is wet. Silt is
characterized by non-stickiness at palm when wet and it
exudes between fingers when squeezed.

E) Secondary constituents should be identified and described

as a qualifying term for the main constituent. Care should
be taken to ascertain the secondary constituents.

F) Follow the project specification that specifies the method

for describing the soils e.g. USCS, BS, ISO, etc. If
nothing is specified then follow the suitable one preferred
by the geotechnical engineer.

1.18 Borehole logging; requirement and its presentation

Borehole logging is immediately made after completion of boring.
Field logging is expected by the engineer within one or two days
after completion of boring. The engineer carefully checks all
information provided by the drilling company. He will check
field identification for all soil samples. Necessary corrections
and modifications are made after checking.
The engineer has to follow the standard procedure set out in the
specification. No discrepancy is allowed and no confusion arises
by users of the log.
A borehole log should include all field activities and includes
but not limited to the following:
1) Name of client
2) Name of organization who performed boring
3) Date of boring
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4) Rig operator
5) Discontinuation period and the reason of discontinuity
6) Location
7) XY coordinates of the borehole
8) Ground RL
9) Location of WT
10) SPT-N values and plotting in horizontal scale
11) SPT locations and field identification of the soil
12) Diagram of soil strata
13) Symbolic representation of soil types in strata
14) Some test results on physical properties in each stratum
in H-scale

An example of symbolic representation of strata of soil is shown

below (Ref. BS 5930: 1999):

Note: Strata differing by colours is not acceptable. Selection of

hashes or dots rather than colour combinations are justified. This
makes sense when reproduced in black and white.

Fig.7: A typical LEGEND used in logging

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Fig.8a Field log for boring

Transcribed field log so that it could be reproduced.

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Fig.8b Boring log for submission

Office log which included data from the field log shown in
part a as well as any supplementary laboratory work. Note
that the soil description has been substantially improved
from that used by the drill crew in part a.
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1.19 Shallow boring

Sometimes it is necessary to know the type of soil lying within
few metres below the ground surface. In this case shallow boring
is recommended. Assigned laboratory tests are due to use of the
material below the ground surface and use of the area.

1.20 Test Pit

Test pits are made as a part of the investigation to determine
suitability of the material for use as construction material.
Soil excavators are used for collection of bulk samples. Manual
effort for sampling is also common in Bangladesh. Test pits are
most suitable for borrow sites where the pit can later be used
for initial access and where large representative samples can be
visually obtained. Test pits may be used to obtain carefully
hand-trimmed “undisturbed” samples for laboratory testing. On
occasion test pits are used to provide sites for in situ tests
e.g. plate-load test to determine allowable soil pressure
recommended to the designer for footing loads.
Logging is sometimes made to know history of formation of the
deposit.
The geotechnical engineer usually specifies the testing scheme
for the test pit samples.

1.21 Recommended tests for shallow boring and pit

samples
Atterberg limits, particle size distribution, compaction and CBR
are common test usually carried out with the test pit samples.
Modification of soil by addition with other type of soil or
additives can be made and studied with pit samples.
Detailed tests on undisturbed soils are often made on shallow
borehole samples.

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1.22 Assigned laboratory tests

Normally tests to be performed are specified in the
specification. Usually the following tests are performed:
For disturbed soils-
a) NMC (natural moisture content)
b) PSD (particle size distribution)
c) ALs (Atterberg limits)
d) SG (specific gravity)
For undisturbed soils-
a) NMC, bulk density and specific gravity
b) PSD, ALs
c) Unconfined compression
d) Triaxial compression (UU, CU, and CD types)
e) Consolidation
f) Direct Shear (DS)

Sometimes in cohesionless soil deposit permeability test is done

on borehole rather than in laboratory.
In some cases mica analysis and chemical tests are performed on
soil and groundwater collected from boreholes.

1.23 Requirement of standard procedures in lab testing

A soil testing laboratory should be capable of performing
necessary tests by following standard test procedures. The
laboratory should be equipped with acceptable equipment and is
operated by qualified technicians guided by a geotechnical
engineer.
The equipment and manpower should be considered separately for
selection of laboratory undertaking the tests. Adequacy of
manpower and equipment may govern the selection.

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1.24 Some aspects of laboratory work
A laboratory should be clean and tidy. It should contain
sufficient storage for accommodating field samples. The storage
should not be hot and maintained proper ventilation.
Sufficient facilities for testing should be available. Working
desks should be available to accommodate testing instruments.
For chemical testing, a small room with extracting fan or fume
cupboard and adequate numbers of working desks and cupboard are
required for testing. Only trained workers should be allowed to
work.
All measuring devices should regularly checked for their
reliability.
A display board showing samples and testing be maintained at
correct location and should always be updated. No sample should
lie with unaccompanied Sample Card/Sub-sample No.

