Clinical Skill Books PDF

LECTURE NOTES
For Nursing Students
Basic Clinical Nursing Skills
Abraham Alano, B.Sc., M.P.H.
Hawassa University
In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter Center,
the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education
Novermber 2002
Funded under USAID Cooperative Agreement No. 663-A-00-00-0358-00.
Produced in collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative, The Carter
Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education.
Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

Limited permission is granted free of charge to print or photocopy all pages of this
publication for educational, not-for-profit use by health care workers, students or
faculty. All copies must retain all author credits and copyright notices included in the
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publication.
©2002 by Abraham Alano,
All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system,
without written permission of the author or authors.
This material is intended for educational use only by practicing health care workers or
students and faculty in a health care field
PREFACE
Nursing is core part in health service delivery system in which health

promotion, disease prevention; curative and rehabilitative health
strategies are applied. The clinical nursing skills for the nurses are
of paramount important not only to provide comprehensive care but
also enhance clinical competence. The purpose of preparing this
lecture note is to equip nurses with basic clinical nursing skills, which
will enable them to dispatch their responsibility as well as to develop
uniformity among Ethiopian Professional Nurse Training Higher
Institutions.
The lecture note series is designed to have two parts: part-I is

composed of most basic clinical skills, where as part two will be
covering most advances clinical skills as well as fundamental
concepts related to the skills. It is well known that no nursing service
can be provided with out basic clinical nursing skills. For nurse to
provide health service at different settings; hospital, health center,
health post and at the community level including home based care
for chronically sick patients, the course is very essential. It is also
hoped that other primary and middle level health professional
training institution will utilize the lecture notes to rational exercise the
professional skills.
The lecture note is therefore organized in logical manner that

students can learn from simpler to the complex. It is divided in to
units and chapters. Important abbreviations and key terminologies
i
have been included in order to facilitate teaching learning processes.
On top of that learning objectives are clearly stated to indicate the
required outcomes. Glossary is prepared at the end to give
explanation for terminologies indicated as learning stimulants at
beginning of each chapter following the learning objectives. Trial is
made to give some scientific explanation for procedure and some
relevant study questions are prepared to each chapter to aid
students understand of the subject. To enhance systematic
approach in conducting nursing care the nursing process is also
indicated for most procedures.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My deepest appreciation is to The Carter Center, EPHTI and

Professor Dennis Carlson, senior consultant of the Center for his
tireless efforts to materialize the issue of staff strengthening and
curriculum development. Lecture note preparation is one of the
activities that got due attention to strengthen the teaching learning
process in Ethiopia by Ethiopian staff. There fore, I congratulate
Professor Denis Carlson for the success you achieved with
dedicated Ethiopian partners.
I also extend many thanks to colleagues and staff of our School of

Nursing particularly Ato Andargachew Kassa and Ato Aweke Yilma
for their valuable comments and criticism, other wise the lecture note
would have not been shaped this way.
I would like to extend my thanks to Ato Asrat Demissie Academic

Vice President of Defence University College and Ato Daniel
Mengistu Head of School of Nursing in University of Gondar for their
critical review and valuable comments.
My sincere gratitude is also to the staff members of schools of

nursing, sister Universities, (Ato Birara Tadeg, GU, Ato Getachew
Worku, DUC, Sr. Netsanet Shiferaw, JU, Ato Tesfaye Abebe, HU)
for their tireless and meticulous revision of the material otherwise
difficulties would have faced to shape this way.
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Similarly, my felt thanks is to supportive staff of The Carter Center
EPHTI, Dr Hailu Yenenh, Ato Aklilu Mulugetta , W/rt Meseret
Tsegaw and all other staff for their devoted support through the
preparation of this lecture note.
Next, I thank all our College authorities for permission to work on
this lecture note besides the routine activities of the college.
Last but not least, my deepest gratitude is to W/rt Lemlem Adebabay

who has managed to write the document with in very urgency giving
up her rest time and comfort.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
Preface .............................................................................................. i
Acknowledgement ........................................................................... iii
Table of Contents.............................................................................. v
List of Figures ................................................................................... xii
Abbreviation ...................................................................................... xiii
Unit One
Chapter 1 .......................................................................................... 1
Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
Definition of nursing .................................................................. 1
Historical background of nursing .............................................. 2
History of nursing in Ethiopia ................................................... 8
Nursing process and Critical thinking ...................................... 10
Unit Two Safety in Health Care facilities ...................................... 18

Chapter 2: infection control/ universal precaution ......................... 18
Nursing process application...................................................... 19
Normal body defense ............................................................... 22
Chain of infection ..................................................................... 24
Basic medical asepsis .............................................................. 26
v
Hand washing ........................................................................... 26
Standard precaution ................................................................. 29
Surgical asepsis........................................................................ 33
Isolation.................................................................................... 37
Chapter 3: Care of patient unit...................................................... 49
The patient unit ........................................................................ 50
Care of hospital and health care unit equipment ..................... 54
Unit Three Basic Client Care ........................................................ 58
Chapter 4: Admission, Transfer, and Discharge of client ............. 58
Admission ............................................................................... 59
Transfer................................................................................... 61
Discharge................................................................................ 62
Chapter 5: Vital Signs .................................................................. 66
Definition ................................................................................
Temperature .......................................................................... 69
Pulse ...................................................................................... 77
Respiration............................................................................. 82
Blood pressure....................................................................... 83
Chapter 6: Specimen collection ................................................... 90
General consideration for specimen collection...................... 91
Collecting stool specimen ...................................................... 92
Collecting urine specimen...................................................... 94
Collecting sputum .................................................................. 99
Collecting blood specimen....................................................... 101
Chapter 7: Bed making ................................................................. 109
Closed bed ............................................................................ 110
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Occupied bed......................................................................... 110
Post operative bed................................................................ 112
Chapter 8: Personal hygiene and skin care.................................. 120
Mouth care ............................................................................ 120
Bathing.................................................................................. 125
Bed bath.......................................................................... 128
Therapeutic bath............................................................ 131
Back care ............................................................................ 134
Giving and receiving bedpan and urinals ........................... 138
Perineal care....................................................................... 140
Hair cares............................................................................ 145
Pediculosis treatment ......................................................... 150
Chapter 9: Cold & heat application ............................................... 158
Care of a patient with fever................................................. 158
Heat application .................................................................. 159
Cold application .................................................................. 160
Tepid sponge ............................................................. 160
Local application of cold and heat ..................................... 161
Application of cold ........................................................... 161
Application of heat ............................................................. 163
Sitiz bath ............................................................................ 164
Chapter 10: Body mechanics and mobility ................................... 167
Body mechanics ............................................................... 168
Basic principles of body mechanics.................................. 168
Turning the patient to a side lying position ....................... 172
Joint mobility and range of motion.................................... 173
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Body positioning ............................................................. 177
Guideline for positioning the client............................ 177
Client positioning for examination & treatment......... 179
Crutch walking ................................................................. 183
Application of nursing process................................. 183
Teaching technique for crutch walking .................... 184
Teaching up stair and down stair walking with
crutch ...................................................................... 189
Helping the client into wheel chair ........................... 190
Unit Four ....................................................................................... 194
Chapter 11 Nutrition and metabolism .......................................... 194
Fluid and electrolyte balance........................................ 194
Acid base balance ........................................................ 200
Nutrition........................................................................ 208
Gastrostomy/jejunostomy feeding ......................... 211
Inserting a gastric tube .......................................... 211
Nasogastric feeding ................................................................. 217
Total parentral nutrition.......................................... 221
Unit Five
Chapter 12
Elimination of Gastro Intestinal and Urinary Tract
outputs............................................................229
Gastric lavage ...................................................230
Gastric aspiration ..............................................234
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Enema ..............................................................236
Cleansing enema ....................................237
Retention enema....................................241
Rectal washout...................................................242
Passing flatus tube ............................................243
Urinary catheterization .......................................244
Catheterization using straight catheter ...246
Inserting indwelling catheter.....................249
Unit Six
Chapter 13
Medication Administration ..........................................252
Definition of pharmacology...................................252
Drug metabolism ..................................253
Factors affecting drug metabolism.......255
Drug administration ..............................................256
Application of nursing process .........................257
Oral drug administration...................................259
Suppository ......................................................263
Subcutaneous injection .........................267
Intramuscular injection ..........................269
Intravenous injection ..............................273
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Intravenous therapy ...............................275
Blood transfusion .................................278
Cut down ..............................................283
Administration of vaginal medications..285
Administration of ophthalmic
medication .............................................287
Administration of otic medications .......290
Inhalation...............................................................292
Definition of inhalation..........................292
Oxygen administration ........................292
Giving oxygen by mask ........................292
Giving oxygen by nasal catheter.........294
Giving oxygen by tent..........................295
Steam inhalation .......................................297
Nelson’s inhalor........................................298
Unit Seven
Chapter 14 Wound cares ..........................................303
Definition ...................................................303
Wound healing process.............................304
Dressing a clean wound............................304
Dressing of septic wound ...........................307
Dressing with a drainage tube...................309
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Wound irrigation ........................................312
Suturing .....................................................314
Removal of stitch.......................................316
Clip application and removal .....................318
Unit Eight
Chapter 15 Perioperative nursing cares ....................321
Preoperative care......................................321
Care the day before surgery ..........325
Care at the day of surgery..............326
Care just before surgery.................327
Intraoperative care ....................................332
Postoperative care ....................................332
Unit Nine
Chapter 16 Care of the dying & Post-mortem care . 338
Definition ...................................................338
Stages of dying..........................................340
Spirituality of dying ....................................339
Assisting the dying ....................................343
Care after death ........................................346
Glossary ......................................................................349
References ..................................................................363
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Chain of infection .................................................................. 24

Figure 2. Site for radial pulse measurement ........................................ 80
Figure 3. Horizontal recumbent position .............................................. 179
Figure 4. Dorsal recumbent position .................................................... 179
Figure 5. Prone position ....................................................................... 180
Figure 6.Sim position............................................................................ 180
Figure 7. Fowler’s position ................................................................... 181
Figure 8. Knee-chest position............................................................... 181
Figure 9. Lithotomy position ................................................................. 182
Figure 10. Four –point-gait ................................................................... 185
Figure 11. Three-point-gait................................................................... 186
Figure 12. Two-point-gait ..................................................................... 187
Figure 13. Sites for IM injection............................................................ 271
Figure 14. Suture removal technique ................................................... 316
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ABBREVATIONS & SYMBOLS
ABG Arterial Blood Gas
Ab Antibody
ABCDE Airway, breathing, circulation, disability, expose and

examine
A.C. Before meal (ante cibum)

ACTH Adreno cortico trophic hormone
AD. As desired
ADL Activities of daily living
AIDS Acquire immeno deficiency syndrome
AI Adequate intake
AM. Morning
AMALG Amalgam filling
AMA Against medical advice
A and P Auscultation and percussion
APC Aspirin, Phenacetine & caffeine
AP Apical pulse or antero-posterior
AQ Aqueous
A-R Apical radial pulse
AROM Active range of motion; artificial rapture of
membrane
Ax Axillary
BID Twice a day (bis in die)
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B.M Bowel movement
B.M.R. Basal metabolic rate
B.P Blood pressure
BPM Beat perminuli
B.R.P. Bathroom privilege

BUN Blood urea nitrogen
o
C Centigrade
C.B. C Complete blood count
CC Cubic centimeter
C.N. S. Central nervous system
Co2 Carbon dioxide
C.S. F. Cerebro- spinal fluid
CXR Chest X-ray
D and C Dilatation and Curettage

D/NS Dextrose in normal saline
DPT Diphtheria, pertusis, tetanus
D/W Dextrose in water
Dx Diagnosis
EEG Electro encephalogram
E.E.N.T. Eye, ear, nose, throat
ECG Electrocardiogram
o
F Fahrenheit
F.B.S. Fasting blood sugar
F.H.B. Fetal heartbeat
G.I. Gastro intestinal
G or Gm Gram
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gr. Grain
gt. Drop (gutte)
gtt. Drops
G.U. Genito urinary
GYN. Gynecology
HCL Hydrochloric acid
Hb Hemoglobin
HS At bed- time (hours of sleep)
H2o Water
I.V. Intravenous
I.V.P Intravenous pyelogram
KI. Potassium iodide
L. P Lumbar puncture
NaCl Sodium Chloride
NOCTE At night
N.P.O. Nothing by mouth (nothing by os)
O.P.D. Out Patient Department
O.R. Operating room
PM After noon
PRN As needed, when necessary
Pt. Patient
Q. Every
Q.D. Every Day
Q.H. Every Hour
Q.I.D. Four times a day
Q.N. Every night
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Q.O.D. Every other day
R.B.C. Red blood count or red blood cell
Rh. Rhesus factor
Rx Prescription, take
Sol. Solution
SOS If necessary
STAT Immediately -at once
S.C Subcutaneous
T. I.D Three times a day
T.P.R. Temperature, pulse, respiration
Tsp Teaspoon, tablespoon
U.R. Upper right
WBC White blood cells
Wt. Weight
U.R.Q. Upper right quadrant
U.L.Q. Upper lower quadrant
UTI Urinary tract Infection
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UNIT ONE
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives:
After completing this unit, the learners will be able to:
• State the modern definition of nursing
• Outline the historical background of nursing world wide and
in Ethiopia
• Identify the contribution of significant individuals in nursing
• Describe the nursing process
• Describe critical thinking as an instrument for provision of
quality care
Nursing
Definition:
“It is the diagnosis and treatment of human responses to actual or
potential health problems” (ANA 1980).
It is assisting the individual, sick or well in the performance of those
activities contributing to health or its recovery (to peaceful death)
that he will perform unaided, if he had the necessary strength, will or
knowledge and to do this in such a way as to help him gain
independence as rapidly as possible (Virginia Henderson 1960).
1
Nursing is the art and science that involves working with individual,
families, and communities to promote wellness of body, mind, and
spirit. It is a dynamic, therapeutic and educational process that
serves to meet the health needs of the society, including its most
vulnerable members.
Historical Background of Nursing

Nursing has a history as long as that of human kind. Human beings
have always faced the challenge of fostering health and caring for
the ill and dependent. Those who were especially skilled in this area
stood out and, in some instances, passed their skills along to others.
Uprichard (1973) described the early history of nursing using three
images: the folk image, the religious image, and the renaissance
image.
The Folk Image of Nursing:
The Nurse as Mother

The early development of nursing was rarely documented, so we
must speculate about its character from what we know of early
civilizations. The nurse was generally a member of the family or, if
not, then a member of the community who demonstrated a special
skill in caring for others. Nursing in this perspective was seen largely
as a feminine role an extension of mothering. Indeed, the word
nursing itself may have been derived from the same root as the
words nourish and nurture. This view of nursing was prevalent in the
earliest historical records and is still present in primitive cultures.
2
The Religious Image of Nursing:
The Nurse as God’s Worker

In the Bible, a woman named Phoebe is identified as the first
deaconess, a word meaning servant or helper. Deaconess cared
for widows, orphans, and the sick. Olympias, a woman of
Constantinople, set up a hospital to care for the sick. In Rome,
Marcella established a monastery for those in need of care.
Fabiola, who was converted to Christianity by Marcella, established
hospitals for the sick poor. In the middle Ages, the traditional role of
the religious groups in caring for the ill was continued by various
orders of monks and nuns. When the crusade attempted to regain
Jerusalem from Muslim control, the Knights Hospitalers, and order
of religious workers who cared for the injured and fought to protect
them, marched with the armies. During this time, unfortunately, the
knowledge of hygiene and sanitation gained by Greek, Roman,
Egyptian, and other ancient civilizations was forgotten. There was no
growth or development in knowledge regarding care of the sick.
3
Throughout the Middle Ages and into the Reformation, religious

orders ran almost all of the hospitals and provided most of the
nursing care in Europe. With the advent of the Reformation and the
presence of Protestant religious groups, the nature of these orders
changed. Women might join for a limited period of time, rather than
devoting the entire lifetime to service. They were again referred to as
deaconess, the term used in the early church. For example, a
church order of deaconesses was organized by Pastor Theodor
Fleidner in Kaiserswerth, Germany called the Sisters of Mercy of
the Church of England. Another order established St. John’s House,
an Anglican Hospital in London. The Protestant Nursing groups were
comprised totally of women, and only one nursing order made up of
men, the Brothers Hospitalers of St. John, remained in the
Catholic Church. The Muslim religion has a similar tradition of
service to others in the name of God. Rofiada al Islamiah, one of
the wives of Mohammand who cared for the sick and injured, is
considered the mother of nursing in the Mideastern Muslim countries
(Meleis, 1985).
The Renaissance Image of Nursing:
The Nurse as Servant
The Renaissance saw the decline of monastic orders and the rise in
individualism and materialism. There was a radical change from the
image of the selfless nurse that had developed in the early Christian
period and the Middle Ages. Care of the ill was delegated to
servants and those unable to find any other means of support. The
hospitals of this time were plagued by pestilence and filled with
4
death; those who worked in them were seen as corrupt and

unsavory.
The Emergence of Modern Nursing
To some extent, the three early images of the nurse were held
simultaneously for hundreds of years. Then, in the 19th century, one
woman changed the course of nursing: Florence Nightingale.
Although born to wealth and a family well placed in Victorian English
Society, Florence Nightingale had a firm belief in Christian ideals
that made h1er disdainful of a life of luxury. She believed her true
calling was to minister to the sick. As an intelligent and well-
educated woman, she recognized that optimum care of the sick
required education. She persevered against family and social
opposition and initiated personal study and research into sanitation
and health. She studied with Pastor Fleidner of 33, was to
reorganize the care for the sick at a hospital established for
“Gentlewomen in Distressed Circumstances.”
Nightingale’s success in her first post led Britain’s secretary of war to

recruit her for a far more arduous reorganization. Britain was then
engaged in a major war in the Crimea; reports were coming back
that more men died of wounds in the hospitals than on the
battlefield. Funds were raised and nurses recruited for Florence
Nightingale’s Crimean campaign. When she arrived at the front,
Nightingale found that conditions in the military hospitals were
abominable. The absence of sewers and laundry facilities, the lack
of supplies, the poor food, and the disorganized medical services
5
contributed to a death rate of more than 50% among the wounded.

Nightingale insisted on retaining control of all of her supplies, funds,
and personnel. Her efforts and those of her staff reduced the death
rate among the wounded to less than 3%. She eventually completely
reformed the military’s approach to the health care of the British
soldier.
In 1860, she created a school of nursing, which was the model for
most nursing education in England. The school was organized
around three components: 1) a trained matron with undisputed
authority over all members of the staff, 2) a planned course of
theoretical and practical training, and 3) a home attached to the
hospital in which carefully selected students were placed in the care
of “sisters” responsible for their moral and spiritual training. (The
English term “sisters” used for secular nurses reflects nursing’s
religious history.) Nightingale established educational standards for
the students – she concerned herself not just with health care needs
but with human needs.
Her school prepared nurses for hospital care (where they were
called “ward sisters”) and for supervisory and teaching positions.
Nightingale also set up a program for preparing “district” nurses,
the public health/visiting nurses of England. She wrote that these
district nurses needed additional education because they would be
working more independently than the hospital staff members.
Nightingale’s strong statements about the role of nurses and their

need for lifelong education are still quoted widely today. Perhaps
6
she, more than anyone else, can be credited with establishing

nursing as a profession.
In the early ages, much of the practice of medicine was integrated

with religious practices. Before the development of modern nursing,
women of nomadic tribes performed nursing duties, such as helping
the very young, the old, and the sick, care-dwelling mothers
practiced the nursing of their time.
As human needs expanded, nursing development broadened; its

interest and functions through the social climates created by
religious ideologies, economic development, industrial revolutions,
wars, crusades, and education. In this way modern nursing was
born.
The intellectual revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries led to a

scientific revolution. The dynamic change in economic and political
situations also influenced every corner of human development
including nursing. It was during the time of Florence Nightingale
(1820-1910) that modern nursing developed. She greatly modified
the tradition of nursing that existed before her era. She also
contributed to the definition of nursing “to put the patient in best
possible way for nature to act." Since her time modern nursing
development has rapidly occurred in many parts of the world.
7
History of Nursing in Ethiopia

Even though Ethiopia is one of the oldest countries in the world,
introduction of modern medicine was very late. Health care of
communities and families was by Hakim (wogesha or traditional
healers).
Around 1866 missionaries came to Eritrea, (one of the former
provinces of Ethiopia) and started to provide medical care for very
few members of the society. In 1908 Minlik II hospital was
established in the capital of Ethiopia. The hospital was equipped and
staffed by Russians.
Later hospital building was continued which raised the need to train
health auxiliaries and nurses. In 1949 the Ethiopian Red Cross,
School of Nursing was established at Hailesellasie I hospital in Addis
Ababa. The training was given for three years. In 1954 HailesellasieI
Public Health College was established in Gondar to train health
officer, community health nurses and sanitarians to address the
health problem of most of the rural population. In line with this, the
Centralized school of Nursing formerly under Ministry of health and
recently under Addis Ababa University Medical Faculty and Nekemit
School of nursing are among the senior nurse’s training institutions.
During the regimen of 'Dergue', the former bedside and community

health nursing training was changed to comprehensive nursing. An
additional higher health professional training institution was also
established in Jimma(1983) to train health professionals using
educational philosophy of community based and team approach.
8
After the overthrown of the Dergue, the transitional government of

Ethiopia developed a health policy that emphasizes health
promotion, diseases prevention, and curative and rehabilitative
health service with priority to the rural societies and major emphases
were given to backwarded and areas affected highly by manmade
calamities. Additional public health professional training institutions
were opened in Alamaya University and Dilla College of Teacher
Education and Health Sciences (1996). As the result of the policy
more health professionals were trained.
Following further expansion of higher learning, Mekele University

has started medical education and the former diploma offering
university have upgraded to degree program in which nursing
education is a part. In this line Hawassa University, College of
Health Sciences also opened new medical education to the former
existing health sciences programs. The Federal Ministry of Defense,
established a University College under which the college of health
sciences offering training for health professionals including nursing.
The outputs of these training institutions are providing services all
over the country not only to improve the health status of our society
but also to ensure the attainment of millennium health development
goals.
9
NURSING PROCESS and CRITICAL THINKING
Nursing Process:
Definition: Nursing Process is a tool or method for organizing and

delivering care or a deliberate intellectual activity where
by the practice of nursing is approached in an orderly
systematic manner. It is a systematic problem solving
approach to client care. It is a series of planned steps
and actions directed toward meeting the need and
solving problems of people and their significant others; it
is systematic, scientific problem solving in action
(Sorensen and Luckman, 1986)
Purpose of Nursing Process:
1. To identify clients health care needs
2. To establish nursing care plan so as to meet those needs
3. To complete the nursing intervention designed to meet the

needs
4. To provide individualized care
Linda Hall first introduces the term nursing process in 1965.
Step of the Nursing Process
The nursing process has five steps:
1. Assessment – the systematic collection of data to determine the

patient’s health status and to identify any actual or potential
10
health problems. In nursing assessment the best sources of

information about the client are the client and the family. Health
professionals, previous client records and significant others also
act as information sources. Data collected about a client
generally fall into one of the two categories: objective or
subjective
Objective data include all the measurable and observable

pieces of information about the client and his or her overall
state of health. The term objective means that only precise,
accurate measurements or clear descriptions are used.
Subjective data consists the client’s opinions, feelings about

what is happening. Only the client can tell you that he/she is
afraid or has pain. Some times the client can communicate
through body language: gesture, facial expressions and body
posture. To obtain subjective data you need sharp interviewing,
listening, and observation skills.
Methods of data collection
Observation is an assessment tool that relies on the use of the

five senses (sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste) to discover
information about client.
Health interview- the health interview is a way of soliciting

information from the client. This interview may also be called a
nursing history.
11
Physical examination
(Analysis of data is included as part of the assessment. For

those who wish to emphasize its importance analysis may be
identified as a separate step of the nursing process.)
2. Diagnosis – identification of the following two types of patient

problems:
a) Nursing diagnosis – actual or potential health problems that

can be managed by independent nursing interventions.
Purposes of the Nursing Diagnosis- the nursing diagnosis

serves the following purposes:
• Identifies nursing priorities
• Directs nursing interventions to meet the client’s high

priority needs
• Provides a common language and forms a basis for

communication and understanding between nursing
professionals and health care team.
• Guides the formulation of expected outcomes for

quality assurance requirements of third party payer.
• Provides a basis for evaluation to determine if nursing

care was beneficial to the client and cost effective.
• Is of help when making staff assignment.
12
The diagnostic statement
The client may present with more than one problem. Therefore, the
nursing diagnosis may be made up of multiple diagnostic
statements. Each diagnostic statement has two or three parts
depending on the healthcare facility. The three-part statement
consists of the following components:
• Problem
• Etiology
• Signs and symptoms, a two-part diagnostic

statement consists of the problem, and signs
and symptoms.
Problem
The problem portion of a statement describes- clearly and concisely-

a health problem a client is having. Use one of the NANDA-
approved nursing diagnostic labels to state the problem
Etiology
The etiology part of the diagnostic statement is the cause the

problem. Etiology may be physiologic, psychological, sociologic,
spiritual, or environmental.
Sign and symptoms- the third part of the diagnostic statement

summarizes data. You may need to include several signs and
symptoms. For instance, the client with pneumonia had cough with
thick sputum, abnormal breath sounds, increased respiration, and
difficulty breathing.
13
Writing the Diagnostic Statement
The diagnostic statement connects problem, etiology, and signs and

symptoms. The first two parts of the statement are linked by” related
to,” some times abbreviated R/T. The last two parts are linked by “as
evidenced by,” some times abbreviated AEB.
E.G. Ineffective Airway Clearance related to physiologic effects of

pneumonia as evidenced by increased sputum, coughing, abnormal
breath sounds, tachypnea, and dyspnea.
b) Collaborative problems – certain physiologic

complications that nurse monitor to detect onset or
changes in status. Nurses manage collaborative
problems using physician – prescribed and nursing
prescribed interventions to minimize the
complications of the events.
3. Planning – development of goals and a plan of care designed to

assist the patient in resolving the diagnosed problems. Setting
priorities, establishing expected outcomes, and selecting nursing
interventions result in plan of nursing care.
Setting priorities
Nursing diagnoses are ranked in order of importance. Survival

needs or imminent life threatening situations takes the highest
priority. For example, the needs for air, water and food are survival
needs. Nursing diagnostic categories that reflect these high-
priorities needs include Ineffective Airway Clearance and deficient
fluid volume.
14
Establishing Expected Outcomes
An expected outcome is a measurable client behavior that indicates

whether the person has achieved the expected benefit of nursing
care. It may also be called a goal or objective. An expected outcome
has the following characters tics:
• Client oriented
• Specific
• Reasonable
• Measurable
Selecting Nursing Intervention
Nursing intervention is also called nursing orders or nursing actions,

are activities that will most likely produce the desired outcomes
(short-term or long-term). To achieve this outcome, one should
select nursing interventions such as the following examples:
• Offering fluids frequently
• Positioning frequently
• Teaching deep breathing exercise
• Monitoring vital signs
• Administering oxygen, etc. accordingly.
4. Implementation – actualization of the plan of care through

nursing interventions.
5. Evaluation – determination of the patient’s responses to the

nursing intervention and the extent to which the goals have been
achieved.
15
N.B. Dividing the nursing process into five distinct components or

steps serves to emphasize the essential nursing actions that must
be taken to resolve patient’s nursing diagnoses and manage any
collaborative problems or complications.
Critical thinking:
It is defined as an intellectually disciplined process of actively and
skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and or
evaluating information gathered from, or generated by observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to
belief and action. Critical thinking involves problem solving and
decision making process, but it is a more complex process. Critical
thinking competencies are the cognitive processes a nurse in clinical
situations include diagnostic reasoning clinical inferences, and
clinical decision-making. The nurse process is considered the
specific critical thinking competency in nursing. Critical thinking skill
assists the nurse to look at all aspects of a situation and then at a
conclusion. When critical thinking is employed in clinical situations
one should expect the how to examine ideas, beliefs, principles,
assumptions, conclusions, statements and inferences before coming
to a conclusion and make a decision
16
Study Questions:
1. Define nursing using modern definition.
2. List nurse professionals who significantly contributed to
professional development.
3. State the historical trends of nursing development.
4. Mention steps in nursing process.
5. State two common ways of collecting data about client.
6. Describe critical thinking.
17
UNIT TWO
SAFETY IN HEALTH CARE FACILITIES
CHAPTER TWO
INFECTION CONTROL/ UNIVERSAL
PRECAUTION
At the end of this chapter the learner will be able to:
• Describe infection prevention in health care setups
• List chain of infection
• Identify between medical asepsis and surgical asepsis
• Discuss the purpose, use and components of standard
precautions.
• Maintain both medical and surgical asepsis
• Describe how to setup a client’s room for isolation, including
appropriate barrier techniques.
• Identify hoe to follow specific airborne, droplet and contact
precautions.
New Terminology
- Airborne precaution - protective isolation
- Contact precaution - standard precaution
- Droplet precaution - transmission-based precaution
- Isolation
18
Nursing Process
Assessment
- Identify appropriate times for hand washing
- Identify type of protective clothing required for barrier

nursing.
- Identify epidemiology of the disease to determine how to

prevent infection from spreading.
- Identify equipment needed to prevent spread of organisms
- Assess method of terminal cleaning and disposing

equipment.
- Assess method of hand washing that is most appropriate for

assigned task.
- Identify clients at risk for infection
- Assess availability of equipment for frequent hand washing.
- Evaluate health status of the nurse
- Check agency policy for hand washing protocol
- Assess need for use of unsterile gloves
- Assess nurses and clients for latex allergies
- Assess need for laterx-free equipment and/or environment.
Planning/Objective
- To prevent the spread of endogenous and exogenous flora

to other client.
19
- To reduce potential for transforming organisms from the

hospital environment to the clients from acquiring
nosocomial infections.
- To deliver client care with pathogen-free hands.
- To prevent pathogenic microorganisms spreading from client

to client, environment or health care personnel to client.
- To prevent health care workers from contamination.
Implementation
- Preparation for isolation
- Donning and removing isolation attire
- Using a mask
- Assessing vital signs
- Removing items from isolation room
- Utilizing double-bagging for isolation
- Removing a specimen from isolation room
- Transporting isolation client outside the room
- Removing soiled large equipment from isolation room
- Hand washing (Medical asepsis)
- For using Waterless Antiseptic Agents
- Cleaning Washable Articles
- Donning (putting on) and Removing clean Gloves
- Managing Latex Allergies
20
Evaluation/Expected Outcomes
- Isolation environment is maintained to prevent contamination of

surrounding area.
- Personnel working with isolation clients remain free of infection.
- Infection is prevented from spreading from person to person,

person to environment and vice versa.
- Cross-contamination is prevented from patient to health

personnel, client to client from staff to patient.
- Health care workers are protected from infection

- Infection is prevented from spreading from person to person,
person to environment and vice versa.
- Cross-contamination is prevented from patient to health

personnel, client to client from staff to patient.
- Health care workers are protected from infection
Infection Control/Universal Precaution
Nurses are involved in providing a biologically safe environment and

promoting health. Microorganisms exist everywhere in the
environment; in water, soil and body surfaces such as skin, intestinal
tract, and other areas open to the outside.
21
Normal Body Defense
Individuals normally have defenses that protect the body from

infection. These defenses can be categorized as non-specific and
specific.
Specific Defenses
Specific defenses (immune): are directed against identifiable

bacteria, viruses, fungi, or other infectious agents. Specific defenses
of the body involve the immune system, which responds to foreign
protein in the body (E.g. bacteria or transplanted tissues) or, in some
cases even the body’s own proteins.
Immunity is the specific resistance of the body to infection

(pathogens or their toxins), There are two major types of immunity:
active and passive. Through active immunity, the host produces its
own antibodies in response to natural antigens (e.g. infection) or
artificial antigens (e.g. vaccines) with passive immunity, the host
receives natural (e.g. from a nursing mother) or artificial (e.g. from
an injection of immune serum) antibodies produced by another
source.
Non-specific defenses protect the person against all

microorganisms, regardless of prior exposure. Non-specific
defenses include anatomic and physiologic barriers. In fact skin and
mucus membranes are body’s first line of defense against
microorganisms.
22
Inflammation is a local and non-specific defense response of the

tissues to injury or infection. It is an adaptive mechanism that
destroys or dilutes the injurious agent, prevents further spread injury,
and promotes the repair of damage tissue. Inflammation is
characterized by the following classic signs and symptoms of
(Virchow, 1821-1902):
(a) Pain (dolor), (b) Swelling (tumor), (c) Redness (rubor), (d) Heat
(calor), and (e) Impaired function of the part (fanctio laesa), if the
injury is severe. Often words with “it is” describe an inflammatory
process.
An infection is an invasion of the body tissue by microorganisms and

their proliferation there. Such a micro organism is called infections
agent.
Pathogencity is the ability to produce disease; thus a pathogen is a

microorganism that causes disease. A “true” pathogen causes
disease or infection in a healthy individual. An opportunistic
pathogen causes disease only in a susceptible individual. Etiology is
the study of causes; the etiology of an infectious process is the
identification of the invading microorganisms. Infectious diseases
are the major cause of illness and death in Ethiopia.
23
Chain of Infection
There are six links in the chain of infection:
1. The etiologic agent, or micro organism:
2. The reservoir, the place where the organism naturally

resides.
3. Portal of exist from reservoir
4. Method of Transmission
5. Portal of entry in to the host
6. Susceptibility of the host
Infectious
agent
(pathogenic
Susceptible Reservoir
host
Chain of
Infection
Portal of exit
Portal(s) of
(from
entry
i)
Vehicle
(means of
t i i )
Figure 1. Chain of infection and ways to break transmission of infection.
24
Conditions Predisposing to Infection
Certain conditions and invasive techniques predispose clients to

infection because the integrity of the skin is broken or the illness
itself establishes a climate favorable for the infectious process to
occur. Among the most common are surgical wounds, changes in
the antibacterial immune system, or alterations to the body.
Nosocomial Infection
Nosocomial infections are infections that are acquired while the

client is in the hospital, infections that were not present or incubating
at the time of admission.
Standard Precautions
Standard precaution is also called universal precautions. These

were instituted as a result of the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) epidemic. Blood and body fluid precautions were practiced on
all clients regardless of their potential infectious state.
In 1987, body substance isolation (BSI) was proposed. The intent of

this isolation system was to isolate all moist and potentially
infectious body substances (blood, feces, urine, sputum, saliva,
wound drainage and other body fluids) from all clients, regardless of
their infectious status, primarily through the use of gloves.
Standard precaution blends the major features of universal

precautions (blood and body fluids precautions) and body substance
isolation into a single set of precautions to be used for the care of all
25
clients in hospitals, regardless of their diagnosis or presumed

infection status. The new standard precautions apply to blood, all
body fluids, secretions, and excretions, whether or not they contain
visible blood; non-intact skin; and mucus membrane.
Fundamental Principles: Certain fundamental principles should be

applied to all clients. These include hand washing, use of gloves,
proper placement of clients in hospital to prevent spread of
microorganisms to others or to the client, and appropriate use of
isolation equipment to prevent the spread of microorganisms to
health care workers and other clients.
Basic Medical Asepsis
Hand washing (Medical Asepsis)
Purpose
• To prevent the spread of infection
• To increase psychological comfort
Equipment
• Soap for routine hand washing
• Orange wood stick for cleaning nails, if available
• Running warm water, paper towel, trash basket
26
Procedure
1. Stand in front of but away from sink to avoid touching of

uniform to a sink.
2. Ensure that paper towel is hanging down from dispenser.
3. Turn on water using foot pedal or faucet (using elbow of hand)

so that flow is adequate, but not splashing.
4. Adjust temperature to warm. Rationale: cold does not

facilitate sudsing and cleaning; hot is damaging to skin.
5. Wet hands under running water, wet hands facilitate

distribution of soap over entire skin surface.
6. Place a small amount, one to two teaspoons (5-10mL) of liquid

soap on hands. Thoroughly distribute overhands. Soap should
come from a dispenser, possible; this prevents spread of
microorganism.
7. Rub vigorously, using a firm, circular motion, while keeping

your fingers pointed down, lower than wrists. Star with each
finger, then between fingers, then palm and back of hand to
create friction on all surfaces.
8. Wash your hands for at least 10-15 seconds. Duration of

washing is important to produce mechanical action and allow
antimicrobial products time to achieve desired effect.
9. Clean under your fingernails with an orangewood stick. (This

should be done at least at start of day and if hands are heavily
contaminated).
27
10. Rinse your hands under running water, keeping fingers

pointed down ward in order to prevent contamination of arms.
11. Resoap your hands, rewash, and rerinse if heavily

contaminated.
12. Dry hands thoroughly with a paper towel, while keeping hands
positioned with fingers pointing up. Moist hands tend to gather
more microorganisms from the environment.
13. Turn off water faucet with dry paper towel, if not using foot
pedal to avoid contaminating the hands.
14. Restart procedure at step 5 if your hands touch the sink any
time between steps 5 and 13.
Donning and Removing Gloves
Equipment
- Gloves (both clean and sterile)
- Trash receptacle
Procedure
1. Wash your hands to remove microorganism and avoid

contamination.
2. Remove glove from glove receptacles
28
3. Hold glove at wrist edge and slip finger into opening. Pull
glove up to wrist.
4. Place gloved hand under wrist edge of second glove and slip
fingers in to opening.
5. Remove glove by pulling off, touching only out side of glove at

cuff, so that glove turns inside out.
6. Place rolled-up glove in palm of second hand.
7. Remove second glove by slipping one finger under glove edge

and pulling down and off so that glove turns inside out. Both
gloves are removed as a unit.
8. Dispose of gloves in proper container, not at bedside.
9. Wash your hands.
Standard Precaution
Nursing Process
Assessment
o Assess for skin integrity
o Assess for presence of drainage from lesions or body cavity.
o Assess for ability to deal with oral secretions.
o Assess for compliance to hygiene measure (i.e., covering

mouth when coughing, ability to control body fluid).
o Assess ability to carry out activities of daily living (ADL).
29
o Assess extent of barrier techniques needed (i.e., gloves,

gown, mask, protective eye wear).
o Assess need for special equipment (i.e., hazardous west

bags, plastic bags for specimens).
Planning
o To prevent clients (especially compromised clients) from

acquiring nosolomial infections.
o To prevent the spread of micro organism to health

professionals.
o To reduce potential for transmission of micro organisms.
o To protect hospital personnel and others from

contamination.
o To provide appropriate equipment and techniques for

preventives measures.
Implementation/Procedures
Donning protective gear utilizing standard precautions.
Exiting a client’s room utilizing standard precautions.
Evaluation/Expected outcomes
- Clients remain infection free.
- Transmission of micro organism is controlled.
30
- Health care workers protected from micro organism.
- Appropriate nursing interventions are carried out for the

client.
Donning Protective Gear Utilizing Standard

Precautions
Equipment
- Disposable gloves
- Gown
- Mask
- Apron
- Cap
- Protective eye wear (gogle)
Procedure
1. Wash hands using soap and dry.
2. Put on gown by placing one arm at a time though sleeves

wrap gown around body so it cover clothing completely.
3. Bring waist ties from back to front of gown or turn back

according to hospital policy. This ensures that entire clothing is
covered by the gown, preventing accidental contamination.
4. Tie gown at neck or adher velcro strap to gown
31
5. Don mask. Rationale: Masks are worn when there is an

anticipated contact with respiratory droplet secretiveness.
6. Don protective eye wear such as face shield. Face shields will
protect the nurse from splashing of blood or body fluids while
caring for clients.
7. Done disposable gloves.
Standard Precaution Guidelines
- Wash hands thoroughly after removing gloves and before

and after all client contact
- Wear gloves when there is direct contact with blood, body

fluids, secretions, excretions, and contaminated items. This
include neonate before first bath, wash as soon as possible
if an anticipated contact with this body substances occurs.
- Protect clothing with gowns or plastic aprons if there is a

possibility of being splashed or direct contact with
contaminated material.
- Wear masks, goggles, or face shield to avoid being

splashed including during suctioning, irrigations, and
deliveries.
- Do not break or recap needles, discard them intact in to

puncture resistant containers except for ABG ( arterial blood
gas).
32
- Place all contaminated articles and trash in leak proof bags.

