Meeting of the OECD Council

at Ministerial Level
Paris, 7-8 June 2017

GOING DIGITAL: MAKING

THE TRANSFORMATION
WORK FOR GROWTH
AND WELL-BEING
Going Digital: Making the Transformation Work for
Growth and Well-Being
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

KEY MESSAGES FOR MINISTERS ............................................................................................................3

Seizing the opportunities and mitigating the challenges ..........................................................................3
Fostering access and effective use............................................................................................................3
Facilitating social adjustment and ensuring inclusion ..............................................................................4
Leveraging the digital transformation for better policies .........................................................................5
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................5
Going Digital - What's at Stake? ..................................................................................................................6
Going Digital - The Scope of the Transformation .......................................................................................9
Going Digital - Shaping the Transformation .............................................................................................11
Ensuring infrastructure and access for all ..............................................................................................12
Fostering digital trade and ensuring market openness ...........................................................................13
Making the digital transformation work for firms ..................................................................................15
Making the digital transformation work for governments .....................................................................17
Helping workers adapt ...........................................................................................................................20
Continuously assessing the skills needed for a digital world and adapting formal education and
training systems to remain up-to-date ....................................................................................................21
Enhancing trust and social acceptance ...................................................................................................23
Using the digital transformation to foster well-being.............................................................................25
Policy coherence and strategy development...........................................................................................26
Conclusions and Next Steps.......................................................................................................................26
ANNEX - THE GOING DIGITAL PROJECT .............................................................................................27
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................................28

Figures

Figure 1. Internet users, 2005 and 2015 ..................................................................................................6

Figure 2. The diffusion of selected ICT tools and activities in enterprises, 2015 ...................................8
Figure 3. A preliminary framework for policies towards the digital transformation ............................12
Figure 4. Enterprises using cloud computing by firm size, 2016..........................................................13
Figure 5. Individuals using the Internet for sending filled forms via public authorities websites in the
past 12 months, by education level, 2015 ..................................................................................................18
Figure 6. Younger people are better prepared for the digital working environment than older people 22

Boxes

Box 1. Digitalisation and Productivity - What is the Relationship? ............................................................7

Box 2. Vectors of Digital Transformation .................................................................................................10
Box 3. Data - the new resource of the digital economy .............................................................................24

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 KEY MESSAGES FOR MINISTERS

Seizing the opportunities and mitigating the challenges

 We are in the midst of a digital transformation, with 40% of the world population now connected
to networks, up from 4% in 1995. The transformation is at an early stage with a range of new
technologies still to come.

 The digital transformation can spur innovation and productivity growth across many
activities, transform public services, and improve wellbeing as information, knowledge and
data become more widely available. It will be instrumental in addressing pressing policy
challenges such as the shift to renewable energy, care for ageing populations and injecting
efficiency and transparency into the delivery of government services.

 These benefits go hand-in-hand with challenges to jobs and skills, to privacy and security, to
markets and taxation, to social security systems and public financing, and to public
institutions and social interactions. The speed of change can be alienating to some and fits
uneasily with the fixed timeframes, lengthy administrative procedures or adherence to
predetermined cycles that can characterise policy making.

 To ensure that policies harness the benefits while mitigating the challenges, policy makers need
to be pro-active and act now. Many policies are the legacy of an analogue era and ill-adapted to
today's digital era. This gap between “Technology 4.0” and “Policy 1.0” needs to be closed.
Catching up with the rapid pace of change will also help in "fixing" globalisation.

 Making the digital transformation work will require inclusive, coherent and well-coordinated
policies, reflecting a multi-stakeholder and whole-of-government approach to policy making, that
pro-actively consider those who will benefit from the digital transformation and those who risk
being left behind.

Fostering access and effective use

 Fully benefiting from the opportunities linked to digitalisation will require that all individuals,
businesses and governments have reliable and affordable access to digital networks and
services. This requires a wide coverage of digital networks, and targeted measures for
disadvantaged people, firms (e.g. certain SMEs) and regions.

 But mere access to digital networks does not ensure effective use. Policy will need to help
equip people with appropriate skills to use the technology; enable complementary investments in
organisational change and process innovation; and foster competition and sound firm dynamics.
Sector-specific aspects of the digital transformation also require attention, e.g. in financial
services or manufacturing.

