PEMP

EMM2512

Forging and Extrusion Processes

Dr. N S Mahesh

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 1

 PEMP
EMM2512

Introduction
• Practically all metals, which are not used in cast form are
reduced to some standard shapes for subsequent processing.
• Manufacturing companies producing metals supply metals
in form of ingots which are obtained by casting liquid metal
into a square cross section.
– Slab (500-1800 mm wide and 50-300 mm thick)
– Billets (40 to 150 sq mm)
– Blooms (150 to 400 sq mm)
• Sometimes continuous casting methods are also used to cast
the liquid metal into slabs, billets or blooms.
• These shapes are further processed through hot rolling,
forging or extrusion, to produce materials in standard form
such as plates, sheets, rods, tubes and structural sections.
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 2
 PEMP
EMM2512

Forming and Shaping Processes

Sheet-Metal Forming and shaping

Forging of
Forming Plastics and
Metals
Processes Composite materials

Extrusion Processing of
Rolling
and Rapid PM,
of
drawing Prototyping Ceramics,
Metals
of Metals Glass and
Superconduc
tors

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 3

 PEMP
EMM2512

Sequence of operations for obtaining different shapes

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 4

 PEMP
EMM2512

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 5

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forging
• Forging is the working of metal into a
useful shape by hammering or pressing.
• The oldest of the metalworking arts
(primitive blacksmith).
• Replacement of machinery occurred
during early the Industrial revolution.
• Forging machines are now capable of
making parts ranging in size of a bolt to a
turbine rotor.
• Most forging operations are carried out
hot, although certain metals may be cold-
forged.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 6

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forging
• Forging is perhaps oldest metal working process and was
known even during prehistoric days when metallic tools
were made by heating and hammering.
• Forging is basically involves plastic deformation of material
between two dies to achieve desired configuration.
• Depending upon complexity of the part forging is carried
out as open die forging and closed die forging.
• In open die forging, the metal is compressed by repeated
blows by a mechanical hammer and shape is manipulated
manually.
• In closed die forging, the desired configuration is obtained
by squeezing the workpiece between two shaped and closed
dies.
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 7
 PEMP
EMM2512

Forging
• On squeezing the die cavity gets completely filled and excess
material comes out around the periphery of the die as flash
which is later trimmed.
• Press forging and drop forging are two popular methods in
closed die forging.
• In press forging the metal is squeezed slowly by a hydraulic or
mechanical press and component is produced in a single
closing of die, hence the dimensional accuracy is much better
than drop forging.
• Both open and closed die forging processes are carried out in
hot as well as in cold state.
• In forging favorable grain orientation of metal is obtained

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 8

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forging
• Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and the best
combination of mechanical properties.
• Wrenches, and automotive crankshafts and piston connecting rods
are typical articles formed by forging

A macroetched section through a forging

indicates that the grain flow follows the
contour of the component, which often
maximizes strength in the direction of
greatest operating stress.

Grain
Flow
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 9
 PEMP
EMM2512

Some Disadvantages of Forging

• Some disadvantages of forging are the high cost and high

residual stress produced.

• Most forging processes are expensive because of the cost of

making dies, so long production runs are usually necessary to
reduce costs.

• The high residual stresses in forgings are often released when

they are machined and cause warping when heavy cuts are
taken.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 10

 PEMP
EMM2512

Microstructure as a function of
manufacturing method

a) Casting b) Machining form a blank c) Forging

Each process has its own advantages and limitations
regarding external and internal characteristics, material
properties, dimensional accuracy, surface finish and the
Ref [3]
economics of production
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 11
 PEMP
EMM2512

Effect of forging on microstructure

• The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated

in the direction of the deformation.
• The metal flow during forging provides fibrous microstructure
(revealed by etching). This structure gives better mechanical
properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps)
lower across the thickness.
• The workpiece often undergo recrystallisation, therefore,
provide finer grains compared to the cast dendritic structure
resulting in improved mechanical properties.
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 12
 PEMP
EMM2512

Orientation of Grains
Forgings
Castings

Cast structure
Fibre structure in forged steels
Mainly epitaxial, dendritic Redistribution of grains in the
or equiaxed grains working directions