Check hospital policy regarding double bagging.
- Clean spills quickly with a 1:10 solution of bleach or

according to facility policy.
- Place clients at risk of contaminating the environment in a

private room with separate bathroom facilities.
- Transport infected clients using appropriate barriers,
- Dispose waste using three baskets system
Surgical Asepsis (sterile technique)
Definition: Practices, which will maintain area free from

microorganisms, as by surgical scrub, or sterile technique.
Surgical asepsis is used to maintain sterilize. Use of effective sterile

technique means that no organisms are carried to the client.
Microorganisms are destroyed before they can enter the body.
Sterile technique is used when changing dressings, administering

parentral (other than the digestive tract) medications, and performing
surgical and other procedures such as urinary catheterization. With
surgical asepsis, first articles are sterilized, and then their contact
with any unsterile articles is prevented. When a sterile article
touches an unsterile article, it becomes contaminated. It is no longer
sterile.
33
Disinfection and sterilization
Disinfection: is a process that results in the destruction of most

pathogens, but not necessarily their spots. Common methods of
disinfection include the use of alcohol wipes, a hexachlorophene or
chlorohexidine gluconate soap scrub, or povidone-iodine scrub to kill
microorganisms on the skin.
Stronger disinfectants include phenol and mercury bichoride, which

are too strong to be used on living tissue. Boiling can be used to
disinfect in animate objects. However, it does not destroy all
microorganisms or spores.
Sterilization:
It is the process of exposing articles to steam heat under pressure or

the chemical disinfectants long enough to kill all microorganisms and
spores.
Exposure to steam at 18 pounds of pressure at a temperature of

125oc for 15 minutes will kill even the toughest organisms. A
pressure steam sterilizer is called an autoclave.
Some chemicals also can be used to sterilize an object. However,

chemical disinfectants powerful enough to destroy germs or extreme
temperature cannot be used on certain articles, such as plastic.
Sharp cutting instruments usually sterilized by dry heat, or

chemicals. To day, however, most sharps such as scalpels, and
suture removal scissors- are disposable. Needles used for injections
are always discarded. Other methods of sterilization include
radiation and gas sterilization with ethylene oxide.
34
Items to be use to maintain sterility technique

Hair covering:
In sterile environments a cap or hood is worn to cover the hair.

Remember that no hair can show. If the hair is long, a special type of
hood will be worn.
Surgical Mask
In strict sterile situations such as in operation room (OR) or with

protective isolation, the mask covers the mouth and nose. The
purpose of mask is to form a barrier to stop the transmission of
pathogens. In the OR or during other sterile procedure, the mask
prevents harmful microorganisms in your respiratory tract from
spreading to the client. When the client has an infection, the mask
protects you from his/ her pathogens.
Sterile gown
Sterile gown is commonly worn in the OR, with protective isolation

and some times in the delivery room. The hands touch only the part
of sterile gown that will touch the body after the gown is in place.
Thus, touch only the inside of the gown. Some one else ties the
strings. The back of the gown is considered contaminated, even
though it was sterile when put on. Any part of the gown below waist
level and above nipple level is also considered contaminated. Be
careful when wearing a sterile gown not to touch any thing that is
unsterile.
35
Sterile Gloves
For some procedures sterile gloves are worn. Remember that once
gloves are put on, touching any thing unsterile contaminates them.
Therefore, make all preparations before putting on gloves.
Procedures for putting on sterile gloves:

Steps:
1. Wash the hands to limit the spread of microorganisms
2. Open the outer glove package, on a clean, dry, flat surface

at waist level or higher
3. If there is an inner package, open it in the same way,

keeping the sterile gloves on the inside surface with cuffs
towards you.
4. Use one hand to grasp the inside upper surface of the

glove’s cuff for the opposite hand. Lift the glove up and clear
it of the wrapper.
5. Insert the opposite hand in to the glove, placing the thumb

and finger in to the proper openings. Pull the gloves in to
place, touching only the inside of the glove at cuff. Leave the
cuff in place.
6. Slip the fingers of the sterile gloved hand under (inside) the
cuff of the remaining glove while keeping the thumb pointed
outward.
7.
a. Insert the ungloved hand in to the glove
36
b. Pull the second glove on; touching only then outside

of the sterile glove with the other sterile gloved hand
and keeping the fingers inside the cuff.
c. Adjust gloves and snap cuffs in to place. Avoid

touching the inside glove and wrist area
8. Keep the sterile gloved hands above waist level. Make sure
not to touch the cloths. Keep hands folded when not
performing a procedure. Both actions help to prevent
accidental contamination.
Isolation
Isolation is defined as separation from others, separation of people

with infectious disease or susceptible to acquire disease from
others.
Isolation technique is a practice that designed to prevent the

transmission of communicable diseases.
Types of isolation
Historically, two primary types of isolation systems were used in
health care:
1. Category -specific isolation
2. Disease- specific isolation
Currently these isolation classifications are mostly replaced by

standard precaution and transmission based precaution.
37
How ever, still some facilities follow such system.
Category-specific isolation, specific categories of isolation (eg.

Respiratory, contact, enteric, strict or wound) are identified, using
color-coded cards. This form of isolation is based on the client’s
diagnosis. The cards are posted outside the client’s room and state
that visitors must check with nurses before entering.
Disease –specific isolation, uses a single all-purpose sign. Nurse

selects the items on the card that are appropriate for the specific
disease that is causing isolation.
Preparing for Isolation
Purpose
To prevent spread of microorganisms
To control infectious diseases
Equipment
Specific equipment depends on isolation precaution system used.
- Soap and running water.
- Isolation cart containing masks, gowns, gloves, plastic bags

isolation tape.
- Linen hamper and trash can, when needed.
- Paper towel
- Door card indicating precautions
38
Procedure
1. Check orders for isolation
2. Obtain isolation cart from central supply, if needed.
3. Check that all necessary equipment to carry out the isolation

order is available.
4. Place isolation card on the client’s door.
5. Ensure that linen hamper and trash cans are available, if

needed.
6. Explain purpose of isolation to client and family.
7. Instruct family in procedures required.
8. Wash hands with antimicrobial soap* before and after entering

isolation room.
* Types of antimicrobial soap or agent depend on infectious

agent and client condition.
Donning and Removing Isolation Attire
Equipment
- Gown
- Clean gloves
39
Procedure
For donning attire
1. Wash and dry hands
2. Take gown from isolation cart or cupboard. Put on a new gown

each time you enter an isolation room.
3. Hold gown so that opening is in back when you are wearing

the gown.
4. Put gown on by placing one arm at a time through sleeves, put

gown-up and over your shoulder
5. Wrap gown around your back, tying strings at your neck.
6. Wrap gown around your waist, making sure your back is

completely covered. Tie string around your waist.
7. Done eye shield and/or mask, if indicated. Mask is required if

there is a risk of splashing fluids.
8. Don clean gloves and pull gloves over gown wristlets.
For Removing Attire
1. Unite gown waist strings
2. Remove gloves and dispose of then in garbage bag.
3. Next, untie neck strings, bringing them around your shoulders,

so that gown is partially off your shoulders.
4. Using your dominant hand and grasping clean part of wristlet,

put sleeve wristlet over your non-dominant hand. Use your
40
non-dominant hand to up pull sleeve wristlet over your

dominant hand.
5. Grasp outside of gown through sleeves at shoulders. Pull

gown down over your arms.
6. Hold both gown shoulders in one hand, carefully draw your

other hand out of gown, turning arm of gown inside out.
Repeat this procedure with your other arm.
7. Hold gown away from your body. Fold gown up inside out.
8. Discard gown in appropriate place
9. Remove eye shield and/or mask and place in receptacle.
10. Wash your hands.
Using a Mask
Equipment
Clean mask
Procedure
1. Obtain mask from box
2. Position mask to cover your nose and mouth
3. Bend nose bar so that it conforms over bridges of your nose
4. If you are using a mask with string ties, tie top strings on top of
your head to prevent slipping. If you are using a con-shaped
mask, tie top strings over your ears.
41
5. Tie bottom strings around your neck to secure mask over your
mouth. There should be no gaps between the mask and your
face.
6. Important; change mask every 30 minutes or sooner if it

becomes damp as effectiveness is greatly reduced after 30
minutes or if mask is moist.
7. Wash your hands before removing mask.
8. To remove mask, untie lower strings first, or slip elastic band

off without touching mask.
9. Discard mask in a trash container
10. Wash your hands
Removing Items from Isolation Room
Equipment
- Large red isolation bags
- Specimen container
- Plastic bag with biohazard level
- Laundry bag
- Red plastic container in room
- Cleaning articles
42
Procedure
1. Place laboratory specimen in plastic bag. Afix biohazard label

to plastic bag.
2. Dispose of all sharps in appropriate red plastic container in

room.
3. Place all linen in linen bag
4. Place reusable equipment such as procedure trays in plastic

bags.
5. Dispose of all garbage in plastic bags
6. Double bag all material from isolation room. Follow procedure

for utilizing double-bagging for isolation.
All materials removed from an isolation room is potentially

contaminate. This will prevent spread of micro organisms.
7. Replace all bags, such as linen bag and garbage, in

appropriate container in room.
8. Make client’s room clean as necessary, using germicidal

solution.
9. Leave the client’s room today
43
Using Double-Bagging for Isolation
Equipment
2 isolation bags
Items to be removed from room
Gloves
Procedure
1. Follow dress protocol for entering isolation room, or, if you are
already in the isolation room, continue with step 2.
2. Close isolation bag when it is one-half to three-fourths full.

Close bag inside the isolation room.
3. Double-bag for safety if outside of bag is contaminated, if the

bag could be easily penetrated, or if contaminated material in
the bag is heavy and could break bag.
4. Set-up a new bag for continued use inside room. Bag is

usually red with the word “Biohazard” written on outside of
bag.
5. Place bag from inside room in to a bag held open by a second

health care worker outside room if double bagging is required.
Second health care worker makes a cuff with the top of the
bag and places hands under cuff. This prevents hands from
becoming contaminated.
6. Place bag in to second bag with out contaminating outside of

bag. Secure top of bag by typing a knot in top of bag.
44
7. Take bag to designated area where biohazard material is

collected; usually “dirty” utility room.
8. Remove gloves and wash hands
N.B. Out side of base is contaminated
Base could easily be penetrated
Contaminated material is heavy and could break

bas.
Transporting Isolated Client outside the Room
Equipment
- Transport Vehicle
- Bath blanket
- Mask for client if needed
Procedure
1. Explain procedure to patient
2. If client is being transported from a respiratory isolation room,

instruct him or her to wear a mask for the entire time out of
isolation. This prevents the spread of airborne microbes.
3. Cover the transport vehicle with a bath blanket if there is a

chance of soiling when transporting a client who has a
draining wound or diarrhea.
45
4. Help client to transport vehicle. Cover client with a bath

blanket.
5. Tell receiving department what type of isolation client needs

and what type of precaution hospital personnel should follow.
6. Remove bath blanket, and handle as contaminated linen when

client returns to room.
7. Instruct all hospital personnel to wash their hands before they

leave the area.
8. Wipe down transportation vehicle with antimicrobial solution if

soiled.
Protocol for Leaving Isolation Room
Untie gown at wrist
Take off gloves
Untie gown at neck
Pull gown off and place in laundry hamper
Take off goggles or face shield
Take off mask
Wash hands
46
Guide lines for Disposing of Contaminated Equipment
• Disposable gloves: place in isolation bag separate from

burnable trash and direct to appropriate hospital area for
disposal
• Glass equipment: Bag separately from metal equipment and

return to CSR (Central Sterilization Room).
• Metal equipment: Bag all equipment together, label and

return to CSR
• Rubber and plastic items: Bag items separately and return to

CSR for gas sterilization.
• Dishes: Requires no special precautions unless

contaminated with infected material; then bag, label and
return to Kitchen.
• Plastic or paper dishes: Dispose of these items in burnable

trash.
• Soiled linens: place in laundry bag, and send to separate

area of laundry room from special care. If possible place
linens hot-water-soluble bag. This method is safes for
handling as bag may be placed directly into washing
machine. (Double-bagging is usually required because these
bags are easily punctured or torn. They also dissolve when
wet.)
• Food and liquids: Dispose of these items by putting them in

toilet – flush thoroughly.
47
• Needles and syringes: Do not recap needles; place in

puncture proof (resistant) container.
• Sphygmomanometer and stethoscope: Require no special

precaution unless they are contaminated. If contaminated,
disinfect using the appropriate cleaning protocol based on
the infective agent.
Thermometers: Dispose of electronic probes cover with burnable

trash. If probe or machine is contaminated, clean with appropriate
disinfectant or infective agent. If reasonable thermometers are used,
disinfect with appropriate solution.
Study questions
• Describe infection prevention in health care setups
• List chain of infection
• Identify between medical asepsis and surgical asepsis
• Discuss the purpose, use and components of standard
precautions.
• Maintain both medical and surgical asepsis
• Describe how to setup a client’s room for isolation, including
appropriate barrier techniques.
• Identify hoe to follow specific airborne, droplet and contact
precautions.
48
CHAPTER THREE
CARE OF PATIENT UNIT
Learning Objective
At completion of this unit the learner will be able to:
• State the general instruction for nursing procedures.
• Define patient and patient unit.
• Take care of patient unit and equipment in health care
facilities
General Instructions for all Nursing Procedures

1. Wash your hands before and after any procedure.
2. Explain procedure to patient before you start.
3. Close doors and windows before you start some procedures
like bed bath and back care.
4. Do not expose the patient unnecessarily.
5. Whenever possible give privacy to all patients according to
the procedure.
6. Assemble necessary equipment before starting the
procedure.
7. After completion of a procedure, observe the patient reaction
to the procedure, take care of all used equipment and return
to their proper place.
8. Record the procedure at the end.
49
I. THE PATIENT UNIT
Definition:
Patient: A Latin word meaning to suffer or to bear.
- Is a person who is waiting for or undergoing
medical/nursing treatment and care.
Patient Care Unit: is the space where the patient is accommodated

in hospital or patient home whereto receive care. There may
also be closet space or drawer.
The patient unit in the hospital is of three types:

1. Private room – is a room in which only one patient be
admitted
2. Semi private room – is a patient unit which can
accommodate two patients
3. Ward- is a room, which can receive three or more patients.
Consists of a hospital bed, bed side stand, over bed table,
chair, overhead light, suction and oxygen, electrical outlets,
sphygmomanometer, a nurse’s call light, waste container
and bed side table and others as needed and available.
In the home, the client unit is the primary area where the client
receives care. It may be bedroom, or the main living area.
A. Hospital Bed
• Gatch bed: a manual bed which requires the use of
hand racks or foot pedals to manipulate the bed into
50
desired positions i.e. to elevate the head or the foot of

the bed
⇒ Most commonly found in Ethiopia hospitals
⇒ Are less expensive and free of safety hazard
⇒ Handles should be positioned under the bed when
not in use
C. Side rails
• It should be attached to both sides of the bed
_ Full rails – run the length of the bed
– Half rails _ run only half the length of the bed and
commonly attached to the pediatrics bed.
D. Bed Side Table/Cabinet

• Is a small cabinet that generally consists of a drawer
and a cupboard area with shelves
• Used to store the utensils needed for clients care.
Includes the washbasin (bath basin, emesis (kidney)
basin, bed pan and urinal
• Has a towel rack on either sides or along the back
• Is best for storing personal items that are desired near
by or that will be used frequently
E.g. soap, shampoo, lotion etc
E. Over Bed Table

• The height is adjustable
51
• Can be positioned and consists of a rectangular, flat

surface supported by a side bar attached to a wide
base on wheels
• Along side or over the bed or over a chair
• Used for holding the tray during meals, or care items
when completing personal hygiene
F. The Chair
• Most basic care units have at least one chair located
near the bedside
• For the use of the client, a visitor, or a care provider
G. Overhead Light (examination light)

• Is usually placed at the head of the bed, attached to
either the wall or the ceiling
• A movable lamp may also be used
• Useful for the client for reading or doing close work
• Important for the nurse during assessment
H. Suction and Oxygen Outlets

• Suction is a vacuum created in a tube that is used to
pull (evacuate) fluids from the body E.g. to clear
respiratory mucus or fluids
• Oxygen is one of the gases frequently used for health
care today. Oxygen is derived through a tube.
52
I. Electrical Outlets
• Almost always available in the wall at the head of the
bed
J. Sphygmomanometer
• The blood pressure assessment tool, has two types:
1. An aneroid
2. Mercury, which is frequently used during nursing
assessment.
K. Call Light
• Used for client’s to maintain constant contact with care
providers
II. Care of Patient Unit
• Nursing staffs are not responsible for actual cleaning of

dust and other dirty materials from hospital. However, it
is the staff nurses' duty to supervise the cleaner who
perform this job.
A. General Rules for Cleaning

• Dry dusting of the room is not advisable.
• Dusting should be done by sweeping only.
• Use a damp duster for collecting dust.
• Dust with clear duster.
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• Collect dust at one place to avoid flying from place to

place.
• Dusting should be done without disturbing or removing
the patients from bed.
• Dusting should be done from top to bottom i.e. from
upward to downward direction.
• While dusting, take care not to spoil the beds or walls or
other fixtures in the room or hospital ward.
• While dusting, wounds or dressing should not be
opened by other staff.
• There should be a different time for dusting daily.
B. Care of Hospital and Health Care Unite Equipments
1. General Instructions for Care of Hospital Equipment

• Use articles only for the purpose for which they are
intended.
• Keep articles clean and in good condition. Use the
proper cleaning method.
• Protect mattresses with rubber sheets.
• Use protective pillowcases on pillows.
• Do not boil articles, especially rubber articles and
instruments longer than the correct time.
• Do not sterilize rubber goods and glass articles together
- wrap glass in gauze when sterilizing it by boiling.
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• Protect table tops when using hot utensils or any

solution that may leave stain or destroy the table top.
• Report promptly any damaged or missing equipment.
2. Care of Equipment in General

• Rinse used equipment in cold water. Sock materials in
recommended antiseptic solutions. Remove any sticky
material. Hot water coagulates the protein of organic
material and tends to make it adhere.
• Wash well in hot soapy water. Use an abrasive, such
as a stiff-bristled brush, to clean equipment.
• Rinse well under running water.
• Dry the article.
• Clean the gloves, brush and clean the sink.
3. Care of Linen and Removal of Stains

• Clean linen should be folded properly and be kept
neatly in the linen cupboard.
• Dirty linen should be put in the dirty linen bag (hamper)
and never be placed on the floor.
• Torn linen should be mended or sent to the sewing
room.
• Linen with blood should be soaked in cold water to
which a small amount of hydrogen peroxide is added if
available.
55
• Linen stained with urine and feces is first rinsed in cold

water and then washed with soap.
• Iodine stained linen- apply ammonia, rinse and then
wash with cold water.
• Ink stained linen – first soak in cold water or milk for at
least for 24 hrs then rub a paste of salt and lemon juice
on the stain and allow the article to lie in the sun.
• Tea or coffee stains – wash in cold water and then pour
boiling water on the stain.
• To remove vitamin B complex stains dissolve in water
or sprit.
• Mucus stains – soak in salty water.
• Rust - soak in salt and lemon juice and then bleach in
sun.
4. Care of Pick Up Forceps and Jars

Pickup forceps: is an instrument that allows one to pick up
sterile equipment.
Sterile equipment: material, which is free of all forms of
microorganism.
Pick up forceps should be kept inside the jar in which 2/3 of
the jar should be filled with antiseptic solution
• Wash pick up forceps and jars and sterilize daily
• Fill jar with disinfectant solution daily such as detol or
preferably carbolic solution
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• Care should be taken not to contaminate tip of the

forceps
• Always hold tip downward
• If tip of forceps is contaminated accidentally, it should
be sterilized before placing it back in the jar to avoid
contamination.
5. Rubber Bags
Example: hot water bottles, ice bags should be drained and
dried
They should be inflated with air and closed to prevent the
sides from sticking together
6. Rubber Tubing
• Should be washed with warm, soapy water
• The inside should be flushed and rinsed well
Study questions:
1. State some of the important general instructions for nursing
procedures.
2. List items commonly found in patient unit.
57
UNIT THREE
BASIC CLIENT CARE
CHAPTER FOUR
ADMISSION, TRANSFER AND
DISCHARGE OF PATIENTS
At the end of this chapter students will be able to:
• Demonstrate how to orient a new client to the health care
facility.
• Discuss concepts related to caring for the client’s clothing
and valuable items on admission.
• State some of the nursing consideration related to admission
of a client.
• Demonstrate the ability to transfer a client from one unit to
another safely and effectively.
• Identify nursing considerations related to a client’s discharge
from the health care facility.
• Explain teaching that should occur at the time of a client
discharge.
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A. Admission
Admission is a process of receiving a new patient to an individual
unit (ward) of the hospital. (Hospitalized individuals have many
needs and concerns that must be identified then prioritized and for
which action must be taken).
Purpose
• To help a new patient to adjust to hospital environment and
routines.
• To alleviate the patient's fear and worry about the
hospitalization.
• To facilitate recovery of patient from his/her problems
Nurse's Responsibilities during Admission of a Patient to

Hospital
1. Check for orders of admission.

2. Check about financial issue, payment scheme (free or paying)
3. Assess the patient's immediate need and take action to meet
them. These needs can be physical (e.g. acute pain) or
emotional distress, (upset)
4. Make introduction and orient the patient
• Greet the patient
• Introduce self to the patient and the family
• Explain what will occur during the admission process
(admission routines) such as admission bath, put on
hospital gowns etc.
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• Orient patient to individual unit: Bed, bathroom, call

light, supplies and belonging; and how these items work
for patient use.
• Orient patient to the entire unit: location of nurses
office, lounge etc.
• Explain anything you expect a patient to do in detail.
(This helps the patients participate in their care).
• Introduce other staff and roommates.
4. Perform baseline assessment
General assessment
a. Observation and physical examination such as:
• Vital signs; temperature pulse, respiration and
blood pressure.
• Intake and output
• Measure the weight of the patient
• Height is measured (if required)
b. Interview patient and take nursing history to determine

the patient conditions.
5. Take care of the patient's personal property

• Items that are not needed can be sent home with family
members
• Other important items can be kept at bedside or should
be put in safe place by cabling with patient's name.
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6. Documentation
• Record all parts of the admission process
• Other recording include
⇐ Notification to dietary departments
⇐ Starting kardex card and medication records
⇐ If there is specific form to the facility, complete it.
N.B. Additional measures can be carried out according
to the patient problems (diagnoses).
B. Transfer of the patient to another unit

Transfer of the patient to another unit is done for several reasons.
Procedure
Explain the transfer to the client and the family
Assemble all the client’s personal belongings, charts, x-films
and lab reports. Double check for all other cloths and
materials.
Determine how the client is moved
Provide for client safety. Take measures to accommodate IV
bottles, drains and catheters. Protect the client from draft,
and cover the client with a blanket for warmth and privacy.
Collect all the client medications; IV bags tube feedings, and
so forth. Check the cardex or medication administration
record for accuracy.
Review the client’s health records and check for
completeness.
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Record the transfer in a transfer note. Give the time, the unit
to which the transfer occurs, types of transportation
(wheelchair, stretcher), and the cleint’s physical and
psychological condition
Make sure that the receiving unit is ready. Usually a short
verbal report is given to the reciving department nurse.
C. Discharging a Patient
Indications for discharge
• Progress in the patient's condition
• No change in the patient's condition (Referral)
• Against medical advice
• Death
Nurse's Responsibility during Discharging a Patient
1. Check for orders that a patient need to be discharged

2. Plan for continuing care of the patient
• Referral as necessary
• Give information for a person involved in the patient
care.
• Contact family or significant others, if needed.
• Facilitate transportation with responsible unit
3. Teaching the patient about
• What to expect about disease outcome
• Medications (Treatments)
• Activity
• Diet
62
• Need for continued health supervision, and others as

needed
4. Do final assessment of physical and emotional status of the
patient and the ability to continue own care.
5. Check and return all patients’ personal property (bath items in
patient unit and those kept in safe area).
6. Help the patient or family to deal with business office for
customary financial matters and in obtaining supplies.
7. Keep records
o Write discharge note
o Keep special forms for facility
Discharge summaries usually include:

• Description of client’s condition at discharge
• Treatment (e.g. Wound care, Current medication)
• Diet
• Activity level
• Restrictions
Referral is a condition in which a client/patient is sent to a higher

health care system for better diagnostic and therapeutic actions.
• Any active health problems

• Current medication
• Current treatments that are to be continued
• Eating and sleeping habits
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• Self-care abilities
• Support networks
• Life-style patterns
• Religious preferences
Discharging a patient against medical advice (AMA)

1. When the patient wants to leave an agency without the
permission of the physician/nurse in charge – an authorized.
2. Ascertain why the person wants to leave the agency
3. Notify the physician/ nurse in charge of the client’s decision
4. Offer the patient the appropriate form to complete
5. If the client refuses to sign the form, document the fact on the
form and have another health professional witness this
6. Provide the patient with the original of the signed form and
place a copy in the record
7. When the patient leaves the agency, notify the physician,
nurse in charge, and agency administration as appropriate
8. Assist the patient to leave as if this were a usual discharge
from the agency (the agency is still responsible while the
patient is on premises)
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Study Questions:
1. Mention concepts related to caring for clients

belongings on admission.
2. State some of the nursing consideration related to

admission of a client.
3. Exercise how to transfer a client from one unit to

another safely and effectively.
4. Identify nursing considerations related to discharge

of a client from health care facility
5. Explain teaching that should occur at time of a client

discharge.
65
CHAPTER FIVE
VITAL SIGNS
Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit the learner will be able to:
• Describe the procedures used to assess the vital signs:
temperature, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure.
• Identify factors that can influence each vital sign.
• Identify equipment routinely used to assess vital signs.
• Identify rationales for using different routes for assessing
temperature.
• Identify the location of commonly assessed pulse sites.
• Take vital signs and interpret the finding.
• Document the vital signs.
II. Vital Signs (Cardinal Signs)

Vital signs reflect the body’s physiologic status and provide
information critical to evaluating homeostatic balance. The term
“vital” is used because the information gathered is the clearest
indicator of overall health status.
Vital sign Includes: T (temperature), PR (Pulse Rate), RR
(Respiratory Rate), and BP (Blood Pressure)
66
Key Terminology
- apical pulse - Korotokoff’
- tympanic
- apex - oral
- apnea - orthopnea
- axilla - palpation
- bradycardia - pedal pulse
- bradypnea - popliteal pulse
- carotid pulse - pulse
- cheyne-stokes respiration - pulse pressure
- cyanosis - radial pulse
- diastole - rectal
- dyspnea - sphygmomanometer
- eupnea - stetoscope
- femoral pulse - systolic
- fever - tachycardia
- hypertension - temperature
- hypotension - thermometer
Acronyms
o
BP PR PO c
o
RR CVS B F
T O BPM
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Purposes:
• To obtain base line data about the patient condition
• To aid in diagnosing patient condition (diagnostic
purpose)
• For therapeutic purpose so that to intervene
accordingly
Equipment
• Vital sign tray
• Stethoscope
• Sphygmomanometer
• Thermometer (glasses, electronic and tympanic)
• Second hand watch
• Red and blue pen
• Pencil;
• Vital sign sheet
• Cotton swab in bowel
• Disposable gloves if available
• Dirty receiver kidney dish
Times to Assess Vital Signs

1. On admission – to obtain baseline date
2. When a client has a change in health status or reports
symptoms such as chest pain or fainting
3. According to a nursing or medical order
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4. Before and after the administration of certain medications that

could affect RR or BP
(Respiratory and CVS (Cardio Vascular System))
5. Before and after surgery or an invasive diagnostic procedures
6. Before and after any nursing intervention that could affect the
vital signs. E.g. Ambulation
7. According to hospital /other health institution policy.
I Temperature –Body temperature is the measurement of

heat inside a person’s body (core temperature); it is the balance
between heat produced and heat lost.
Normal body temperature using oral (O; or per os, PO)
measurement remains as appropriately 370 celsius or 98.6 0 F.
There are Two Kinds of Body Temperature
1. Core Temperature
• Is the Temperature of the deep tissues of the body,
such as the cranium, thorax, abdominal cavity, and
pelvic cavity
• Remains relatively constant
• Is the Temperature that we measure with thermometer
2. Surface Temperature:
• The temperature of the skin, the subcutaneous tissue
and fat
Alterations in Body Temperature
Normal body temperature is 370 C or 98.6 0F (Average) the range is
36-38 0c (96.8 – 100 0F)
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Pyrexia: a body temperature above the normal ranges 38 0c – 410 c

(100.4 – 105.8 F)
Hyper pyrexia: a very high fever, such as 410 C > 42 0c leads to

death.
A client who has fever is referred as febrile; the one who has not is
afebrile.
Hypothermia: – body temperature between 34 0c – 35 0c, < 34 0c is

death
Common Types of Fevers

1. Intermittent fever: the body temperature alternates at regular
intervals between periods of fever and periods of normal or
subnormal temperature.
2. Remittent fever: a wide range of temperature fluctuation (more

than 2 0c) occurs over the 24 hr period, all of which are above
normal
3. Relapsing fever: short febrile periods of a few days are

interspersed with periods of 1 or 2 days of normal temperature.
4. Constant fever: the body temperature fluctuates minimally but

always remains above normal
Factors Affecting Body Temperature

1. Age
70
• Children’s temperature continue to be more labile than

those of adults until puberty
• Elderly people, particularly those > 75 are at risk of
hypothermia
• Normal body temperature of the newborn if taken orally
is 37 0C.
2. Diurnal variations (circadian rhythms)

• Body temperature varies through out the day
• The point of highest body temperature is usually
reached between 8:00 p.m. and midnight and lowest
point is reached during sleep between 4:00 and 6:00
a.m.
3. Exercise
• Hard or strenuous exercise can increase body
temperature to as high as 38.3 – 40 c – measured
rectally
4. Hormones
• In women progesterone secretion at the time of
ovulation raises body temperature by about 0.3 – 0.6oc
above basal temperature.
5. Stress
71
• Stimulation of skin can increases the production of

epinephrine and nor epinephrine – which increases
metabolic activity and heat production.
6. Environment
• Extremes in temperature can affect a person’s
temperature regulatory systems.
Measuring Body Temperature
Sites to Measure Temperature

Most common are:
• Oral
• Rectal
• Axillary
• Tympanic
Thermometer: is an instrument used to measure body temperature
Types
1. Oral thermometer
• Has long slender tips
2. Rectal thermometer
• Short, rounded tips
3. Axillary
• Long and slender tip
4. Tympanic
72
In other way it is also divided as mercury, digital and electronic

types. In developed countries, mercury type thermometers are no
more use in hospital setup but in our context still very important.
1. Rectal Temperature:
Readings are considered to be more accurate, most reliable, is >
0.650 c (1 0F) higher than the oral temperature.
Procedure
• Explain the procedure to the patient
• Wash hands and assemble necessary equipment and
bring to the patient bedside.
• Position the person laterally;
• Apply lubricant 2.5 cm above the bulb;
• Insert the thermometer 1.5 – 4 cm into the anus. For an
infant 2.5cm, for a child 3.7 cm – for an adults 4 cm
• Measured for 2-3 minutes
• Remove the thermometer and read the finding
• Clean the thermometer with tissue paper
• A rectal thermometer record does not respond to
changes in arterial temperature as quickly as an oral
thermometer
Contraindications
• Rectal or perineal surgery;
• Fecal impaction – the depth of the thermometer
insertion may be insufficient;
73
• Rectal infection;
• Neonates –can cause rectal perforation and ulceration;
2. Oral
Procedure
• Wash hands and assemble necessary equipment and
bring to the patient bedside.
• Position the person comfortably and request the patient
to open the mouth;
• Hold the thermometer firmly with the thumb and fore
finger; shake it with strong wrist movements until the
mercury line falls to at least 35 oc .
• Place the bulb of the thermometer well under the
client’s tongue. Instruct the client to close the lips (not
the teeth) around the bulb. Ensure that the bulb rests
well under the tongue, where it will be in contact with
blood vessels close to the surface.
• Remove the thermometer after 3 to 5 minutes,
according to the agency guidelines.
• Remove the thermometer, wipe it using it once a firm
twisting motion
• Hold the thermometer at eye level. Read to the nearest
tenth
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• Dispose the tissue. Wash the thermometer in

lukewarm, soapy water. Dry and replace the
thermometer in a container at bedside. Wash your
hands.
• Record temperature on paper or flow sheet. Report an
abnormal reading to the appropriate person.
Contraindication
• Child below 7 yrs
• If the patient is delirious, mentally ill
• Unconscious
• Uncooperative or in severe pain
• Surgery of the mouth
• Nasal obstruction
• If patient has nasal or gastric tubs in place
4. Axillary
Procedure
• Wash hands
• Make sure that the client’s axilla is dry, If it is moist, pat
it dry gently before inserting the thermometer.
• After placing the bulb of the thermometer in to the
axilla, bring the client’s arm down against the body as
tightly as possible, with the forearm resting across
chest.
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• Hold the glass thermometer in place for 8 to 10

minutes. Hold the electronic thermometer in place until
the reading registers directly
• Remove and read the thermometer. Dispose of the
equipment properly. Wash hands
• Record the reading
N.B. The axillary method is safest and most noninvasive.
Tympanic Temperature
The tympanic temperature is placed snugly in to the client’s outer
ear canal. It records temperature in 1 to 2 seconds. Many pediatric
and intensive care units use this type of thermometer because it
records a temperature so rapidly.
Procedure
• Wash the hands
• Explain the procedure to the client to ensure cooperation
and understanding
• Hold the probe in the dominant hand. Use the client’s same
ear as your hand (e.g. use the client’s right ear when you
use your right hand).
• Select the desired mode of temperature. Use the rectal
equivalent for children under 3 years of age Wait for “ready”
message to display.
• With your nondominant hand, grasp the adult’s external ear
at the midpoint. Pull the external ear up and back. For a
76
child of 6 years or younger, use your nondominant hand to

pull the ear down and back.
• Slowly advance the probe in to the client’s ear with a back
and forth motion until it seals the ear canal.
• Point the probe’s tip in an imaginary line from the client’s
sideburns to his or her opposite eyebrow.
• As soon as the instrument is in correct position, press the
button to activate the thermometer.
• Keep the probe in place until the thermometer makes a
sound or flashes a light.
• Read the temperature and discard the probe cover. Replace
the thermometer and wash your hands.
• Record the temperature on the client’s record.
II. Pulse
It is a wave of blood created by contraction of the left ventricle of the
heart. i.e. the pulse reflects the heart beat or is the same as the rate
of ventricular contractions of the heart – in a healthy person.
In some types of cardiovascular diseases heartbeat and pulse rate
differs. E.G. Client's heart produces very weak or small pulses that
are not detectable in a peripheral pulse far from the heart
Peripheral Pulse: is a pulse located in the periphery of the body

e.g. in the foot, and or neck
Apical Pulse (central pulse): it is located at the apex of the heart
The PR is expressed in beats/ minute (BPM)
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Pulse Deficit- It is a difference that exists between the apical and

radial pulse
Factors Affecting Pulse Rates

1. Age: as age increase the PR gradually decreases. New born
to 1 month – 130 BPM 80-180 (range) Adult 80 BPM (beat
per minute) – 60 – 100 BPM (beat per minute)
2. Sex: after puberty the average males PR is slightly lower
than female
3. Exercise: PR increase with exercise
4. Fever: increases PR in response to the lowered B/P that
results from peripheral vasodilatation – increased metabolic
rate
5. Medications: digitalis preparation decreases PR, Epinephrine
– increases PR
6. Heat: increase PR as a compensatory mechanism
7. Stress: increases the sympathetic nerve stimulation –
increases the rate and force of heart beat
8. Position changes: when a patient assumes a sitting or
standing position blood usually pools in dependent vessels of
the venous system. Pooling results in a transient decrease in
the venous blood return to heart and subsequent decrease in
BP increases heart rate.
78
Pulse Sites
Temporal: is superior (above) and lateral to (away from the midline
of) the eye
1. Carotid: at the side of the neck below tube of the ear (where
the carotid artery runs between the trachea and the
sternoclidiomastoid muscle)
2. Temporal: the pulse is taken at temporal bone area.
3. Apical: at the apex of the heart: routinely used for infant and
children < 3 yrs
In adults – Left midclavicular line under the 4th, 5th, 6th intercostals
space
Children < 4 yrs of the Lt. mid clavicular line
4. Brachial: at the inner aspect of the biceps muscle of the arm
or medially in the antecubital space (elbow crease)
5. Radial: on the thumb side of the inner aspect of the wrist –
readily available and routinely used
6. Femoral: along the inguinal ligament. Used or infants and
children
7. Popiliteal: behind the knee. By flexing the knee slightly
8. Posterior tibial: on the medial surface of the ankle
9. Pedal (Dorslais Pedis): palpated by feeling the dorsum
(upper surface) of the foot on an imaginary line drawn from
the middle of the ankle to the surface between the big and 2nd
toes
79
Method
Pulse: is commonly assessed by palpation (feeling)
or auscultation (hearing)
The middle 3 fingertips are used with moderate pressure for
palpation of all pulses except apical; the most distal parts are more
sensitive,
Assess the pulse for

• Rate
• Rhythm
• Volume
• Elasticity of the arterial
wall
Assess the Pulse for
Fig.2 Measuring radial puulse
Pulse Rate
• Normal 60-100 b/min (80/min)
• Tachycardia – excessively fast heart rate (>100/min)
• Bradycardia < 60/min
80
Pulse Rhythm
• The pattern and interval between the beats, random, irregular
beats – dysrythymia
Pulse Volume: the force of blood with each beat

• A normal pulse can be felt with moderate pressure of the
fingers and can be obliterated with greater pressure.
• Full or bounding pulse forceful or full blood volume obliterated
with difficulty
• Weak, feeble or thready readily obliterated with pressure from
the finger tips
Elasticity of arterial wall
• A healthy, normal artery feels, straight, smooth, soft and
pliable, easily bent after breaking
• Reflects the status of the clients vascular system
If the pulse is regular, measure (count) for 30 seconds and
multiply by 2
If it is irregular count for 1 full minute
Procedure for measuring radial pulse (the most common)

Wash hands
Explain the procedure to the client
Position the client’s fore arm comfortably with the wrist
extended and the palm down
Place the tips of your first, second, and third fingers over the
client’s radial artery on the inside of the wrist on the thumb
side.
81
Press gently against the client’s radial artery to the point

where pulsation can be felt distinctly
Using a watch, count the pulse beats for 30 seconds and
multiply by two to get the rate per minute
Count the pulse for full minute if it is abnormal in any way or
take an apical pulse
Record the rate (BPM) on paper or the flow sheet. Report
any irregular findings to appropriate person
Wash your hands
III Respiration
Respiration is the act of breathing (includes intake of o2 removal of

co2)
Ventilation is another word, which refer to the movement of air in
and out of the lungs.
Hyperventilation: very deep, rapid respiration
Hypoventilation: very shallow respiration
Two Types of Breathing

1. Costal (thoracic)
• Involves the external muscles and other accessory
muscles (sternoclodio mastoid)
• Observed by the movement of the chest up ward and
down ward. Commonly used for adults
82
2. Diaphragmatic (abdominal)
• Involves the contraction and relaxation of the
diaphragm, observed by the movement of abdomen.
Commonly used for children.
Assessment
• The client should be at rest
• Assessed by watching the movement of the chest or
abdomen.
• Rate, rhythm, depth and special characteristics of respiration
are assessed
A. Rate: is described in rate per minute (RPM)

Healthy adult RR = 15- 20/ min. is measured for full minute, if regular
for 30 seconds. As the age decreases the respiratory rate increases.
1. Eupnea- normal breathing rate and depth
2. Bradypnea- slow respiration
3. Tachypnea - fast breathing
5. Apnea - temporary cessation of breathing
B. Rhythm: is the regularity of expiration and inspiration

Normal breathing is automatic & effortless.
C. Depth: described as normal, deep or shallow.