3
  SMEs face challenges in the use of ICT but also have important opportunities, such as global
e-commerce, to access new markets and improve their performance. Improving their access to
finance is particularly important, as are policies to diffuse digital technologies to SMEs, such as
technology extension services.

 Digital trade is creating new economic opportunities, allowing firms to access new markets,
and bringing new goods and services to consumers globally. To seize the opportunities,
governments need to work together to facilitate digital trade across borders, whether digitally or
physically delivered, address existing cross-border barriers and frictions, and avoid unnecessary
new restrictions, including in considering the impacts on market openness of other policies.

 Trust is fundamental to the success of the digital transformation. Greater international co-
operation in developing coherent strategies for digital security and privacy, and implementing
security and privacy risk management frameworks, are essential, as is the protection of
consumers engaged in online activities.

Facilitating social adjustment and ensuring inclusion

 The digital transformation will provide new job opportunities for many but raises
challenges for others, with the risk of growing inequalities in access to jobs. Sound labour, skills
and social policies can make it easier for workers to grasp the new opportunities and help
navigate the challenges.

 Workers displaced by the digital transformation should be provided with active job search
and adequate income support, to speed up job finding and reduce the cost of job loss. Such
interventions should come early in the unemployment spell, and be coupled with retraining and
requalification so that displaced workers can take advantage of new job opportunities arising
elsewhere in the economy.

 Strengthening ICT skills for all workers and citizens is important, but will not be enough to
thrive in the digital economy. Good literacy and numeracy skills are also essential, while other
complementary skills are needed, including socio-emotional skills to work collaboratively and
flexibly. Skills policies should seek to: ensure initial learning equips all young people with
relevant skills (including media competence); encourage flexibility and responsiveness to
changing skill needs; promote more effective use of skills within or outside workplaces; and
strengthen incentives and opportunities for further learning.

 It is essential to continuously assess and anticipate changing skill needs and foster more
responsive education and training provision, in order to adapt programmes and pathways offered
and guide students towards choices that lead to good employment outcomes.

 New digital business models are creating new job and income opportunities for people who may
have no access to regular jobs, but may also offer less promising employment trajectories, less
protection and stability and lower access to social protection and training. Governments need to
ensure strong social and regulatory protection for all workers.

 Digital technologies can foster social inclusion by strengthening access to health care, financial
services and skills development, and by helping disadvantaged groups connect to such services.
At the same time, negative aspects of the digital era, such as Internet-enabled criminal activities,
need to be addressed, with policies grounded in respect for human rights and the rule of law.

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Leveraging the digital transformation for better policies

 Governments can leverage digital technologies to re-invent policy design and

experimentation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and better serve the needs of
citizens, e.g. in fostering smart cities.

 To enable evidence-based policies, better measurement and analysis of the digital

transformation and its impacts are urgently needed.

Introduction

1. The Going Digital (GD) Horizontal Project was officially launched at the start of 2017. It
originated as a vision from the four Chairs of STI policy Committees in the autumn of 2015 as they
reflected on the 2017-18 PWB, and gained further support and momentum from a range of sectoral
Ministerial meetings, notably on science and technology policy (October 2015), employment (January
2016), skills (June 2016) and the digital economy (June 2016), as well as the Ministerial Council Meeting
2016 and the corresponding statement that "encourage[s] the OECD to develop a horizontal policy strategy
on digitalisation, its opportunities and challenges." Following the 2016 MCM, the initiative was further
developed and included in the PWB 2017-18 as a Horizontal Project. It was approved by Council at its
meeting on 16 November 2016.

2. The overarching objective of the Going Digital project is to help policymakers better understand
the digital transformation that is taking place and develop tools to help create a policy environment that
enables their economies and societies to prosper in a world that is increasingly digital and data-driven. The
project will deliver a whole-of-house perspective on the state, effects, expected benefits and issues raised
by digitalisation in different sectors and policy areas, and will provide focused analysis of key cross-
cutting issues, e.g.: jobs and skills; productivity, competition and market structure; social challenges and
well-being; as well as measurement of the digital transformation (see Annex).