1.25 Soil Classification Systems

Soils that have same classification tend to have the same
behavior with some exceptions. A number of classification
systems are available and have wide acceptance. In our country
the following classification systems are followed:
a) AASHTO
b) ASTM
c) BSCS
d) USCS
Each system of classification has characteristic of its own.
AASHTO is used in Road Construction project. BSCS and EU or ISO
systems are sometimes used in general investigation work. USCS
system recognized by ASTM has got some wider acceptance for use.
The basis of the systems are based on invariable parameters of
the soil obtained from laboratory tests performed on disturbed
or undisturbed samples. Those are:
1) Particle Size Analysis and
2) Atterberg Limits Tests.

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With exception of organic soil and peat.

1.26 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

In this classification is designated by a Group Symbol
consisting of a “prefix” and “suffix”. The prefixes indicate the
main soil types and the suffixes indicates subdivisions within
the group as follows:

A well-graded sand is SW, a poorly graded gravel is GP, a clay

with liquid limit greater than 50 is CH, a silt with liquid
limit less than 50 is ML, etc.
A well graded sand means that the distribution of particles in
the sand is wide and within any size range of sand there is no
absence of particles. Again in uniform soil there is an excess
accumulation of particles within a range of sizes. In a gap
graded soil there is missing of particles with some range of
sizes. Both the gap graded soil and uniform soil are commonly
known as poorly graded soil. This is quantified by using the
terms “uniformity coefficient’ and “coefficient of curvature”
which merely define the shape of the particle size distribution
curve.
In USCS defines a soil as:
 Coarse-grained if more than 50% of the soil is retained on
No.200 (75 m) test sieve

 Fine-grained if less than 50% of the soil is retained on

No.200 (75 m) test sieve
A coarse-grained soil is either:
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 Gravel when more than 50% of the coarse fraction is
retained on No.4 test sieve (4.75mm)

 Sand when more than 50 % of the coarse fraction is between

No.200 and No.4 test sieve
Classification of coarse-grained soil depends primarily on
particle size analysis and grain size distribution.

Fig.9 Definitions of F200, R200, F40, F4, and R4.

From this, the values of F200, R200, F4, and R4 are obtained as

F200: % finer than No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) = percentage of fine
content

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R200: percentage retained on No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) = percentage
of sand and gravel content

F4: percentage finer than No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) = percentage of

sand and fines content

R4: percentage retained on No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) = percentage of

gravel content

Note that in USCS, clay and silt are categorized as fines.

Fig.10 Flow Chart for USCS

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Next, the coefficient of uniformity Cu (= D60/D10) and the
coefficient of gradation Cg (= (D30)2/(D60 × D10)) are
calculated.

Based on these values, the classification procedure is

summarized in a flow chart in the above flow chart. The chart
starts from F200 information as far left in the following steps.

FOR G OR S

1. If F200 < 50% (or R200 ≥ 50%, i.e., gravel and sand content
is more than 50%), then soil is G or S.

2. Then, if R4 ≥ ½F200 (gravel content ≥ sand content), it is G,

or if R4 < ½F200 (gravel content < sand content), it is S.

3. In the next step, F200 (fine content) is checked for G and S.

If F200 < 5%, naming fine content is ignored and soils will be
GW, GP, SW, or SP. If F 200 > 12%, soils will be GM, GC, SM, or
SC. When 5% ≤ F200 ≤ 12%, double naming comes in as GW–GM, GW–
GC, GP–GM, and GP–GC for gravel or SW–SM, SW–SC, SP–SM, and SP–
SC for sand. In such double naming cases, modifier M or C is
determined based on a plasticity chart for F40 materials.

4. In the final step for gravel and sand, Cu and Cg values are
evaluated for modifiers W or P. For gravel, Cu ≥ 4 and 1 ≤ Cg ≤
3 are conditions for W and the other values of those are for P.
For sand, the condition for W is Cu ≥ 6 and 1 ≤ C g ≤ 3 and the
other values are for P.

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5. For GW and GP soils, if percentage of sand content is at or
more than 15%, it is named as GW (or GP) with sand.

6. Similarly, for SW and SP soils, if percentage of gravel

content is at or more than 15%, it is named as SW (or SP) with
gravel.

FOR C, M, O, OR PT
1. Going back to the F200 value in Figure 4.2, if F200 ≥ 50%
(i.e., fine contents are at or more than 50%), then soil is
either M or C (or possibly O or Pt).