Deep: a large volume of air inhaled & exhaled,
inflates most of the lungs.
Shallow: exchange of a small volume of air minimal
use of lung tissue.
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IV Blood Pressure: Blood pressure is the pressure exerted

by blood against the wall of blood vessels. It includes arterial,
venous and capillary pressures.
Arterial BP: it is a measure of a pressure exerted by the blood as it

flows through the arteries. Arterial blood pressure (BP) = cardiac
output (CO) x total peripheral resistance (TPR).
There are two types of blood pressure.

1. Systolic pressure: is the pressure of the blood as a result of
contraction of the ventricle
(is the pressure of the blood at the height of the blood wave);
2. Diastolic blood pressure: is the pressure when the
ventricles are at rest.
3. Pulse pressure: is the difference between the systolic and
diastolic pressure
Blood pressure is measured in mm Hg and recorded as
fraction. A number of conditions are reflected by changes in
blood pressure.
• An increase in blood pressure is called hypertension;
a decrease is called hypotension.
Conditions Affecting Blood Pressure

Fever Increase
84
Stress "
Arteriosclerosis "
Obesity "
Hemorrhage Decrease
Low hematocrit "
External heat "
Exposure to cold Increase
Sites for Measuring Blood Pressure

1. Upper arm using brachial artery (commonest)
2. Thigh around popliteal artery
3. Fore -arm using radial artery
4. Leg using posterior tibial or dorsal pedis
Methods of Measuring Blood Pressure

Blood pressure can be assessed directly or indirectly
1. Direct (invasive monitoring) measurement involves the insertion
of catheter in to the brachial, radial, or femoral artery. The
physician inserts the catheter and the nurse monitors the
pressure reading. With use of correct placement, it is highly
accurate.
1. Indirect (non invasive methods)

A. The auscultatory
B. The palpatory, and
The auscultatory method is the commonest method used in health

activities.
85
When taking blood pressure using stethoscope, the nurse identifies

five phases in series of sounds called Korotkoff's sound.
Phase 1: The pressure level at which the 1st joint clear tapping
sound is heard, these sounds gradually become more intense. To
ensure that they are not extraneous sounds, the nurse should
identify at least two consecutive tapping sounds.
Phase 2: The period during deflation when the sound has a

swishing quality
Phase 3: The period during which the sounds are crisper and more
intense
Phase 4: The time when the sounds become muffled and have a
soft blowing quality
Phase 5: The pressure level when the sounds disappear
Procedure
Assessing Blood pressure
Purpose
o To obtain base line measure of arterial blood pressure
for subsequent evaluation
o To determine the clients homodynamic status
o To identify and monitor changes in blood pressure
resulting from a disease process and medical therapy.
86
EQUEPMENT
o Stethoscope
o Blood pressure cuff of the appropriate size
o Sphygmomanometer
Procedure
1. Prepare and position the patient appropriately

• Make sure that the client has not smoked or ingested
caffeine, with in 30 minutes prior to measurement.
• Position the patient in sitting position, unless otherwise
specified. The arm should be slightly flexed with the
palm of the hand facing up and the fore arm supported
at heart level
• Expose the upper arm
2. Wrap the deflated cuff evenly around the upper arm.

• Apply the center of the bladder directly over the medial
aspect of the arm. The bladder inside the cuff must be
directly over the artery to be compressed if the reading
to be accurate.
• For adult, place the lower border of the cuff
approximately 2 cm above antecubital space.
3. For initial examination, perform preliminary palipatory

determination of systolic pressure
87
• Palpate the brachial artery with the finger tips

• Close the valve on the pump by turning the knob
clockwise.
• Pump up the cuff until you no longer feel the brachial
pulse
• Note the pressure on sphygmomanometer at which the
pulse is no longer felt
• Release the pressure completely in the cuff, and wait 1
to 2 minutes before making further measurement
4. Position the stethoscope appropriately

• Insert the ear attachments of the stethoscope in your
ears so that they tilt slightly fore ward.
• Place the diaphragm of the stethoscope over the
brachial pulse; hold the diaphragm with the thumb and
index finger.
5. Auscultate the client's blood pressure

• Pump up the cuff until the sphygmomanometer registers
about 30 mm Hg above the point where the brachial
pulse disappeared.
• Release the valve on the cuff carefully so that the
pressure decreases at the rate 2-3 mmHg per second.
• As the pressure falls, identify the manometer reading at
each of the five phases
• Deflate the cuff rapidly and completely
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• Repeat the above step once or twice as necessary to

confirm the accuracy of the reading.
6. Remove the cuff from the client’s arm
7. For initial determination, repeat the procedure on the client's

other arm, there should be a difference of no more than 5 to
10 mmHg between the arms. The arm found to have the
higher pressure, should be used for subsequent examinations
8. Document and report pertinent assessment data, report any

significant change in client's blood pressure to the nurse in
charge. Also report these finding:
A. Systolic blood pressure (of adult) above 140 mmHg.
B. Diastolic blood pressure (of an adult) above 90 mmHg
C. Systolic blood pressure of (an adult) below 100mmHg
Study questions
1. Explain vital sings and list what it includes.
2. Identify important times to assess vital signs.
3. Mention some of the factors affecting body temperature.
4. What does pulse deficit mean?
5. Define arterial blood pressure.
6. Explain the two methods of assessing blood pressure.
89
CHAPTER SIX
SPECIMEN COLLECTION
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
• Identify at least three reasons for laboratory examination of
urine.
• Demonstrate correct collection of the following urine
specimens: midstream, 24-hours, fractional, and indwelling
urine catheter.
• Explain at least one reason for collecting specimen like
sputum, blood or stool.
• Demonstrate correct collection of a stool specimen.
• Demonstrate correct collection of a sputum specimen.
Key Terminology:
90
Hemoglobine
Hematocrite
Leukocyte
Occult
Stroke
Urinalysis
Specimen Collection
Specimen collection refers to collecting various specimens
(samples), such as, stool, urine, blood and other body fluids or
tissues, from the patient for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.
Various types of specimen collected from the patient in the clinical
settings, either in out patient departments (OPD) or in-patient units,
for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. These includes, stool,
urine, blood and other body fluid or tissue specimens.
General Considerations for Specimen Collection

When collecting specimen, wear gloves to protect self from contact
with body fluids.
1. Get request for specimen collection and identify the types of
specimen being collected and the patient from which the
specimen collected.
2. Give adequate explanation to the patient about the purpose,
type of specimen being collected and the method used.
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3. Assemble and organize all the necessary materials for the

specimen collection.
4. Get the appropriate specimen container and it should be
clearly labeled have tight cover to seal the content and
placed in the plastic bag or racks, so that it protects the
laboratory technician from contamination while handling it.
• The patient's identification such as, name, age, card
number, the ward and bed number (if in-patient).
• The types of specimen and method used (if needed).
• The time and date of the specimen collected.
6. Put the collected specimen into its container without
contaminating outer parts of the container and its cover.
All the specimens should be sent promptly to the laboratory, so that
the temperature and time changes do not alter the content.
A. Collecting Stool Specimen
Purpose
• For laboratory diagnosis, such as microscopic examination,
culture and sensitivity tests.
Equipments required
o Clean bedpan or commode
o Wooden spatula or applicator
o Specimen container
o Tissue paper
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o Laboratory requests
o Disposable glove, for patients confined in bed
o Bed protecting materials
o Screen
Procedure
i) For ambulatory patient
Give adequate instruction to the patient to
• Defecate in clean bedpan or commode (toilet)
• Avoid contaminating the specimen by urine, menstrual
period or used tissue papers, because these may affect
the laboratory analysis.
• Void before collecting the specimen
• Transfer the sample (specimen) to the container using
spatula or applicator
ii) For patients confined in bed

1. Prepare the patient's unit
• Provide privacy by drawing screen, closing
windows and doors (To provide privacy)
2. Prepare the patient

• Put on gloves
• Position the patient
• Place bed protecting materials under the patient's
hips
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• Assist the patient and place the bed pan under the
patient's buttocks (follow the steps under "Giving
and removing bedpan")
• Give patient privacy by leaving alone, but not far
• Instruct the patient about how to notify you when
finished defecation.
• Remove the bedpan and keep on safe place by
covering it
• Recomfort the patient
3. Obtain stool sample
• Take the used bedpan to utility room/toilet
container using spatula or applicator without
contaminating the outside of the container.
• The amount of stool specimen to be taken
depends on the purpose, but usually takes.
o 3.5 gm sample from formed stool
o 15.30 ml sample from liquid stool
• Visible mucus, pus or blood should be included
into sample stool specimen taken.
4. Care of equipments and the specimen collected.

• Handle and label the specimen correctly
• Send the specimen to the laboratory immediately,
unless there is an order for its handling. Because
fresh specimen provides the most accurate
results.
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• Dispose the bedpan's content and give proper

care of all equipments used.
5. Documentation and report
B. Collecting Urine Specimen
Types of urine specimen collection

1. Clean voided urine specimen
(Also called clean catch or midstream urine specimen)
2. Sterile urine specimen
3. Timed urine specimen
• It is two types
Short period → 1-2 hours
Long period → 24 hours
Purpose
• For diagnostic purposes
- Routine laboratory analysis and culture and sensitivity tests
Equipments Required
• Disposable gloves
• Specimen container
• Laboratory requisition form (Completely filled)
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• Water and soap or cotton balls and antiseptic solutions

(swabs).
For patients confined

• Urine receptacles (i.e. bedpan or urinals)
• Bed protecting materials
• Screen (if required)
Procedure
i) For ambulatory patients
Give adequate instruction to the patient about
• The purpose and method of taking specimen
• Assist the patient to move to the toilet
ii) For patient confined in bed
1. Prepare the patient unit providing privacy
• Put on gloves
• Place bed protecting materials under patient's hips
• Assist the patient to position in bed and in positioning
the receptacles
• Assist the patient or clean the vulva or penis thoroughly
using soap and water or antiseptic swabs (Follow the
steps of giving and receiving bed pan/urinal and
cleaning the genitalia)
96
3. Obtain urine specimen

• Ask patient to void
• Let the initial part of the voiding passed into the
receptacle (bed pan or urinal) then pass the next part
(the midstream) into the specimen container.
• Hold the vulva or penis apart from the specimen
container while the patient voids to decrease urine
contamination.
• Don't allow the container to touch body parts
• Collect about 30-60 ml midstream urine
• Handle the outside parts of the container and put on the
cover tightly on specimen container
• Clean the outside parts of the container with cotton if
spillage occurs
• Remove the glove
4. Recomfort the patient
5. Care of the specimen and the equipment
• Handle and label the container correctly
• Send the urine specimen to the laboratory immediately
together with the completed laboratory requested forms
• Empty the receptacles content properly
• Give appropriate care for the used equipments
6. Document pertinent data and report, such as
• Specimen collected, amount, time and date.
• Consistency of the urine
• Patients experience during voiding
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Collecting a Sterile Urine Specimen

Sterile urine specimen collected using a catheter in aseptic
techniques (The whole discussion for this procedure presented on
the catheterization part)
Collecting a Timed Urine Specimen

Purpose
• For some tests of renal functions and urine compositions,
such as:- measuring the level of or hormones, such as
adrenocortico steroid hormone creatinine clearance or protein
quantitation tests.
Equipments Required
• Urine specimen collecting materials (usually obtained from the
laboratory and kept in the patient's bathroom.)
• Format for recording the time, date started and end, and the
amount of urine collected on each patient's voiding during the
specified period for collection.
Procedure
1. Patient preparation
• Adequate explanation to the patient about the purpose
of the test, when it begins and what to do with the urine
• Place alert signs about the specimen collection at the
patient's bedside or bathroom.
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• Label the specimen container to include date and time

of each voiding as well as patient's identification data
• Containers may be numbered sequentially (e.g. 1st, 2nd,
3rd etc) in case of 24-hours urine collection.
2. Collecting the urine

• Usually it begin in the morning
• Before you begin the timing, the patient should void and
do not use this urine (It is the urine that has been in the
bladder some time)
• Then all urine voided during the specified time (e.g. the
next 24 hours) is collected in the container
• At the end of the time (e.g. 24 hours period) the patient
should void the last specimen, which is added to the
rest.
• Ensure that urine is free of feces
C. Collecting sputum specimen

Sputum is the mucus secretion from the lungs, bronchi and trachea,
but it is different from saliva. The best time for sputum specimen
collection is in the mornings up on the patient’s awaking (that have
been accumulated during the night). If the patient fails to cough out,
the nurse can obtain sputum specimen by aspirating pharyngeal
secretion using suction.
Purpose
99
Sputum specimen usually collected for:

• Culture and sensitivity test (i.e. to identify the
microorganisms and sensitive drugs for it)
• Cytological examination
• Acid fast bacillus (AFB) tests
• Assess the effectiveness of the therapy
Equipments Required
• Specimen container
• Laboratory requisition form
• Mouth care (wash) tray
Procedure
• Before collecting sputum specimen, teach pt about the
difference between sputum and saliva, how to cough deeply
to raise sputum.
• Position the patient, usually sitting up position and splinting
may help. Also postural drainage can be used.
• Give oral care, to avoid sputum contamination with
microorganisms of the mouth. Avoid using tooth past
because it alter the result.
2. Obtain sputum specimen
100
• Put on gloves, to avoid contact with sputum particularly

it hemoptysis (blood in sputum) present.
• Ask pt to cough deeply to raise up sputum
• Take usually about 15-30 ml sputum
• Ask pt to spit out the sputum into the specimen
container
• Make sure it doesn't contaminate the outer part of the
container. If contaminated clean (wash) with
disinfectant
• Cover the cape tightly on the container

• Give oral care following sputum collection (To remove
any unpleasant taste)
4. Care of the specimen and the equipments used

• Label the specimen container
• Arrange or send the specimen promptly and
immediately to laboratory.
• Give proper care of equipments used
5. Document the amount, color, consistency of sputum, (thick,

watery, tenacious) and presence of blood in the sputum.
D. Collecting Blood Specimen
101
The hospital laboratory technicians obtain most routine blood

specimens. Venous blood is drown for most tests, but arterial blood
is drawn for blood gas measurements. However, in some setting
nurses draw venous blood.
Purpose
Specimen of venous blood are taken for complete blood count,
which includes
• Hemoglobin and hemotocrit measurements
• Erythrocytes (RBC) count
• Leukocytes (WBC) count
• Differential counts
Equipment
• Sterile gloves
• Tourniquet
• Antiseptic swabs
• Dry cotton (gauze)
• Needle and syringe
• Specimen container with the required diluting or preservative
agents, for example: anticoagulant.
• Identification/ labeling: name, age address, etc.
• Laboratory requisition forms
Procedure
102
• Instruct the pt what to expect and for fasting (if

required)
• Position the pt comfortably
2. Select and prepare the vein sites to be punctured

• Put on gloves
• Select the vein to be punctured. Usually the large
superficial veins used such as, brachial and median
cubital veins.
• Place the veins in dependent positions
• Apply tourniquet firmly 15-20 cm about the selected
sites. It must be tight enough to obstruct vein blood
flow, but not to occlude arterial blood flow.
• If the vein is not sufficiently to dilate massage (stroke)
the vein from the distal towards the site or encourage
the pt to clench and unclench repeatedly.
• Clean the punctured site using antiseptic swabs
3. Obtain specimen of the venous to blood

• Adjust the syringe and needles
• Clean/disinfect the area with alcohol swab, dry with
sterile cotton swab
• Puncture the vein sites
• Release the tourniquet when you are sure in the vein
• Withdraw the required amount of venous blood
specimen
103
• Withdraw the needle and hold the sites with dry cotton
(to apply pressure)
• Put the blood into the specimen container
• Made sure not to contaminate outer part of the
container and not to distract the blood cells while
putting it into the container
5. Care of the specimen and the equipment

• Label the container
• Shake gently (if indicated to mix)
• Send immediately to laboratory, accompanying the
request
• Give care of used equipments
6. Documentation and reporting
Observations and Recording of Signs and Symptoms of the

Patient
1. Objective Symptoms (signs):
• Are symptoms, which could be seen by the health
personnel?
E.g. swelling, redness, rash, body discharges (defecation,
diaphoresis, emesis,)
104
2. Subjective Symptoms:
¾ Are symptoms, which are felt by the patient
E.g. decrease of appetite, dizziness, deafness, burning
sensation, nausea, etc
3. Chart
Definition: it is a written record of history, examination, tests,
diagnosis, and prognosis response to therapy
Purpose of Patients Chart

a. For diagnosis or treatment of a patient while in the
hospital (find after discharge) if patient returns for
treatment in the future time
b. For maintaining accurate data on matters demanded by
courts
c. For providing material for research
d. For serving an information in the education of health
personnel (medical students, interns, nurses, dietitians,
etc)
e. For securing needed vital statistics
f. For promoting public health
General Rules for Charting

• Spelling
Make certain you spell correctly
105
• Accuracy
Records must be correct in all ways, be honest
• Completeness
No omission, avoid unnecessary words or statement
• Exactness
Do not use a word you are not sure of
• Objective information
Record what you see avoid saying (condition better)
• Legibility
Print/write plainly and distinctively as possible
• Neatness
No wrinkles, proper speaking of items
Place all abbreviation, and at end of statement
• Composition / arrangement
Chart carefully consult if in doubt avoid using of
chemical formulas
• Sentences need to be complete and clear, avoid
repetition
• Don’t overwrite
• Don’t leave empty spaces in between
• Time of charting
Specific time and date
• Color of ink
Black or blue (red for transfusion, days of surgery)
106
It should be recorded on the graphic sheet

All orders should be written and signed. Verbal or telephone orders
should be taken only in emergency verbal orders should be written
in the order sheet and signed on the next visit.
Orders of Assembling Patients Chart

a. History sheet
b. Personal and social data
c. Order sheet
d. Doctor’s progress notes
e. Nurses notes
f. Vital sign sheet (graphics)
g. Intake and output recording sheet
h. Laboratory and other diagnostic reports
• Patients or relatives and friends of patients are
not allowed to read the chart when necessary but
can have access if allowed by patient.
4. Intake and out put
a. Intake: all fluids that is taken in to the body through the
mouth, NG tube or parentrally
b. Output: all fluid that is excreted or put out of the body
through the mouth. N/G tube, urethra, drainage tube or
other route (GI-diarrhea, vomiting).
Purpose:
• To replace fluid losses
107
• To provide maintenance requirements

• To check for retention of body fluid
Fluid balance sheet
♦ 24 hrs the intake out put should be compared and the

balance is recorded
¾ Positive balance if intake >output
Negative balance if out put >intake
Study Questions
1. Explain at least three reasons for laboratory examination of
urine.
2. Explain at least one reason for collecting specimens like
sputum, blood or stool.
3. Mention purposes for sputum specimen collection.
4. Describe the process how to draw venous blood for
laboratory investigation.
5. How can you obtain sterile urine specimen?
6. Differentiate between signs and symptoms.
108
CHAPTER SEVEN
BED MAKING
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the learner able to:

Describe different types of bed making.
State the purposes of bed making in health care facilities.
Develop understanding about general instruction of bed
making
Develop a skill to make different types of bed.
Explain the purposes of side rails.
List necessary equipment for bed making.
• Arrange bed-making equipment in order of their use.
109
Key terminology
Bed cradle occupied bed traction
Closed bed open bed unoccupied bed
Mitered corner postoperative bed
In most instances beds are made after the client receives certain
care and when beds are unoccupied. Unoccupied bed can be both
open and closed.
Closed bed: is a smooth, comfortable and clean bed, which is

prepared for a new patient
• In closed bed: the top sheet, blanket and bed spread are
drawn up to the top of the bed and under the pillows.
Open bed: is one which is made for an ambulatory patient are

made in the same way but the top covers of an open bed are folded
back to make it easier of a client to get in.
Occupied bed: is a bed prepared for a weak patient who is unable

to get out of bed.
Purpose:
1. To provide comfort and to facilitate movement of the patient
2. To conserve patient’s energy and maintain current health
status
110
Anesthetic bed: is a bed prepared for a patient recovering from

anesthesia
⇒ Purpose: to facilitate easy transfer of the patient from
stretcher to bed
Amputation bed: a regular bed with a bed cradle and sand bags
⇒ Purpose: to leave the amputated part easy for observation
Fracture bed: a bed board under normal bed and cradle

⇒ Purpose: to provide a flat, unyielding surface to support a
fracture part
Cardiac bed: is one prepared for a patient with heart problem

⇒ Purpose: to ease difficulty in breathing
General Instructions
1. Put bed coverings in order of use
2. Wash hands thoroughly after handling a patient's bed linen
Linens and equipment soiled which secretions and excretions
harbor micro-organisms that can be transmitted directly or by
hand’s uniforms
3. Hold soiled linen away from uniform
4. Linen for one client is never (even momentarily) placed on
another client’s bed
111
5. Soiled linen is placed directly in a portable linen hamper or a

pillow case before it is gathered for disposal
6. Soiled linen is never shaken in the air because shaking can
disseminate secretions and excretions and the
microorganisms they contain
7. When stripping and making a bed, conserve time and energy
by stripping and making up one side as completely as
possible before working on the other side
8. To avoid unnecessary trips to the linen supply area, gather all
needed linen before starting to strip bed
9. Make a vertical or horizontal toe pleat in the sheet to provide
additional room for the clients feet.
Vertical - make a fold in the sheet 5-10 cm 1 to the foot
Horizontal – make a fold in the sheet 5-10 cm across the bed
near the foot
10. While tucking bedding under the mattress the palm of the
hand should face down to protect your nails.
Order of Bed Covers

1. Mattress cover
2. Bottom sheet
3. Rubber sheet
4. Cotton (cloth) draw sheet
5. Top sheet
6. Blanket
7. Pillow case
112
8. Bed spread
Note
• Pillow should not be used for babies
• The mattress should be turned as often as necessary to prevent
sagging, which will cause discomfort to the patient.
A. Closed Bed
• It is a smooth, comfortable, and clean bed that is prepared for a
new patient
Essential Equipment:
• Two large sheets
• Rubber draw sheet
• Draw sheet
• Blankets
• Pillow cases
• Bed spread
Procedure:
• Wash hands and collect necessary materials
• Place the materials to be used on the chair. Turn mattress
and arrange evenly on the bed
• Place bottom sheet with correct side up, center of sheet on
center of bed and then at the head of the bed
113
• Tuck sheet under mattress at the head of bed and miter the
corner
• Remain on one side of bed until you have completed making
the bed on that side
• Tuck sheet on the sides and foot of bed, mitering the corners
• Tuck sheets smoothly under the mattress, there should be no
wrinkles
• Place rubber draw at the center of the bed and tuck smoothly
and tightly
• Place cotton draw sheet on top of rubber draw sheet and tuck.
The rubber draw sheet should be covered completely
• Place top sheet with wrong side up, center fold of sheet on
center of bed and wide hem at head of bed
• Tuck sheet of foot of bed, mitering the corner
• Place blankets with center of blanket on center of bed, tuck at
the foot of beds and miter the corner
• Fold top sheet over blanket
• Place bed spread with right side up and tuck it
• Miter the corners at the foot of the bed
• Go to other side of bed and tuck in bottom sheet, draw sheet,
mitering corners and smoothening out all wrinkles, put pillow
case on pillow and place on bed
• See that bed is neat and smooth
• Leave bed in place and furniture in order
• Wash hands
114
B. Occupied Bed
Purpose: to provide comfort, cleanliness and facilitate position of
the patients
Essential equipment:
• Two large sheets
• Draw sheet
• Pillow case
• Pajamas or gown, if necessary
Procedure:
• If a full bath is not given at this time, the patient’s back should
be washed and cared for
• Wash hands and collect equipment
• Explain procedure to the patient
• Carry all equipment to the bed and arrange in the order it is to
be used
• Make sure the windows and doors are closed
• Make the bed flat, if possible
• Loosen all bedding from the mattress, beginning at head of
the bed, and place dirty pillow cases on the chair for receiving
dirty linen
• Have patient flex knees, or help patient do so. With one hand
over the patient’s shoulder and the shoulder hand over the
patient’s knees, turn the patient towards you
115
• Never turn a helpless patient away from you, as this may

cause him/her to fall out bed
• When you have made the patient comfortable and secure as
near to the edge of the bed as possible, to go the other side
carrying your equipment with you
• Loosen the bedding on that side
• Fold, the bed spread half way down from the head
• Fold the bedding neatly up over patient
• Roll dirty bottom sheet close to patient
• Put on clean bottom sheet on used top sheet center, fold at
center of bed, rolling the top half close to the patient, tucking
top and bottom ends tightly and mitering the corner
• Put on rubber sheet and draw sheet if needed
• Turn patient towards you on to the clean sheets and make
comfortable on the edge of bed
• Go to the opposite side of bed. Taking basin and wash cloths
with you, give patient back care
• Remove dirty sheet gently and place in dirty pillow case, but
not on the floor
• Remove dirty bottom sheet and unroll clean linen
• Tuck in tightly at ends and miter corners
• Turn patient and make position comfortable
• Back rub should be given before the patient is turned on his
/her back
• Place clean sheet over top sheet and ask the patient to hold it
if she/he is conscious
116
• Go to foot of bed and pull the dirty top sheet out

• Replace the blanket and bed spread
• Miter the corners
• Tuck in along sides for low beds
• Leave sides hanging on high beds
• Turn the top of the bed spread under the blanket
• Turn top sheet back over the blanket and bed spread
• Change pillowcase, lift patient’s head to replace pillow.
Loosen top bedding over patient’s toes and chest
• Be sure the patient is comfortable
• Clean bedside table
• Remove dirty linen, leaving room in order
Wash hands
Bed Making
Making a post operative bed
o The entire bed need clean linen.
o Make the bottom of bed as you normally would. The post

operative the bottom of bed as you normally would. The post
operative bed usually requires a draw sheet under the client’s
hips. Usually another draw sheet is placed under the client’s
heard.
o In some cases, top liners are simply tan-folded to the foot of the
bed. In others, a full post operative bed is made.
117
To do this, put the top linens over the foundation, but do not tuck
them in. Fold down the top as you would do in an occupied bed.
Then fold the bottom of the linens up so that the fold is even with
the bottom of the mattress. Do not tuck the linen in. Fanfold the
top linens to the side so that they lay opposite from where you
will place the client’s stretcher. Alternatively, you may fanfold the
linens to the foot of the bed. Leave a tab on top for easy
grasping.
o Have two or more pillows available, but do not put them on the
bed. Rational: A pillow may be contraindicated for a client,
usually the physician or charge nurse will determine when it is
safe for the client to have one.
o Be sure all furniture is out of the way.
o Be sure the call light is available, but keep it on the bed side
stand until the client is in bed. The call light cord is kept out of
the way, to facilitate the transfer of the client to bed.
o Know what surgical procedure your client has had before you
determine what special equipment is needed. For the client’s
convenience and safety, make the following items available:
tissue, an emesis basin, a blood pressure cuff and stethoscope,
a “frequent vital signs” flow sheet an in take and output record,
and an intravenous (IV) stand. Other items can be added
according to the client specific requirements.
o Report to your charge nurse when you have completed the

postoperative bed and assembled the necessary equipment.
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N.B. Procedures for other beds like cardiac bed are similar except
the following points.
For cardiac patient the bed need extra materials such as
over bed table and additional pillows
Hard board is needed under the mattress for fracture bed.
Study questions
1. How many types of bed making do you know?
2. What is the function of bed the cradle?
3. Which types of bed are usually prepared for newly admitted
patients?
4. What is the difference between open and closed bed?
5. Define occupied bed.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
PERSONAL HYGIENE AND SKIN CARE
At the end of this chapter the learners will be able to:
• State the purposes of giving mouth care
• Demonstrate the skill of assisting a client with oral care
• Demonstrate for cleansing and caring for dentures
• Demonstrate caring for client’s fingernails, and toes nails,
addressing reasons for attention of each other.
• List reasons for routine hair care
• Describe and demonstrate giving a backrub, hand and foot
massage, and foot soak
• Demonstrate how to assist a client with cleansing bath.
Key terminology
Halitosis
Nits
Pediculosis
Perineal care
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A. Mouth Care
Purpose
• To remove food particles from around and between the teeth
• To remove dental plaque to prevent dental caries
• To increase appetite
• To enhance the client’s feelings of well-being
• To prevent sores and infections of the oral tissue
• To prevent bad odor or halitosis
Equipments
• Toothbrush (use the person’s private item. If patient has none
use of cotton tipped applicator and plain water)
• Tooth paste (use the person’s private item. If patient has none
of use cotton tipped applicator and plain water)
• Cup of water
• Emesis basin
• Towel
• Denture bowel (if required)
• Cotton tipped applicator, padded applicator
• Vaseline if necessary
Procedure
1. Prepare the pt:
• Explain the procedure
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• Assist the patient to a sitting position in bed (if the

health condition permits). If not assist the patient to side
lying with the head on pillows.
• Place the towel under the pt's chin.
• If pt confined in bed, place the basin under the pt's chin
2. Brush the teeth
• Moisten the tooth with water and spread small amount
of tooth paste on it
• Brush the teeth following the appropriate technique.
Brushing technique
• Hold the brush against the teeth with the bristles at up
degree angle.
• Use a small vibrating circular motion with the bristle at
the junction of the teeth and gums use the some action
on the front and the back of the teeth.
• Use back and forth motion over the biting surface of the
teeth.
• Brush the tongue last
1. Give pt water to rinse the mouth and let him/her to spit the
water into the basin.
• Assist patient in wiping the mouth
2. Recomfort the pt
• Remove the basin
• Remove the towel
• Assist the patient in wiping the mouth
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• Reposition the patient and adjust the bed to leave

patient comfortably
3. Give proper care to the equipments
4. Document assessment of teeth, tongue, gums and oral
mucosa. Report any abnormal findings.
Mouth Wash Solutions
1. Normal solution: a solution of common salt with water in
proportion of 4 gm/500 cc of water
2. Hydrogen peroxide – 5-20 cc (in water)
3. KMNO4 – in crystal form
4cc or KMNO4 solution in a glass of water (1:700) or one
small crystal in a glass of water
4. Soda-bicarbonate solution: 4 gm. of soda in pint of water
5. Thymal solution: ¼ - ½ TSF of thymal in one cup of water
(100-150 cc of water)
6. Lemon juice: 2TSF lemon juice in a cup of water - an
improvised method for mouth wash
7. Hexedine
Flossing
It removes resides particles between the teeth
Technique
1. Wrap one end of the floss around the 3rd finger of each hand
123
2. To floss the upper teeth. Use the thumb and index finger to
stretch the floss. Move the floss up and down between the
teeth from the tops of the crowns to the gum
3. To floss the lower teeth, use your index fingers to stretch the
floss
Note: If the patient has denture, remove them before starting and
wash them with brush
Mouth care for unconscious patient
Position
• Side lying with the head of the bed lowered, the saliva
automatically runs out by gravity rather than being
aspirated by the lungs or if patient's head can not be
lowered, turn it to one side: the fluid will readily run out
of the mouth, where it can be suctioned
• Rinse the patient's mouth by drawing about 10 ml of
water or mouth wash in to the syringe and injecting it
gently in to each side of the mouth
• If injected with force, some of it may flow down the
clients throat and be aspirated into the lung
• All the rinse solution should return; if not suction the
fluid to prevent aspiration
Giving and Receiving Bedpans and Urinals

• Bedpan is a material used to receive urine and feces in
females and feces in male
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• Urinal -is used to receive urine

¾ Are of two types male and female
Types of Bedpan
1. The high back, or regular pan (standard pan)
2. A fracture, the slipper or low back pan
Advantage
⇒ Has a thinner rim than as standard bed pan
⇒ Is designed to be easily placed under a person’s
buttocks
Disadvantage
⇒ Easier to spill the contents of the fracture pan
⇒ Are useful for people who are
a. Paralyzed or who cannot be turned safely (e.g.
Spinal injury)
b. Confined in a body or long leg cost
c. Immobilized by some types of fracture
d. Very thin or emaciated
3. The pediatric bedpan
• Are small sized
• Usually made of a plastic
B. Bath (Bathing and Skin Care)

It is a bath or wash given to a patient in the bed who is unable to
care for himself/herself.
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1. Cleansing bath: Is given chiefly for cleansing or hygiene

purposes and includes:
• Complete bed bath: the nurse washes the entire body
of a dependent patient in bed
• Self-help bed bath: clients confined to bed are able to
bath themselves with help from the nurse for washing
the back and perhaps the face
• Partial bath (abbreviated bath): only the parts of the
client’s body that might cause discomfort or odor, if
neglected are washed the face, hands, axilla, perineum
and back (the nurse can assist by washing the back)
omitted are the arms, chest, and abdomen.
• Tub bath: preferred to bed baths because it is easier to
wash and rinse in a tub. Also used for therapeutic
baths
• Shower: many ambulatory clients are able to use
shower
• The water should feel comfortably warm for the client
• People vary in their sensitivity to heat generally it
should be 43-46 oc (110-115of)
• The water for a bed bath should be changed at least
once
Before bathing a patient, determine

a. The type of bath the client needs
b. What assistance the client needs
126
c. Other care the client is receiving – to prevent undue

fatigue
d. The bed linen required
Note: when bathing a client with infection, the caregiver should

wear gloves in the presence of body fluids or open lesion.
Principles
• Close doors and windows: air current increases loss of heat
from the body by convection
• Provide privacy – hygiene is a personal matter & the patient
will be more comfortable
• The client will be more comfortable after voiding and voiding
before cleansing the perineum is advisable
• Place the bed in the high position: avoids undue strain on the
nurses back
• Assist the client to move near you – facilitates access which
avoids undue reaching and straining
• Make a bath mitt with the washcloth. It retains water and heat
better than a cloth loosely held
• Clean the eye from the inner canthus to the outer using
separate corners of the wash cloth – prevents transmitting
micro organisms, prevents secretions from entering the
nasolacrmal duct
• Firm strokes from distal to proximal parts of the extremities
increases venous blood return
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Purpose:
o To remove transient moist, body secretions and excretions,
and dead skin cell
o To stimulate circulation
o To produce a sense of well being
o To promote relaxation, comfort and cleanliness
o To prevent or eliminate unpleasant body odors
o To give an opportunity for the nurse to assess ill clients
o To prevent pressure sores
Two categories of baths given to clients

o Cleansing
o Therapeutic
A. Bed Bath
Equipment
• Trolley
• Bed protecting materials such as rubber sheet and towels
• Bath blanket (or use top linen)
• Two bath towels
• Wash cloth
• Clean pajamas or gown
• Additional bed linens
• Hamper for soiled cloths
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• Basin with warm water (43-460c for adult and 38-400c for
children)
• Soap on a soap dish
• Hygienic supplies, such as, lotion, powder or deodorants (if
required)
• Screen
• Lotion thermometer (if available)
Procedures
1. Prepare the patient unit
• Close windows and doors, use screen to provide
privacy.
2. Prepare the patient and the bed

• Place the bed in high position to reduce undue strain on
the nurse's back
• Remove pt's gown and pajamas
• Assist pt to move toward you so it facilitates access to
reach pt without undue straining. Position the pt in
supine, semi -Fowler’s or Fowler’s depending on the
pt's condition.
Check the temperature of the water using lotion thermometer /back
of the hand.
3. Make a bath with the washcloth, so it retains water and heat

than a cloth loosely held
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4. Washing body parts

• Expose only the parts of the patient's body being
washed avoid unnecessary exposing.
• Wash, rinse and dry each body parts thoroughly using
washing towels and paying particular attention to skin
folds.
• Suggested order for washing body parts; Face, ear,
neck
⇒ Arms and hands further away from the nurse
⇒ Chest
⇒ Arms and hands nearest to the nurse
⇒ Buttocks and genital area
⇒ Change the water after it gets dirty
⇒ If possible assist patient to wash own face,
hands, feet and genital area by placing the basin
on bed.
Assist the patient with grooming

• Apply powder lotion or deodorants (of pt uses)
• Help patient to care for hair, mouth and nails.