3. The project involves a lead Committee, the Committee on Digital Economy Policy, and benefits
from work by thirteen other Committees involved in the Horizontal Project.1

4. This paper is intended to provide Ministers with a first and preliminary set of policy conclusions
that are emerging from OECD work on the digital transformation. Not all policy areas that will eventually
be included in the project are covered in detail in this paper, reflecting the current state of the work.

5. Further work will deepen the analysis of key policy issues, and provide more concrete policy
recommendations and a roadmap for the OECD to better measure the digital transformation. It will deliver
a range of stand-alone reports and policy notes, a report to the 2018 MCM, and a final synthesis report at
the end of the project. It will also go "beyond the book" and help countries in the development of national
digital strategies; work towards one or more OECD Council Recommendations; and develop a Going
Digital toolkit, with an integrated policy framework, practical examples and good practices.

1
These Committees are the Competition Committee, the Committee on Consumer Policy, the Committee on
Industry, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, the Insurance and Private Pensions Committee, the Committee
on Financial Markets, the Committee on Fiscal Affairs, the Committee on Scientific and Technological
Policy, the Committee on Statistics and Statistics Policy, the Economic Policy Committee, the Education
Policy Committee, the Employment, Labour and Social Affairs Committee, the Public Governance
Committee, and the Trade Committee. More detail on the project and its governance are available in the
first 2017 Horizontal Project Update to Council [C(2017)27/REV1].

5
Going Digital - What's at Stake?

6. We are in the midst of the transition towards a digital economy and society. Although underway
for nearly half-a-century, the pace of the digital transformation has quickened in recent years. Digital
infrastructures are now nearly fully deployed across OECD countries and growing quickly beyond (Figure
1), and smart phones provide ubiquitous connectivity and computing to many. Internet access has grown,
from 4% to 40% of the world's population in 20 years and emerging and developing economies are
increasingly using digital technologies to forge ahead in areas like e-commerce, banking and health.

Figure 1. Internet users, 2005 and 2015

As a percentage of total individuals

2015 2005
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Note: The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data
by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under
the terms of international law.
Source: OECD, based on ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database and Eurostat Information Society Statistics
Database; January 2017.

7. As more people and things become connected through networks, torrents of data are generated,
new technologies like blockchain emerge and breakthroughs occur in artificial intelligence, it is clear that
the digital transformation is still only at an early stage. While many firms now have access to broadband
networks, the use of more advanced digital tools and applications within firms still differs greatly across
countries, even among the most advanced economies (Figure 2). Moreover, there are important differences
between firms within countries (Figure 4).

8. The ongoing digital transformation has the potential to spur innovation, enhance productivity
across a wide range of activities (Box 1), and improve wellbeing as information, knowledge and data
become more widely available. These benefits go hand-in-hand with major challenges to the nature and
structure of organisations, markets, and social interactions. The digital transformation raises challenges for
jobs and skills, market entry and competition, taxation, and invites new thinking on how to preserve
fundamentals such as privacy and security, and on how to ensure that the transformation is socially
inclusive and sound.

6
9. Across OECD countries and beyond, the policy response to the digital transformation has been
mixed. Some are developing a strategic and pro-active approach to leveraging its benefits, working across
the full range of government policies, while others have made piecemeal decisions to contain or roll back
the consequences of specific incidents (e.g. security breaches) or the impacts of new technologies,
applications or business models. In many cases, governments have been caught off-guard - be it by
embedded code programmed to evade emission tests, the inherent lack of security in the “Internet of
Things”, or tax policy challenges of the digital economy. Within the OECD context, important progress on
key aspects of policies for the digital age has been made through a number of recent OECD instruments,
such as the Recommendation of the Council on Principles for Internet Policy Making [C(2011)154], the
Recommendation of the Council on Digital Government Strategies [C(2014)88] and the Declaration on the
Digital Economy: Innovation, Growth and Social Prosperity [C(2016)116], but a whole-of-government
approach to the digital transformation is still lacking in most countries.

Box 1. Digitalisation and Productivity - What is the Relationship?

With the broad-based slowdown in productivity growth that is affecting many OECD economies and beyond, the
question is whether the current stage of the digital transformation can help strengthen productivity growth going
forward. Earlier OECD work found that digital technologies can have considerable impacts on productivity growth, but
only when investments in ICT are combined with investments in complementary assets, such as skills, organisational
changes and process innovations, i.e. knowledge-based capital (OECD, 2004).