2. To classify M or C, plasticity chart (Figure 4.3) is used. It

utilizes LL and PI (= LL - PL) values. LL and PL tests should be
performed on the F40 specimen (soil passed No. 40 sieve—0.425
mm), and the LL and PI data point of the soil tested is plotted
on the plasticity chart to identify soil type (CH, CL, MH, ML,
or CL-ML) by the zone on which the data point falls.

3. On the plasticity chart, most natural soils fall below the

“U” line and around the “A” line or CL–ML zone. It should be
noted that LL = 50 is the boundary LL for high-plastic (LL > 50)
or low-plastic (LL < 50) soils.

4. The M or C classification method by the plasticity chart is

also used in subgroup names in gravel and sand category soils
with their fine contents between 5% and 12%. These are GM, GC,
SM, SC, and dual named soils GW–GM, GW–GC, GP–GM, and GP–GC for
gravel or SW–SM, SW–SC, SP–SM, and SP–SC for sand. Note that,
for those gravels and sands, only the F40 specimen is used for
LL and PL tests as mentioned before.

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5. Pt (peat) should be identified by its color, odour, spongy
feeling, and, frequently, by its fibrous texture by testing
engineers. O (organic soil) can be identified by observing the
change in LL values from natural soil to oven-dried (burns some
organic) soil. If LL (oven dried)/LL (natural) is <0.75, it is
classified as O. If the ratio is ≥0.75, it is non-organic.

Fig. 11 Plasticity Chart for USCS

A coarse-grained soils can be attributed group symbols in a

tabular form as follows:

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Fig. 12 Group Symbols used in USCS

A dual classification symbol is used whenever necessary.

Classification of fine-grained soil requires use of plasticity
chart. The A line separates clay from silt or organic materials.
The Atterberg limits tests makes use of the chart for
designation of the fine soil. Location of clay lies above the A
line and silt below it.
An organic soil is classified by visual examination (dark
colour, presence of organic material) and odour.
Peat is a woody, fibrous material classified solely on the basis
of visual examination.
The terms “lean” for wL < 50 and “fat” for wL > 50 are sometimes
used.
Borderline cases should be classified on the basis of poorer
material.

Since USCS uses simple symbols with their meanings, it is easy

to understand the nature of soils from classified group names.
Also, this requires only LL and PL tests and sieve analysis. A
hydrometer test is not required since the silt and clay are
treated as fine and it uses the plasticity chart to identify the
clay and silt. USCS and its modified versions are the most
widely used soil classification system around the world today.
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1.27 Example of use of USCS

EXAMPLE
Given the classification data for the following three soils, classify the
soils using the Unified Soil Classification System.

SOLUTION
Since more than 12 percent passes the No.200 sieve, we can immediately
eliminate GW, GP, SW, and SP as possible classification for all three soils.

(a) For soil A:

(1) Less than 50 percent passes the No. 4 sieve; therefore, the
soil must be predominantly gravel, thus G.
(2) Considering the location of the wL = 35 percent and Ip = 13
(computed) on the A chart, we find CL.
(3) From the preceding two observation, and the visual description
of this soil, soil A: Dark tan, clayey gravel, GC.

(b) For soil B:

(1) Less than 50 percent passes the No. 200 sieve; therefore the
soil is coarse-grained (either sand or gravel).
(2) Compute the percent passing No. 4 sieve and retained on the No.
200 sieve as

72 – 38 = 34 percent sand
100 – 72 = 28 percent gravel

Therefore, of the coarse fraction more than half is sand

(3) More than 12 percent passes the No. 200 sieve, and from the
Atterberg Limits, the soil plots below A line (wL = 39 and Ip =

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10); thus the (-) No.40 fraction is an ML. Noting that the
percentage of sand and gravel are nearly equal, Soil B is
greyish-brown, very gravelly, silty sand with trace of organic
material, SM.

(c) For soil C:

(1) With 55 percent passing the No. 200 sieve, the soil is fine-
grained.
(2) Using wL = 55 percent and Ip = 31 percent, the soil plots above
A line and also above the line of wL > 50; therefore, soil C is blue-
grey, fat, sandy clay with trace of gravel, CH.

Fig. 13 Plasticity Chart

1.28 Cone penetration tests (CPT)

Cone penetration test is very common in Europe for many years,
particularly in sedimentary deposits along the North Sea. It has
only been used substantially in the United States since the
1970s and mostly in sedimentary deposits along the Gulf Coasts.
It is sometimes used in our country when the importance of the
structure, existing location and availability of fund justify
its usage.
It has certain advantages and limitations.
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Fig.14 An electric penetrometer tip. (a) without friction

sleeve, (b) with friction sleeve.