• Change linen if soiled
• Arrange the bed
• Put pt in comfortable position
• Remove the screen
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i. Give proper care of materials used for bathing

• Document and report pertinent data
• Observation of the skin condition
• General appearance or reaction of the pt
• Type of bath give
Report any abnormal findings to the nurse in charge
B. Therapeutic Baths
• Are usually ordered by a physician/ nurse in charge.
• Are given for physical effects, such as sooth irritated skin or to
treat an area (perineum)
• Medications may be placed in the water
• Is generally taken in a tub 1/3 or ½ full, about 114 liters
(930’gal)
• The client remains in the bath for a desired time, often 20-30
min
• If the clients back, chest and arms are to be treated, immerse
in the solution
• The bath temperature is generally included in the order, 37.7-
46oc (100-115 oF) for adults and 40-50 oc (105 oF) for infants
Bath Solutions
1. Saline: 4 ml (1Tsp) NaCl to 500 ml (1 pt) water
• Has a cooling effect
• Cleans
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• Decrease skin irritation
2. Sodium: 4 ml (1Tsp) NCHCO3 to 500 ml (1 pt) water,

bicarbonate or 120-360 ml 120 liters
• Has a cooling effect
• Relieves skin irritation
3. Potassium permanganate (Kmno4): available in tablets, which

are crushed, dissolved in a little water, and added to the bath
• Cleans and disinfects
• Treats infected skin areas
4. Oatmeal (Aveeino) and cornstarch can also be used
Tub Bath
Typically, bathtubs are low in height to ease the process of getting in
and out of the tub. Guide rails are essential. Be sure to assist the
client as necessary.
Equipment
• Bath blanket
• Bath mat
• Bath towel
• Soap
• Clean gown or pajama
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• Clean bed linen

• Bath thermometer if available
• Disinfectant for cleansing the tub
Procedure
Check the bath room temperature, which should be warmer
than the normal room temperature.
Make sure that the tub is clean. Scour it carefully with
disinfectant. Unless using long handled swab, wear the
glove when cleansing the tub.
Rinse the tub well
Place a chair near the tub, with a bath blanket opened over
it.
Place towel, wash cloth, and soap where the client reach
them easily
Fill the tub about halfway (less for children)
Check the water with bath thermometer, if available or with
the sensitive part of the skin. Water temperature should be
warm to very warm, but never over 40.6 oC.
Place a bath mat in the front of the tub
Bring the client to the bathroom. Help the person to remove
closing and, if necessary, to get in to tub. Show the client
how to use the handrails.
Explain to the client how to use the bath room call signals
Check frequently, if the client need assistance
133
Don’t leave a child or a client who is unsure, unsteady, self

injurious alone.
When the client has finished bathing, help the client out of
tub and to dry. After dressing assist the client back to the
room
Inform the cleaner to carefully clean the tub after the bath
Dispose of the glove and wash your hands
Document the procedure, describing any unusual client
reactions
Back Care (massage): includes the area from the back and
shoulder to the lower buttocks
Purpose
• To relieve muscle tension
• To promote physical and mental relaxation
• To improve muscle and skin functioning
• To relieve insomnia
• To relax patient
• To provide a relieve from pain
• To prevent pressure sores (decubitus)
• To enhance circulation
Equipment
Basin of warm water
Washcloth
Towel
Soap
134
Skin care lotion
Procedure
1. Prepare the pt and pt's unit
• Provide privacy by using screen or closing windows and
doors.
• Assist pt to move close to your working side
• Position patient prone (lie on abdomen) if possible. If
not because of the pt's condition, use side lying position
with the pt facing away from you.
• Expose the back of the pt.
• Spread towel close to pt's back to protect foundation of
the bed.
• Wash the back with warm water and soap using wash
towel, rinse and dry it (if it is not given with bath)
2. Massaging the back

• Pour small amount of lotion (oil) on your palm and rub
your palms together to warm the lotion (oil) before
massaging.
• Massage the back using appropriate technique
Technique for Backbub (massage)

• Rub towards the neck line using long, firm, smooth
strokes
135
• Pause at the neckline, using your fingers to massage

the side of the neck.
• With a kneading motion, rub out along the shoulders
continue the kneading motion and move down on each
side of the trunk with both hands until you are again at
the sacral area.
• Then, placing your hands side by side with the palms
down, rub in figure of 8 patterns over the buttock and
sacral area.
• Massaging back using appropriate techniques (Light
pressure to smooth, heavy pressure to stumulate).
• Next, again using the kneading motion, move up the
sides (about the vertebra) through the intrascapular
space towards the shoulder.
• Ask the pt if there is any area that he/she would
especially like to be rubbed.
• Complete the back rub using long, firm strokes up and
sown the back. (shoulder to sacrum and back to
shoulder).
3. Recomfort the pt.

• Mop extra oil/lotion from the pt's back using towel.
• Apply powder / alcohol to dry further moisture from the
back, if the skin is moist in its nature
• Dress up the pt's pajama and replace the top cover.
• Reposition the pt.
136
• Leave the pt comfortably
4. Give proper care of equipments
5. Document the procedure, your observations and pt's reactions

• Report any abnormal observations on the skin of the
back (such as signs of pressure sore) to the nurse and
physician in charge of the pt.
Three Types of Massage Strokes

1. Effleurage: stroking the body
2. Light, circular friction and straight, dup, firm, strokes
3. Petrissape: kneading and making large quick pinches of the
skin, tissue, and muscle
• Clean the back first
• Warm the massage lotion or oil before use by pouring
over your hands: cold lotion may startle the client and
increase discomfort
1. Effleurage the entire back: has a relaxing
sedative effect if slow movement and light pressure
are used
2. Petrissape first up the vertebral column and
them over the entire back: is stimulating if done
quickly with firm p
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• Assess: signs of relaxation and /or decreased pain

(relaxed breathing, decreased muscles tension,
drowsiness, and peaceful affect)
⇒ Verbalizations of freedom from pain and tension
⇒ Areas or redness, broken skin, bruises, or other
sings of skin breakdown
Note
• The duration of a massage ranges from 5-20 minutes
• Remember the location of bony prominence to avoid direct
pressure over this areas
• Frequent positioning is preferable to back massage as
massaging the back could possibly lead to subcutaneous tissue
degeneration.
NB. Backrub requires special skills as it might cause subcutaneous
tissue degeneration; mainly in elderly.
C. Offering and Removing Bed Pan

• If the individual is weak or helpless, two peoples are needed
to place and remove bed pans
• If a person needs the bed pan for a longer time periodically
remove and replace the pan to ease pressure and prevent
tissue damage
• Metal bed pans should be warmed before use by:
o Running warm water inside the rim of the pan or over
the pan
o Covering with cloth
138
• Semi-Fowler’s position relieves strain on the client’s back and

permits a more normal position for elimination
Improper placement of the bedpan can cause skin abrasion to
the sacral area and spillage
o Place a regular bed pan under the buttocks with the
narrow end towards the foot of the bed and the buttocks
resting on the smooth, rounded rim
o Place a slipper (fracture) pan with the flat, low end
under the client’s buttocks
o Covering the bed pan after use reduces offensive odors
and the clients embarrassment
If the client is unable to achieve regular defecation help by

attending to:
1. The provision of privacy
2. Timing – do not ignore the urge to defecate
• A patient should be encouraged to defecate when the
urge to defecate is recognized
• The patient and the nurse can discuss when mass
peristalsis normally occurs and provide time for
defecation (the same time each day)
3. Nutrition and fluids
For a constipated client: increase daily fluid intake, drink hot liquids
and fruit juices etc
For the client with diarrhea – encourage oral intake of foods and
fluids
139
For the client who has flatulence: limit carbonated beverages; avoid
gas-forming foods
4. Exercise
• Regular exercise helps clients develop a regular
defecation pattern and normal feces
5. Positioning
• Sitting position is preferred
Measures to assist the person to void include:

• Running water in the sink so that the client can hear it
• Warming the bed pan before use
• Pouring warm water over the perineum slowly
• Having the person assume a comfortable position by raising
the head of the bed (men often prefer to stand)
• Providing sufficient analgesia for pain
• Having the person blow through a straw into a glass of water
– relaxes the urinary sphincter
Perineal Care (Perineal – Genital Care)

Perineal Area:
• Is located between the thighs and extends from the symphysis
pubis of the pelvic bone (anterior) to the anus (posterior).
• Contains sensitive anatomic structures related to sexuality,
elimination and reproduction
140
D. Perineal Care (Hygiene)

• Is cleaning of the external genitalia and surrounding area
• Always done in conjunction with general bathing
Patients in special needs of perineal care

• Post partum and surgical patients (surgery of the perineal
area)
• Non surgical patients who unable to care for themselves
• Patients with catheter (particularly indwelling catheter)
Other indications for perineal care are:

1. Genito- urinary inflammation
2. Incontinence of urine and feces
3. Excessive secretions or concentrated urine, causing skin
irritation or excoriation
Purpose
• To remove normal perineal secretions and odors
• To prevent infection (e.g. when an indwelling catheter is in
place)
• To promote the patient's comfort
• To facilitate wound healing process
141
Equipments
• Bath towel
• Cotton balls and gauze squares
• Pitcher with worm water or/and prescribed solution in
container
• Gloves
• Bed pan
• Bed protecting materials
• Perineal pad or dressing (if needed)
Procedure
• Give adequate explanation
• Provide privacy
• Fold the top bedding and pajamas (given to expose
perineal area and drape using the top linen.)
• Position pt lying on back with knees flexed and spread
apart.
• Place bed protecting materials under the pt's hip
• Place the bedpan under pt's buttock.
2. Cleaning the genital area

• Put on gloves
142
For Female
• Remove dressing or pad used
• Inspect the perineal area for inflammation excoriation,
swelling or any discharge.
a. In case of post partum or surgical patient
• Clean by cotton swabs, first the labia majora then
the skin folds between the majora and minora by
retracting the majora using gauze squares, clean
from anterior to posterior direction using separate
swab for each stroke. (This directions lessens the
possibility of urinary tract contamination)
b. In case of non-surgical patients
• Wash or clean the genital area with soapy water
using the different quarters of the washcloth in
the same manner.
Female Perineum
• Is made up of the vulva (external genitalia), including the
mons pubis, prepuce, clitoris, urethral and vaginal orifices,
and labia majora and minora
• The skin of the vaginal orifice is normally moist
• The secretion has a slight odor due to the cells and normal
vaginal florae
• The clitoris consists of erectile tissues and many nerves
fibers. It is very sensitive to touch.
143
Care
• Convenient for a woman to be on a bed pan to clean and
rinse the vulva and perineum
• Secretion collects on the inner surface of the labia
• Use on hand to gently retract the labia
• Use a separate section of wash cloth for each wipe in a
downward motion (from urethra to back perineum)
• Then clean the rectal area
Note
• Following genital or rectal surgery, sterile supplies may be
required for cleaning the operative site, E.g. Sterile cotton
balls
• The operative site and perineal area may be washed with an
antiseptic solution – apply by squirting them on the perineum
from a squeeze bottle
Male Perineum
• The penis contains pathways for urination and ejaculation
through the urethral orifice (meatus)
• At the end of the penis is the glans covered by a skin flap
(fore skin or prepuce)
• The urethral orifice is located in the center of the penis and
opens at the tip
144
• The shaft of the penis consists of erectile tissue bound by the

foreskin’s dense fibrous tissue
Care
• Hold the shaft of the penis firmly with one hand and the
wash cloth with the other – to prevent erection –
embarrassment
• Use a circular motion, cleaning from the center to the
periphery
• Use a separate section of the wash cloth
Position
• Lying in bed with knee flexed to clean the perineal part and
side lying cleaning the perineal area
N.B The urethral orifice is the cleanest area and the anal orifice is
the dirtiest area – always stroke from front to back to wash from
‘clean’ to ‘dirty’ parts
Note: Entry of organisms into the urethral orifice can cause UTI
Hair Care
Hair care usually done after the bath and as daily hygienic activities
in a daily base. Hair care includes combing (brushing of hair),
washing/shampooing of hair and pediculosis treatment.
145
Combing/Brushing of Hair
A patient hair should be combed and brushed daily most patients do
this themselves if the required materials provided and others may
need nurse's help (assistance)
Purpose
• Stimulates the blood circulation to the scalp
• Distribute hair oils evenly and provide a healthy sheem
• Increase the patient's sense of well-being.
Equipments
• Comb (which is large with open and long toothed)
• Hand mirror
• Towel
• Lubricant/oils (if required)
Procedure
• Position the patient in either sitting or semi-fowler's or
flat, if the pt is weak to seat or unconscious.
• Place the towel over the patient's shoulder, if in sitting
position or over the pillow if pt is in semi-fowler or lying
position.
• Remove any pins and ribbons
2. Comb the hair by dividing the hair
146
• Hold a section of hair 2-3 inches from the end and

comb the end until it is free from tangles. Move towards
the scalp by combing in the same manner to remove
tangles.
• Continue fluffing the hair outward and upward until all
the hairs combed.
• Arrange the hair as neatly and simply as possible
according to the patient's preference of style.
3. Recomfort the pt
• Remove the towel
• Put patient in comfortable position
4. Care of equipment
5. Documentation
E. Shampooing/Washing the Hair of Patient Confined to Bed
Purpose
• Stimulate blood circulation to the scalp through massaging
• Clean the patients hair so it increase a sense of well-being to
the pt
• To treat hair disorders like dandruft
Equipments
• Comb and brush
• Shampoo/soap in a dish
147
• Shampoo basin
• Plastic sheet
• Two wash towels
• Cotton balls
• Water in basin and pitcher
• Receptacle (bucket) to receive the used water
• Lubricants/oil as required
Procedure
• Assist patient to move to the working side of the bed
• Remove any hair accessories (e.g. pins, ribbons etc)
• Brush and comb the hair to remove tangles
2. Arrange the equipments

• Place the plastic sheet under patient's head and
shoulder
• Remove the pillows from under the pt's head and place
it under pt's shoulder (to hyper extend the neck)
• Tuck the towel under the pt's shoulder and neck
• Place (arrange) the shampoo basin under the pt's head
with one end extending to the receptacle for used
water.
• If there is no shampoo basin, use the plastic sheet,
which is under pt's shoulder and head, make a funnel
type fold and extend it to the receptacle.
148
• Place the receptacle on chair/table on the working side

of the bed.
3. Protect the patient's eyes and ears

• Place damp washcloths over the pt's eyes to protect
from soapy water.
• Place cotton balls in the patient's ears to prevent water
collecting in the ear canals.
4. Shampooing/washing the hair

• Wet the hair thoroughly with water
• Apply shampoo (soap) to the scalp.
• Massage all over the scalp symmetrically using your
fingertips
• Rinse the hair with plane water to remove the
shampoo/soap
• Remove damp washcloth from pt eyes and cotton balls
from ears.
5. Dry the patient's hair

• Squeeze the hair with your hands to remove as much
water as possible
• Rub pt's hair with towel
• Use hair drier (if available)
149
6. Ensure pt's comfort

• Remove plastic sheet shampoo basin
• Assist pt for comfortable position
• Assist pt in grooming
8. Documentation and reporting
Pediculosis Treatment
Definition
Pediculosis: infestation with lice
Purpose
• To prevent transmission of some arthropod born diseases
• To make patient comfortable
Equipment
Lindane
1% permethrine cream rinse
Clean linen
Fine-tooth “nit” comb
Disinfectant for comb
Clean gloves
Towel
Lice:
• Are small, grayish white, parasitic insects that infest mammals
• Are of three common kinds:
150
¾ Pediculose capitis: is found on the scalp and tends to

stay hidden in the hairs
¾ Pediculose pubis: stay in pubic hair
¾ Pediculose corporis: tends to cling to clothing, suck
blood from the person and lay their eggs the clothing
suspect their presence in the cloth and the body:
a. The person habitually scratches
b. There are scratches on the skin, and
c. There are hemorrhagic spots in the skin where
the lice have sucked blood
Head and body lice lay their eggs on the hairs then eggs look like
oval particles, similar to dandruff, clinging to the hair.
Treatment of Pediculosis
Pediculosis Capitus
1. DDT (Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane) one part to nine parts of
talcum powder
• Can destroy the lice in about 2 hrs
• The effect lasts for 6 days if not washed
• Does not destroy nit or eggs
• Also available in liquid forms
2. Kerosene Oil mixed with equal parts of sweet oil
• Destroys both adult lice and eggs of nits
• From aesthetic point of view, kerosene causes foul
smell and create discomfort to patient and the attendant
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Guidelines for Applying Pediculicides

Hair:
• Apply pediculicide shampoo to dry hair until hair is
thoroughly saturated and work shampoo in to a lather
• Allow product to remain on hair for stated period (varies
with products)
• Pin hair and allow to dry
• Use a fine toothed comb to remove death lice and nits
(comb should not be shared by other family members)
• Repeat it in 8-10 days to remove any hatched nits
• Apply pediculious lotion (or cream) to affected areas
• Bath after 12 hrs and put on clean clothes
7. Oil of Sassafras
• Is a kind of scented bark oil
• Only destroy lice not nits
• For complete elimination, the oil should be massaged
again after 10 days when the nits hatch
• Is used daily for a week with equal parts of Luke warm
H2O then it should be repeated after a week
8. Gammaxine (Gamma Bengenhexa Chloride)

• Emphasize the need for treatment of sexual partner
• After complete bathing wash linen available as a cream,
lotion, and a shampoo
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• 1.5% solution of Gammaxine effective to kill the adult

lice in one application
• Does not kill nits
• Should be repeated to kill the newly hatched nits, for
complete elimination
• The lotion is applied over scalp after a clean soapy
wash of hair
• After 12-24 hrs the scalp is washed with soap to
remove the lotion
• Avoid contact with lice
• Can also be used for pubic and body lice
F. Feeding a Helpless Patient

During illness, trauma or wound healing, the body needs more
nutrients than usual. However, many peoples, because of
weakness, immobility and/or one or both upper extremities are
unable to feed themselves all or parts of the meal. Therefore, the
nurse must be knowledgeable, sensitive and skillful in carrying out
feeding procedures.
Purpose
• To be sure the pt receives adequate nutrition
• To promote the pt well-beings
Procedure
1. Prepare pt units
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• Remove all unsightly equipments; remove solid linens

and arranging bedside tables.
• Control unpleasant odors in the room by refreshing the
room. Odor free environment makes eating more
pleasant and aids digestion.
2. Prepare the patients

• Offers bedpan and urinals. To comfort pt and avoid
interruption by elimination needs.
• Assist pt to wash hands, face and oral care
• Position patient comfortably
⇒ Mid or high Fowler's position
• Protect the bed using suitable protective cover
3. Prepare the food tray
• Identify the types of diet ordered.
• Assess any special conditions in which the pt delayed
or omitted (e.g. Lab, radiologic examination or surgery)
• Assess any cultural or religious limitations, specific likes
or dislikes.
• Obtain any special utensils that you planned to use
4. Feed the patient

• Place the food tray in such a way that the patient can
see the food.
• Position yourself at pt's eye level, if at all possible
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⇒ Digestion is better when pt is not emotionally

upset.
• Never hurry a pt's eating. This can make pt
uncomfortable and fearful of taking up your time.
• Allow pt to determine when enough has been eaten, as
way of providing choices.
5. Comfort patient
• Assist hand washing and oral care
• Offer bedpan and commodes, of indicated
• Comfort patient, provide quite environment so that the
pt may relax after meal, which also promote good
digestion.
7. Document feeding and any assessment
G. Morning, Afternoon, and Evening Care

• Morning, afternoon, and evening care are used to describe
the type of hygienic care given at different times of the day
Early Morning Care

• Is provided to clients as they awaken in the morning
• In a hospital it is provided by nurses on the night shift
• Helps clients ready themselves for breakfast or for early
diagnostic tests
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Consists of:
• Providing a urinal or bed pan if client is confined to bed
• Washing the face and hands and
• Giving oral care
Late Morning Care

• Is provided after clients have breakfast
Includes:
• The provision of a urinal or bed pan
• A bath or shower
• Perineal care
• Back massage and
• Oral, nail and hair care
• Making clients bed
Afternoon Care
• When clients return from physiotherapy or diagnostic tests
• Includes:
¾ Providing bed pan or urinal
¾ Washing the hands and face
¾ Assisting with oral care refresh clients
Evening Care
• Is provided to clients before they retire for the night
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• Involves:
¾ Providing for elimination needs
¾ Washing hands
¾ Giving oral care
¾ Back massage care as required
Study questions:
1. Explain the purpose of bed bath, mouth care, and
perineal care.
2. Describe therapeutic bath.
3. State the three types of massage strokes used in back
care.
4. Which position is appropriate to give perineal care in
both sexes?
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CHAPTER NINE
COLD AND HEAT APPLICATION
At the end of this chapter the learners will be able to:
• State purpose of applying heat to the body; of applying cold
to the body.
• Explain specific precaution when applying heat, or cold
• Demonstrate the administration of leg soak and sitiz bath
Key Terminology
Hypothermia blanket
Sitiz bath
Tepid sponge bath
Care of Patient with Fever

This includes sponging of the skin with alcohol or cool water for
reducing temperature
Solution: Tepid (luck – warm) water
Alcohol
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• Part of alcohol to 3 parts of Luke warm H2O remove patient’s

gown
• Take the patient temperature, sponge the body using the
wash cloth alternately, sponge each part 2-3 min. changing
the was cloth
• Heat loss is by conduction or vaporization
• Check pulse frequently and report any change
Local Application of Heat and Cold

Heat and cold are applied to the body for local and systemic effects
Heat Application
Purpose
1. To relieve pain and muscles spasm – by relaxing muscles
- Increase blood flow to the area
2. To relieve swelling (facilitate wound healing)

- To relieve inflammation and congestion
Heat
• Increases the action of phagocytic cells that ingest
moisture and other foreign material
• Increases the removal of waste products or infection
metabolic process
3. To relieve chilling and give comfort

Heat can be applied in both dry and moist forms
159
Dry Heat :- is applied locally, for heat conduction

• By means of a hot water bottle
Moist heat – can be provided, through conduction
• By compression or sitz bath
Cold Application
Purpose
• To relieve pain: cold decrease prostaglandin's, which
intensify the sensitivity of pain receptors, and other
substances at the site of injury by inhibiting the inflammatory
processes
• To reduce swelling and inflammation: by decreasing the
blood flow to the area (vasoconstriction effect)
• Reduce raised body temperature due to fever
Cold can be applied in moist (cold compress 18-27 c) and dry
form (ice pack (bag) <15 oc)
Systemic effects of cold – extensive cold application can
increase blood pressure
Systemic effects of Hot – produce a drop in blood pressure –
excessive peripheral vasodilatation
Tepid Sponging
Definition: sponging of the skin with alcohol or cool water.
Purpose: to lower body temperature (fever)
Tepid (Lukewarm) water + alcohol
3 parts water: 1 part alcohol
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The temperature of the water is 32 c (below body temperature) 27-

37 – alcohol evaporates at a low temperature and therefore removes
body heat rapidly
• Less frequently used – because alcohol causes skin
drying
• Heat loss is by conduction and vaporization
• Determine the patients’ temperature, PR and RR
frequently every (Q) 15 min
• Sponge each area (part) for 2-3 min changing the wash
cloth
• The sponge bath should take about 30 minutes
• Reassess v/s at the end
• Discontinue the bath if the clients becomes pale or
cyanotic or shivers, or if the PR becomes rapid or
irregular
o
Temperature of hot water bottle (bag) 52 c for normal adults,40.5 –
o
46 c– for debilitated (unconscious patients).
40.5-46 oc for children < 2 yrs;
Fill the bag about 2/3 full;
Expel the remaining air and secure the top;
Maximum effect occurs in 20-30 min;
The application is repeated Q2 – 3 hrs to relieve swelling compress
– a moist gauze or cloth immersed in (hot or cold) water and applied
over an area.
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Local Application of Cold and Heat
Application of Cold
• Has systemic and local effect
• Can be applied to the body in two ways
1. Moist
2. Dry
Purpose: (Indication)
• To reduce body to during high fever and hyper pyrexia or sun
stroke
• To relieve local pain
• To reduce subcutaneous bleeding e.g. in sprain and contusion
• To control bleeding e.g. epistaxis
• To relieve headache
• To provide comfort to a patient in extreme hot weather if
desired
1. Moist Cold
• Cold compress
• A cloth (padded gauze) is immersed in cold water and
applied in area where we get large superficial vessels
E.g. axilla and groin
• Change the cloth when it becomes warm
• Applied for 15-20 min
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2. Dry Cold (Ice Bag)

• Ice kept in a bag
• Covered with cloth and applied on an area
• Temperature <150 C
Application of Heat
Purpose
• To relieve stasis of blood
• To increase absorption of inflammatory products
• To relieve stiffness of muscle and muscle pain
• To relieve pain and swelling of a localized inflammation boil or
carbuncle – sometimes increases edema, increases capillary
permeability
• To increase blood circulation
• To promote suppuration
• To relieve distention and congestion
• To provide warmth to the body
Methods
1. Dry Heat
• Using hot water bottle (bags)
• After contact of the body with moisture of water vapors
temperature >46 oC
• 52 oC for normal adults
163
• 40.5 – 46oC for debilitated or unconscious patient’s and child

< 2 yrs
• 2/3 of the bag should be filled with water
• Expel the remaining air and secure the top
• Dry the bag and hold it upside down to test for leakage
• Wrap it in a towel or cover and place it on the body part
• Maximum effect occurs in 20-30 min
• Remove after 30-45 minutes
2. Moist Heat
1. Hot compress: a wash cloth immersed in hot water of
temperature 40-46oc and change the site of washcloth
frequently
Complication
• Paralysis
• Numbness
• Loss of sensation – fear of burn
2. Sitz bath
Sitz Bath (hit bath)
It is used to sock the client's pelvic area
• A clients sits in a special tub or a bowel
• The area from the mid things to the iliac crests or umbilicus -
increases circulation to the perineum (when the legs are also
immersed blood circulation to the perineum or pelvic area
decrease)
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• Temperature of water – 40-43 oc (105-110 o

F) – unless the
patient is unable to tolerate the temperature
Purpose:
• To relieve pain in post operative rectal condition
• Smoothen irritated skin (perineum)
• Facilitates wound healing (after episiotomy)
• To release the bladder in case of urinary retention
If it is going to be given in the tub – fill ½ the tube with water and add
the ordered medication
In a bowel – fill 2/3 of it with water – add the ordered medication and
dilute
The medication to Rx the perineum in KMNO4 sol. 250 mg KMNO4
in 500 ml of water
The duration of the bath is generally 15-20 minutes (20-25)
depending on the client’s health.
Help the client to dry.
NB. Great care has to be taken to prevent heat/cold burns when
applying heat or cold especially to elderly.
165
Study questions:
1. Mention the two purposes of the heat application.
2. Describe the mechanism of action of heat application to
effect its purposes.
3. What is tepid sponge?
4. What is the common medicine used in sitiz bath?
5. What is the average duration of time the patient is soaked in
sitiz bath?
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CHAPTER TEN
BODY MECHANICS AND MOBILITY
At the end of this chapter the learner will be able to:
• State the principle underlying proper body mechanics and
relate a nursing consideration.
• State the purposes of range of motion exercise.
• Identify principles related to safe movement of clients in and
out of bed.
• Demonstrate the ability to move a partially mobile client
safely from bed to chair and back.
• Demonstrate the ability to teach each of the crutch walking
gaits to a client.
• Mention different positions used for various examination and
treatment.
Key Terminology
Body alignment Dorsal lithotomy
Prone
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Base of support Foot drop

Protective device
Body mechanics Fowler’s position
Recumbent
Center of gravity Gait
Rotation
Contracture Gaitbelt
Transfer belt
Centrolateral Line of gravity
Sim’s position
Dangling Paralysis
Supnation
Acronyms
AROM
PROM
ROM
Body Mechanics: is the effort; coordinated, and safe use of the

body to produce motion and maintain balance during activity.
Proper Body Mechanics
Use of safest and most efficient methods of moving and lifting is

called body mechanics. This means applying mechanical principles
of movements to the human body.
Basic Principles of Body Mechanics
168
The laws of physics govern all movements. From these laws we

derive the general principles of body mechanics.
Basic Principles
1. It is easier to pull, push, or roll an object than to lift it. The

movement should be smooth and continuous, rather than
jerky.
2. Often less energy or force is required to keep an object

moving than it is to start and stop it.
3. It takes less effort to lift an object if the nurse works as close

to it as possible. Use the strong leg and arm muscles as
much as possible. Use back muscles, which are not as
strong, as little as possible. Avoid reaching.
4. The nurse rocks backward or forward on the feet and with

his or her body as a force for pulling or pushing.
Principles under lying proper body mechanics involve three

major factors: center of gravity, base of support, and line of
gravity.
Center of Gravity
The person’s center of gravity located in the pelvic area. This means
that approximately half the body weight is distributed above this
169
area, half below it, when thinking of the body divided horizontally. In
addition, half the body weight is to each side, when thinking the body
divided vertically. When lifting an object, bend at knees and hips,
and keep the back straight. By doing so, the center of gravity
remains over the feet, giving extra stability. It is thus easier to
maintain balance.
Base of Support
A person’s feet provide the base of support. The wider the base of
support, the more stable the object with in limits. The feet are spread
side wise when lifting, to give side-to side stability. One foot is
placed slightly in front of the other for back-to-front stability. The
weight is distributed evenly between both feet. The knees are flexed
slightly to absorb jolts. The feet are moved to turn the object being
moved.
Line of Gravity
Draw an imaginary vertical (up and down) line through the top of the
head, the center of gravity, and the base of support. This becomes
the line of gravity, or the gravity plane. This is the direction of
gravitational pull (from the top of the head to the feet). For highest
efficiency, this line should be straight from the top of the head to the
base of support, with equal weight on each side. Therefore, if a
person stands with the back straight and the head erect, the line of
gravity will be approximately through the center of the body, and
proper body mechanics will be in place.
Body Alignment
170
When lifting, walking, or per forming any activity, proper body

alignment is essential to maintain balance. When a person’s body is
in correct alignment, all the muscles work together for the safest and
most efficient movement, without muscle strain. Stretching the body
as tall as possible produces proper alignment. This can be
accomplished through proper posture. When standing, the weight is
slightly forward and is supported on the out side part of the feet.
Again the head is erect, the back is straight, and the abdomen is in
(remember that the client in bed should be in approximately the
same position as if he/she were standing).
Positioning the client
Encouraging clients to move in bed, get out of bed, or walk serves

several positive purposes. Prolonged immobility can cause a
number of disorders, among which are pressure ulcer, constipation,
and muscle weakness, pneumonia and joint deformities. By
assisting clients to maintain or regain mobility, you promote self-care
practices and help to prevent deformities.
Moving and Positioning Clients
Moving and positioning promote comfort, restore body function,

prevent deformities, relieving pressure, prevent muscle strain, and
stimulate proper respiration and circulation.
Purpose:
o To increase muscle strength and social mobility
o To prevent some potential problems of immobility
o To stimulate circulation
171
o To increase the patient sense of independence and self-

esteem
o To assist a patient who is unable to move by himself
o To prevent fatigue and injury
o To maintain good body alignment
Practice Guideline
- Maintain functional client body alignment. (Alignment is

similar whether client is standing or in bed.)
- Maintain client safety.
- Reassure the client to promote comfort and cooperation.
- Properly handle the client’s body to prevent pain or injury.
- Follow proper body mechanics.
- Obtain assistance, if needed, to move heavy or immobile
clients.
- Follow specific physician orders.
- Do not use special devices (e.g. splints, traction unless
ordered)
Turning the Patient to a Side-lying Position
Supplies and Equipment

- Pillows
- Side rails
- Cotton blanket or towels, rolled for support
Procedure/Steps
1. Wash your hands
172
2. Explain the procedure to the client
3. Adjust the bed to a comfortable height
4. Lower the client’s head to as flat a position as he or she can

tolerate, and lower the side rail.
5. Move the client to the far side of the bed. Raise the side rail.
6. Ask the client to reach for the side rail
7. Assume a broad stance, tensing your abdominal and gluteal

muscles. Roll the client toward you.
8. Position the client’s legs comfortably.
(a) Flex his or her lower knee and hip slightly.
(b) Bring his or her upper leg for ward and place a pillow
between legs.
9. Adjust the client’s arms
(a) Shift his or her lower shoulder to ward you slightly
(b) Support his or her upper arm on a pillow
10. Wedge a pillow behind the client’s back. Use rolled blankets or
towels as needed for support.
11. Lower the bed, elevate the head of the bed as the client can
tolerate, and raise the side rail.
Joint Mobility and Range of Motion
173
Every body joint has a specific but limited opening and closing
motion that is called its range of motion (ROM). The limit of the
joint’s range is between the points of resistance at which the joint will
neither open nor close any further. Generally all people have a
similar ROM for their major joints.
Passive Range of Motion
If a client is unable to move, the nurse helps by performing passive

range of motion (PROM) exercise.
Performing Passive ROM Exercises /Steps
1. Wash hands
2. Explain the procedure to the client
3. Adjust the bed to a comfortable height. Select one side of the

bed to begin PROM exercises.
4. Uncover only the limb to be exercised.
5. Support all joints during exercise activity.
6. Use slow, gentle movements when performing exercises.