According to Brynjolfsson and McAfee (2011), the recent digital transformation of economic activities has
unleashed four main innovative trends: i) improved real-time measurement of business activities; ii) faster and cheaper
business experimentation; iii) more widespread and easier sharing of ideas; and iv) the ability to replicate innovations
with greater speed and fidelity (scaling-up). While each of these trends is important in isolation, their impacts are
amplified when applied in unison. Recent studies continue to point to the strong impacts of the current generation of
ICTs on productivity (OECD, 2017a). But these impacts at the firm and industry level have not yet translated into
visible impacts at the aggregate level. There are several possible explanations for this.

 First, recent OECD work points to a strong divergence in productivity growth between global frontier firms,
which have continued to experience strong productivity performance, and other firms, that have increasingly
fallen behind (OECD, 2015a). This growing gap points to a breakdown of the diffusion of technology and its
associated knowledge from leading firms to others. Although the OECD work has not yet explored the
specific link to digital technologies, the growing gap does seem related to the difficulties for many firms to
absorb the wide range of technological changes that are underway and turn those changes into productivity
growth, e.g. due to lack of appropriate skills, investments in complementary knowledge-based capital, etc.
Moreover, the work points to a lack of structural change and business dynamics in OECD economies, which
has slowed down the necessary reallocation of resources across the economy. For example, the share of
non-viable old firms has been increasing in many OECD countries, particularly since the financial crisis,
while the productivity of the latter group of firms has been falling rapidly relative to “viable” old firms, as well
as younger firms in general (Adalet McGowan, et al, 2017; Berlingieri et al, 2017). This is important as
earlier OECD work has found that the impacts of ICT on productivity depend on healthy business dynamics
(OECD, 204). ICT-related changes in firms are part of a process of search and experimentation, where
some firms and new business models succeed and grow and others fail and disappear.

 Second, the current phase of the digital transformation may not yet have led to increased productivity as the
economy has not yet fully absorbed its impacts and the installation process is still underway. This could
mean that the impacts might still emerge in the years to come (Van Ark, et al., 2016).

 Third, some of the key impacts of the digital transformation on productivity may not show up in aggregate
productivity growth as they do not show up in GDP. Recent OECD work (Ahmad and Schreyer, 2016) finds
that, on balance, the accounting framework for GDP looks to be up to the challenges posed by digitalisation.
Nevertheless, many practical measurement issues remain, especially with regards to quality adjustment of
prices, some of which will be explored in the OECD's work over the coming years.

For policy makers, the key point is that the digital transformation is already having important impacts on
productivity growth at the firm and industry level. But ensuring that these impacts translate into broader-based,
aggregate productivity growth may require additional action, to facilitate the necessary structural change in the
economy, and to support firms and workers in the adjustment process.

7
10. This gap between “Technology 4.0” and “Policy 1.0” needs to be closed. Many policies, and
public sectors’ internal processes and dynamics, are a legacy of an analogue era that assumed a physical
context and are ill-adapted to the digital era. But, as discussed below, the digital transformation has
important impacts on many fundamental drivers of economic and social life (Box 2). Likewise, policy
makers sometimes lack an understanding of the changes underway and seek to make small, incremental
changes to existing policies instead of proactively developing new approaches, more adapted to the digital
future.

11. In the global and interconnected digital environment, the lack of an integrated, whole-of-
government approach increases the risk that policies in one area will have unintended, possibly adverse,
impacts on another, or that opportunities for synergies that enhance positive effects are missed. For
example, restrictions on ride-sharing schemes can impose barriers for those without cars to get to work,
lead to inefficient use of urban spaces, and frustrate policies aimed at supporting the aged. New
opportunities like “smart homes” require co-ordination of policies in areas ranging from transport, energy,
housing and communications to education and health care. In finance, new regulatory approaches (e.g.
“sandboxes”) may be needed to balance the benefits of innovation against the risks to financial stability
and consumer protection.