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 13

 PEMP
EMM2512

Flow lines in Forging

Flow lines in forging

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 14

 PEMP
EMM2512

Parting-line
location and its
influence on
grain-flow
patterns in a
channel section
forging
a. Parting lines resulting
in metal flow patterns
that cause defects
b. Parting lines resulting
in smooth flow lines at
stressed sections

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 15

 PEMP
EMM2512

Classification of Forging processes

By equipment
1) Forging hammer or drop hammer
2) Press forging

By process
1) Open - die forging
2) Closed - die forging

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 16

 PEMP
EMM2512

Open Die Forging

• Most forging processes begin with open die forging
• Open die forging is hot mechanical forming between flat or
shaped dies in which the metal flow is not completely restricted
• The stock is laid on a flat anvil while the flat face of the forging
hammer is struck against the stock.
• The equipment may range from the anvil and hammer to giant
hydraulic presses

Open Die Forging

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 17

 PEMP
EMM2512

Upsetting with Barreling

a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies

b) Uniform deformation of the billet without friction
c) Deformation with friction

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 18

 PEMP
EMM2512

Cogging operation on a rectangular bar

a) Cogging operation on a rectangular bar

b) Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging
c) The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 19
 PEMP
EMM2512

(a) forge hot billet to max diameter

(b) “fuller: tool to mark step-locations

(c) forge right side

Stages in Open-Die (d) reverse part, forge left side

Forging

(e) finish (dimension control)

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 20

 PEMP
EMM2512

Closed Die Forging

• The shaping of hot metal within the cavities or walls of two dies
that come together to completely enclose the workpiece

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 21

 PEMP
EMM2512

Impression-Die Forging

a) through (c) stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet

d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 22

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forging a rod, Fullering and Edging

a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine

b) Fullering
c) Edging operations to properly distribute the material when preshaping the
blanck for forging
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 23
 PEMP
EMM2512

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

Hammer forging two connecting rods; (a) bar stock; after (b)
fullering, (c) “rolling”, (d) blocking, (e) finishing, (f) trimming;
(g) the flash; (h) the forging dies.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 24

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forged components for automotive applications

Flange

Steering knuckle Rail

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 25

 PEMP
EMM2512

Drop forged components (Auto)

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 26

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forged components for automotive applications

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 27

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forged components for automotive applications

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 28

 PEMP
EMM2512

The coining process

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 29

 PEMP
EMM2512

Heading

Ref [3]
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 30
 PEMP
EMM2512

Metals in decreasing order of Forgeability

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 31

 PEMP
EMM2512

Defects in forged parts

Examples of defects in forged parts. a) laps formed by web buckling

during forging. b) internal defects caused by an oversized billet
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 32
 PEMP
EMM2512

Typical forging defects

• Pitted surface, due to oxide scales
occurring at high temperature stick on the
dies.
• Surface cracking, due to temperature
differential between surface and centre, or
excessive working of the surface at too
low temperature.
• Microcracking, due to residual stress.
• Flash line crack, after trimming-occurs
more often in thin workpieces. Therefore
should increase the thickness of the flash.
• Cold shut or fold , due to flash or fin
from prior forging steps is forced into the
workpiece.
• Internal cracking, due to secondary
tensile stress.
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 33
 PEMP
EMM2512

Extrusion of metals
• Extrusion is the process by which a
block/billet of metal is reduced in cross
section by forcing it to flow through a die
orifice under high pressure
• In general, extrusion is used to produce
cylindrical bars or hollow tubes or for the
starting stock for drawn rod, cold
extrusion or forged products.
• Most metals are hot extruded due to large
amount of forces required in extrusion.
• Complex shape can be extruded from the
more readily extrudable metals such as
aluminum.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 34

 PEMP
EMM2512

Extrusion Products
Typical parts produced by extrusion are
trim parts used in automotive
and construction applications, window
frame members, railings, aircraft structural
parts.
Example: Aluminum extrusions are used in
commercial and domestic buildings for
window and door frame systems,
prefabricated houses/building structures,
roofing and exterior cladding, curtain
walling, shop fronts, etc.
Furthermore, extrusions are also used in
transport for airframes, road and rail
vehicles and in marine applications
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 35
 PEMP
EMM2512