Repeat each exercise three times. Stop if the client complains
of pain or discomfort.
7. Begin exercise with the client’s neck and work down ward.
8. Flex, extend and rotate the client’s neck. Support his or her
head with your hands.
9. Exercise the client’s shoulder and elbow
174
a. Support the client’s elbow with one hand and grasp the
client’s wrist with your other hand.
b. Raise the client’s arm from the side to above the head.
c. Perform internal rotation by moving the client’s arm

across his or her chest.
d. Externally rotate the client’s shoulder by moving the arm

away from the client.
e. Flex and extend the client’s elbow.
10. Perform all exercises on the client’s wrist and fingers
a. Flex and extend the wrist.
b. Abduct and adduct the wrist.
c. Rotate and pronate the wrist.
d. Flex and extend the client’s fingers.
e. Abduct and aduct the fingers.
f. Rotate the thumb.
11. Exercise the client’s hip and leg.
a. Flex and extend the hip and knee while supporting the leg.
b. Abduct and adduct the hip by moving the client’s

straightened leg toward you and then back to median
position.
c. Perform internal and external rotation of the hip joint by

turning the leg inward and then outward.
12. Perform exercises on ankle and foot
a. Dorsiflex and plantar flex the foot
175
b. Abduct and adduct the toes
c. Evert and invert the foot
13. Move to the other side of the bed and repeat exercise.
14. Position and cover the client. Return the bed to low position.
16. Document completion of PROM exercise.
Controlling Postural Hypotension

o Sleep with the head of the bed elevated (8-12 inches).
This makes the person’s position change on rising less
severe.
o Avoid sudden changes of position. Arise from bed in
three steps:
⇒ Sit on the side of the bed with legs dangling for 1
minute
⇒ Stand with core holding on to the edge or the bed
or another non mobile object for 1 minute
⇒ Sit up in the bed for one minute
Gradual change in position stimulates renin, kidney enzyme
that has a role in regulating BP and which prevents a dramatic
drop in BP
o Balance is maintained with minimal effort when the base
of support is enlarged in the direction in which the
movement will occur
176
o Contracting muscles before moving an object lessens

the energy required to move it
o The synchronized use of as many large muscles groups
as possible during an activity increases overall strength
and prevents muscle fatigue and injury
o The closer the line of gravity to the center of the base of
support, the greater the stability
o The greater the friction against the surface beneath an
object the greater the force required moving the object.
(Pulling creates less friction than pushing)
o The heavier the object, the greater the force needed to
move the object
o Moving an object along a level surface required less
energy than moving an object up an inclined surface or
lifting it against gravity
o Continuous muscle exertion can result in muscle stretch
and injury
Body Positioning
Positioning client in various positions is done for diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes. Some of the reasons include promoting
comfort, restoring body function, preventing deformities, relieving
pressure, preventing muscle strain, restoring proper respiration and
circulation and giving nursing treatment.
177
Guideline for Positioning the Client
Positioning the Client for Comfort

Maintain functional client body alignment. (Alignment is
similar whether the client is standing or in bed.)
Maintain client safety.
Reassure the client to promote comfort and cooperation.
Properly handle the client’s body to prevent pain or injury.
Follow proper body mechanics.
Obtain assistance, if needed to move heavy or immobile

clients.
Follow specific orders.
Do not use special devices (e.g. Splints, traction) unless

ordered client positioning for examination and treatment.
178
179
Client Positioning for Examination and Treatment
1. Horizontal Recumbent Position This position is required for most of the

physical examinations. The client lies on the
back with the legs extended. The arms are
placed, folded on the chest, or along side the
body. One small pillow may be used. Cover
the client with bath blanket for privacy.
Caution: This position may be uncomfortable
for a person with a back problem
Figure 3 Horizontal Recumbent position

2. Dorsal recumbent position -used for variety of
examinations and procedures. The client lies on the back,
with the knees flexed and the soles of the feet flat on the bed.
Cover the client with a sheet or a bath blanket folded once
across the chest. The second sheet should be cross wise
over the client thighs and legs. Wrap the lower ends of this
sheet around the client’s legs and feet. Fold the sheet so the
genital area is easily exposed. Keep the client covered as
much as possible
Figure 4 Dorsal recumbent position
180
3. Prone Position: - is used to examine the spine

and back. The client lies on the abdomen with head
turned to the side for comfort. The arms are held above
the head or along side the body. Cover the client with a
bath blanket for privacy. Caution: Unconscious clients,
pregnant women, clients with abdominal incisions, and
clients with breathing difficulties cannot lie in this
position.
Figure 5 Prone position
4. Sims’ Position: - This position is used for rectal

examination. The client rests on the left side, usually with
a small pillow under the head. The right knee is flexed
against the abdomen, the left knee is flexed slightly, the
left arm is behind the body, and the right arm is in a
comfortable position. Cover the client with a bath blanket.
Caution: The client with leg injuries or arthritis often
cannot assume this position
Figure 6 Sim’s position
181
5. Fowler’s Position: - this position is used to

promote drainage or to make breathing easier.
Adjust the head rest to the desired height, and
raise the bed section (Gatch bed) under the client’s
knees. Place a rolled pillow between the client’s
feet and use the foot of the bed as a brace, if
desired. Caution: Observe for signs of dizziness or
faintness when you raise the head of the bed.
Figure 7 Fowler’s position
6. Knee-chest Position: - is used for rectal

and vaginal examinations and as treatment to bring
the uterus into normal position. The client is on the
knees with the chest resting on the bed and the
elbow rested on the bed, or with the arms above
the head, the client’s head is turned to the side.
The thighs are straight up and down, and the lower
legs are flat on the bed. Caution: The client may
become dizzy or faint and fall. Do not leave the
Figure 8 Knee –Chest position
client alone.
182
7. Dorsal Lithotomy Position: - is used for

examination of pelvic organs. It is similar to dorsal
recumbent position, except that the client’s legs are
well separated and the knees are a cutely flexed. The
nurse will usually place the client’s feet in stirrups.
Keep the client covered as much as possible for
privacy.
Figure 9 Lithotomy position
183
Crutch Walking
Crutches: - are walking aids made of wood or metal in the form of a
shaft. They reach from the ground to the client’s axillae.
Application of Nursing Process

Assessment
- Assess physical ability to use crutches and strength of the

client’s arm back, and leg muscle.
- Observe client’s ability to balance self.
- Note any unilateral or unusual weakness or dizziness.
- Assess which gait is appropriate for client.
- Assess client’s understanding of crutch-waking technique.
Planning/Objective
- To improve client’s ability to ambulate when he/she

has lower extremity injury.
- To increase muscle strength, especially in arms and

legs.
- To increase feeling of well-being when client can

ambulate.
- To promote joint mobility.

Implementation/Procedure
- Teaching muscle- strengthening exercises
- Measuring client for crutches
184
- Teaching crutch walking: Four-point gait, Three-point gait,

two-point gait.
- Teaching Swing-To-Gait and Swing-Through Gait
- Teaching upstairs and downstairs ambulation with crutches.
- Client’s ability to ambulate is improved.
- Muscle strength of client’s arms and legs is improved
- Client experiences a feeling of well-being.
Teaching Techniques of Crutch Walking
A. Four-Point Gait
Equipment
- Properly fitted crutches

- Regular, hard soled street shoes
- Safety belt, if needed
Procedure
1. Explain the rationale for the procedure to the client
a. The gait is rather slow but very stable
b. The gait can be performed when the client can move

and bear weight on each leg.
2. Demonstrate the crutch foot sequence to the client.
a. Move the right crutch
185
b. Move the left foot
c. Move the left crutch
d. Move the right foot
3. Help the client practice the gait. Be ready to help with balance
if necessary.
4. Assess client’s progress, and correct mistakes as they occur.
Figure 10. Four point gait
B. Three-Point Gait
The Equipment is Similar with Four Gait
186
Procedure
1. Explain the rationale of the procedure

a. The gait can be performed when the client can bear little
or no weight on one leg or when the client has only one
leg.
b. This gait is fairly rapid and requires strong appear
extremities and good balance.
2. Demonstrate the crutch-foot sequence to the client.

a. Two crutches support the weaker extremities
b. Balance weight on the crutches
c. Move both crutches and affected leg forward
d. Move unaffected leg forward
3. Assess the client’s progress, and correct any mistakes as they

occur.
4. Remain with client until cutch safety is ensured.
Figure 11. Three-Gait Point
187
C. Two Point-Gait
Figure 12. Two- Gait Point
Procedure
1. Explain the procedure to the client.
a. This procedure is a rapid version of the four point gait
b. This gait requires more balance than the four gait
2. Demonstrate the crutch-foot sequence to the client.
a. Advance the right foot and left crutch simultaneously
b. Advance the left foot and the right crutch simultaneously
3. Help the client practice the gait.

occur.
188
Teaching Swing-To-Gait and Swing through Gait
Equipment
1. Properly fitted crutches
2. Regular, hard soled street shoes
Procedure
1. Explain the rationale for the procedure the client.
a. These gaits are usually performed when the client’s

lower extremities are paralyzed.
b. The client may use braces.
2. Demonstrate the crutch-foot sequences to the client
a. Move both crutches forward
b. Swing to gait: left and swing the body to the crutches
c. Swing through gait: left and swing the body past the
crutches
d. Bring crutches informed of the body and repeat.
3. Help client practice the gait
4. Assess the client’s progress and correct any mistakes as they

occur.
189
Teaching up stairs and down stairs ambulation with crutches
Equipment
- Properly fitted crutches
- Regular, hard soled streed shoes
- Safety belt, if needed
Procedure
1. Explain the rational of the procedure to the client.
2. Apply safety belt if client is unsteady or requires support.
3. Demonstrate the procedure using a three-point gait.
Going Down Stairs
a. Start with weight on uninjured leg and crutches on the

same level.
b. Put crutches on the first step
c. Put weight on the crutch handles and transfers

unaffected extremity to the step where crutches are
placed.
d. Repeat until the client understands the procedure
Going Upstairs
a. Start with the crutches and unaffected extremity on the

same level.
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b. Put weight on the crutch handles and lift the unaffected

extremity on the first step of the stairs.
c. Put weight on the unaffected extremity and lift other

extremity and the crutches to the step.
d. Repeat until client understands the procedure.
4. Help the client practice
5. Make sure that the client has adequate balance. Be ready to

assist if necessary.

occur.
7. Document the following points:
- Time and distance of ambulation on crutches
- Balance
- Problems noted with technique
- Remedial teaching
- Client’s perception on the procedure
Helping the client into Wheelchair or Chair
Supplies and Equipment
- Wheelchair
- Slippers or shoes (non-skid soles)
- Robe
- Transfer self (optional)
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Procedure
1. Wash your hands
2. Explain the procedure to the patient
3. Position the wheelchair next to the bed or at 450 angles to the

bed. Lock the wheel brakes and remove the food rests or
move them to the “up” position.
4. Prepare to move the client:

a. Assist the client with patting on robe and slippers.
b. Obtain help from another person if the client is immobile,
heavy, or connected to multiple pieces of equipment.
5. Raise the head of the bed so that the client is in the sitting
position.
6. Assist the client to sit on the side of the bed
a. Support the head and neck with one arm.
b. Use your other arm to move the client’s leg over the side
of the bed.
c. Allow the client’s feet to rest on the floor.
d. Maintain the client in this position for a short-time
7. Prepare to raise the client to a standing position
a. Apply a transfer belt if necessary.
b. Spread the client’s feet and brace your knees against

client’s knees.
c. Place your arms around client’s waist.
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8. Use the rocking motion of your legs to assist the client to

stand. The client may use his or her hands to help push
upward from bed.
9. Pivot the client in to position immediately in front of the

wheelchair. Encourage the client to use armrests for support
while you lower him or her in to chair.
10. Reposition foot rests; secure the client in a chair with a

reminder device if needed. Cover the client with a blanket.
Provide the nurse call button.
12. Check on the client frequently.
Document the transfer and the client’s response.
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Study questions
• State the principle underlying proper body mechanics and

relate a nursing consideration.
• State the purposes of range of motion exercise.
• Identify principles related to safe movement of clients in and
out of bed.
• Demonstrate the ability to move a partially mobile client
safely from bed to chair and back.
• Demonstrate the ability to teach each of the crutch walking
gaits to a client.
• Mention different positions used for various examination and
treatment.
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UNIT FOUR
CHAPTER ELEVEN
NUTRITION AND METABOLISM
Learning Objectives: At the completion of this unit students will

be able to:
¾ Describe the electrolyte composition of the body
¾ Define electrolyte
¾ Mention the manifestation of fluid disturbance
¾ Describe causes of acid base imbalance
¾ Carryout procedures to maintain fluid electrolyte balance
¾ Apply procedures for ensuring nutritional maintainance
¾ Conduct proper NG tube insertion and feed accordingly
¾ Assist in total parentral hyperalimination
A. Fluid, electrolyte and Acid base balance
I. Fluid & Electrolyte Balance
Normal body function depends on a relatively constant volume of

water and definite concentration of chemical compounds
(electrolyte).
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Water – is the most essential nutrient of life. 60-65% of the body

weight is water and no physiology can function without it.
Electrolyte – is a compound that dissociate in a solution to break up

in to separate electrically charged particles (ions) – cation, anions
Distribution of Body Water in Adult
Body water is contained with in two major physiological reservoirs

(compartments).
1. Intracellular fluid about 40% of body weight (25 liter)
2. Extra cellular fluid about 20% of body weight (20

liters) in which:
a) 5 liter in intra vassal
b) 15 liter interstissual – tissue space the space

between blood and the cells. A part from this the
extra cellular fluid contains other fluids, which are
usually negligible, considering their concentration in
the body. These are CSF, ocular fluid, cynovial fluid,
pleural fluid, and pericardial fluid, peritoneal fluid.
Water Balance
Normal body water is in a dynamic state. There is constant loss and

constant replacement. i.e., intake is equal to output.
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Electrolyte Composition of the Fluid
Electrically charged particles act as a conductor of electrical current

in the solution. E.g. NaCl Na+ + Cl-
Intracellular fluid and extra cellular fluid are separated by cell

membrane, which is semi permeable. Body fluid composed of water,
electrolyte, and non-electrolyte. The difference is maintained by the
cells, which actively reject certain electrolytes, and retain others.
E.g. Na+ is reach higher in concentration in extra cellular fluid. The
difference is maintained by cellular action referred as sodium pump,
which reject sodium from the cells. The major ions of cellular fluid in
order of their quantity are:
ICF ECF
+
K 141 M Eg/L 4 M. Eg/L
++
Mg 58 M Eg/L 2 M. Eg/L
++
Po4 75 M Eg/L 10 M. Eg/L
+
Na 10 M Eg/L 142 M. Eg/L
+
Cl 4 M Eg/L 103 M. Eg/L
Transport Mechanism of Electrolyte

1. Osmosis
2. Diffusion
3. Active transport (Na and K pumb)
4. Filtration
5. Phagocytosis
6. Pincytosis
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Substances are transported between cellular and extracellular fluids

between biological membranes. These transport mechanisms are
mentioned above.
Osmolarity – refers to the concentration of active particles per unit

of solution. Two opposing forces exist with in the vascular
compartment. These are:
1. Hydrostatic pressure of the blood which forces fluid out
through semi permeable membrane
2. Osmotic pressure of the blood protein (colloid osmotic

pressure) – which is pulling or holding force opposing the
flow of fluid across the vascular membrane
When blood enter the arteriol and the capillaries hydrostatic

pressure is greater than osmotic pressure and fluid filters out of the
vessels. The movement of fluid out of the vessel is facilitated also by
negative hydrostatic pressure – sucking fluid from plasma and the
osmotic pressure in the interistissual space.
The result of the force that promotes the movement of fluid through
the capillary is the sum of positive out ward pressure from within the
capillaries and the negative hydrostatic pressure and the osmotic
pressure in the interstissual spaces. E.g. Intracapillary hydrostatic
pressure (ICHP), plasma osmotic pressure (POP). Negative
interstissual hydrostatic pressure (Int.-H.P) Interstissual Osmotic
Pressure (Int.O.P)
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At arterial end of capillaries, there is outward force =

CHP – POP + Int.H.P – Int.O.P
30 - 28 + 6 – (-5.3) = 13.3
At the venous end: POP – CHP + Int.H.P – Int.O.P

28 – 10 + 6 – (-5.3)
= 6.7
In extracellular fluid the principal osmotic forces are exerted by
sodium and chlorine ions. Potasium, magnesium and phosphorous
are mainly responsible for osmotic pressure within the cells.
Effect of osmosis as applied to different extracellular solute

concentration will give isotonic, hyper tonic and hypotonic solution.
When all contributions to osmolality are summed the total serum

osmolality ranges from 275 mosm/kg to 290 mOsm/kg.
Solutions can be categorized according to how their osmolality

compared with that of extracellular fluids. When the osmolality is the
same as extracellular fluid, a solution is lebelled isoltonic. Such a
solution remains within extracellular compartment. One third is
distributed to the vascular space and two thirds to the interstissual
space.
A fluid with a lower or higher osmolality is lebelled hypotonic or

hypertonic respectively. Hypotonic fluids are distributed in proportion
of ⅓ to the extracellular compartment and ⅔ of intracellular
compartment. They are associated with cell swelling. When
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hypertonic fluids are added to the vascular space, the extracellular

osmolality becomes greater than that of intracellular fluid. As a result
water moves from the intracellular to extracellular compartment and
cells shrink.
Disturbance in Fluid Balance

1. Fluid deficit – negative fluid balance – dehydration fluid loss
exceeds the fluid intake.
Causes: - fluid defect is caused by:
Excess fluid loss:
(a) From GIT – vomiting and diarrhea
(b) Excessive perspiration increase fever, exposure to high
environmental temperature.
(c) Hemorrhage
(d) Excess of solute
(e) Chronic venal diseases
(f) Wounds – especially big wounds
2. Decreased fluid intake due to:

(a) Inability to swallow
(b) Lack of available fluid
(c) Lack of thirst sensation
3. Deficiency of electrolyte
(a) Deficiency of aldostrone – during addson’s disease
(b) Relative decrease of electrolyte
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Effects and Manifestations of fluid deficit
The effect depends on severity:

Usually, the first sign is thirst, dry skin,
- Decreased blood pressure
- Oliguria
- Retention of wasts acidosis
- Increased haemoglobin and hematocrit
- Loss of strength and a pathy
- Disturbance in cellular function in the brain
B Coma B death
Excess Fluid
Causes of excess fluid in the body
1. Increased venous pressure = increased hydrostatic

pressure at venous end
2. Obstruction of lymphatic drainage
3. Deficiency of blood protein
4. Increased capillary permeability
5. Renal insufficiency – increased in take and decreased
output
6. Excessive hormone e.g Mineral corticoid hormone
ACID BASE BALANCE
Acids are substances, which contain hydrogen ions that can be

freed or donated by the chemical reaction to the other substances.
Conversely, bases are chemical substances that combine with
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hydroxyl ions in a chemical reaction. The acidity or alkalinity of a

solution depends upon the concentration of hydrogen ions and
hydroxyl ions. A compound that completely dissociates its hydrogen
ions is referred as strong acid. E.g. H2504, HCl, H2P04
A compound that particularly freezes its hydrogen ions partially is

referred as weak acid. E.g. H2Co3, citric acid, acetic acid.
Acid-Base Regulation
Body fluid normally have a PH of 7.35 – 7.45. The chief acid

regulating from Metabolism is H2CO3 which is formed by a
combination of CO2 + H2O. The combination is promoted by
carbonic anhydrase with in the cells. In addition to the carbolic acid,
cellular activity produces a substantial quantity of strong acid.
Acids must be rapidly neutralized or weakened by chemical reaction.
There must be a constant elimination of them from the body.

Carbolic acid is removed by lungs by eliminating carbon dioxide.
Control Mechanism of body PH
The optimum PH of the body fluid is maintained by:

1. acid-base buffer system
2. respiratory system regulation
3. kidney regulation
202
Buffers are substances, which tends to stabilize or maintain the

constancy of the PH of a solution when an acid or a base is added to
it.
Example: HCl + NaCO3 B H2CO3 + HaCl
They do this by rapidly converting a strong acid or base to a weaker

one, which does not dissociate as rapidly.
Strong base NaOH + HCO3 gives H2ONaCO3

Example of Buffering System:
A) Bicarbonate Buffering System
B) Phosphate Buffering System
Respiratory Regulation of Acid-Base Balance
Carbondioxide is constantly produced in cellular metabolism and

diffuses from the cells into the blood and crythrocyte, and as a result
CO2 is in greater concentration in the blood. When it enters
pulmonary capillaries than in the air in alveoli of the lungs.
Kidney Regulation
The kidneys play an important role in maintaining acid base balance

by execration of H+ and forming hydrogen carbonate.
The cell of the distal tubules is sensitive to the changes in the PH.
203
Test for acid base balance
1. Blood gas: O2 and CO2 are checked

- H+ concentration in arterial blood is checked
- PH also determined
ACIDOSIS
A condition in which hydrogen ion concentration is increased in the

body and the PH falls below normal. There are two types of acidosis:
Respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis.
A. Respiratory Acidosis
Cause:
- Hypoventilation related to acute and chronic pulmonary
diseases
- Circulatory failure
- Depression of CNS
- Drugs such as atrophine
- Gulian Bari syndrome
- Poliomalititis
- Decreased or increased potassium in the blood
B. Metabolic Acidosis
Cause:
- Increased acid production
- Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
- Increased alcohol intake
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- Excessive administration of drugs e.g ASA, Amonium

Chloride
- Renal Failure
- Dehydration
- Sever diarrhea and vomiting
Common signs and symptoms for respiratory acidosis

- Restlessness, apprehensive, slow mental response,
weakness, headache, confusion coma. PH is < 7.35
- Decreased bicarbonate
- Increased arterial CO2 and decreased O2
- Increased urine acidity
- Increased ammonium in urine
- Low PH in urine
Metabolic Acidosis
Headache, fatigue, drowsiness
Serum PH < 7.35
Serum bicarbonate is low
Depression in CNS
Increased respiration
Nursing Intervention
- Improve respiratory ventilation (e.g., administer

bronchial dilators, antibiotic oxygen as ordered.
- Maintain adequate hydration (2 to 3 L of fluid prerday)
- Carefully regulate mechanical ventilation if used.
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- Monitor fluid in take and out put, vital signs, arterial

blood gases (ABGs), and PH
Metabolic acidosis
Nursing interventions
- Monitor Arterial Blood Gases values

- Administer IV sodium bicarbonate carefully if ordered
- Correct underlying problem as ordered
Alkalosis: - is acid-base imbalance in which there is a decrease in H+

concentration below 35 n mol/L and an increase in the PH in excess
of 7.45 due to carbonic acid deficit or an excess amount of
bicarbonate (HCO3).
Types of Alkalosis
1. Respiratory Alkalosis
2. Metabolic Alkalosis
Respiratory Alkalosis
Causes
1. Hyperventilation (excessive loss of carbolic acid)
related to anxiety, hysteria, CNS disease which
causes over stimulation of respiratory center
2. High fever
3. Hypoxia
4. Sever pain
5. High altitude
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Sign and Symptoms
- Serum PH > 7.45

- Serum bicarbonate decreases
- Serum hydrogenion < 35 n mol/L
- Serum potassium decreased
- Cardiac arrythemia
- Increased Na+ and K+ excretion in urine
- Decreased chloride ion and hydrogenion excretion
- Hyperventilation
- Increased rate and depth of respiration
- Decreased arterial blood CO2
- Dizzness, tetany, muscle spasm (carpopedal spasm)
- Cramp, tingling in extremities
- Convulsion
Nursing Interventions
- Monitor vital signs and ABGs

- Assist client to breath more slowly
- Administer CO2 inhalations, or help client breath in a
paper bag (to inhale CO2)
Metabolic Alkalosis
Causes
1. Abnormal loss of acid associated with vomiting and aspiration

2. Diuretics – through excess urination
3. Excessive ingestion of alkaline e.x. sodium bicarbonate
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Sign and system

- Scrum PH > 7.45
- Scrum H+ < 35 n mal/L
- Increase serum bicarbonate
- Decreased serum potassium
- Cardiac arrhythmia
- Hypoventilation
- Slow, shallow respiration
- Increased PaCO2 or normal
- Decreased PaO2 if prolonged alkalosis
- Increased sodium and potassium ions excretion
- Decreased chloride and hydrogen ions excretions
- Dizziness, tremer, twitching, tetany, cramping, tingling in
limbs, convulsion
- Others like nausea, vomiting and diarrhea
Nursing Interventions
- Monitor clients fluid losses closely

- Monitor vital signs, especially respirations
- Administer ordered IV fluids carefully
- Reverse underlying problems
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B. NUTRITION
Nutrition is the study of nutrients and how the body utilizes the
nutrients in food. Nutrition has a great impact on human well-being,
behavior, and the environment.
Nutrients are substances needed for growth, maintenance, and

repair of the body. The body can make some nutrients if adequate
amount of necessary precursors (building blocks) are available.
Essential nutrients are those that a person must obtain through food
because the body can not make them in sufficient quantities to meet
its needs. The six classes of nutrients are carbohydrates, fat,
protein, water, minerals, and vitamins. Carbohydrate, fat and protein
provide energy and are called macronutrients. Vitamins and
minerals regulate body process and are called micronutrients. Water
is necessary for virtually every body function.
A HEALTHY DIET
A healthy diet is one that provides an adequate amount of each

essential nutrient needed to support growth and development,
perform physical activity, and maintain health. In addition to meeting
physiologic requirements, diet also used to satisfy a variety of
personal, social, and cultural needs. These factors must be
considered in diet planning. The diets of all individuals must consist
of foods that are easily attainable and affordable. People can use an
infinite variety and combination of foods to form a healthy diet. The
209
current philosophy is that no good foods or bad foods exist, and that
all foods can be enjoyed in moderation.
Dietary Guidelines
The purpose of dietary guidelines is to provide a healthy public with

practical and positive suggestions for choosing a diet that meets
nutritional requirements, support activity, and reduces the risk of
malnutrition and chronic disease. These guidelines are not intended
as a diet prescription for specific individuals, but serve as a starting
point from which people can plan healthy diets.
210
Table 1. A guideline for healthy diet
Guide Line Rationale

B Eat a variety of foods - No single food supplies all 40-plus
essential nutrients in amounts
needed variety also helps reduce
the risk of nutrient toxicity and
accidental contamination
B Balance the food you - Excess weight increases the risk of

eat with physical numerous chronic diseases. Such
activity – maintain or as hypertension, heart disease, and
improve your weight diabetes
B Choose a diet with - Plant foods provide fiber, complex

plenty of gain carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals,
products, vegetables, and other substances important for
and fruits good health
B Choose a diet low in - High fat diets increase the risk of

fat, saturated fat, and obesity, heart diseases, and certain
cholesterol types of cancer
B Choose a diet - Foods high in added sugar are

moderate in sugars “empty calories”. Both sugar and
starches promote tooth decay
B Choose a diet that is - A high salt intake is associate with

moderate in salt and higher blood pressure
sodium
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Therapeutic Nutrition
Therapeutic nutrition is a modification of nutritional needs based on

the disease condition or the excess or deficit of a nutrition status.
Combination diets, which include alterations in minerals, vitamins,
proteins, carbohydrates, fats as well as fluid and texture, are
prescribed in therapeutic nutrition.
Gastrostomy/Jejunostomy Feedings
A gastrostomy feeding is the installation of liquid nourishment

through a tube that enters a surgical opening (called a gastrostomy)
through the abdominal wall in to the stomach.
A jejunostomy feeding is the installation of liquid nourishment

through a tube that enters a surgical opening (a jejunostomy)
through the abdominal wall in to the jejunum.
These feedings are usually temporary measures. When there is an

obstruction the esophagus, they may be come permanent, for
example, after removal of the esophagus.
Inserting a Nasogastric Tube
Purposes
- To administer tube feedings and medications to clients

unable to eat by mouth or swallow a sufficient diet without
aspirating food or fluid into the lungs
212
- To establish a means for suctioning stomach contents to

prevent gastric distention, and vomiting.
- To remove laboratory contents for laboratory analysis
- To lavage (wash) the stomach in case of poisoning or

overdose of medication
Equipment
- Large or small bore tube (plastic or rubber)
- Solution basin filled with warm water (if plastic tube is used)
or ice (if rubber tube is used)
- Adhesive tape (2.5 cm wide)
- Disposable gloves
- Water soluble lubricants
- Facial tissues
- Glass of water and drinking straw or medication cup with

water
- 20 to 50 ml syringe with an adaptor
- Basin
- Stetoscope
- Clamp (optional)
- Suction apparatus (if required)
- Gauze square or plastic specimen bag and elastic band
- Safety pin and elastic band
- Infant seat, towel, or pillow
213
- Restrain or hand mitts (for infants and young children)
- 5-mL or 12 mL, syringes
Procedure
1. Explain the procedure to the patient. The passage of tube is

not painful but is unpleasant.
2. Position the patient in a high fowlers position, if health permits

to support head on pillow.
3. In infant, place in infant seat or with rolled towel or pillow

under the head and shoulders.
4. Place the towel across the chest. A diaper can be used for an
infant.
5. Ask the client to hyperextend the head, and using a flash light
observe the intactness of the tissue of the nostrils.
6. Examine the nares for any obstructions or deformities by

asking the client to breath through one nostril while occluding
of the other.
7. Select the nostril that has the greater airflow.
8. Obstruct one of the infant’s nares, and feel for air passage
from the other.
9. If a rubber tube is being used, place it on ice. This stiffens the

tube, facilitating the insertion. If a plastic tube is being used,
place it in warm water. This makes the tube more flexible.
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10. Determine how far to insert

- Use the tube to mark off the distance from the tip of the
client’s nose to the tip of the ear lobe and from the tip of
the ear lobe to the tip of the sternum. This length
approximate the distance from the nares to stomach.
- For infants and young children, measure from the nose to
the tip of the ear lobe and then to the xiphoid process.
- Mark this length with adhesive tape, if the tube does not
have marking.
11. Lubricate the tip of the tube well with water solution lubricant
or water to ease insertion.
12. Insert the tube with its natural curve toward the client in to the
selected nostril. Ask the client to hyper extend the neck, and
gently advance the tube toward the nasopharynx. Do not
hyper-extend or hyper -flex an infant neck
13. Direct the tube along the floor of the nostril and toward the ear
on that side.
14. If the tube meets resistance, withdraw it, rubricate it and insert
it in the other nostril. (The tube should never be forced against
resistance)
15. Once the tube reaches the oropharynix (throat) the client will
feel the tube in the throat and may gag or retch. Ask the client
to tilt the head forward and encourage the client to drink and
swallow. If the client gags, stop passing the tube momentary.
215
Have the client rest, take a few breaths, and take sips of water
to calm the gag reflex.
16. In the cooperation with the client, pass the tube 5 to 10 cm (2

to 4 in) with each swallow, until the indicated length is
inserted.
17. If the client continuous to gag and the tube does not advance
with each swallow, with draw it slightly, and inspect the throat
by looking through the mouth. (The tube may be coiled in the
throat. If so withdraw it until it is straight, and try again to insert
it).
18. As certain correct placement of the tube:
- Aspirate stomach content, and check their acidity.
- Ascultate air insufflation’s
- If the signs do not indicate placement in the stomach,
advance the tube 5 cm, and repeat the test
- For the tube that are to be placed in to the duodenum or
jejunum, advance the tube 5 to 7.5 cm per hour until x-
ray study confirms its placement.
19. Secure the tube by taping it to the bridge of the client’s nose
- Cut 7.5 cm of tape, and split it length wise at one end,
leaving 2.5 cm tab at the end
- Place the tape over the bridge of the client’ nose and
bring the split ends under the tubing and backup over
the nose.
216
- For infants or small children, tape the tube to the area

between the end of the nares and the upper lip, as well
as to the cheek.
20. Attach the tube to the suction source or feeding apparatus as
ordered, or clamp the end of the tubing.
21. Secure the tube to the client’s gown. Loop an elastic band
around the end of the tubing, and attach the elastic band to
the gown with a safety pin or attach a piece of adhesive tape
to the tube, and pin the tape to the gown.
22. Document relevant information, means by which correct

placement was determined and client responses.
23. Establish a plan for providing daily nasogastric tube care
- Inspect the nostril for discharge and irritation
- Clean the nostril and tube with moistened cotton tipped
applicators
- Apply water-soluble lubricant to the nostril if it appears
dry or encrusted.
- Change the adhesive tape ad required
- Give frequent mouth care
24. If suction is applied, ensure that the patency of both the
nasogastric and suction tubes in maintained
25. Document all relevant information:

- Type of tube inserted
- Data and time of tube insertion
- Type of suction used
217
- Color and amount of gastric contents

- Client tolerance of the procedure
NASOGASTRIC TUBE FEEDING
Before commencing nasogastric feeding, determine the type

amount, and frequency of feedings.
Purposes
- To restore or maintain nutritional status
- To administer medications
Equipment
- Correct amount of feeding solution
- Pacifier
- 20 to 50 mL syringe with an adapter
- Emesis basin
- Bulb syringe (for an intermittent feeding)
- Calibrated plastic feeding bag and a drip chamber, which

can be attached to the tubing or
- Pre-filled bottle with a drip chamber, tubing, and a flow

regulator clamp.
- Measuring container from which to power the feeding (if

using bulb syringe)
- Water (60 ml unless other wise specified) at room

temperature
218
- Feeding pump (optional)
Procedure/Intervention
1. Prepare the client and the feeding

- Explain the patient about the feeding
- Provide privacy
- Position the patient in Fowler’s position in bed or sitting

position in a chair
- Position a small child or infant in your lap, and provide a

pacifier during feeding
2. Assess tube placement. Attach the syringe to the open end of

the tube, aspirate alimentary secretions. Check the PH.
3. Assess residual feeding contents

- Aspirate all the stomach contents, and measure the
amount prior to administering the feeding. If 50 mL or
more undigested formula is withdrawn in adults, or 10 ml
or more in infants, check with the nurse in charge before
proceeding.
- Reinstill the gastric contents in to the stomach if this is
the agency or physician’s practice. Remove the syringe
bulb or plunger, and pour the gastric contents via the
syringe in to the nasogastric tube.
219
4. Administer the feeding

Before administering feeding:
a) Check the expiration date of the feeding
b) Warm the feeding to room temperature
Bulb syring
- Remove the bulb from the syringe, and connect the

syringe to a pinched or clamed nasogastric tube
- Add feeding to the syringe barrel
- Permit the feeding to flow in slowly at the prescribed

rate. Raise or lower the syringe to adjust the flow as
needed. Pinch or clamp the tubing to stop the flow for
a minute if the client experiences discomfort.
Feeding Bag
- Hang the bag from an infusion pole about 30 cm

above the tube’s point of insertion in to the client
- Clamp the tubing, and add the formula to the bag, if it

is not pre-filled.
- Open the damp, run the formula through the tubing,

and reclamp the tube.
- Attach the bag to the nasogastric tube and regulate

the drip by adjusting the clamp to drop factor on bag.
5. Rinse the feeding tube immediately before all the formula has
run through the tubing:
220
- Instill 60 mL of water the feeding tube
- Be sure to add the water before the feeding solution

has drained from the neck of a bulb syringe or from
the tubing of an administration set. Before adding
water to a feeding bag or prefilled tubing set, first
clamp and disconnect both feeding and administration
tubes.
6. Clamp and cover the feeding tube

- Clamp the feeding tube before all of the water is
instilled
- Cover the end of the feeding tube with gauze held by

an elastic band
7. Ensure client comfort and safety

- Pin the tubing to the clients gown
- Ask the client to remain sitting upright in Fowler’s
position or in slightly elevated right lateral position for
at least 30 minutes.
8. Dispose of equipment appropriately

- If the equipment is to be reused, wash with soap and
water so that it is ready for reuse.
- Change the equipment every 24 hours or according to
the agency’s policy.
221
9. Document all relevant information

- Document the feeding, including amount, and kind of
solution taken, duration of feeding and assessment of
client.
- Record the volume of the feeding and water
administered on the client’s intake and out put record.
10. Monitor the client for possible problems:

- Carefully assess clients receiving tube feeding for
problems
- To prevent dehydration, give the client supplemental
water in addition to the prescribe tube feeding as
ordered.
TOTAL PARENTRAL NUTRITION
Parentral nutrition is a method where by nutrients may be introduced

into the system via the enteral route. It is also referee to as
intravenous hyperalimenation (IVH). By passing the normal gastro
intestinal system, this route provides a nitrogen source for those
unable to ingest protein, carbohydrates (adequate caloric), or fats. A
balanced blend of nutrients, including vitamins and minerals, can be
administered peripherally, using isotonic concentrations of glucose,
crystalline aminoacids, and fats; or because the solution may be
irritating to the veins, nutrients can be administered through a
central, high-flow vein. Hypertonic glucose, along with crystalline
222
aminoacids, fats, electrolytes, vitamins and trace elements is given

through central vein access.
The technique requires especial handling and management of the

client and the most expensive method of feeding.
It should be used only if the intestines do not work adequately, if the

client has an obstruction or has fistula, if the bowel rest is required.
Implantable vascular access devices are placed under the skin in a

subcutaneous pocket and a surgically tunneled silicone catheter is
place in the cephalic or external jugular vein and threaded to the
superior vana cava.
Assessment
- Complete physical assessment and client history
- Assess weight and take a weight history
- Identify and condition that would affect TPN (renal or cardiac

disease)
- Assess nutritional needs of clients who are unable to ingest

nutrients normally.
- Identify the caloric intake necessary to promote positive

nitrogen balance, tissue repair, and growth
- Observe for correct additives in each hyper alimentation

bottle.
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- Check lable of solution with physician’s orders
- Check rate of infusion on physician’s order
- Check rate of infusion on physician’s order
- Assess ability of client to understand instructions during the

procedure.
- Ensure potency of the central venous line following the

insertion
- Observe catheter insertion site for signs of infection,

thromboblebities, or possible infiltration.
- Inspect dressing over central line to ensure a dry, non

contaminated dressing.
Planning/Objective Setting
- To provide a nitrogen source for clients unable to ingest

protein normally.
- To provide adequate calories for clients unable to tolerate

oral feedings.
- To provide nutrients for clients requiring by pass of the

gastrointestinal tract.
- To provide increased calories where regular IV solutions are

insufficient.
- To prevent or correct a deficiency of essential fatty acids.
- To provide a contamination free mode of delivering the

hyper alimentation solution
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Implementation
- Assisting with catheter insertion
- Maintaining central vein Infusions
- Changing parentral hyper alimentation Dressing and Tubing
- Maintaining Hyper alimentation for children
Evaluation/Expected Outcome
- Catheter is place correctly with no infiltration.
- Solution is infused as prescribed flow rate and tolerated by

patient
- Dressing remains dry and in fact during interval between

changes.
- Insertion site remains free of infection and inflammation

sepsis does not occur.
- Client receives nutrients necessary for tissue repair and

sustenance.
Assisting with Catheter Insertion
Equipment
- Intra cath (20 cm, 16-gauge, radio opaque, polyvinyl

chloride) or peripheral line catheter
- Iodine solution
- Betadine ointment and swabs
- Alcohol sponges
225
- Aceptone solution (optional)

- Sterile 4x4 gauze pads
- Sterile gloves
- Sterile towels or drapes
- Sterile gown
- Masks (2)
- 3-mL syringe with 25-gauge needle
- Lidocaine or local anesthetic agent
- Sterile black silk suture with needle, IV filter and tubing
- IV extension tubing
- 500 ml normal saline IV bag or DW
- Hyper alimentation solution
- IV infusion pump and cassette
- Bath blanket to provide roll under shoulders
Preparation
1. Explain procedure to client to allay anxiety
2. Obtain consent from client or family
3. Teach Valsalva’s Maneuver for use during catheter insertion

procedure if client does not have a cardiac disorder.
4. Review the orders for correct hyper alimentation solution

additives. Check the content of solution with order.
5. Inspect TPN bottle for cracks, turbidity, or precipitates.
226
6. Assemble IV insertion tray or kit, normal saline solution

bottle or DW, IV tubing, extension tubing, and filter.
7. Wash hands
8. Flush IV tubing with IV solution
9. Place IV tubing through infusion pump
10. Place catheter insertion equipment on bedside stared
Procedure
1. Position client in head-down position with head turned to

opposite direction of catheter insertion size. Place a small
roll between client’s shoulders to expose insertion site.
2. Cleanse insertion area with Betadine solution (if allergic to

Betadine solution, use 70% isopropyl alcohol).
3. Assist the physician to gown, put on mask and gloves prior

to beginning procedure.
4. Done mask and sterile gloves.
5. Assist physician as needed during catheter insertion
6. Instruct client in Valsalva’s Maneuver when stylet is

removed from catheter and when IV tubing is connected to
catheter
a) Instruct client to exhale against a closed glottis.
b) If client is unable to do this compress client’s

abdomen. Both these procedures help decrease
possibility of air embolism.
227
7. After tubing is connected, instruct client to breath normally.
8. Tape area between tubing and catheter hub.
9. Turn on IV infusion pump, using normal saline solution, at

slow rate, 10 gtt/mincle, until X-ray ensures accurate
catheter placement.
10. Place Betadine over catheter insertion site. Apply

transparent dressing.
11. Order portable chest X-ray to verify correct catheter

placement.
12. Following confirmation of Catheter placement. Change IV

solution to hyper alimentation solution and adjust flow rate
as ordered.
13. Time tape the bottle after adjusting flow rate. Be prepared
to document on IV hourly infusion recorded.
14. Observe for signs of complication.
15. Take vital signs every 4 hours. If signs change or

temperature rises significantly, the client may be developing
complications.
Monitoring Guidelines for TPN
- Monitor for signs of infection or sepsis at the insertion site,

which is the most common complication of TPN
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- Weigh client daily – obsorb for fluid gain or loss. Weight gain
may indicate fluid overload rather than increased nutritional
gain.
- Monitor electrolyte and protein levels daily in the beginning

of treatment. Magnesium and calcium imbalance may occur.
- Monitor serum glucose levels observing for hyperglycemia

(thirsty, polyuria)
- Assess blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels –

increases may indicate excess amino acid intake.
- Check liver function test results – abnormal value may

indicate an excess of lipids or problems in protein or glucose
metabolism.
Study questions:
¾ Describe the electrolyte composition of the body
¾ Define electrolyte.
¾ Mention the manifestation of fluid disturbance
¾ Describe causes of acid base imbalance
¾ Mention two to apply procedures for ensuring nutritional

maintenance
¾ State procedure for NG tube insertion.
¾ Describe conditions in which NGT feeding is indicated.
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UNIT FIVE
CHAPTER TWELEVE
ELIMINATION OF GASTROINTESTINAL
AND URINARY OUTPUTS
Learning Objective
At completion of the unit the learner will be able to:
• Define enema.
• List purposes of gastric aspiration, lavage, enema and
catheterization.
• Mention types of enema.
• Provide enema according to its purpose and need.
• Explain mechanism of action of fluids used for enema.
• Explain purpose of catheterization.
• Identify different types of catheters.
• Describe indication of catheterization.
• Demonstrate sterility technique through out the
catheterization.
• Intervene the procedure for those in need of it with
understanding of both male and female catheterization.
• Identify important precautions of the procedure.
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Key Terminology
anuria dysuria melena projectile vomiting
consitipation enema micturation urgency
cystitis fecal impaction nocturia urinary catheter
defecation flatus oliguria urinary frequency
diarrhea incontinenece polyuria urinary retention
voiding vomitus
I Gastric Lavage
Definition- This is the irrigation or washing out of the stomach.
Purpose
1. To remove alcoholic, narcotic or any other poisoning, which
has been swallowed.
2. To clean the stomach before operation
3. To relive congestion, there by stimulating peristalsis e.g.
Pyloric stenosis
4. For diagnostic purposes
1. Gastric Lavage Using a Simple Rubber Tube
Equipment:
Clean trolley.
• Bowel containing large esophageal tube in ice (cold water)
• Rubber tubing with screw or clip and glass connection
• Metal or plastic funnel
• Large Jug (5 litter)
231
• Solution as prescription/usually to care for acidic poisoning.