Figure 2. The diffusion of selected ICT tools and activities in enterprises, 2015

Use of selected tools and activities, as a percentage of enterprises with ten or more persons employed

Gap 1st and 3rd quartiles Average Lowest Highest

%
FIN
100 FIN

80 CHE
MEX IRL
DEU
60 FIN
NZL
KOR
40 DNK
MEX

20
POL
GRC ISL
POL GRC HUN CAN
0
Broadband Website E-purchases Social media Enterprise Cloud E-sales Supply chain RFID
resource computing mngt. (ADE)
planning

Source: OECD, ICT Database; Eurostat, Information Society Statistics Database and national sources, April 2016.

12. With the ongoing development of big data analytics, machine learning, artificial intelligence and
other new technologies, policy makers must work to ensure that the opportunity offered by the digital
transformation is used to improve the well-being of all citizens. This requires understanding the challenges,
working collectively to learn from each other and devising policies that help workers, including civil
servants, and society as a whole in adjusting to the transition. The window for action is now, so as to have
effective measures and strategies in place when they are needed.

13. Catching up with the rapid pace of the digital transformation will also contribute to a new and
better growth narrative that focuses on improving well-being in increasingly open and digitalised
economies. This will allow preserving the benefits of globalisation and digitalisation while addressing
their shortcomings and fostering inclusive growth.

8
Going Digital - The Scope of the Transformation

14. Digitisation is the conversion of an analogue signal conveying information (e.g. sound, image,
printed text) to binary bits.2 Once digitised, information can be represented in a universal manner, all
microprocessors can process these bits, and it can be stored as data. Once in this form, data can be used –
processed, stored, filtered, tracked, identified, duplicated and transmitted – infinitely by digital devices
without degradation, at very high speeds, and at negligible marginal cost. The Internet allows this to occur
globally. In contrast, processing analogue information is slow and the variety of formats (e.g. paper, film
reel, magnetic tapes, etc.) severely limits links, combinations and replication. In short, digitisation reduces
physical constraints to data collection and exploitation and enables the infinite use of the non-scarce and
non-rivalrous properties of information, which are inherent to its intangible nature (see e.g. OECD, 2015b).

15. Digital technologies have come a long way since the invention of the first computer during
World War II and the emergence of the Internet in the 1990s. Some of the key technologies and
applications that are driving the digital transformation today include (OECD, 2016a):

 The Smartphone: The introduction of the smartphone in 2007 transformed computing by enabling
constant mobile connectivity and providing individuals with access to a wide range of new
applications and services. It has also enabled the development of the "platform" economy.

 The Internet of Things: The Internet of Things (IoT) comprises devices and objects whose state
can be altered via the Internet, with or without the active involvement of individuals (OECD,
2015b). It includes objects and sensors that gather data and exchange these with one another and
with humans. The networked sensors in the IoT serve to monitor the health, location and
activities of people and animals and the state of production processes and the natural
environment, among other applications (OECD, 2016b). The number of connected devices in and
around people’s homes in OECD countries is expected to increase from 1 billion in 2016 to 14
billion by 2022 (OECD, 2015b).

 Big data analytics: Big data analytics is defined as a set of techniques and tools used to process
and interpret large volumes of data that are generated by the increasing digitisation of content, the
greater monitoring of human activities and the spread of the IoT (OECD, 2015b). It can be used
to infer relationships, establish dependencies, and perform predictions of outcomes and
behaviours. Firms, governments and individuals are increasingly able to access unprecedented
volumes of data that help inform real-time decision-making by combining a wide range of
information from different sources.

 Artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) is defined as the ability of machines and
systems to acquire and apply knowledge and to carry out intelligent behaviour. This means
performing a broad variety of cognitive tasks, e.g. sensing, processing oral language, reasoning,
learning, making decisions and demonstrating an ability to move and manipulate objects
accordingly. Intelligent systems use a combination of big data analytics, cloud computing,
machine-to-machine communication and the IoT to operate and learn (OECD, 2015c). AI is
making devices and systems smart and empowering new kinds of software and robots that
increasingly act as self-governing agents, operating much more independently from the decisions
of their human creators and operators than machines have previously done.

2
Digitalisation, by contrast, refers to the adoption or increase in use of digital or computer technology by an
organisation, industry, country, etc., and thus to the way digitisation is affecting economy and society.