Classification of extrusion processes

There are several ways to classify metal extrusion
processes;
By direction
• Direct / Indirect extrusion
• Forward / backward extrusion
By operating temperature
• Hot / cold extrusion
By equipment
• Horizontal and vertical extrusion

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 36

 PEMP
EMM2512

• The metal billet is placed in a container and

driven through the die by the ram.
• The dummy block or pressure plate, is placed
at the end of the ram in contact with the
billet.
• Friction is at the die and container wall -
requires higher pressure than indirect extrusion

• The hollow ram containing the die is kept

stationary and the container with the billet is
caused to move.
• Friction at the die only (no relative movement
at the container wall) requires roughly constant
pressure.
• Hollow ram limits the applied load.
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 37
 PEMP
EMM2512

• Metal is forced to flow in the

same direction as the punch.
• The punch closely fits the die
cavity to prevent backward flow of
the material.

• Metal is forced to flow in the

direction opposite to the punch
movement.
• Metal can also be forced to flow
into recesses in the punch

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 38

 PEMP
EMM2512

Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is the process done at
room temperature or slightly elevated
temperatures. This process can be used for
most materials-subject to designing robust
enough tooling that can withstand the
stresses created by extrusion
Metals that can be extruded: lead, tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium,
molybdenum, vanadium, steel.
cold extruded parts: collapsible tubes, aluminum cans, cylinders, gear blanks.

Advantages
• No oxidation takes place.
• Good mechanical properties due to severe cold
working as long as the temperatures created are
below the recrystallisation temperature.
• Good surface finish with the use of
proper lubricants.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 39

 PEMP
EMM2512

Hot extrusion

Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures,

approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of
the
metal. The pressures can range from 35-700 MPa
• The most commonly used extrusion process is the
hot direct process. The cross-sectional shape of the
extrusion is defined by the shape of the die.
• Due to the high temperatures and pressures and
its detrimental effect on the die life as well as other
components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and
graphite work at lower temperatures, whereas at
higher temperatures glass powder is used.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 40

 PEMP
EMM2512

Case Study

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 41

 PEMP
EMM2512

Costs of a rod made by forging and casting

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 42

 PEMP
EMM2512

Cost-per-piece in Forging

Typical (cost-per-piece) in forging

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 43
 PEMP
EMM2512

The light weight forged piston

• Difference between forging and casting processes
for making piston

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 44

 PEMP
EMM2512

Forged piston(left) and cast piston (right).

The left weights 255g, the compression height is 23mm and
total height is 41mm.
The right weights 360g, the compression height is 28 mm and
total height is 50mm
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 45
 PEMP
EMM2512

Controlled forging process for piston

1) The installed heater controls the forging temperature of the material, enabling
the shaping of the thin portion
2) The temperature control and the developed lubricant prevent the die from
siezure
3) The quantitative lubricant control maintains the quality of the forged pistons
4) The billets (disk shape) for forging are prepared from a continuously cast bar
which has a round cross-section
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 46
 PEMP
EMM2512

Forming of Automobile Steel Wheels

Welding

Disk

Rim
Aluminum, casting,
one piece Steel, sheet metal forming,
two pieces

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 47

 PEMP
EMM2512

Conventional Forming of Automobile Steel Wheels

Disk forming Rim forming One-Piece Press

Forming
1) Only multi-stage stamping
2) Omission of welding process
3) Continuous forming
4) Reduction in cost
Blanking Bending and welding 5) Increase of wheel strength

Press forming Roll forming

Welding
Two pieces
Product
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 48
 PEMP

One-Piece Press Forming EMM2512

φ77mm,t0=0.5mm
(a) Deep drawing
Blank (b) Reverse drawing
and redrawing

(c) 1st flaring (d) 2nd flaring (e) 3nd flaring

(f) Rim finishing (g) Disk finishing

Forming of deeply drawn cup into wheel
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 49
 PEMP
EMM2512

Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes

Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 50

 PEMP
EMM2512

Summary
• Forging machines
• Forging operations
• Case study - forging of Piston
• Forging defects
• Extrusion process
have been discussed

Thank You

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 51