We use sodium bicarbonate 1 teaspoon to 500 cc. of water at
a temperature of 370c - 380c.)
• Small jug to carry solution to the funnel
• Lubricant e.g. liquid paraffin
• Bowl for gauze swabs
• Cape or protective material to put around the patient chest
• Pail to receive returned fluid
• Mackintosh or paper to protect the floor beneath the pail
• Receiver for used esophageal tube
• Paper bag for waste material
• A tray for mouth wash after lavage
• Denature cup.
• A receiver for pt's dentures. If any, and should be labeled with
the pt's name
• A receiver containing mount gag, tongue depressor, and
tongue forceps if patient is unconscious
• Mackintosh to protect bed linen
• Litmus paper
• Specimen battle. If laboratory test is requires
• Measuring jug
Procedure
1. Explain procedure to the pt and ask him/her to remove
artificial dentures, If any.
2. Protect pt with cape or towel
232
3. Protect bed linen by spreading the mackintosh on the

accessible side of the bed.
4. Place mackintosh or paper under the pail to protect the floor
5. Elevate head of the bed it pt is conscious and the condition
permits. But if unconscious, place in prone position with head
over the edge of the bed or head lower than the body.
6. Measure the tube from the tip of the nose up to the ear lobe
and from the bridge of the nose to the end of the sternum. (32
- 36 c.m.)
7. Gently pass the tube over the tongue, slightly to one side of
the midline towards the pharynx. (If patient is unconscious,
mouth gug may be used)
8. Ask patient to swallow while inserting the tube and allow to
breath in between swallowing.
9. If air bubbles, cough and cyanosis are noticed the tube is with
drawn and procedure commenced again.
10. After inserting, place funnel end in a basin of water to check if
the tube is in the air passage.
11. Fill the small pint measure and power gently until the funnel is
empty, then invert over the pail.
12. Take specimen. If required, and continue the process until the
returned fluid becomes clear and the prescribed solution has
been used.
13. Remove tube gently and give mouth wash
14. Measure the amount of fluid returned and record
15. Report and abnormality e.g. blood stain or clots or pieces of
the gut.
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2. Gastric Lavage Using a Tube with a Bulb

Procedure
1. Clamp tubing below bulb.

2. With right hand, squeeze bulb this forcing the air out through
the funnel.
3. With left hand, pinch tubing over bulb and at the same time
releasing bulb. This creates a suction, which will draw the
stomach contents in to the bulb.
4. Lower funnel and allow excess gastric contents to drain in to
the pail.
5. Pour 200c.c - 300c.c of solution into funnel. Before funnel is
empty invert it and allow solution to drain.
6. Before solution stops running, turn up funnel and add another
quantity of solution
7. Repeat this procedure until returns are clear
8. Gently remove the tube, feel the patient pulse and watch the
respiration
9. Document the procedure
N.B.
Record
• Time of treatment
• Amount & kind of solution used
• Nature of returned fluid
• Reaction of patient during and after procedure
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II. GASTRIC ASPIRATION

• Aspiration is to withdrawal of fluid or gas from a cavity by
suction
Purpose
1. To prevent or relieve distention following abdominal operation
2. In case of gastrointestinal obstruction, to remove the stomach
or gastric contents
3. To keep the stomach empty before on emergency Abdominal
operation is done
4. To aspirate the stomach contents for diagnostic purposes
There are two type of gastric Aspiration

1. Intermittent method: - In this case, Aspiration is done as
condition requires and as ordered.
2. Continues method: - Attached to a drainage bag
There are 2 ways of supplying suction

a. Simple suction by the use of a syringe
b. An electric suction machine
The continues method is indicated when it is absolutely necessary

and desirable to keep the stomach and duodenum empty and at
rest.
Equipment
• Aspiration tube (Ryle's tube)
• Aspiration syringe if this method is used
235
• Gallipots with lubricant e.g. liquid paraffin or vase line, to

lubricate the nostrils
• Gauze swabs in a bowl
• Sodium bicarbonate solution or saline to clean the nostrils
• Litmus paper
• Water in a galipot to test the right position of the tube in the
stomach
• Two test tubes and laboratory forms of necessary
• Saline or plain water in a galipot to be injected, in case the
stomach content is too thick to come out through the syringe.
• Rubber mackintosh and towel to protect the patient’s chest.
• Receiver for soiled swabs
Procedure
1. Explain procedure to patient, in order to gain her/his co-
operation
2. Prop up in an upright position with help of back rest and pillow
3. Cleanse and lubricate the nostrils
4. Lubricate the Ryle's tube with water
5. Insert the tube as directed in nasal feeding and ask the
patient to swallow as the tube goes down.
6. Instruct patient to open her or his mouth to make sure the
tube is in the stomach
7. After being sure that the tube is in the right position, inject
about 15-20 cc. of saline or water in to the stomach.
8. Draw plunger back to with draw the fluid collect specimen, If
needed
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9. If the Ryle's tube is to be left in site then a spigot or clamp is

used to close the end, but if it is for one aspiration and to be
removed immediately, it should be withdrawn very gently to
avoid irritating the mucous lining.
N.B
1. Special care of the nose and mouth to prevent dryness should
be considered
2. Always measure the amount withdrawn accurately noting
color, contents and smell
3. Record on the fluid chart properly
4. Report any change in patient condition regarding pulse,
Temperature, B.P fluid out put.
III. Enema
Enema: is the introduction of fluid into rectum and sigmoid colon for
cleansing, therapeutic or diagnostic purposes.
Purpose:
• For emptying – soap solution enema
• For diagnostic purpose (Barium enema)
• For introducing drug/substance (retention enema)
Solution used:
1. Normal saline
2. Soap solution – sol. Soap 1gm in 20 ml of H2O
3. Epsum salt 15 gm – 120 gm in 1,000 ml of H2O
237
Mechanisms of some solutions used in enema

1. Tap water: increase peristalsis by causing mechanical
distension of the colon.
2. Normal saline solution
3. Soap solution: increases peristalsis due to irritating effect of
soap to the lumenal mucosa of the colon.
4. Epsum salt: The concentrated solution causes flow of ECF
(extra cellular fluid) to the lumen causing mechanical
distension resulting in increased peristalsis.
Classified into:
• Cleansing (evacuation)
• Retention
• Carminative
• Return flow enema
Cleansing enema
Kinds:
1. High enema
Is given to clean as much of the colon as possible
The solution container should be 30-45 cm about the rectum
2. Low enema
Is administered to clean the rectum and sigmoid colon only
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Guidelines
Enema for adults are usually given at 40-43oc and for children at
37.7 oc
Hot – cause injury to the bowel mucous
Cold – uncomfortable and may trigger a spasm of the sphincter
muscles
The amount of solution to be administered depends on:

Kind of enema
The age of the person and
The persons ability to retain the solution
Age Amount
18 month 50-200 ml
18 mon-5 yrs 200-300 ml
5-12 yrs 300-500 ml
12 yrs and older 500-1,000 ml
The rectal tube should be appropriate: is measured in French scale
Age Size
Infants/small child 10-12 fr
Toddler 14-16 fr
School age child 16-18 fr
Adults 22-30 fr
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Purpose
To stimulate peristalsis and remove feces or flatus (for
constipation)
To soften feces and lubricate the rectum and colon
To clean the rectum and colon in preparation for an
examination. E.g. Colonoscopy
To remove feces prior to a surgical procedure or a delivery
For incontinent patients to keep the colon empty
For diagnostic test
E.g. before certain x-ray exam – barium enema
Before giving stool specimen for certain parasites
Procedure
Inform the patient about the procedure
Put bed side screen for privacy
Attach rubber tube with enema can with nozzle and stop cock
or clamp
Place the patient in the lateral position with the Rt. leg flexed,
for adequate exposure of the anus (facilitates the flow of
solution by gravity into the sigmoid and descending color,
which are on the side
Fill the enema can which 1000 cc of solution for adults
Lubricate about 5 cm of the rectal tube – facilities insertion
through the sphincter and minimizes trauma
Hung the can = 45 cm from bed or 30 cm from patient on the
stand
240
Place a piece of mackintosh under the bed

Make the tube air free by releasing the clamp and allowing the
fluid to run down little to the bed pan and clamp open –
prevents unnecessary distention
Lift the upper buttock to visualize the answer
Insert the tube
¾ 7-10 cm in an adult smoothly and slowly
¾ 5-7.5 cm in the child
¾ 2.5-3.75 cm in an infant
Raise the solution container and open the clamp to allow fluid
to flow
Administer the fluid slowly if client complains of fullness or
pain stop the flow for 30” and restart the flow at a slower rate
– decreases intestinal spasm and premature ejection of the
solution
Do not allow all the fluid to go as there is a possibility of air
entering the rectum or when the client can not hold anymore
and wants to defecate, close the clamp and remove the rectal
tube from the anus and offer the bed pan.
Remove bed pan and clean the rectal tube
Note: if resistance is encountered at the internal sphincter, ask the

clients to take a deep breath, then run a small amount of solution
(relaxes the internal anus sphincter)
241
Retention Enema
Administration of solution to be retained in rectum for short or
long period
Are enemas meant for various purpose in which the fluid
usually medicine is retained in rectum for short or long period
– for local or general effects
E.g. oil retention enema
Antispasmodic enema
1. Principles:
Is given slowly by means of a rectal tube
The amount of fluid is usually 150-200 cc
Cleansing enema is given after the retention time is over
Temperature of enema fluid is 37.4 c or body
(Return flow Enema) Harris fluid
Purpose
To supply the body with fluid.
To give medication E.g. stimulants – paraldehyde or ant-
spasmodic.
To soften impacted fecal matter.
Other equipment is similar except that the tube for retention enema
is smaller in width.
Procedure
Similar with the cleansing enema but the enema should be
administered very slowly and always be preceded by passing a
flatus tube
242
Note
1. Most medicated retention enema must be preceded by a
cleansing enema. A patient must rest for ½ hrs before giving
retention enema
2. Elevate foot of bed to help patient retain enema
3. The amount of fluid is usually 150-200 cc
4. Temperature of enema fluid is 37.4 oc or at body
5. Kinds of solution used to supply body with fluid are plain H2O,
normal saline, glucose 5% sodabicarbonate 2-5%
6. Olive oil 100-200 cc to be retained for 6-8 hrs is given for
server constipation
Rectal Washout (Siphoning Enema)

(Colon irrigation or colonic flush)
- Also called enterolysis
- Is the process of introducing large amount of fluid into large
bowel for flushing purpose and allow return or wash out fluid
Purpose
• To prepare the patient for x-ray exam and sigmoidoscopy
• To prepare the patient for rectum and color operation
Solution Used
• Normal saline
• Soda-bi-carbonate solution (to remove excess mucus)
• Tap water
243
• KMNO4 sol. 1:6000 for dysentery or weak tannic acid

• Tr. Asafetida in 1:1000 to relieve distention
Procedure
• Insert the tube like the cleansing enema
• The client lies on the bed with hips close to the side of the bed
(client assumes a right side lying position for siphoning)
• Open the clamp and allow to run about 1,000 cc of fluid in the
bowel, then siphon back into the bucket
• Carry on the procedure until the fluid return is clear
Note:
• The procedure should not take > 2 hrs
• Should be finished 1 hr before exam or x-ray – to give
time for the large intestine to absorb the rest of the fluid
• Give cleansing enema ½ hr before the rectal wash out
• Allow the fluid to pass slowly
Amount of solution
• 5-6 liters or until the wash out rectum fluid becomes
clear
Passing a Flatus Tube
Purpose
• To decrease flatulence (sever abdominal distention)
• Before giving a retention enema
244
Procedure
• Place the patient in left. Lateral position
• Lubricate the tube about 15 cm
• Separate the rectum and insert 12-15 cm in to the rectum and
tape it
• Connect the free end to extra tubing by the glass connector
• The end of the tube should reach the (tape H2O) solution in
the bowel
• The amount of air passed can be seen bubbling through the
solution
(a funnel may be connected to free end of tube and placed in
an antiseptic solution in bowel)
• Teach client to avoid substances that cause flatulent
• Leave the rectal tube in place for a period or no longer than
20 minute – can affect the ability to voluntarily control the
sphincter if placement is prolonged
• Reinsert the rectal tube every 2-3 hrs if the distention has
been unrelieved or reaccumulates – allows gas to move in the
direction of the rectum.
III. Urinary Catheterization
Definition of catheterization: Is the introduction of a tube (catheter)

through the urethra into the urinary bladder
• Is performed only when absolutely necessary for fear of
infection and trauma
245
Note. Strictly a sterile procedure, i.e. the nurse should always follow
aseptic technique
Catheter: is a tube with a hole at the tip

Types of Catheter
1. Straight (plain or Robinson)
2. Retention (Foleys, indwelling)
Selecting an appropriate catheter:

• May be made of
⇐ Plastic – for 1 week
⇐ Latex – 2-3 (rubber)
⇐ Silicon – for 2-3 month
⇐ Pelyvinylchloride (PVC) – 4-6
1. Select the type of material in accordance with the estimated

length of the catheterization period:
2. Determine appropriate catheter size
- are determined by diameter of lumen
- graded on French scale or number.
• Catheter size depends on the size of the urethral canal
⇐ # 8-10 Fr – children
⇐ # 14-16 Fr – female adults
⇐ # 18 Fr – adult male
NB. Fr= French Scale
246
3. Determine appropriate catheter length by the clients gender

• For adult male – 40 cm catheter
• For adult females – 22 cm catheter
4. Select appropriate balloon size

• 5 ml – for adults
• 3 ml – for children
Catheterization Using a straight catheter
Purpose
• To relieve discomfort due to bladder distention
• To assess the residual urine
• To obtain a urine specimen
• To empty the bladder prior to surgery
Equipment
I. Sterile
• Kidney dish
• Galipot
• Gauze
• Towel
• Solution
• Lubricant
• Catheter
247
• Syringe
• Water
• Specimen bottle
• Gloves
II. Clean
• Waste receiver
• Rubber sheet
• Flash light
• Measuring jug
• Screen
Procedure
• Prepare the client and equipment for perennial wash
• Position the patient – dorsal recumbent (pillows can be used
to elevate the buttocks in females).
• Drape the patient.
• Wash the perennial area with warm water and soap
• Rinse and dry the area
• Prepare the equipment
• Create a sterile field
• Drop the client with a sterile drape
• Clean the area with antiseptic solution.
• Lubricate the insertion tip of the catheter (5-7 cm in)
248
• Expose the urinary meatus adequately by retracting the tissue

or the labia minora in an upward direction – female
• Retract the fore skin of uncircumcised mal.
• Grasp the penis firmly behind the glans and hold straighten
the down ward curvature of vertical it go to the body – male
hole the catheter 5 cm from the insertion tip
• Insert the catheter into the urethral orifice
• Insert 5 cm in females and 20 cm in males or until urine
comes
• Collect the urine – for specimen (about 30 ml)
• Pinch previous leakage
• Empty or drain the bladder and remove the catheter
• For adults experiencing urinary retention an order is needed
on the amount to urine to be expelled
Note.
• If resistance is encountered during insertion, do not force it –
forceful pressure can cause trauma. Ask the client to take
deep breaths - relaxes the external sphincter (slight resistance
is normal)
• Dorsal Recumbent
Female - for a better view of the urinary meatus and reduce
the risk of catheter contaminate.
Male- allows greater relaxation of the abdominal and perennial
muscles and permits easier insertion of the tube.
Straight Catheter: is a single lumen tube with a small eye or
opening about (1.25 cm) from the insertion tip:
249
Inserting a Retention (Indwelling) Catheter

Retention (Foley) Catheter
Contains a second, smaller tube through out its length on the inside
– this tube is connected to a balloon near the insertion tip.
Purpose
• To manage incontinence
• To provide for intermittent or continuous bladder drainage and
irrigation
• To prevent urine from contacting an incision after perineal
surgery (prevent infection)
• To measure urine out put needs to be monitored hourly
Procedure
• Prepare the equipment like:
Retention catheter
Syringe
⇐ Sterile water
⇐ Tape
⇐ Urine collection bag and tubing
• After catheter insertion, the balloon is inflated to hold the
catheter in place with in the bladder.
The out side end of the catheter is bifurcated i.e., it has
two openings, one to drain the urine, the other to inflate
the balloon.
250
The balloons are sized by the volume of fluid or air

used to inflate them 5 ml – 30 ml (15 commonly)
indicated with the catheter size 18 Fr – 5 ml.
• Test the catheter balloon
• Follow steps as insertion straight catheter
• Insert the catheter an additional 2.5 – 5 cm (1-2 in) beyond
the point at which urine began to flow (the balloon of the
catheter is located behind the opening at the insertion tip) –
this ensures that the balloon is inflated inside the bladder and
not in the urethra (cause trauma)
• Inflate the balloon with the pre filled syringe
• Apply slight tension on the catheter until you feel resistance:
resistance indicates that the catheter balloon is inflated
appropriately and that the catheter is well anchored in the
bladder
• Release the resistance
• Tape the catheter with tape to the inside of a females thigh or
to the thigh or a body of a male client
⇐ Restricts the movement of the catheter and irritation in
the urethra when the client moves
⇐ When there is increased risk of penile scrotal
excoriation
• Establish effective drainage
• The bag should be off the floor – the emptying spout does not
become grossly contaminated
• Document pertinent data
251
Removal
• Withdraw the solution or air from the balloon using a syringe
• And remove gently
Study Questions
1. Define gastric lavage.
2. Mention indications of gastric lavage.
3. Define Enema.
4. State how the mechanism of action of soap solution enema
exerts its function.
5. Mention conditions that differentiate between male and female
catheterization.
252
UNIT SIX
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
MEDICATION ADMINISTRATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit the students will be able to:
Describe various rout of drug administration.
Mention the general rules & care of administering
medications.
Identify the parts and types of syringes and needles.
List the necessary equipments required for drug
administration.
Mention the five rights before drug administration.
Locate the different sites of parentral drug administration.
Demonstrate essential steps of medication administration.
List precautions for medication administration.
Key Terminology
ampule ohpthalimic parentral
brand name pharmacokinectics trade name
capsule pharmacology transdermal
chemical name potentiating toxicity
dosage prescription transfusion
enteric coated synergistic vial
generic name otic z-track
infusion tablet
253
medication topical
Pharmacology is the study of drugs. Drugs are chemicals that alter

functions of living organism.
Therapeutic agents are drugs or medications that, when introduced
in to living organism, modify the physiologic functions of that
organism.
Drug Metabolism
Drug metabolism in the human body is accomplished in four basic
stages: absorption, transportation, biotransformation, and excretion.
For a drug to be completely metabolized, it must first be given in
sufficient concentration to produce desired effect on body tissues.
When this “Critical drug concentration” level is achieved, body tissue
change.
Route of Absorption
Drugs are absorbed by the mucus membranes, the gastro intestinal
tract, the respiratory tract, and the skin. The mucus membranes are
one of the most rapid and effective routes of absorption because
they are highly vascular.
Oral drugs (drugs that are given by mouth) are absorbed in the
gastro intestinal tract. The rate of absorption depends on the pH of
the stomach’s contents, the food contents in the stomach at the time
of ingestion, and the presence of disease conditions. Most of the
drug concentrate dissolves in the small intestine where the large
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vascular surface and moderate pH level enhance the process of

breaking down the drug.
Parental methods are the most direct, reliable, and rapid route of
absorption. This method of administration includes intradermal,
subcutaneous, intramuscular (IM) and intravenous (IV). The actual
site of administration depends on the type of drug, its action, and the
client. Another route of medication include respiratory tract by
inhalation, sublingual, buccal and topical.
Transportation
The second stage of metabolism refers to the way in which a drug is
transported from the site of introduction to the site of action. When
the body absorbs a drug, a portion of the drug binds to plasma
protein and may compete with other drugs for this storage site.
Another portion is transported in “free” form through the circulation to
all parts of the body. It is the “free” drug that is pharmacologically
active. As the free drug moves from the circulatory system, it
crosses cell membranes to reach its site of action. As the drug is
metabolized and excreted, protein bound drug is freed for action.
Lipid-soluble drugs are distributed to and stored in fat and then
released slowly in to the bloodstream when drug administration is
discontinued. The amount of the drug that is distributed to body
tissues depends on the permeability of the membranes and blood
supply to the absorption area.
Biotransformation:- The third stage of metabolism takes place as

the drug, which is a foreign substance in the body; is converted by
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enzymes into a less active and harmless agent that can be easily
excreted. Most of this conversion occurs in the liver, although some
conversion does take place in the lungs, kidney plasma and
intestinal mucosa
Excretion:- The final stage in metabolism takes place when the

drug is changed in to an inactive form or excreted from the body.
The kidneys are the most important route of excretion because they
eliminate both the pure drug and the metabolism of the parent drug.
During excretion, these two substances are filtered through
glomeruli, secreted by the tubules, and either reabsorbed through
the tables or directly excreted. Other routes of excretion include the
lungs (which exhale gaseous drugs). Feces, saliva, tears, and
mother’s milk
Factors Affecting Drug metabolism

Many factors affect drug metabolism, including personal attributes,
such as body weight, age, and sex, physiologic factors, such as
state of health or disease processes, acid-base and fluid and
electrolyte balance; permeability; diurnal rhythm; and circulatory
capability.
Genetic and immunologic factors play a role in drug metabolism, as

do psychologic, emotional and environmental influences, drug
tolerance, and cumulation of drugs. Responses to drugs vary,
depending on the speed with which the drug is absorbed into the
blood or tissues and the effectiveness of the body’s circulatory
system.
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Source and Naming of Drugs

The primary natural sources from which drugs are compounded are
roots, bark, sap, leaves, flowers, and seeds of plants, other natural
sources include animal organs or organ cells secretions, and mineral
sources. Synthetic drugs, such as sulfonamide, are made in a
laboratory from chemical substances.
Most drugs are given chemical, generic, and trademark names. The
generic name is shorter and simples and reflects the chemical
fancily to which the drug belongs. The trade name is the most
common way in which the drugs are known. Once a drug is
registered with a brand name, only its legal owners can manufacture
the drug.
Drug Administration
The route of drug administration influences the action of that drug on
the body. To obtain a systemic effect, a drug must be absorbed and
transported to the cells or tissues that respond to them. How a drug
is administered depends on the chemical nature and quantity of the
drug, as well as on the desired speed of effect and the overall
condition of the client.
Individual drugs are designed to be administered by specific route-

be sure to check drug labels for the appropriate route of
administration. Common routes of administration to obtain systemic
effects include the following: oral, sublingual, rectal, trans dermal,
and parentral. Parentral ingections are commonly administered in
these sites: intradermal, subcutaneous, IM and IV.
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Safety Procedures
When you administer drugs, you must follow certain safety roles,
which are also known as “the Five Rights.”
These rules should be carried out each time you give a drug to a
client.
The Five Rights

- Right medication. Compare drug card, medication sheet or
drug kardex (client’s medication record) three times, with
label on drug container. Know action, dosage and method of
administration. Know side effects of the drug.
- Right client, check the client’s identification-Name, Age, Bed
number, and ward/door number.
- Right time
- Right method/route of administration
- Right amount/dosage- cheek all calculations of divided dose
with another nurse.

- Assessment /Data base
- Assess route for drug administration
- Assess specific drug action for cheat
- Observe for sign and symptoms of side effects or adverse
reactions
- Assess need for and accuracy of drug calculation
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Planning /setting objectives

- To administer medications using correct route
- To determine appropriate drug actions
- To identify when side effects or adverse reactions occur
- To accurately calculate drug dosages.
Implementation /Intervention
- Preparing for drug administration
- Creating a rapport with the patient
- Assembling necessary equipment
- Converting medication
- Calculating dosage as appropriate
- Following the five rights
- Using the unit Dose system
- Using the Narcotic control system
Evaluation /Epected out comes

- Medications are administered by correct route
- Medication action and side effects are identified
- Drug dosages are calculated accurately
Different Routes of Drug Administration

Oral
Topical
Parentral
- Intradermal
- Subcutaneous
- Intramuscularly
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- Intravenous
Rectal
Vaginal
Inhalation
I. Oral Administration
Definition: Oral medication is drug administered by mouth
Purpose
a. When local effects on GI tract are desired
b. When prolonged systemic action is desired
Contra- indications
1. For a patient with nausea & vomiting, unconscious patients.
2. When digestive juices inactivate the effect of the drug.
3. When there is inadequate absorption of the drug, which leads
to inaccurate determination of the drug absorbed.
4. When the drug is irritating to the mucus membrane of the
alimentary canal.
Type of Oral Medication
1. Lozenges (troches) - sweet medicinal tablet containing

sugar that dissolve in the mouth so
that the medication is applied to the
mouth and throat
260
2. Tablets - a small disc or flat round piece of dry

drug containing one or more drugs
made by compressing a powdered
form of drug(s)
3. Capsules - small hollow digestible case usually
made of gelatin, filled with a drug to
be swallowed by the patient.
4. Syrups - sugar containing medicine dissolved in
water
5. Tinctures - medicinal substances dissolved in
water
6. Suspensions - liquid medication with undissolved
solid particles in it.
7. Pills and gargle - a small ball of variable size, shape
and color some times coated with
sugar that contains one or more
medicinal substances in solid form
taken in mouth.
8. Effervescence - drugs given of small bubbles of gas.
9. Gargle - mildly antiseptic solution used to clean
the mouth or throat.
10. Powder - a medicinal preparation consisting of
a mixture of two or more drugs in the
form of fine particles.
Equipment
• Tray
• Towel
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• A bowl of water for used mediation cup

• Measuring spoon
• A Jug of water (boiled water)
• Chart and medication card
• Ordered medication
• Straw if necessary
Procedure
• Prepare your tray and take it to the patient's room
• Begin by checking the order
• Read the label 3 times
• Place solution and tablets in a separate container.
• If suspension, shake the bottle well before pouring
• Take it to the pt's bedside
• Keep the medication in site at all time
• Identify the patient carefully using all identification variables.
(Pt’s name, bed number…)
• Remain with the pt. until each medicine is swallowed
• Offer additional fluid as necessary unless contra-indicated
• Record the medication given, refused or omitted immediately.
• Take care of the equipment & return them to their proper
places.
• Wash your hands.
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Note
1. Remember the 5 R's
Right patient
Right medication
Right route
Right dose
Right time
2. Always keep the bottle tightly closed.
3. Clean and keep the label of the bottle clear.
4. Keep medication away from light.
5. Cheek their expiration date.
6. Keep the rim of the bottle clean.
7. Give your undivided attention to your work while preparing
and giving medications.
8. Make sure that a graduate nurse checks some potent drugs.
9. Never give medications from unlabeled container
10. Never return a dose once poured from the bottle.
11. Check your patient's vital sign may be necessary before and
after administrating some drugs e.g. digitals, ergometrine.
12. Never give medicine that some one poured or drawn.
13. Never leave medicine at bed side of a patient and within reach
of the children
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II. Suppository
Purpose
• To produce a laxative effect. (bowel movement),suppository is
used frequently instead of enema since it is inexpensive.
• To produce local sedative in the treatment of hemorrhoids or
rectal abscess.
• To produce general sedative effects when medications cannot
be taken by mouth
• To check rectal bleeding
Equipment
• Suppository (as ordered)
• Gauze square
• Rectal glove or finger cot
• Toilet paper
• Receiver for soiled swabs
• Bedpan, if the treatment is in order to produce defection.
• Screen
• Mackintosh and towel
Procedure
1. Check medication order.
2. Review client’s medical record for rectal surgery/ bleeding.
3. Wash hands.
4. Prepare needed equipment and supplies.
5. Apply disposable gloves.
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6. Identify client.
7. Explain procedure to client.
8. Arrange supplies at client’s bedside.
9. Provide privacy.
10. Position client in Sims’ position.
11. Keep client draped, except for anal area.
12. Examine external condition of client’s anus. Palpate rectal
walls.
13. Dispose of gloves, if soiled, and reapply new gloves.
14. Remove suppository from wrapper and lubricate rounded
end.
15. Lubricate gloved finger of dominant hand.
16. Ask client to take slow, deep breaths through mouth and
to relax anal sphincter.
17. Retract client’s buttocks with nondominant hand.
18. With index finger of dominant hand, gently insert
suppository through anus, past the internal sphincter, and
place against rectal wall, 10 cm for adults or 5 cm for
children and infants.
19. Withdraw finger and wipe client’s anal area clean.
20. Remove and dispose of gloves.
21. Wash hands.
22. If suppository contains a laxative or fecal softener, be sure
that client will receive help to reach bedpan or toilet.
23. Keep client flat on back or on side for 5 minutes.
24. Return in 5 minutes to determine if suppository has been
expelled.
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25. Observe client for effects of suppository 30 minutes after

administration.
26. Record medication administration.
Kinds of Suppositories Used:

1. Bisacodyl (Dulcolax) is commonly ordered for its laxative
action. It stimulates the rectum and lubricates its contents.
Normally 15 minutes is needed to produce bowel movement.
2. Glycerin or suppository for bringing about bowel movement. If
soap suppository is used cut a splinter of soap 2-6 cm. loch
and wash it in hot water to smooth the rough edges before
administration.
3. Bismuth - for checking diarrhea.
4. Opium, sodium barbital etc. for sedation
III. Parentral Drug Administration
A. Intradermal Injection
Definition: It is an injection given into the dermal layer of the skin

(corneum)
Purpose
For diagnostic purpose
a. Fine test (mantoux test)
b. Allergic reaction
For therapeutic purpose
c. Intradermal injection may also be given like in vaccination
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Site of Injection
• The inner part of the forearm (midway between the wrist and
elbow.
• Upper arm, at deltoid area for BCG vaccination
Equipment
• Tray
• Syringe & needle (sterile)
• Receiver
• Drug (to be injected)
• File
• Alcohol swab
• Marking pen
• Water in the bowel to rinse syringe and needle
Procedure
• Take equipment to the patient's side
• Explain procedure to patient
• Get hold of the arm & locate the site of injection.
• Clean the skin with swab and inject the drug about 0.1. 0.2
inch in to the epidermis after the bevel of the needle is no
longer visible. Don't massage the site.
• Check for the immediate reaction of the skin (10-15 minutes
later for tetanus, 20-30 minutes later for penicillin)
• If it is for tine test, mark the area
• Chart the data and time of the administration of the drug.
• Take care of the equipment & return to their places.
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• Do not forget to do the reading after 72 hours if it is for fine

test (tuberculin test)
• Document about the procedure
B. Sub - Cutaneous Injection
Definition: Injecting of drug under the skin in the subcutaneous

tissue, (under the dermis)
Purpose:
• To obtain quicker absorption than oral administration
• When it is impossible to give medication orally
Equipment
• Tray
• Sterile syringe & needle (disposable)
• Alcohol swabs
• Medication
• File
• Medication card and patient chart
• Receiver
• Water in a bowel
• Disposing box
Site of Injection
• Outer part of the upper arm
• The abdomen below the costal margin to the iliac crest.
• The anterior aspect of the thigh
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Procedure
• Take equipment to the pt's bed side or room
• Draw your medication
• Expel the air from the syringe
• Clean the site (usually it is in upper arms, thighs or abdomen)
• Grasp the area between your thumb & forefinger to tense it.
• Insert the needle elevate about 450 - 600 angle.
• Pierce the skin quickly & advance the needle
• Aspirate to determine that the needle has not entered a blood
vessel
• Inject the drug slowly.
• After injecting withdraw the needle and massage the area with
alcohol swab.
• Chart the amount and time of administration immediately.
• Take care of the equipment- wash, sterilize and return to its
place
• Watch for undesired reaction (side effect of the drug) etc.
Note.
If repeated injections are given, the nurse should rotate the
site of injection so that each succeeding injection is about 5
cm away from the previous one.
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C. Intera- Muscular Injection
Definition: It is an introduction of a drug into a body's system via

the muscles.
Purpose
• To obtain quick action next to the intravenous route
• To avoid an irritation from the drug if given through other
route.
Equipment
• Tray
• Ordered drug (ampoule, vial)
• Sterile syringes and needle in a container
• Alcohol swab
• Receiver
• A bowl of water for used syringes and needle
• File
• Sterile jar with sterile forceps
• Chart
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Sites for I.M. Injection

• Ventrogluteal muscle
A.
• Dorsogluteal muscle
• Deltoid muscle
• Vastus Lateralis
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B.
Figure 10IM injection sites A : Vastus lateralis, B. Deltoid muscle, C. Gluteal Maxmus
Procedure
• Do the ABC of the procedure.
• Prepare tray & take it to the patien’s room
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• Prepare the medication

• Draw the medicine
• Expel the air from the syringe
• Choose the site of injection (the site for intramuscular)
• Using the iliac crest as the upper boundary divided the buttock
into four. Clean the upper outer quadrant with alcohol swab:
• Stretch the skin and inject the medicine
• Draw back the piston (plunger) to check whether or not you
are in the blood vessel ( if blood returns, withdraw and get a
new needle & reinject in a different spot)
• Push the drug slowly into the muscle
• When completed, withdraw the needle and massage the area
with swab gently to and absorption.
• Place the patient comfortably
• Take care of the equipment you have used & return to their
places
• Chart the amount, time route and type of the medicine
• Check the patient's reaction
Note:
1. The needle for i.m. Injection should be long
2. Strict aseptic technique should be observed throughout the
procedure.
3. Injection should not be given in areas such as inflamed,
edematous, those containing moles and pus.
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D. I.V. INJECTIONS
Definition: It is the introduction of a drug in solution form into a

vein. Often the amount
is not more than 10.ml. at a time.
Sites for IV injection
1. Dorsal Venous network
2. Dorsal metacarpal Veins
3. Cephalic Veins
4. Radial vein
5. Ulnar vein
6. Baslic vein
7. Median cubital vein
8. Greater saphenous vein
Purpose
• When the given drug is irritating to the body tissue if given
through other routes.
• When quick action is desired.
• When it is particularly desirable to eliminate the variability of
absorption.
• When blood drawing is needed (exsanguinations)
Equipment
• Tray
• Towel and rubber sheet
• Sterile needle and syringes in a sterile container
274
• Sterile forceps in a sterile container

• Alcohol swabs
• File
• Medication
• Tourniquet
• Receivers (2)
• Treatment Chart
• Glove
Procedure
• Prepare your tray & the medication
• Position the patient properly
• Place rubber and towel under his arm(to protect the bed linen)
• Expose the arm and apply tourniquet
• Ask pt. To open and close his fist.
• Palpate the vein and clean with alcohol swab the site of the
injection (Which is mainly the mid cubital vein of the arm)
• Clean with a circular motion; proceed from center of the site
outward.
• Hold the needle at about 450 angles in line with the veins.
• Puncture the vein and draw back to check whether you are in
the vein or not.
(Blood return should be seen if you are in the vein)
• Once you know that you are in the vein, release the tourniquet
and gently lower the angle of the needle
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• When it is nearly paralleled to the vein and instills the

medications. Give very slowly unless there is an order to give
it fast (Normally 40-60 drops is given in 1 minute).
• Check the pt's pulse in between. Any complaint from the
patient should not be ignored.
• Apply pressure over the site after removing the needle to
prevent bleeding. Tell patient to flex his elbow.
• Watch the patient for few minutes before leaving him.
• Remove your equipment
• Put the pt. In a comfortable position
• Wash, sterilize and place the equipment in order.
• Chart the medication given the amount, time & the reaction of
the pt.
Note:
1. Have a bowl of water to rinse the needle used immediate
2. Make yourself as well as the pt. Comfortable before giving
injection.
3. It is the fastest way of drug administration
4. Never recup a used needle
E. Intravenous Therapy
Definition: It is the administration of a large amount of fluid into the

system through a vein.
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Purpose
• To maintain fluid & electrolyte balance
• To introduce medication particularly antibiotics.
Equipment
• IV fluid as ordered
• Sterile syringe & needle
• Rubber & towel
• Receiver
• Alcohol swabs
• Arm board
• Bandage & scissors
• Tourniquet
• I.V pole
• Adhesive tape
• Medication chart
Preparation of the Patient
Since an infusion therapy takes several hours to complete, the

patient should first be made comfortable.
Procedure
• Take equipment to the patient's bedside
• Explain the procedure to the patient. Be sure you have right
patient.
• Remove air form the tubing
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• Place rubber & towel under the arm

• Apply tourniquet about 3 c.m. above the intended site of entry.
• Observe & palpate for suitable vein
• Cleanse the skin with alcohol swabs thoroughly & place the
swab used thumb the retract down the vein & soft tissue 4
c.m. below the intended site of injection.
• Hold needle at 450 angle line with the vein
• Pierce the skin and puncture the vein
• Check if you are in the vein by drawing back with the syringes.
(blood returns if you are in the vein)
• Release the tourniquet gently
• Start the flow of solution by opening the clamp.
• Support needle with sterile gauze or sterile cotton balls If
necessary to keep it in proper position in the vein
• Anchor the I.V. tubing with the adhesive tape to prevent pull
on the needle.
• Place arm board or splint under the arm and bandage around.
• Adjust the rate of flow
• Rate of flow is regulated by the following formula.
Number of ml. of sol's number of drops in a ml.