9
  Blockchain or distributed ledger technology (DLT): Whereas most software protocols support
information exchange, blockchain or DLT enables protocols for value exchange, legal contracts
and similar applications. It facilitates a shared understanding of value attached to specific data
and thus allows transactions to be carried out. In itself, blockchain is a distributed database that
acts as an open, shared and trusted public ledger that cannot be tampered with and that everyone
can inspect. The combination of transparency of transactions, strict rules and constant oversight
that can characterise a blockchain-based network provides the conditions for its users to trust the
transactions conducted on it, without the necessity of a central institution. The technology offers
the potential for lower transaction costs by removing the necessity of trustworthy intermediaries
to conduct sufficiently secure value, legal or other transfers. It could disrupt markets and public
institutions whose business model rests on the provision of trustworthy transactions.

16. Many other technologies underpin the digital transformation that is currently underway, including
open-source software like Hadoop, 5G, robotics, grid and neural computing, virtual reality, quantum
computing, etc. Some of these have applications in almost all sectors of the economy and can be
considered true "general-purpose" technologies. Others have more narrow applications in specific sectors.
But together, they underpin a wide-ranging and rapid digital transformation of economy and society, and
increasingly of governments, in many areas that is leading to shifts in markets and economic behaviour that
are fundamentally different from the analogue era that we are used to (Box 2).

Box 2. Vectors of Digital Transformation

The Digital products, interactions, and markets have distinctive characteristics that underlie ongoing economic
and social change. These often transformative characteristics can support, or frustrate, policy objectives. Some of the
most prominent are listed below under three headings: a) Scale, Scope and Speed; b) Ownership, Assets and
Economic Value; and c) Relationships, Markets and Ecosystems. They offer a useful heuristic for understanding digital
transformation, related policy challenges, and possible responses.
Scale, Scope and Speed
Scale without mass: While digital products and services have diverse economic characteristics (e.g., networks,
semiconductors, smartphones, computing), core digital elements – software, data, and standards – stand out.
Fixed costs contrast with low, close to zero, marginal costs. Combined with the global reach of the Internet, this
allows firms and platforms to scale very quickly, often with few employees, tangible assets or a geographic
footprint.
Panoramic Scope: The digitisation of functions allows for unprecedented complexity in products (the
smartphone) and services (a huge catalogue of offerings). Standards enable components and products from
different sources to work together, furthering economies of scope, from combining, processing, and integrating
digital resources at a global level.
Temporal Dynamics: It is often observed that digital technology accelerates communications, commerce, the
diffusion of information and innovation, and changes in economic and social practices. However, the implications
are far more complex: Digital acceleration takes place against legacy time frames, slow institutional processes,
entrenched behaviours, and limited human attention. Technology also enables the manipulation of time,
trivializing the preservation of the past and making it readily probed, indexed, repurposed, resold and
remembered.
Ownership, Assets and Economic Value
“Soft” capital: The growing importance of intangible sources of value, especially software and data, has been
widely recognized. Physical goods – jet engines, tractors, specialized equipment – can generate and return data
so that it becomes a service – or a hybrid of product and service. This is coupled with the emergence of platforms
that allow firms and individuals to rent-out or share their real capital easily.
Value mobility: As a result of its intangible, machine-encoded nature, software and data can be stored or
exploited anywhere, decoupling value from specific geographic locations, and creating opportunities for policy
arbitrage across jurisdictions.

10
Relationships, Markets and Ecosystems
Intelligence at the edges: The “end-to-end” principle of the Internet has moved the intelligence of the network
from the centre to the periphery. Armed with computers and smartphones, users can design and construct their
own networks through mailing lists, hyperlinks and social networks, creating distinct communities. But they must
typically take on responsibilities that used to reside in the centre (e.g. privacy and security).
Platforms and Ecosystems: Digital technology enables expanded interactions and behaviour among individuals,
communities, businesses, and governments. This has propelled the development not only of direct relationships
but digitally empowered multi-sided markets, commonly known as platforms. Some of the largest platforms are
linked with varying degrees of integration, interoperability, data-sharing, and openness, essentially serving as
proprietary ecosystems.
Loss of Place: Value mobility and the global reach of the Internet enable value creation, transaction, and
interaction regardless of location and borders, and this challenges traditional principles of territoriality and
sovereignty.