Fig.15 Typical CPT truck (courtesy of Fugro Limited)

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Fig.16 Typical interior of CPT truck

1.29 Types of CPT

Types of CPT vary according to dimensions and use. Sizes of
cones and sleeves vary according to Manufacturers. ISO 14688
recommends type and use of CPT.
Some modification is done to the device to widen test facilities
e.g. cone pressuremeter test (CPMT), seizmic cone penetration
test (SCPT), etc.

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Fig.17 Designs of cone penetrometers

a) Cone resistance and sleeve friction load cells in

compression
b) Cone resistance load cell in compression and sleeve
friction load cell in tension
c) Subtraction type cone penetrometer

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Fig.18 Detailed terminology and design features for a

piezocone penetrometer (after Zuidberg, 1988)

Fig.19 Two different types of u2 filter

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1.30 What is obtained in CPT

Normally available parameters are cone resistance (qc in MN/m2)
and frictional resistance of the sleeve(fs in kN/m2). These two
results are simultaneously obtained during punching the
penetration rods followed by cone and sleeve. From the relative
values of these two sets of results, soil profiling is made
along with other correlations.

Fig.20 Typical record of cone penetrometer test.

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Fig.21 Data presented according to the Recommended Test

Procedure

1.31 Interpretations of CPT

Varieties of correlation systems for identification of soil
stratum and strength conditions from values of qc and fs are
available. Many software programs have been developed in this
connection. However, the engineers are to apply their own
judgement to accept the correlated values.

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Fig.22. a) Typical piezocone test data b) and c)

Identification of soil types from piezocone test data

Fig. 22d. Soil classification based on cone tip

resistance and friction ratio. 1 MPa = 20.88 ksf.
(after Robertson, P. K. et al., 1986, Proceedings of ASCE Specialty
Conference, In-Situ 86, Blacksburg, VA, 1236–1280)

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1.32 Correlations of SPT and CPT results

1. Correlation by Robertson and Campanela:
(Qc/Pa)/N60
The value is used for soil profiling.
2. Jefferies and Davies:
Ic = f(qc,fs)
Ic = f((Qc/Pa)/N60 )
This Ic is used for soil profiling
The cone does not seem to have been used to correlate with the
relative density so far.

1.33 Soil Classification and CPT

A number of correlation of CPT results with parameters for soil
classification. Following is the one developed in the Netherland
by Bagemann (1965):

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Fig.23 Soil Classification Chart according to Begemann

In our country, this correlation chart should be used with

caution.

1.34 Advantages and limitations of CPT

Some of the advantages of the cone method are as follows:
1) It is very rapid—particularly when electronic data
acquisition equipment is used to record the tip pressure
and/or side resistances.

2) It may allow a nearly continuous record of resistance in

the stratum of interest.

3) It is useful in very soft soils where recovery of

“disturbed” samples would be very difficult.

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4) It allows a number of correlations between cone resistance
and the desired engineering property.

5) No expense and risk to transfer field samples to laboratory

and no laboratory testing is required.

6) CPT uses data-logger that ensures that root data is saved

and printed in specified format.

7) Engineers can gather data much faster and can take spot
decision for testing intermediate locations.

8) Pore pressure is measured and hence it tends to produce

more accurate presentation of actual conditions
underground.

Disadvantages:
Some of the major disadvantages are that:
1) This method is applicable only in fine—grained deposits
(clay, silt, fine sands) where the material does not have
massive resistance to cone resistance. Pushing can be of
limited use in gravels and cemented soils.

2) Interpretation of soil type producing the cone resistance

requires either (a) considerable expense or (b) recovery of
samples for correlation testing.

3) Handling can be done by skilful individuals only,

4) CPT cannot be used in dense, coarse-grained soils

(e.g., coarse gravel, boulders) and mixed soils containing
boulders, cobbles, clays, and silts.

5) The more sophisticated uCPT, SCPT, and VisCPT usually

require specialists to perform and to interpret the
results.

6) The cone tip is prone to damage from contact with dense

objects.

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7) No soil samples are taken, and

8) High initial investments into equipment and personnel

training are needed.

2.0 Short descriptions of common lab testing

Lab tests performed on soil from borehole:
1) Natural Moisture.
It can be performed both on partly disturbed soil and
undisturbed soil. Test result is more reliable when
performed on undisturbed soil.