Number of hrs. over which sol. is to be administered x 60
minutes
1ml = 15 drops
278
E.g. if 1000ml of 5% D/w is to run for 24 hrs, how many drops per
minutes should it run?
1000 ml. x 15 gtt/ml. = 1000 x 15 gtt. = 10 gtt/min
24 x 60 min. 24 x 60 min.
Note:
1. The arm board should be long enough to extend beyond the
wrist and elbow joint.
2. Board should be padded
3. Infusion bottle should be labeled with the date, time infusion is
started, drops per minute, and any added medications. If more
than one bottle as used in 24 hrs, it should be labeled as bag
1,2,3, and so on.
4. Extend the arm in the most comfortable position.
5. Usual areas used for intravenous infusion are:
a) The median basilic vein on the inner surface of the arm.
b) A vein on top of the foot
c) In an infant the jugular vein and the scalp vein
F. Blood Transfusion
Definition: It is the giving of blood to a patient through a vein
Purpose
• To counteract severe hemorrhage and replace the blood loss.
• To prevent circulatory failure in operation where blood loss is
considerable, such as in rectal resection hysterectomy and
arterial surgery.
279
• In severe burns to make up for blood lost by burning but only

after plasma and electrolytes have been replaced.
• For treatment of severe anemia due to cancer, marrow
aplasia and similar conditions.
• To provide clotting factors normally present in blood, which
may be absent as a result of disease.
Equipment
• Bottle containing blood, with the patient name, blood group
and Rh. Factor and expiry date.
• Blood giving set
• Sterile syringes and needle
• Alcohol swabs
• Sterile gauze
• Rubber sheet and towel
• Tourniquet
• Arm splint
• Bandages and scissors
• Adhesive tape
• Receiver for dirty swabs
• I.V pole (stand)
• Patient's chart.
280
Procedure
• Before blood transfusion is administered, the nurse has to
check the blood group & RH- factor if cross match of the
donor's & the recipient’s blood is done and is compatible. And
also check for HIV other blood born pathoges.
• Prepare the tray with necessary items
• Before taking it to the patient's room, check the patient's
name, hospital number, bed number, blood group, Rh. Factor
and the expiry date with a 2nd nurse or a doctor.
• Blood should be used within 21 days of its withdrawal date, if
sodium citrate is used it can be used until 36 days.
• Take it to the pt's room
• Hang the bottle & remove the air from the tubing
• Put pt. in a comfortable position.
• Place rubber & towel under the arm
• Check the vital signs before administering
• Choose the vein
• Apply tourniquet
• Clean the skin & feel for a distended vein & clean again.
• Puncture the vein with the needle (the needle here should be
short and wide so that it does not cause occlusion easily)
• After you make sure that you are in the vein release
tourniquet & open the clamp.
• The drop/minute at the beginning should be very slow
• Watch patient closely for any reaction
281
• If there is no reaction from the patient regulate the rate of flow

according to the patient's conditions & the order.
• Splint the arm & position it comfortably.
• Remove the equipment you have used, wash and return to its
proper place.
• Record the time you started the blood & any other pertinent
information.
• Check pt. frequently.
Note:
1. Always member to have anti- histamine injection ready in
case a patient has reaction from the blood.
2. Be familiar with the most usual symptoms of blood reactions
which are:-
Immediate Reaction:
a) Headache
b) Backache
c) Chills
d) Pyrexia
e) Rash of the skin (urticaria )
Late Reaction
a) Dyspnea
b) Renal shut down in severe cases
c) Heamaturia
d) Chest pain
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e) Rigor (rigidity)
Nursing Interventions in Transfusion Reaction

Reactions following blood transfusion may occur for various
reasons. Patient must be informed that the supply of blood is not
completely risk-free but that it has been tested carefully. Nursing
management is directed toward preventing complications and
promptly initiating measures to control any complications that occur.
The following steps are taken so that a diagnosis may be made
regarding the type and severity of the reaction:
¾ The transfusion set is disconnected, but the intravenous
line is kept patent with a normal saline solution (0.9%) in
case intravenous medication should be needed rapidly.
¾ The blood container and tubing are saved, not discarded.
They are sent to blood bank for repeat typing and culture.
The identifying tags and numbers are verified.
¾ The symptoms are treated as prescribed and vital signs are
monitored.
¾ The patient blood is drawn from plasma hemoglobin,
culture, and retyping.
¾ A urine sample is collected as soon as possible and sent to
laboratory for a hemoglobin determination. Subsequent
voiding of urine should be observed.
¾ The blood bank is notified that a suspected transfusion
reaction has occurred.
¾ The reaction is documented according to the institution’s
policy.
283
G. Cut Down
Definition - Dissection of a vein for inserting I.V cannula or needle.
Purpose
When vein puncture is difficult
When pro longed, continuos infusion is needed
When rapid infusion is important and emergency situation
combine these indications.
Equipment
Sterile
• Dressing forceps (1)
• Cotton balls in a gallpot
• Solution for cleansing
• Gloves
• Hole sheet (Fenestrated towel)
• Syringe and needle
• Scalpel (surgical knife)
• Mosquito forceps (3)
• Aneurysm needle (1)
• Silk
• Intravenous cannula or vein flow (2)
• Small, straight scissors (1)
• Small, curved scissors (1)
• Needle holder (1)
• Round needle (1)
284
• Cutting needle (2)

• Tissue forceps (1)
• Gauze (slit at one end)
• Probe
• Fine dissecting forceps (1)
• Local anesthesia
Clean
• Receiver of dirty swab
• Stand light, if available
• Adhesive tape (plaster)
• Dressing scissors
Procedure
• Bring equipment to the bedside of the patient
• Explain procedure to the patient
• Shave the area, if needed
• Position the patient properly
• The nurse will then open the set and pour the cleaning lotion
in to the galipot for the doctor
• The doctor then scrub his hands, put on gloves, clean and
drape the area, he will insert the I.V
• The channel is securely tied with silk and skin is closed
• The nurse dresses the site and secure it with adhesive plaster
• Remove all equipment, wash and send for sterilization
285
Administering Vaginal Medications

Purpose
• To treat or prevent infection
• To remove an offensive or irritating discharge
• To reduce inflammation
• To relieve vaginal discomfort
Equipment
• Prescribed vaginal suppository
• Client’s applicator (should be kept in client’s room)
• Clean gloves
1. Check medication order.

2. Wash hands.
3. Prepare equipment and supplies.
4. Identify client.
5. Inspect client’s external genitalia and vaginal canal.
6. Assess client’s ability to manipulate applicator and position
herself.
9. Provide privacy.
10. Assist client to dorsal recumbent position.
11. Keep client’s abdomen and lower extremities draped.
12. Apply disposable gloves.
13. Provide adequate lighting.
14. Insert suppository:
286
A. Take suppository from wrapper and lubricate smooth or rounded

end.
B. Lubricate gloved finger of dominant hand.
Offer client perineal pad.
15. Apply cream or foam:

A. Fill applicator as directed.
B. Retract client’s labial folds with nondomi-nant gloved hand.
C. With dominant gloved hand, insert applicator 5 to 7.5 cm; push
plunger.
D. Withdraw applicator and place it on paper towel. Wipe away
lubricant from client’s ori-fice and labia.
E. Wash applicator and store for future use.
16. Remove and discard gloves.

17. Wash hands.
18. Instruct client to remain flat on her back for at least 10 minutes.
20. Inspect condition of client’s vaginal canal and external genitalia
between applications.
21. Record medication administration.
C. Retract client’s labial folds with nondomi-nant gloved hand. D.
Insert rounded end of suppository 7.5 to 10 cm along posterior wall
of vaginal canal.
E. Withdraw finger and wipe away lubricant from client’s orifice and
labia.
287
Administering Ophthalmic Medications

Purposes:
• Instillation
- To provide an eye medication the client requires
• Irrigation
- To clear the eye of noxious or other foreign material or
excessive secretion in the preparation for surgery
1. Review prescriber’s medication order.
2. Assess condition of client’s external eye structures.
3. Determine whether client has any known allergies to
eye medications. Ask if client is allergic to latex.
4. Determine whether client has any symptoms of
visual alterations.
5. Assess client’s level of consciousness and ability to
follow directions.
6. Assess client’s knowledge regarding drug therapy
and desire to self-administer medication.
7. Assess client’s ability to manipulate and hold eye
dropper.
9. Wash hands.
11. Apply clean gloves.
12. Ask client to lie supine or to sit back in chair with
head slightly hyperextended.
13. Wash away any crusts or drainage along client’s
eyelid margins or inner canthus. Soak any crusts
that are dried and difficult to remove by applying a
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damp washcloth or cotton ball over eye for a few

minutes.
14. Hold cotton ball or clean tissue in nondominant hand
on client’s cheekbone just below lower eyelid.
15. With tissue or cotton ball resting below lower lid,
gently press downward with thumb or fore-finger
against bony orbit.
16. Ask client to look at ceiling.
17. Instill eye drops while explaining steps to client:
A. With dominant had resting on client’s fore-
head, hold filled medication eye dropper or
ophthalmic solution approximately 1 to 2 cm
above conjunctival sac.
B. Drop prescribed number of medication drops
into conjunctival sac.
C. If client blinks or closes eye or if drops land
on out lid margins, repeat procedure.
D. For drugs that cause systemic effects, with a
clean tissue apply gentle pressure with your
finger and clean tissue on the client’s naso-
lacrimal duct for 30 to 60 seconds.
E. After instilling drops, ask client to close eye
gently.
18. Instill eye ointment:
A. Ask client to look at ceiling.
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B. Holding ointment applicator above lower lid margin, apply thin

stream of ointment evenly along inner edge of lower eyelid on
conjunc-tiva from inner canthus to outer canthus.
C. Have client close eye and rub lid gently in circular motion with
cotton ball, if rubbing is not contraindicated.
19. Intraocular disk procedures:
A. Application:
(1) Wash hands.
(2) Put on gloves.
(3) Open package containing disk. Gently press fingertip against
disk so it adheres to finger. Position convex side of disk on fingertip.
(4) With other hand, gently pull client’s lower eyelid away from the
eye. Ask client to look up.
(5) Place disk in the conjunctival sac so that it floats on the sclera
between the iris and lower eyelid.
(6) Pull client’s lower eyelid out and over disk.
B. Removal:
(1) Wash hands.
(2) Put on gloves.
(3) Explain procedure to client.
(4) Gently pull on client’s lower eyelid to expose disk.
(5) Using forefinger and thumb of opposite hand, pinch disk and lift it
out of client’s eye.
20. If excess medication is on eyelid, gently wipe eyelid

from inner to outer canthus.
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21. If client had an eye patch, apply clean patch by

placing it over affected eye so entire eye is cov-
ered.
Tape securely without applying pressure to eye.
22. Remove gloves.
23. Dispose of soiled supplies in proper receptacle.
24. Wash hands.
25. Note client’s response to instillation. Ask if any
discomfort was felt.
26. Observe client’s response to medication by
assessing visual changes and noting any side
effects.
27. Ask client to discuss drug’s purpose, action, side
effect, and technique of administration.
28. Have client demonstrate self-administration of next
dose.
29. Record drug administration and appearance of
client’s eye.
30. Record and report and undesirable side effects.
Administering Ear Medications
Purpose:
To relieve pain
To treat infection
To better visualize during examination
Equipment
291
- Disposable tissues
- Medication
- Cotton ball
- Gloves
Procedure/Steps
1. Check the medication order against the original physician’s

order.
2. Wash hands carefully.
3. Prepare the medication following the “five rights.”
4. Proceed to the client’s bed side and identify the client.
5. Put on gloves
6. Ask the client to lie on the side of unaffected ear.
7. Remove excess drainage with a dry wipe.
8. Expose the external ear canal by properly adjusting the client’s

ear lobe. For adults, pull the lobe up, back, and outward. For
children, pull the lobe down and back.
9. (a) Hold the dropper or the tip of the squeeze bottle above the
opening of the external auditory canal. Allow the
prescribed number of drops to fall on the side of the canal.
(b) Do not touch any part of the ear with the dropper or
squeeze bottle during administration.
10. Instruct the client to remain the side-lying position for 5-10
minutes with the affect ear upward.
292
11. If the procedure is ordered for both ears, allow 5-10 minutes
between instillation. Report the above steps for the other ear.
12. Dispose of gloves and wash hands.
13. Document the procedure.
H. Inhalation
Definition: Inhalation is the act of drawing in of gas vapor or

steam into the lungs for therapeutic purposes it could
be in dry, moist or vapour form.
i. Oxygen Administration:
Purpose
To provide and maintain a normal supply of o2 for blood, and tissues.
o2 may be administered in three ways.
1. By mask
2. Nasal Catheter
3. Tent.
1. Giving O2 by mask
There are many kinds of masks used for O2 administration the
common ones are:
1. The venture mask
2. The B.L.B. masks (Boothby. Lovelace & Bulbulain)
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The venture mask gives a controlled amount of O2 i.e. it is not high

to cause respiratory depression & it is sufficient to relieve anoxia. It
gives 24-35% of O2
The B.L.B mask provides an oxygen concentration of 90% with the
flow meter set at 7 liters/minute. This kind of mask allows the patient
to eat, drink and to expectorate. If the patient cannot breath through
his nose, the B.L.B mask should not be used.
Equipment
- A cylinder of O2 with a reducing value and pressure tubing to
be connected with the O2 cylinder.
- Mask
- Safety pin to secure the tubing to the bed linen
- Tissue paper to clean the nostrils with. If the patient is
unconscious, a tray containing a galipot of saline or water,
wooden applicator and receiver for soiled applicator is
necessary in order to clean the nostrils
Procedure
1. The adjustment is turned on before bringing the cylinder to the
bedside.
2. Explain treatment to pt.
3. Bring equipment to the bedside
4. Ask him to clean his nostril to avoid obstruction (if well
enough)
5. Connect the mask to tubing and open the fine adjustment to
the required rate of flow. Then apply the mask to the patient's
face making sure that it rests comfortably on the pt's face. See
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that the tubing is secured to the bed linen by means of safety

pin. Stay with the patient till he is reassured if it is his first time
to be on oxygen therapy.
2. Giving oxygen by nasal catheter.
There are different kinds of catheters,

a) A fine catheter
b) A spectacle frame, which carries two, places of rubber tubing
and is worn by the pt.
c) Two soft rubber catheters connected by y- shaped
connection to the tube on O2 apparatus.
Equipment
- Oxygen cylinder with regulating valve and pressure tubing
- Wolf’s bottle
- Glass connection
- Fine catheters, lubricant, plaster
- Safety pin
- Tray containing a galipot of saline or water. Receiver for
soiled applicators.
Procedure
1. Procedure is the same as giving oxygen by mask:
(Procedure 1-4)
2. Connect the fine catheter with the pressure tubing. Turn on
the fine adjustment to the required rate of flow the maximum
liter flow being 6-7 litter /minute.
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3. Catheter is lubricated preferably with water and passed

backward into pharynx till the tip of the catheter is opposite
the uvula. The catheter can also be inserted by measuring the
distance from the patient's nose to his ear lobe. It is then
taped in place. Never force catheter against an obstruction.
Note:
Oxygen catheter are removed every 8 hrs. and a clean catheter is
inserted into the other nostril. Patient's receiving oxygen by catheter
requires special mouth and nose care since the catheter tends to
irritate the mucous membrane. Oxygen dries and irritates mucous
membrane, therefore, should be passed through water (Humidified)
before it is administered by catheter. The advantage of
administration of oxygen by catheter is the freedom of movement
that it gives to patients receiving oxygen. By this method patient can
obtain about 50% concentration of oxygen.
3. Oxygen tent
Purpose:
a) To keep patient in high oxygenation environment.
b) Whenever the other means are not possible.
Equipment
1. Transparent oxygen tent and its apparatus fitted with oxygen
2. Ice if the apparatus is with out refrigerator device.
3. Hanger for the tent
4. Room thermometer if needed
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5. No smoking sign for the unit
Procedure
1. Remove all electrical appliances from the room as this may
produce sparks.
2. Post sign of no smoking on many places in the unit
3. Prepare and check if the applicator is working properly.
4. Bring the oxygen unit to the bedside and fix the tent on the
hanger.
5. Close all appliances of the tent: place ice if the apparatus is
without refrigeration device.
6. Tuck the side of the hold of tent under the mattress as far as
they will go.
7. Fill the tent with 12-15 liters of oxygen 40-60% concentration
for the first half hour.
8. After the first half hour regulate the flow of oxygen to 6-10
liters or as ordered by the doctor until the treatment is
completed.
9. Check temperature indicator frequently and adjust to 180C-
220C.
10. Record state of patient and time started and the flow of the
oxygen.
Precautions to be taken when Oxygen is used

1. Oxygen supports combustion. There fore it is essential for the
patient's safety their is no smoking within 3 meters of oxygen
equipment. Lighted matches, cigarettes, electric lights, nylon
297
clothing, electric pads, bells mechanical toys should be

forbidden.
2. Alcohol must not be applied to the pt's skin
3 The catheter tip and the cylinder itself must not be lubricated
with
Vaseline or oil or any kind
6. Cylinders must be handled carefully as the oxygen is under
pressure.
7. The fine adjustment should always be closed when the main
tap is turned on.
8. Check that there is no obstacle in the pt's airway before firing
oxygen in order to prevent pt. From suffocation.
9. A rate of 2-liters/ minute is commonly used when oxygen used
in case of emergency instead of free air. In the case of
asphyxia liter/min may be needed.
Protect patient from asphyxia, inspecting regularly pressure
gauge and flow meter and noting pulse, respiration, color,
mental state and necrosis from carbon dioxide.
ii. Steam Inhalation

Definition: It is the intake of steam alone or with medication
through the nose or mouth
Purpose
1. In order to produce a local effect on the upper respiratory
passage during cold, sinusitis, laryngitis, bronchitis etc.
common drugs used are frier balsam (tincture of benzoin
compound, eucalyptus. Menthol, camphor)
298
2. To allay spasm e.g. Asthma, angina pectoris

3. To increase circulation in the lungs by increasing or
decreasing the secretion of the bronchi.
E.g. ammonia inhaled in cases of fainting and syncope
stimulated the respiratory center and heart action.
4. To moisten secretions e.g. Tracheotomy
There are two Types of Inhalation

1. Intermittent (interrupted) e.g. Nelson's inhaler.
2. Continues method e.g. steam tent.
1. Nelson's Inhaler
Equipment
• Nelson's inhaler with the mouth piece
• Cover for the inhaler (blanket or towel)
• A bowl or saucepan to carry the inhaler
• Face towel to wipe the face as patient required
• Gauze can be use around the mouthpiece to prevent burning
of the lips.
• A tray. Large enough, to carry the inhaler to take it to the
bedsides.
• A measuring jug with water which is 820C
• The drug ordered might be eucalyptus, tincture of benzene
(about 4 cc).
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Procedure
Inhaler should be warmed and glass mouthpiece boiled
Measure the drug as ordered. Either point in the
graduate measure 90 cc of cold water and 500 cc of
boiled water to bring the temperate 820c or half by half
or pour half point (300cc) of boiling water into the inhaler
than 5 cc of tincture of benzene or any other drug
ordered.
Then add 300 cc water making sure that the
temperature of water in the inhaler comes to 820C. This
is done in order to have a good mixture of the drug. The
level of the fluid should not be above the spout.
Fix the mouthpiece firmly in the inhaler in direction
opposite to the air inlet and cover the inhaler with
blanket or towel
Close windows.
Prepare the patient usually in a sitting - up position
making sure that he/she is well supported.
Then put inhaler on a saucepan on the tray.
Place the tray on the over- bed table or on his knees in
such a way that he can bend over the inhaler easily.
Put the spout for the escape of steam away from him.
Cover his head with blanket.
Tell the patient to breath in by putting his lip to the
mouth piece which may be protected by a piece of
gauze, and breath out by removing his lips for a moment
from the mouth piece
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The treatment can take from 5-10 minutes after which

the patient should be kept warm and comfortable for
some time.
N.B :
1. If a Nelson's inhaler is not available a wide- mouthed jug may
used. The patient should be covered up to the waist with a
balance from a canopy, or the mouth of the jug may be covered
with a towel to make the opening small enough for the patient to
put his nose and mouth (not eyes) on it.
2. For irrational, helpless patients, stay with them throughout the
procedure.
3. Report the amount and nature of any sputum or discharge.
Care of Equipment after use

• Pour out the water from the inhaler (not onto a sink)
• Wash the inhaler with hot water
• Boil the mouth piece
Emergency tray and Trolley

List of Emergency Drugs. List of Emergency Equipment
• O2 - Tourniquet
• Morphine sulfate - O2 mask or nasal catheter

• Aramine - plaster
• Adrenalin( Epinephrin.) - Dressing scissors
• Levophed -Arm Board
• Phenergan - Small makintosh '' towel''
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• Aminophylline - Tongue depressor

• Allercur - Mouth gag
• Nor adrenaline - Air way
• Carmine (Nikethamide) - suction machine
• Lasix - Files
• Syringes and needles - Container with alcohol
• Digoxin - Receiver
• Na HCO3 (Sodium bicarbonate) - Bandage
• Swabs - Levin's tube
• Vitamin k - Ned blacks
• 0 .9% Normal Saline
• 5% D/w with complete set
• Largactil
• Diazepam
• Ergometrine
• Kcl (potassium chloride)
• 40% dextrose
Study Questions
1. Which one of the following rout of drug administration has

fastest action?
a. Oral c. Intravenous
b. Subcutaneous d. Rectal
2. Mention two indications for oral drug administration
3. State the 5 Rs during drug administration.
302
4. Which one of the following site of injection most preferred for

young children?
a. Vastus lateralis c. Deltoid muscle
b. Ventrogluteal d. Dorsogluteal
5. Explain the difference between intravenous injection and
intravenous infusion.
6. List at least three immediate complications of blood
transfusion.
7. Define inhalation
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UNIT SEVEN
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
WOUND CARE
Learning Objectives
• Differentiate types of wounds.
• Explain the purpose of wound care.
• List important equipment needed to provide wound care.
• Perform dressing of clean and septic wounds.
• Provide care for the patient with draining wound.
• Demonstrate skill of wound suturing and irrigation.
• Apply clip and remove it when indicated.
Key Terminology
abrasion laceration wound
debridement pressure ulcer
decubetus ulcer puncture
exudates surgical incision
The skin acts as a barrier to protect the body from the potentially
harmful external environment. When the skin’s integrity (intactness)
is broken, the body’s internal environment is open to
microorganisms that cause infection. Any abnormal opening in the
skin is a wound.
304
A wound is any disruption in the skins intactness. It may be
accidental or intentional such as abrasion (rubbing off the skin’s
surface); a puncture wound (stab wound); or laceration (a wound
with torn, ragged edges). A wound may be intentional, such as
surgical incision (a wound with clean edges). A wound that occurs
accidentally is contaminated; intentional wounds are made under
sterile conditions.
Wound healing
Wound healing differs according to how much tissue has been
damaged. It occurs by first, second, and third intention.
First intention healing occurs in wounds with minimal tissue loss,
such as surgical incisions or sutured wounds. Edges are
approximated (close to each other); thus they seal together rapidly.
Scaring and infection rate with first intention healing are low.
Second intention healing occurs with tissue loss, such as in deep
laceration, burns, and pressure ulcers. Because edges don’t
approximate, openings fill with granulation tissue that is soft and
pinkish. Later, epithelial cells grow over the granulation greater than
that for first intention healing.
Third intention healing occurs when there is a delay in the time
between the injury and closure of the wound. For example, a wound
may be left open temporarily to allow for drainage or removal of
infectious materials. This type of healing some times occurs after
surgery, when the wound closes later. In the mean time, wound
surfaces start to granulate. Scaring is common.
1. Dressing of a Clean Wound
305
Purpose
• To keep wound clean
• To prevent the wound from injury and contamination
• To keep in position drugs applied locally
• To keep edges of the wound together by immobilization
• To apply pressure
Equipment
• Pick up forceps in a container
• Sterile bowl or kidney dish
• Sterile cotton balls
• Sterile galipot
• Sterile gauze
• Three sterile forceps
• Rubber sheet with its cover
• Antiseptic solution as ordered
• Adhesive tape or bandages
• Scissors
• Ointment or other types of drugs as needed
• Receiver
• Spatula if needed
• Benzene or ether.
Technique
Aseptic technique to prevent infection
306
Procedure
Explain procedure to the patient
• Clean trolley or tray; assemble sterile equipment on one side
and clean items on the other side. Make sure it is covered.
• Drape and put patient in comfortable position.
• Place rubber sheet and its cover under the affected side.
• Remove the outer layer of the dressing e.g. adhesive tape
bandage.
• Remove the inner layer of the dressing using the first sterile
forceps and discard both the soiled dressing and the forceps.
• Take the second sterile forceps. Clean wound with cotton
balls soaked in antiseptic solution, starting from inside to the
outside.
• Again use the second forceps to clean the skin around and
remove adhesive with benzene or ether.
• Apply medication if any and dress the wound with sterile
gauze.
Method of Application
• Ointment and paste must be smeared with spatula on gauze
and then applied on the wound.
• Solutions or powder can be applied direct on the wound.
• Make sure that the wound is properly covered.
• Fix dressing in place using adhesive tape or bandage.
• Leave patient comfortable and tidy
• Record state of wound
307
• Clean and return equipment to proper place
N.B.
The above-mentioned equipment can be prepared in a separate
pack if central sterilization department is available.
2. Dressing of Septic Wound
The purpose is to
• Absorb materials being discharge from the wound
• Apply pressure to the area
• Apply local medication
• Prevent pain, swelling and injury
Equipment
• Sterile galipot
• Sterile kidney dish
• Sterile gauze
• Sterile forceps 3
• Sterile test tube or slide
• Sterile cotton- tipped application
• Sterile pair of gloves, if needed, in case of gas gangrene
rabies etc.
• Rubber sheet and its cover
• Local medication if ordered
• Spatula
• Receiver with strong disinfectant to immerse used instrument
308
• Probe and director if required
• Scissors
• Benzene or ether
• Bandages or adhesive tape
• Bucket to put in soiled dressing
Procedure
• Clean trolley o tray and assemble sterile equipment on one
side and surgically clean items on the other side. Make sure
the tray or trolley is covered.
• Drape patient and position comfortably.
• Place rubber sheet and its cover under the affected part
• First remove the outer layer of the dressing
• Wear gloves if necessary. Use, forceps to remove the inner
layer of the dressing smoothly and discard there for caps.
• Observe wound and check if there is drainage rubber or tube.
• Take specimen for culture or slide if ordered (Do not cleanse
wound with antiseptic before you obtain the specimen.)
• Start cleaning wound from the cleanest part of the wound to
the most contaminated part using antiseptic solution.
• ( H2O2 3% is commonly used for septic wound). Discard
cotton ball used for cleaning after each stroke over the wound.
• Cleanse the skin around the wound to remove the plaster gum
with benzene or ether
• Use cotton balls for drying the skin around the wound
properly
309
• Dress the wound and make sure that the wound is covered
completely
• Fix dressing in place with adhesive tape or bandages
• Cleanse and return equipment to its proper places
• Discard soiled dressings properly to prevent cross infection in
the ward.
N.B.
• If sterile forceps are not available, use sterile gloves
• Immerse used forceps, scissors and other instrument in
strong antiseptic solution before cleansing and discard soiled
dressing properly.
• In a big ward it is best to give priorities to clean wounds and
then to septic wounds, when changing dressings, as this night
lessen the risk of cross infection.
• Consideration should be given to provide privacy for the
patient while dressing the wound.
• Wounds should not be too tightly packed in effort to absorb
discharge as this may delay healing.
4. Dressing with Drainage Tube
Purpose
• Aids to prevent haematoma or collection of fluid in the
affected area.
310
Equipment
• Sterile gallipot
• Sterile Scissors
• 3 Sterile forceps
• Sterile gauze
• Anti septic solution as ordered
• Sterile safety pins if needed
• Cotton wool or absorbent
• Receiver
• Adhesive tape or bandage
• Ointment paste or paraffin gauze
• Spatulas if needed
• One pair sterile gloves if available.
Procedure
• Cleanse tray or trolley and organize the needed equipment
and make sure it is covered.
• Drape and position the patient according to the need and put
rubber sheet and its cover under the part to be dressed
• Remove the outer layer of the dressing
311
• Use sterile forceps and remove the inner layer of the dressing
(pay attention so that the drainage tube is not pulled out with
the old dressing)
• Observe the wound for the type and amount of discharge
• Clean the wound with cotton balls soaked in antiseptic
solution.
• Grasp the top of the drainage tube with sterile forceps. Pull it
up a short distance while using gentle rotation and cut off the
tip of the drain with sterile scissors (the length to be cut
depends on the instruction or order).
• Place sterile safety pin through the drainage tube close to the
wound using sterile gloves or sterile gauze, if it is in the
abdomen to stop the drainage tube slipping down out of sight.
• Make sure the wound and the skin around are properly
cleaned.
• Apply ointment or paste to the skin with spatula directly
around to prevent irritation and excoriation (if the excoriation
exists use paraffin gauze to prevent further complications).
• Cut the gauze towards its center to fit around rubber drainage
tube, so that it fits properly around the tube thus preventing
discomfort.
• Use adhesive tape or bandages to secure the dressing in
place.
• Record state of wound and the drainage.
312
Note.
• Safe method should be used for disposing old dressing.
Gauze and cotton used for cleaning wound.
• Take preventive measures to avoid skin irritation and
excoriation.
• If drainage tube is attached to the bottle precaution must be
taken to secure the tube in place and avoid the risk of cross
infection.
Wound Irrigation
Purpose
• To cleans and maintain. Free drainage of infected wounds.
Equipment
• Sterile galipot or kidney dish
• Sterile gauze
• 3 Sterile forceps
• Sterile catheter
• Sterile syringe 20 cc
• 2 receiver
• Solutions (H2O2 or normal saline are commonly used)
• Bandage scissors
313
• Receiver for soiled dressings
Procedure
Explain the procedure to the patient and organize the needed
items.
• Drape and position patient
• Put rubber sheet and its cover under the part to be irrigated
• Remove the outer layer of the dressing
• Remove the inner layer of the dressing using the first sterile
forceps.
• Put the receiver under patient to receive the out flow
• Use syringe with desired amount of solution fitted with the
catheter.
• Use forceps to direct the catheter into the wound.
• First inject the solution such as H2O2 at body temperature
gently and wait for the flow. This must be followed by normal
saline for rinsing.
• Make sure the wound is cleaned and dried properly.
• Dress the wound and check if it is covered completely
• Secure dressing in place with adhesive tape or bandage
• Record the state of the wound
• Clean and return equipment to its proper place.
Note:
• Keep patient in a convinent position. According to the need so
that solution will flow from wound down to the receiver.
314
• Use sterile technique and warn solution for irrigating the
wound.
Suturing
Definition: The application of stitch on body tissues with the surgical

needle & thread.
Purpose
• To approximate wound edges until healing occurs
• To speed up healing of wound
• To minimize the chance of infection
• For esthetic purpose
Equipment
• Tray or trolley covered with a sterile towel
• Sterile needle holder
• Sterile round needle (2)
• Sterile cutting needle (2)
• Sterile silk
• Sterile cat- gut
• Sterile tissue forceps
• Sterile suture scissors
• Sterile cotton swabs in a galipots
• Sterile solution for cleaning
• Sterile dressing forceps
• Sterile receiver
• Sterile gauze
315
• Sterile plaster
• Local anesthesia
• Sterile needle & syringes
• Sterile gloves
• Sterile hole- towel (Fenestrated towel)
Procedure
• Adjust light
• Wash your hands
• Clean the wound thoroughly
• Wash your hands again
• Put on sterile gloves
• Drape the Wound with the hold- sheet
• Infiltrate the edges of the wound to be sutured with local
anesthesia.
• Approximate the edges of the fascia with the help of the tissue
forceps and using the round needle and cat- gut. Suture the
fascia layer first.
• Using the cutting needle and silk, suture the outer layer of skin
approximating the edges with the help of the tissue forceps.
• Clean with iodine and cover with sterile gauze.
• Remove the hole- Sheet
• Make patient comfortable
• Remove all equipment, wash & return to its proper place or
send for sterilization.
316
Note:
• Do not suture wounds that are over 12 hrs old. How ever,
such wounds have to be seen by a doctor since excision of all
dead & devitalized tissue and eventual suturing may be
required.
• Check that the patient gets his order for T.A.T before he
leaves the hospital.
• Do not suture deep wound.
• Before you suture any wound, make sure it is free of any
foreign bodies.
Removal of the Stitch
Technique: Use aseptic technique
317
Principles
• Sutures may be removed all at a time or may be removed
alternatively.
• Do not cut stitches in more than one place as a part of it may
be left behind and may cause infection.
• Suture is lifted slightly by the knot to allow scissors to go
under and one part of the suturing from the cleanest part of
the wound to the most contaminated part.
• Cleanse the skin around with antiseptic. Remove – gum with
benzene or ether and discard the forceps
• Place sterile gauze to receive stitches.
• Take a pair of scissors in the right hand.
• Take a dissecting forceps in the left hand.
• Pull-up gently the knot resting against the skin with the
forceps, pass the point of the scissors under the knot then cut
the stitch on one side and remove.
• Receive pieces of stitches on a sterile gauze
• Inspect the scar for wound healing and apply iodine on the
skin punctures if patient is not sensitive to iodine.
• Apply dressing
• Keep patient comfortable and tide
• Record the state of the wound
• Clean and return equipment to their proper places.
318
Clips
Definition: Metal suture used to stitch the skin

Purpose
Some as suturing with stitch
Equipment
• Michel clip applier
• Clip
• Tissue forceps (toothed dissecting forceps)
• Cleaning material- same as stuttering with stitch.
Procedure
The first part of procedure is the same as for suturing with stitch
Except that instead of suturing the skin with thread and needle you
would apply clips with the applier.
Removal of Clips
Technique
Use aseptic technique
Equipment
• Sterile gauze
• Sterile forceps 3
319
• Sterile clip removal forceps
• Antiseptic solution (Savalon 1% and iodine)
• Receiver
• Benzene or ether
Procedure
Explain procedure to the patient and organize the needed equipment
• Drape and position patient
• Protect bedding with rubber sheet and its cover
• Remove old dressing and discard.
• Cleans wound with antiseptic solution starting from the
cleanest part of the wound to the most contaminated part and
discard the cotton ball.
• Place sterile gauze to receive removed clips.
• Take clip remove with the right hand and dissecting forceps
with the left hand.
• Insert the lower blade of the clip remove below the middle of
the clip using the dissecting forceps as a support of old the
clips in place, and close the blade firmly as this will cause
disagreement of the clips from the skin.
• Receive clips on sterile gauze
• Apply iodine on the skin punctures if required
• Dress the area if required
• Secure dressing in place with adhesive tape
• Record the state of scare
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• Clean and return used equipment to its proper place.
Study Questions
1. Identify different types of wound care.
2. Mention three types of wound healing intentions.
3. Mention the purposes of septic wound dressing.
4. Describe suturing.
5. What is clip?
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UNIT EIGHT
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
PERI OPERATIVE NURSING CARE
(PRE & POSTOPERATIVE NURSING
CARE)
Learning objectives:
List steps in pre operative preparation.
Identify the high-risk surgical patients.
Describe the major assessment skills, needed in the pre
operative, intra operative, and postoperative stages.
Explain the purpose of informed consent.
Perform general postoperative measures such as: obtaining
vital sings, assessing level of consciousness, assessing
surgical pain.
Report and document post operative complication.
Assess for patient air way.
Key terminology
anaesthesia hypothermia postoperatve
atlectasis hypoxia preoperative
elective intraoperative suture
embolus perioperative
evisceration pneumonia
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Preoperative Care – Nursing Process
Assessment
Assessment Priorities
- Nursing history
- Client’s understanding of the proposed surgical procedure
- Past experiences with surgery
- Fear (fear of unknown, fear of pain or death, fear of change

of body image or self concept)
- Factors that increase surgical risk or the potential for post

operative complications.
- Adequacy of coping patterns and support systems.
- Pertinent socio cultural factors.
- Vital signs the morning of surgery, (any deviation should be

reported)
- Accurate height and weight, especially for children
- General systems review
- Results of all preoperative diagnostic tests recorded
Possible Nursing Diagnosis