Going Digital - Shaping the Transformation

17. The digital transformation is challenging almost every aspect of economy and society, which
implies that many different policy areas need to be considered in a whole-of-government response. It
requires governments to reach across traditional policy silos and across different levels of government to
develop a whole-of-government approach to policymaking. While many policies need to be considered,
some key building blocks can be usefully distinguished, namely:

 Building the Foundations for the Digital Transformation, which includes policies that affect
the broad enabling environment (notably market openness) for the digital transformation, as well
as policies that foster accessible digital infrastructures and services.

 Making the Digital Transformation Work for the Economy and Society. This focuses on
policies that enable the effective use of digital technologies by people, firms and governments,
and policies that foster the application of digital technologies in specific activities and policy
areas. It also includes policies to foster trust and acceptance, and policies that can help all
individuals, including citizens, workers and consumers, as well as society as a whole to adjust to
the digital transformation, including by ensuring that all people have the skills they need to adapt
to and excel in an increasingly digital world. Moreover, it includes policies aimed at the use of
digital tools to enhance well-being, including by providing more equitable access to public
services.

 Policy Coherence and Strategy Development, which involves co-ordination among ministries
and other bodies at all levels of government, as well as actively involving all key stakeholders in
the policymaking process to ensure that all policies are mutually reinforcing and aligned with one
coherent and strategic national digital agenda. Moreover, collective action will be needed in
several areas to seize the opportunities and tackle the evolving challenges of the digital economy.

18. A preliminary integrated policy framework for making the digital transformation work,
representing these key elements, is shown below (Figure 3). These elements are further discussed in
subsequent sections of the paper that will be further elaborated in the next phase of OECD work on the
Going Digital project (see Annex). The sections below do not touch yet on the sector-specific implications
of the digital transformation, however, e.g. in sectors such as manufacturing, transport, the creative
industries or finance. Some of these will be further elaborated in the next phase of OECD work.

19. Countries differ substantially in their starting conditions for the digital transformation, such as
the level of economic development, the structural make-up and trade specialisation of the economy, and

11
geography, but also in their institutional characteristics and approaches to policy, e.g. in regard to the role
of government and different private and public actors in the economy. As a result, they face different
constraints under which policy responses to their challenges and opportunities need to be developed and
different barriers that provide a rationale for policy action. Nevertheless, countries around the world are
faced with the ongoing digital transformation and will therefore need to explore policies that can help seize
its benefits and mitigate the challenges.

20. The precise nature of the approaches and set of policies needed depends on the stage of
development of each country, its economic structure, the capabilities of firms, etc. Moreover, the specific
choice and combination of policies will need to be aligned with the capabilities of each country in terms of
policy making and policy implementation. Further work in the context of Going Digital project will
explore these questions in more detail.

Figure 3. A preliminary integrated policy framework for making the digital transformation work for growth and
well-being

Policy Coherence and

Strategy Development

Making the Digital Transformation Work for the Economy & Society

Innovation Digital Trust & Labour

Effective
& Effects Government Acceptance Market Well-being
Use (People)
(Firms) (Sectors) (Governments) (Firms, People) Adaptation
(People)

Building the Foundations for the Digital Transformation

Framework Conditions (including Market Accessible Digital Infrastructures and
Openness) Services

Ensuring infrastructure and access for all

21. The first building block for the digital transformation is about ensuring access for all. Digital
infrastructures, including efficient, reliable and widely accessible broadband communication networks,
data, software, hardware, as well as the services that are provided over the networks, are the foundations on
which the digital economy is based. It is essential that governments promote investment in digital
infrastructures and competition in the provision of high-speed networks and services, such as fibre
networks, and ensure that key complementary enablers are in place (e.g. fibre optic back-haul, sufficient
spectrum and increasing uptake of IPv6 Internet addresses).

22. Individuals, businesses (including SMEs), and governments need reliable, affordable and
widespread access to digital networks and services to benefit from digital opportunities and boost growth
and well-being. While nearly all (95%) adults in Iceland, Norway, Denmark and Luxembourg accessed the
Internet in 2015, only half of the adult population did so in Turkey and Mexico, and 20% or less in India

12
and Indonesia (Figure 1). Differences within countries are linked primarily to age and education, often
intertwined with income levels. Gender differences play a smaller role in OECD countries, although
women typically lag men in their use of digital technologies. In most OECD countries, uptake by young
people is now nearly universal, but older generations typically have much lower levels of uptake.
Providing access for all would help people in low- and middle-income countries, those in rural areas and
lagging and disadvantaged groups, in benefitting from the education, employment and health opportunities
enabled by digital networks. At the same time, ensuring access is not enough, as further discussed below.