2) Particle size Distribution

The test is done to assess the coarse fraction contained in
the specimen. It is done by using a 75mm test sieve. Silt
and clay size particles are assessed with the help of
pipette or hydrometer. The test is reliable for both
disturbed and undisturbed soils.

3) Atterberg Limits
It is reliable irrespective of the sample disturbance. Its
value is slightly changed when tested on an air dried
sample.

4) Unconfined Compression
It is reliable when the sample is fine and saturated
undisturbed soil. Because of its simplicity, it is
preferred by many organisations.

5) Triaxial Compression
The test is performed on undisturbed fine soils and at
different loading and drainage conditions. It is costlier
than unconfined compression test. It is a preferred test by
geotechnical engineers.

There are three types of tests depending on saturation

level/drainage condition and loading conditions. These are

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known as UU(unconsolidated undrained), CU(consolidated
undrained, and CD(consolidated drained).

6) Direct shear Test:

This is also a recommended test on account of its
simplicity. Geotechnical engineers recommends the test for
direct use of test results or comparison with other
observed results.

7) Consolidation
The test is performed on soft fine soil to determine
consolidation parameters. It is a lengthy test to perform
but valuable parameters are obtained. The test is time
consuming.

2.0 Tests for soil classification

The particle size distribution along with the Atterberg limits
are commonly called “soil classification tests.” These are the
most fundamental tests by which one can describe the soil with
confidence.
The values of liquid limit and plasticity index together when
observed in the “Plasticity Chart” confirms the type of fines in
the soil by determining the location of wL and PI values above or
below the A-Line. The range of plasticity values are again
subdivided as ‘high’, ‘medium’, and ‘low’ in the systems for
classification with some variations.
A SILT or CLAY material should be defined with care. Modern
practice (ISO) is to define one type (CLAY or SILT) as the
principal type and the other may be used as the qualifying term
or secondary type against the principal one. Thus a soil may be
defined as “clayey SILT” or “silty CLAY” while this type of
description is not common when USCS or BSCS system is followed.
For a coarse grained soil the main composition can be easily
identified and described. A comparison of individual sizes used
in particle size distribution results in different systems for
classification are shown below:

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Fig.24 Size Limits for principal constituents of soils in three

classification systems

2.1 Tests for compaction

Density of soil in situ is determined in a number of ways. It is
compared with some “standard” which corresponds to a laboratory
compaction test result. In laboratory, a known energy in dynamic
form is applied to soil in a steel mould at varying water
contents at different determinations. Dry density is computed at
each determination and is plotted against the moisture content.
A curve is obtained showing the dry density corresponding to the
moisture content. The shape of the curve (concave downward) is
such that there is a maximum density within the test range. This
is the laboratory standard density result. The moisture content
corresponding to the maximum density is known as “optimum
moisture content”.
For clean sand or gravel Vibratory Compaction test is preferred
rather than a dynamic one.
Instead of specifying density values, relative compaction in
degrees are specified in all project specifications. In such
cases laboratory compaction tests are performed on
representative soils and the in situ density results are
expressed as relative compaction in percentage.

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A geotechnical engineer may find necessity of using void ratio
in compacted fill with cohesionless soil. This is because he has
to correlate these values with other geotechnical parameters
used to estimate the ground improvement to cope with potential
earthquake.

2.2 Lab CBR test and its use

It is a strength test performed on available disturbed soil.
Soil at optimum water content is prepared in the laboratory and
compacted in CBR moulds, normally 3 Nos, at three compaction
levels. The compacted soils in the moulds are soaked under water
for 4 days. After soaking those soaked soils are tested for
penetration at a specified penetration rate for about 10mm. A
load penetration curve is obtained. The load at 2.5mm and 5.0mm
penetrations are noted for each compacted specimen. CBR value is
the percentage of the load corresponding to the standard loads.
Suppose P1 and P2 are the loads obtained at 2.5 and 5mm
penetrations for a particular specimen. Then the CBR values are:
i) P1*100/13.3
ii) P2*100/20.0
when the loads are expressed in kN. The higher value of CBR is
chosen as accepted CBR. The 13.3 kN and 20 kN are the standard
loads for 2.5mm and 5 mm penetrations respectively.
At the beginning the test readings should be closer for
precision drawing of the load-penetration curves. This helps
making correction precisely.
The maximum penetration to be applied is found different at
different testing standards. It is found that a penetration of
10mm maximum is enough for calculation of CBR values at two
penetration values (2.5mm and 5mm).
In AASHTO design “resilient modulus” test is recommended. Its
value is correlated with CBR. As soon as CBR value is known,
resilient modulus value is estimated and used in the design of
pavement.

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