- Anxiety
- Ineffective coping
- Decisional conflict
- Fear
- Anticipated grieving
- Difficult knowledge
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- Powerlessness
Planning/Objectives
Prior to surgery, the client:
- Demonstrates physical preparedness for surgery (absence

of significance deviations from normal in vital signs, no signs
of infection).
- Verbalize any concerns or fears related to the surgery.
- Provides informed consent for the surgery.
- Correctly demonstrates how to turn, deep breath, use

equipment.
- Verbalizes understanding of post operative pain

management program.
- Verbalizes understanding of post operative activity plan.
- Demonstrate the present of adequate caregivers at home

after discharge.
Implementation
- Establish a supportive and trusting nurse-client relationship.
- Develop and implement a teaching plan that:
J Familiarizes the client and family with what to expect

on the day of surgery.
J Prepares the client to participate in the pain

management program.
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J Enables the client to state the purpose of deep
breathing and to demonstrate it, as well as us
exercise, turning in bed.
- Counsel the client and family about helpful coping strategies

and available resources.
- Maintain nutrition and hydration, if the client is NPO, for 8 to

12 hours prior to surgery, ensure that the client understands
the reason for this restriction, and remove all food and fluid
from bed side.
- Evaluate the client’s bowel status and determine the need

for an order of bowel elimination.
- Cary out preoperative skin and hygiene orders.
- Facilitate sleep and rest in the immediate preoperative

period.
Evaluation
Determine the adequacy of the plan of care by evaluating the client’s
achievement of the preceding goals.
Key evaluative criteria:
- Client’s physical preparedness for surgery.
- Client’s mental preparedness for surgery.
- Client’s understanding of and ability to participate in

care post operatively.
- An eventful course of recovery.
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Pre-operative
Purpose
• To prepare the patient emotionally, mentally and physically for
surgery.
• To prevent any complication before, during and after surgery.
Equipment
As necessary
• It is important that the patient be in a good state of physical
health before he has surgery. Unless it is an emergency
operation.
• He should have balanced diet, fluid, sleep and rest before his
surgery.
• The patient’s mental state is important to his recovery. Try to
relieve his fears about the operation and any fear of death:
explain to him what will be done and that every measure will
be taken for his safety.
Procedure
The day before surgery:
Physical preparation
• Give the patient a complete bed bath to keep the body clean
before surgery. Give special attention to the umbilicus and
other areas of the body. Keep the fingernails and the nails of
the toe short and clean.
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• Be sure the patient’s hair is clean. If the surgery is on the
face, neck, shoulders or upper chest, the hair should be the
thoroughly washed, combed and tied up to keep it from
touching the operative area. If the surgery is on the head the
area must be shaved and the hair washed.
• If an enema has been ordered, give the night before surgery.
Be sure this is given and is effective. Chart the results.
Psychological preparation
• If the patient does not yet understand what will be done.
Explain briefly what the operation is and how it will help him.
Avoid telling him anything that would make him worry.
• It is important that the patient has a good sleep the night
before his operation. Make him comfortable and turn out the
light in his room early. If he is unable to sleep report to the
doctor.
• Have patient or relative sign consent for the operation
• Instructs patient about deep breathing and cough exercise
Day of Surgery:
• If the surgery is in the morning be sure the patient is prepared
early. Any thing abnormal such as pain, fever cough rapid
pulse or elevated blood pressure must be reported
immediately. The surgery may have to be canceled or delayed
until the patient is well.
• If the surgery is in the morning, nothing should be taken by
mouth after midnight (N.P.O.) if the surgery is in the
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afternoon., fluids and food should not be taken in the morning
depending on the orders
• Check the cleanliness of body areas, umbilicus, nails and hair.
• Shave the hair from the skin of the operative area thoroughly.
Some one should check to see if all the hair has been
removed. Wash the skin well with soap and water before and
after shaving.
• Cheek the orders for preoperative treatment, such as enema,
catheterization of folly catheter.
• The patient’s temperature, pulse, respirations and blood
pressure should be taken and recorded on the chart just
before surgery.
• Give the premeditation as ordered, being careful to give the
tight amount at the right time to the right patient and record.
Just before surgery

• Have the patient void, if he is unable to void inform the doctor.
• Assist patient to move to the stretcher. The patient may be
very sleepy or dizzy from the preoperative medications and
may hurt himself. Support the stretcher to keep it from rolling
as the patient moves onto it.
• Make sure his elbows are close to his sides or over his chest
prevent them from being pumped as the stretcher passes
through doorways.
• Reassure him as you take him to the operating room
• Make sure the chart is complete and take to the theater with
the patient.
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Shaving
Purpose
To minimize the danger of infection by decreasing the number
of bacteria on the skin.
Equipment
Basin of warm water
Washcloth
Towel
Soap
Blade and razor holder, if available
Scissors
Rubber sheet and towel
Procedure
• Prepare the equipment and bring it to the bedside.
• Fold the top linen and cover the patient with the bath blanket
(if available)
• Screen bed
• Make the patient comfortable in the best position for the
procedure.
• Place the rubber sheet and towel under the part to protect the
bed linen.
• Wash the area well with soap and water.
• Leave the soap on the area while you have.
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• When all the hair has been shaved off, rinse the skin with
clear water. (If hair is long it could be shortened before
shaving)
• Wash it again with soap, and water. Use enough soap to
make lather.
• Be sure to wash all creases and folds very well.
• Rinse with clean water
• Repeat washing until the area is clean.
• Dry the skin well and examine it to see if bed linen.
• Make the patient comfortable and replace the bed linen.
Specific Area to be shaved:
Head Operations
• Explain the reason for having the head to the patient
• If the hair is long, it must be cut short
• Wash the head and hair well
• Shave the area of the operation as directed. If it is a major
operation, the whole head should be shaved.
Eye Operation
• Cut the eyelashes as close as possible on both sides.
• Use some Vaseline on the blades of the scissors before you
begin to prevent the eyelashes from falling into the eye.
• Shave the eyebrows on both sides if ordered only.
• Be very careful not to injure the eye or let any hair fall into the
eye.
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Face Operation
• Shave the site of the operation will be
• If the patient is a man, make sure that the face is completely
free from beard.
• Wash face
• Be careful not to get soap into the patient’s eyes.
Anterior Neck Operations:

• Wash the patient’s head and neck
• If the patient is a woman, tie her hair, and keep it away from
her neck, or cut it short.
• Shave the front and sides of the neck from the chin to the end
of the sternum, and out to the shoulders.
• The area must be clean.
Posterior Neck Operations:

• The head and neck should be washed. Cut the hair short or
tie out of the way.
• Shave at least 15cm. and around the place of incision.
Spinal-Operations
• Ask the doctor where the site of operation will be
• Shave at least 15-25cm. all around the area of incision.
Breast Operations
• Shave the anterior and posterior chest from neck to the waist
line on the side where the surgery will be
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• Shave the axilla on that side and the arm as far down as the
elbow.
Kidney Operations
• Turn the patient on his side with the operative side upward.
• Shave from the sternum to the groin and across the side the
same width up to the spinal column.
• Shave the axilla on that operation is a long one, so a large
area must be prepared.
Abdominal operations
• Shave the whole abdomen from the end of the sternum down
to the pubes.
• The umbilicus must be clean
Perennial and Rectal Operations

• The pubic and perinea hair must be shaved from the pubes to
the anal area.
• Shave at least 15 cm. down the inside of the thighs both sides
Limb Operations
• The whole limb should be washed well
• Shaved at least 15 cm all around the operative area.
• If the operation is on the upper arm or the upper leg. The
axilla or perineum should be shaved as well.
• If the operation is near the hand or foot cut the nails very short
and clean them well.
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Intraoperative Nursing Care
Observing a client undergoing surgery may be a component of a
nursing student’s experience. Doing so will not only give the student
a better idea of surgical procedures, but it will also help in
understanding the client’s feelings and apprehensions. Special
training mostly given in OR technique and anesthesia
Nurses assist surgeons in the operating room. The two basic

categories of assistant are the sterile assistant and the circulating
assistant. The sterile assistant (scrub nurse) is scrubbed, gowned
and gloved. He/she functions with in the sterile field. Duties include
handling instruments to the surgeon, threading needles, cutting
sutures, assisting with retraction and suction, and handling
specimen.
The circulating nurse works outside the sterile field. Duties include
opening sterile packs, delivering supplies and instruments to the
sterile team, delivering medications to sterile nurse, labeling
specimens, and keeping records during the surgical procedure. This
person acts as a client advocate by monitoring the situation and
maintaining safety in the operating room. In most cases, the
circulating nurse must be registered nurse.
Post- operative Care
Purpose
• To prevent any complication from anesthesia
• To detect any sign of postoperative complications
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• To rehabilitate the patient.
Equipment
• Anesthetic bed
• Oxygen
• Sphygmomanometer
• Stetoscope
• Suction machine (as needed)
• Extra rubber sheet (as needed)
• I.V stand
• Emergency drugs (to be ready in wards)
• Bed blocks (as needed) for shock
Procedure
• Prepare anesthetic bed (see section on bed making)
• Assist operating room nurse in placing patient in bed. An
unconscious patient may be placed on either his right or left
side unless specified
• Check postoperative orders and adjust flow of drip of IV fluid.
• Take blood pressure, pulse and respiration as ordered
(usually every 15 minutes until stable)
• Encourage patient cough and breathe deeply every 15
minutes for two hours, and then every two hours until able to
be up, unless other orders are written.
• Check dressing for any excessive bleeding or drainage.
• Check for tubes to be connected to drainage bottle- no kinks
in tubing. Secure tubing with bedding.
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• If patient vomits, turn his head to the side to prevent aspiration
and chocking.
• Observe patient closely for any signs of shock and
hemorrhage.
• Report any untoward symptom immediately.
Charting
• Time of return
• General condition and appearance
⇐ State of consciousness
⇐ Color of skin
⇐ Temperature of skin to touch
⇐ Skin- moist or dry
⇐ Blood pressure, plus and respiration
⇐ Any unusual condition such as bleeding drainage,
Vomiting etc.
Generals Instructions
• If patient shows any signs of shock immediate action should
be taken and then be reported to the doctor. The head of the
bed should be lowered (If no gatches on bed, bed blocks may
be used)
• Do not leave unconscious patient alone.
• Keep patient flat in bed with the head to the side (no pillows)
and avoid chilling.
• Watch color of skin, lips, and fingernails carefully,
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• If there is any bleeding carry out the necessary measures and
report immediately.
• The patient is having pain after he is awake. Analgesics may
be given according to orders.
• Limit visitors in the patient’s room
• Carry out post-operative orders carefully
• Place patient in a comfortable position
Post-operative Care of Specific Surgeries
Brain Surgery
• Patient must lie on his back with out pillows unless ordered
otherwise.
• Room should be dark and quit to prevent irritation to the brain.
Breast Surgery
• Encourage deep breathing often, because of danger of
pneumonia
• Special arm exercises should be given
Abdominal Surgery
• Encourage deep breathing
• Turn from side to side often
• Sit patient on edge of bed 1st day postoperatively and
• Start walking second day post operatively (unless contra-
indicated)
• Intake and output should be recorded
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• If gastric suction is present make sure it is working properly
• Frequent mouth care for patients who are not allowed to drink.
Eye Surgery
• Must lie very still because the incision and sutures can be
damaged by pulling on the eye muscles. Both eyes may be
covered.
• Room may be quiet and dark
• Patient must be fed.
Spinal Surgery
• Must lie on abdomen of back with bed flat, and supported by
fracture board mattress.
• Patient may be in a body cast. Care must be given to prevent
bed scares where the cast rubs.
Thyroidectomy
• Place in high lowers position. This will make it easier to
breathe since the pressure of dressing and swelling may
give choking feeling.
• An emergency tracheotomy set should always be at the
bedside or nurses office for first three days, in case of
hemorrhage or swelling trachea.
• The complication “Thyroid crisis” must be reported
immediately as death can occur if condition is not treated
quickly.
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Tonsillectomy
Child
• Lie on abdomen or side to prevent blood drainage into throat,
lunge or stomach.
• Watch carefully for excessive bleeding.
Adult
• If conscious, he may sit in semi- fowler’s positron in order to
spit the blood more easily.
• Watch carefully for excessive bleeding.
Study Questions
1. Mention the purposes of preoperative nursing care.
2. Why shaving is indicated before surgery?
3. Differentiate between the roles of scrubbed and circulating
nurses in operating room.
4. State purpose of postoperative nursing care.
5. List some important equipment to provide care for immediate
postoperative patients.
5. Why informed consent is required before surgery?
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UNIT NINE
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
CARE OF THE DYING AND
POSTMOTREMCARE
Learning Objectives
At completion of the chapter the learner will be able:
• Mention stages experienced by dying person
• Define death
• Identify sing of death.
• Confirm death in collaboration with physician.
• Reassure relatives of the dying patient.
• Provide care fore the dead body with respect.
• Transferee the dead body to morgue or his house.
Key terminology
Autopsy Cheyne-Stkes respiration
postmortum examination Brain death
Kussmal’s breathing
A. Care of the Dying

Death:- Is a natural part of life and comes to all beings. Is the
end of life and all the vital processes. Legal death is the
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total absence of brain activities as assessed and
pronounced by the physician.
Spirituality and Death

Death often forces people to consider profaned questions: the
meaning of life, the existence of the soul, and the possibility of an
after life. Individuals faced with death, their close friends, and family
often relies on a spiritual foundation to help them meet these
challenging concepts. Spirituality takes several forms. Bernard and
Schneider mention three levels of spiritual support for dying persons.
o The first level is drawing strength from God.
o The second level is strength generated by prayer.
o The third level is strength from caring relationships with

others.
For those whose spirituality does not include beliefs rooted in

organized religion, support may take the form of compassionate care
and the acceptance of personal beliefs.
Consider the spiritual dimension of your client’s needs. Meeting

basic human needs is an expression of caring that dying individuals
will appreciate even if they can no longer communicate with you
verbally.
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Stages of Dying
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) has beautifully described the phases
of dying, which mirror those of the grieving process. As a person
learns of his or her own impending death, he or she experiences
grief in relation to his or her own loss.
The first stage, as Dr. Ross views this process, is that of denial. The
denial may be partial or complete and may occur not only during the
first stages of illness or confrontation but later on from time to time.
This initial denial is usually a temporary defense and is used as a
buffer until such time as the person is able to collect him or herself,
mobilize his or her defenses, and face the inevitability of death.
The second stage is often anger. The person feels violent anger at
having to give up life. This emotion may be directed toward persons
in the environment or even projected into the environment at
random. Dr. Ross discusses this reaction and the difficulty in
handling it for those close to the person by explaining that we should
put ourselves in the client’s position and consider how we might feel
intense anger at having our life interrupted abruptly.
The third stage is bargaining. The person attempts to strike a

bargain for more time to live or more time to be without pain in return
for doing something for God. Often during this stage the person
turns or returns to religion.
Depression is the fourth stage. Usually, when people have

completed the processes of denial, anger, and bargaining, they
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move into depression. Dr. Ross writes about two kinds of
depression. One is preparatory depression; this is a tool for dealing
with the impending loss. The second type is reactive depression. In
this form of depression, the person is reacting against the impending
loss of life and grieves for him or herself.
The final stage of dying is that of acceptance. This occurs when the
person has worked through the previous stages and accepts his or
her own inevitable death. With full acceptance of impending death
comes the preparation for it; however, even with acceptance, hope
is still present and needs to be supported realistically.
Many factors influence how individuals accept death. Personal

values and beliefs about life; views of personal successes, both
financial and emotional; the way they look physically when
experiencing the dying process; their family and friends and their
families’ attitudes and reactions; their past experiences in coping
with difficult or traumatic situations; and, finally, the health care staff
who are caring for them during this process – all affect an
individual’s attitude toward dying.
Nursing Process
Assessment
Observe the physical symptoms.
• Evidence of circulatory collapse
• Variations in blood pressure and pulse
• Disequilibrium of body mechanisms
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• Deterioration of physical and mental capabilities
• Absence of corneal reflex
Observe the client’s ability to fulfill basic needs without complete
assistance.
• Assess the nature and degree of pain the client is
experiencing.
• Observe for impending crisis or emergency situation.
• Observe for psychosocial condition.
• Need to establish a relationship for support
• Grief pattern and stage of grief the client is experiencing
• Need to express feelings and verbalize fears and
concerns
Determine anxiety level, which may be expressed in physical or
emotional behavior.
• Sleep disturbance
• Palpitations
• Digestive complaints
• Anger or hostility
• Withdrawal
Determine depression level that client may be experiencing.
• High fatigue level or lethargy
• Poor appetite, nausea, or vomiting
• Inability to concentrate
• Expressions of sadness, hopelessness, or uselessness
Planning/Objectives
• To assist the dying client to cope with the dying process
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• To handle own feelings of loss and sadness that arise when
caring for a client who is dying
• To provide support for the client and the client’s family

during the dying process
• To complete the actions necessary to care for the client who

has died
Implementation /Procedure (See this under procedure part)

Assisting the Dying Client
Client finds internal resources to accept death.
Client is able to verbalize feelings and needs.
Physical discomfort is minimized.
Assisting the dying client
Procedure
1. Minimize the client’s discomfort as much as possible.
a. Provide warmth.
b. Provide assistance in moving, and position client frequently.
c. Provide assistance in bathing and personal hygiene.
d. Administer the appropriate medications before the pain

becomes severe.
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2. Recognize the symptoms of urgency or emergency conditions
and seek immediate assistance.
3. Notify the charge nurse if there is an impending crisis and

perform emergency actions until help arrives.
4. Encourage dying clients to do as much as they can for

themselves so that they do not just give up-a state that only
reinforces low self-esteem.
5. Provide emotional nursing care for the client.
a. Form a relationship with the dying client. Be willing to be

involved, to care, and to be committed to caring for a dying
client.
b. Allocate time to spend with the client so that no only physical

care is administered.
c. Recognize the grief pattern and support the client as he or

she moves through it.
d. Recognize that your physical presence is comforting by

staying physically close to the client if he or she is
frightened. Use touch if appropriate and nonverbal
communication.
e. Respect the client’s need for privacy and with draw if the
client has a need to be alone or to disengage from personal
relationships.
f. Be tuned into client’s cues that he or she wants to talk and

express feelings, cry, or even intellectually discuss the dying
process.
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g. Accept the client at the level on which he or she is
functioning without making judgments.
6. Provide the level of care that encourages the client to retain

confidence in the health care team.
7. Assist the client through the experience of dying in whatever

way you are able to do so.
8. Support the family of the dying client.
a. Understand that the family may be going through

anticipatory grief before the actual event of dying.
b. Understand that different family members react differently to

the impending death and support the different reactions.
c. Be aware that demonstrating your concern and caring

assists the family to cope with the grief process.
9. Be aware of your own personal orientation toward the dying

process.
a. Explore your own feelings about death and dying with the
understanding that until you have faced the subject of death
you will be inadequate to support the client or the family as
they experience the dying process.
b. Share your feelings about dying with the staff and others;
actively work through them so that negativity does not get
transferred to the client.
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Care After Death
Definition: - This is the care given to the body after death. It is also
called post-mortem care.
Purpose
1. To show respect for the dead
2. To prepare the body for burial
3. To prevent spread of infection
4. To show kindness to the family
Equipment
• Basin for water, wash cloth and towel
• Cotton
• Gauze
• Dressings and tape if necessary
• Clean sheet
• Stretcher
• Forceps
• Name tag
• Gloves, if necessary
Procedure
• Note the exact time of death and chart it
• If the doctor is present call him to pronounce death
• If the family members are not present, send for them
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• Wash hands and wear clean gloves according to agency
policy
• Close doors of the room or pull curtain
• Raise bed to comfortable working level (when necessary)
• Arrange for privacy and prevent other patients from seeing in
to room.
• Close patient's eyes and nose if necessary
• Remove N.G. tubes and other devices from patient's body
• Place patient in supine position
• Replace soiled dressing with clean ones when possible
• Bath patients as necessary
• Brush or comb hair
• Apply clean gown
• Care for valuable and personal belongings and document
dispersement
• Allow family to view patient and remain in room
• Attach special level if patient had contagious disease
• Await arrival of ambulance or transfer to morgue
• Remove gloves and wash hands
• Document the procedure
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Study Questions
1. Define death.
2. What are the stages experiences by dying person?
3. How do you confirm the occurrence of death?
4. What are the purposes of post mortem care?
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GLOSSARY
Abrasion a scraping or rubbing off of the skin.

Airborne precaution precaution taken when a person has an
illness that can be carried in the air or in the
dust particles. Common measures include
special air handling and ventilation.
Ambulatory Walking
Ampule small, glass sealed flask, often containing
medication.
Anesthesia complete or partial loss of sensation.
Anuria complete suppression of urine secretion in
the kidney.
Apex lower point of the heart, formed by the tip of
the left ventricle
Apical pulse pulse normally heard at the heart’s apex,
which usually give the most accurate
assessment of pulse rate
Aspiration Inhalation of foodstuff, vomitus or saliva into
the lungs.
Axilla Armpit (under arm).
Autoclave Equipment that decontaminates materials
by exposing them to steam under pressure.
Apnea Absence or lack of breathing
Anoxia Lack of oxygen in the tissue.
Asphyxia A condition produced by prolonged lack of
oxygen
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Asepsis Absolute freedom from all microorganisms
Antiseptic Harmless chemicals that can kill
microorganisms or prevent them from
multiplying.
Aplastic anemia Anemia resulting from destruction of bone
marrow cells.
Atlectasis collapse of all or part of the lung.
Aseptic technique Procedure used to prevent microorganisms
from reaching the operation site.
Auscultation externally hearing sounds from within the
body to differentiate abnormal conditions.
Autopsy examination of the body after death.
Base of support balance or stability provided by the feet and
their position.
Bed cradles a wire or wooden frame placed over the
patient's body or feet to support the weight
of the bedclothes.
Blood pressure The force exerted by the heart to pump the
blood around the body
Bradycardia Abnormally slow heartbeat.
Bradypnea abnormally sloe breathing, below 10 per
minute.
Brand name copyright name assigned by a company that
makes the medication; also called the trade
name.
Brain death irreversible cessation of brain and brain
stem function to the extent that
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cardiopulmonary function must be
mechanical maintained.
Bounding pulse Stronger than normal heartbeat.
Body mechanics use of safe and efficient methods of moving
and lifting.
Carotid pulse pulse felt on either sides of the neck, over
the carotid artery.
Capsule a small gelatinous case for holding a dose
of medicine; a membranous structuring
enclosing another body structure, as the
articular capsule in a joint.
Catheter A soft rubber tube which is used for
passage of fluid.
Center of gravity the center of one’s weight; half of one’s
body weight is below and half above, and
half to the left and half to the right of the
center of gravity.
Chemical name medication name that describes its chemical
composition (often same as generic name).
Cheyne-Stkes respiration: breathing characterized by deep
breathing alternating with very slow
breathing or apnea often precedes death.
Contaminated Area that contains germs or disease-
producing material.
Constipation difficult or infrequent and hardened bowel
movement.
Contracture abnormal shortening of muscle with
resulting deformity.
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Cyanosis Bluish color of lips, tip of the nose, and ear
lobes due to lack of or shortage of oxygen in
the blood.
Cast A material that supported an injured part of
the body and makes it immobilize.
Clips Metallic materials that keep the skin
together.
Closed bed bed used when preparing a unit for a new
client- an unoccupied bed.
Congestion Hyperemia, accumulation of blood in a part
of blood or fluid in a part of the body e.g.,
lung.
Contact precaution precaution taken against disease that can
be transmitted through direct contact
between a susceptible host’s body surface
and an infected or colonized person.
Cystitis inflammation of urinary bladder.
Dangling positioning of a client so that he or she is
sitting on the edge of the bed with legs
down and feet supported by a footstool or
the floor.
Debridement removal of foreign, dead, and contaminated
material from a wound, so as to expose
healthy underlying tissue.
Decontamination The process of rendering an item free from
infection.
Defecation Act of excreting feces from the rectum.
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Detergent A substance usually dissolved in water used
as an aid for cleaning purposes.
Diagnosis The decision regarding the nature of an
illness, arrived at by clinical assessment of
the patient and result of investigation.
Diarrhea abnormal frequency and fluidity of
discharge from the bowels.
Diastole The resting phase of the heart during which
it fills with blood.
Digitalis A drug given to slow and strengthen the
heartbeat.
Disinfectant A chemical used to kill microorganisms.
Dorsal lithotomy examination position in which the client is
lying on his or her back with the feet in
stirrups.
Dosage an amount in a prescription that contains
the dose and the scheduled time.
Dry heat Air heated to high temperature by electricity
and used for sterilizing purposes.
Droplet precaution precautions taken to prevent the spread of
diseases transmitted by microorganisms
propelled through the air from an infected
person and deposed on the host’s eyes,
nose or mouth.
Dyspnea Difficulty in breathing.
Dysuria difficult or painful urination or voiding.
354
Edema Swelling due to water accumulation in body
cells vessel, which partially or completely
obstructs blood flow (embolism; pl. emboli).
Elective (surgery) case in which the client’s condition is not life
threatening and may choose whether or not
to have surgery; also called optional
surgery.
Embolus a foreign substance, blood clot, fat globule,
piece of tissue, or air bubble carried in a
blood
Enema An injection of fluid into the colon or rectum.
Enteric pertaining to the small intestine. Enteric-
coated tablets are covered with a substance
that prevents their digestion in the stomach.
Eupnea normal respiration
Eviceration the protrusion of the intestines through an
abdominal wound ; removal of the internal
body contents.
Exhalation Breathing out.
Exudate material that escapes from blood vessels
and is deposited in tissue or on tissue
surfaces; usually contains protein
substances.
Fahrenheit System of measuring heat
Femoral pulse pulse felt in the groin over the femoral artery
Fecal impaction accumulation of hardened stool in the
rectum.
Fever Body temperature elevation above 370C
355
Flatus Gas in the intestines.
Footboard A board placed at the foot of the bed to
support the feet.
Footdrop contructure deformity that prevents the
client from putting the heel on the floor;
results from improper positioning or anterior
leg muscle paralysis. On his or her back
with the head elevated.
Fowler’s position a position in which the client is lying.
Gait manner or style of walking.
Gastrostomy Making an artificial opening into the
stomach through which the patient is fed by
pouring nourishment through a tube directly
into the stomach.
Generic name name assigned by a drug’s first
manufacturer (often the chemical name).
Halitosis bad breath.
Hemoglobin the oxygen carrying pigment in blood that
gives blood its red color.
Hypertension High blood pressure.
Hypo tension Low blood pressure.
Hypothermia low body temperature.
Hypothermia blanket cooling blanket; also called hypothermia
blanket.
Hypoxia reduction of oxygen in the tissues; also
called hypoxemia.
Incontinence Loss of bladder or bowel control.
Infection Invasion of the body by germs.
356
Inflammation Reaction of the body to infection or injury,
characterized by redness, heat, pain, and
swelling at the site.
Infusion slow induction of fluids (not blood) into a
vein, as an intravenous (IV) infusion
Inhalation Breathing in.
Intake Fluid taken into the body.
Intraoperative occurring during a surgical operation.
Irrigation Injecting fluid into a cavity without
interrupting its return.
Isolation The act of setting apart. An isolation room
or ward is one kept for contagious or
infectious diseases.
Korotkoff’s sound sounds heard when measuring blood
pressure with a stethoscope.
Kusmal’s breathing sever paroxysmal dyspnea, as in diabetic
acidocis and coma
Laceration a wound produced by tearing or ripping (as
opposed to an incision made in surgery).
Leukocyte white blood cell (WBC).
Line of gravity direction of gravitation pull; an imaginary
vertical line through the top of the head,
center of gravity, and base of support.
Microorganism Bacteria, virus, fungi, and spores.
Medication substance other than food used to prevent
disease, to aid in diagnosis and treatment
and to restor or maintain functions in the
body tissues; also called drug.
357
Melena passage of dark colored stools containing
partially or fully digested blood, also used to
mean abnormal blood in the stool or
vomitus.
Micturation passage of urine from the urinary bladder;
also called voiding , urinating.
Mitered corner A triangular fold made in bedclothes to hold
them in place at the corners.
Necrosis Death of tissue.
Nocturia excessive voiding (urination) during the
night.
Nits The eggs of a louse.
Occupied bed bed holding a client that is unable to get up
as a result of his or her condition or
generalized weakness.
Occult hidden.
Oliguria deficient urinary secretion or infrequent
urination.
Ophthalmic medications that are instilled or
administration directly to the eye.
Oral of or pertaining to the mouth
Orthopenia difficult breathing relieved by seating or
standing erect
Output All fluid lost from the body.
Otic of the ear.
Orthopnea A condition in which one breathes easier in
a sitting position.
358
Palpation the act of feeling with the hand placing the
finger on the skin.
Paralysis motion loss or impairment of sensation in a
body part.
Parenteral administered in to the body in a way other
than through the alimentary canal
(subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular),
as parenteral medication
Pedal pulse pulse on the foot felt over the dorsal pedis
artery or posterior tibial artery
Perineal care bathing the genital and surrounding area.
Perioperative the period surrounding surgery; includes
preoperative, intraoperative, and
postoperative periods.
Pharmachokinetics actions of drug
Pharmachology the study of chemicals (drugs, medications)
and their effect.
Potentiation enhancement of one agent by another, so
that the combined action is greater than the
sum of the two.
Pneumonia lung inflammation, with consolidation and
drainage.
Pediculosis Human louse infestation
Polyuria voiding an excessive amount of urine.
Popliteal pulse pulse located posterior to the knee.
Postural drainage Position adapted to facilitate expectoration
of material in patients with lung disease.
Postoperative After an operation.
359
Postoperative bed bed prepared for a client who is returning
from surgery or another procedure that
requires transfer into the bed from a strether
or wheelchair.
Prescription written formula for preparing and
administering medication.
Preoperative Before an operation
Projectile vomiting emesis expelled with great force.
Prone positioning a client so that he or she is lying
on the stomach.
Pressure ulcer ulcerated sore often cause by prolonged
pressure on a bony prominence or other
area, especially if the client is allowed to lie
in one position for an extended period . Also
called decubetus ulcer. (formerly “called
bedsore”).
Protective device piece of equipment, most often a vest or a
belt, used to ensure the safety of the client
()ie, helping client to remain in a chair
without falling); also called a client reminder
device.
Protective isolation attempts to prevent harmful microorganisms
from coming into contact with the client; also
called reverse or neutropenic isolation
Pulse The beat of the heart felt in the arteries.
Pulse deficit the difference between apical pulse and
radial pulse.
360
Pulse pressure difference between systolic & diastolic
pressure.
Puncture a whole made by a pointed object;
penetration.
Recumbent lying down
Rotation process of turining about an axis, as rotation
of the hand of the fetus in preparation of
delivery.
Respiration Breathing rate.
Radial pulse pulse measured above the radial artery on
the inside of the wrist.
Rectal of the rectum
Retention enema An injection of fluid that is retained in the
rectum for absorption into the blood stream.
Restraints Devices that limit the patient's ability to
move in order to protect him/her from injury.
Septic wound Infection wound; a wound containing
infective microorganisms.
Sitzbath A warm soaking of the rectum and perineal
area.
Splint A device for immobilizing part of the body
Spore The seeds of microorganisms, which are
resistant to drying, heat, and disinfectants
Standard precaution precautions designed for the care of all
clients regardless of diagnosis or infection
status.
Sterile Specially treated so that all microorganisms
are destroyed
361
Stethoscope Instrument for magnifying sound
Specimen A small amount of body excretion or body
fluid that is sent to a laboratory for
examination.
Sphygmomanometer Blood pressure apparatus.
Suppository Rectally administered cones containing a
medication in the base that is soluble at
body temperature.
Sutures Materials that keep broken skin together.
Systole Blood pressure period during the beating
phase of the heartbeat during which blood is
expelled from heat.
Sepsis Presence of microorganisms.
Synergism joint action of agents in which the combined
effects is greater than the sum of the
individual parts.
Tablet a compressed, spherical forms of
medication.
Temperature Degree of heat.
Tachycardia Abnormally fast heartbeat.
Tachypenea conditions in which breaths are abnormally
rapid, more than 20 per minute
Thermometer An instrument used to measure
temperature.
Topical medication that are applied directly to the
skin or mucus membranes.
Traction exertion of a pulling force ; an apparatus
attached to the client to maintain stability of
362
a joint or aligned fracture or to exert a
pulling force elsewhere, as in the lower
back, to relieve pressure.
Transfusion Injection of blood into a vein.
Transimission-based- precaution: precaution designed for clients
with specific infection or diagnoses
Tympanic membrane eardrum.
Unconscious Not aware of or responding to surroundings.
Unoccupied bed bed that is empty at the time it is made up.
Urinalysis examination of urine.
Urgency desire or sensation of needing to void
immediately.
Urinary catheter tube inserted into bladder through the
urethra to remove urine.
Urinary frequency voiding more often than usual without an
increase in total urine volume.
Urinary retention inability to empty the bladder of urine.
Virulence ability of a microorganism to cause a
disease, strength,, potency.
Vital signs Signs of life (e.g., temperature, pulse rate,
respiration rate, blood pressure).
Void to cast out waste, as to urinate, micturate.
Vomitus stomach contents expelled by vomitus.
Wound injury to any body structures caused by
physical means.
Z-track “zig-zag” method of injecting caustic
medications deep into muscle tissue.
363
REFERENCES
Caroline, B., R., and Mary T. K, (2003). Textbook of Basic Nursing,

Eighth Edition, Lippincott comp.
Craven,R.F.,& Hirnle, C.J. (2000). Fundamentals of nursing:Human

health and function (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
Evelyn P. (1989). A General Text Book of Nursing, 20th edition,

Aypee Brothers comp., New Delhi, India.
Grace C. (1996), Fundamentals of Nursing, Concepts and Skills,

second edition, Mosby Comp. Boston.
Hosley, J. & Molle-Mathhews (1995). Text Book for Medical

Assistants, Lippncott Comp. Philadelphia.
Joyce Y. Johnson, J. S. Temple, and Pat Carr. (1998) Nurses’ guide

to Home Health Care Procedures, Lippincote.
Karch, A. (2002). Lippincott’s nursing drug guide. Book with mini

CD-ROM for windows and Macintosh. Philadelphia Lippincott
Williams.
Koizer. E. (1995) Fundamentals of Nursing. Concepts, process and

practice, fifth edition.
364
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Comp. Philadelphia.
Lynda J., Carpento.( 1995). Nursing Care Plan and Documentation,

(2nd ed.) J.B. Lippincott Comp. Philadelphia.
Margaret C.( 1983). Practical Nursing, (13th ed.), Bailler Tindall,

London
Mary E. Scholes. (1986). Hand Book of Nursing Procedures,

Blackwell Scientific Publications, London.
Robyn R. (1995). Manual of Home Health Nursing Procedures,

Mosby Comp. Boston.
Sandra F. S., Donna J. D., and Barbara C. M. (2004). Clinical

Nursing Skill. Basic to advanced skills, (6th ed.) PEARSON,Prentice
Hall, New Jersy.
Sorensen and Luck Mann's. (1994). Basic Nursing, A psycho

physiological approach, (3rd ed.) W.B. Saunders comp.
Philadelphia.
Smith & Duel,( 1996). Clinical Nursing Skills, basic to advanced

skills, (4th ed.), Appleton & Lange comp
Suzanne C. S., and Brenda G. B. (1995). Bruner and Suddarth’s

Textbook of MEDICAL-SURGICAL NURSING, (8th ed.), Lippincott
comp
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Swearingen & Howard,(1996). Photo Atlas of Nursing Procedures,
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W. Kereta (1998). a patient care procedure manual for mid level

health workers. Ethiopia.
366

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What is the purpose of preparing this lecture note?

What is the purpose of preparing this lecture note?

What are nursing skills essential for?

What are nursing skills essential for?

LECTURE NOTES

For Nursing Students

Basic Clinical Nursing Skills

Abraham Alano, B.Sc., M.P.H.

Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

©2002 by Abraham Alano,

Nursing is core part in health service delivery system in which health

The lecture note series is designed to have two parts: part-I is

The lecture note is therefore organized in logical manner that

My deepest appreciation is to The Carter Center, EPHTI and

I also extend many thanks to colleagues and staff of our School of

I would like to extend my thanks to Ato Asrat Demissie Academic

My sincere gratitude is also to the staff members of schools of

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude is to W/rt Lemlem Adebabay

Acknowledgement ........................................................................... iii

List of Figures ................................................................................... xii

Abbreviation ...................................................................................... xiii

Definition of nursing .................................................................. 1

Historical background of nursing .............................................. 2

History of nursing in Ethiopia ................................................... 8

Nursing process and Critical thinking ...................................... 10

Unit Two Safety in Health Care facilities ...................................... 18

Gastric lavage ...................................................230

Gastric aspiration ..............................................234

Cleansing enema ....................................237

Passing flatus tube ............................................243

Urinary catheterization .......................................244

Catheterization using straight catheter ...246

Inserting indwelling catheter.....................249

Drug metabolism ..................................253

Factors affecting drug metabolism.......255

Drug administration ..............................................256

Application of nursing process .........................257

Oral drug administration...................................259

Subcutaneous injection .........................267

Intramuscular injection ..........................269

Intravenous injection ..............................273

Blood transfusion .................................278

Cut down ..............................................283

Administration of vaginal medications..285

Administration of otic medications .......290

Oxygen administration ........................292

Giving oxygen by mask ........................292

Giving oxygen by nasal catheter.........294

Giving oxygen by tent..........................295

Steam inhalation .......................................297

Figure 1. Chain of infection .................................................................. 24

ABG Arterial Blood Gas

ABCDE Airway, breathing, circulation, disability, expose and

A.C. Before meal (ante cibum)

AIDS Acquire immeno deficiency syndrome

AROM Active range of motion; artificial rapture of

BID Twice a day (bis in die)

B.R.P. Bathroom privilege

D and C Dilatation and Curettage