23. Businesses also increasingly access and use the Internet. Almost no business today is run without
ICTs. In 2015, most businesses in OECD countries had access to the Internet and a web page (Figure 2).
However, the use of more sophisticated applications, such as cloud computing, has a much higher variation
across countries, with small business lagging significantly in many (Figure 4).

24. Enhancing access for all individuals and businesses at an affordable price requires sound
framework policies, effective telecommunications policies that reflect the need for a wide diffusion of
digital networks, and additional measures, such as national broadband strategies, that can help reach
disadvantaged groups, firms and rural or remote areas. Ensuring sound competition, including through
market openness, is also key in this respect. For example, recent telecommunications reforms in Mexico
have contributed to lower prices and enhanced access for many households and firms.

Figure 4. Enterprises using cloud computing by firm size, 2016

As a percentage of enterprises in each employment size class

% All enterprises 10-49 50-249 250+

100

80

60

40

20

Notes: Cloud computing refers to ICT services used over the Internet as a set of computing resources to access software, computing
power, storage capacity and so on.
Sources: OECD, ICT access and use database; Eurostat, Information Society Statistics and national sources, March 2017.

Fostering digital trade and ensuring market openness

25. Another important foundation for the digital transformation rests on market openness.
Digitalisation is creating new economic opportunities, allowing firms to access new markets, and bringing
new products and services to consumers. It can help reduce transaction costs and enable more goods and

13
services to be delivered remotely. Moreover, enhanced productivity of enterprises thanks to greater ICT
use helps them to succeed better in domestic and foreign markets.

26. Digital trade also opens opportunities for entrepreneurship, innovation and job creation, and
digital tools can help firms (SMEs in particular) overcome barriers to their growth, by facilitating
payments, enabling collaboration, avoiding investment in fixed assets through the use of cloud-based
services, and using alternative funding mechanisms (e.g. crowdfunding).

27. The digital transformation is having a profound impact on international trade: changing how
countries trade, altering how products are made and delivered, and also what they trade, including greater
bundling of goods and services. Traditional measures affecting market openness remain important; digital
trade still involves traditional goods and services crossing borders, and therefore tariffs, trade facilitation
and services commitments continue to matter. But how and what we trade is also changing, even
exacerbating, the impact of some traditional measures, and new measures are emerging that affect the way
digital trade takes place.

28. Market openness underpins the potential benefits from digital trade3, starting with the potential
role of foreign suppliers in improving the availability and quality of digital trade enablers, such as digital
infrastructure services or IT products. Digital platforms selling goods in global markets are affected by
traditional trade facilitation issues (e.g., processes at the border), as well as by the competitiveness and
reliability of the transport and logistics sector. The costs of handling of much greater volumes of small
packages compared to foregone revenues may also raise issues for governments with the level of the de
minimis threshold for tariffs. Moreover, the blurring of the lines between goods and services can mean that,
if part of the value of a traded good relies on its embedded service, then measures impacting the supply of
this service may be as important as measures impacting trade in goods. Similarly, 3D printing is likely to
impact trade in goods, but arguably will be affected by market access in the related service. Even where a
transaction itself might not seem to be affected by any kind of measures, the disruption of a supporting
service can prevent the transaction from occurring (e.g., restrictions on e-payment services for goods trade
via digital marketplaces).

29. Growing interconnectedness and a greater demand for just-in-time delivery also means that trade,
more than ever, needs to be faster and more reliable. Digitisation of information paves the way for
effective identification of risks and management of global supply chains. Large volumes of data can help
meet growing demands for the tracking and traceability of products across borders -- facilitating trade in
agricultural products, but also requiring interoperability of data exchange systems and harmonisation of e-
certificates. Rising automation and a wider use of artificial intelligence may also give rise to new issues
about the role of robots as agents in trade transactions.

30. Lastly, with data flows underpinning digitally enabled trade in goods and services, as well as
trade facilitation and the ability of companies to organise production globally through global value chains
(with a resulting trade in intermediate goods), policies regarding data flows can have important
implications for market openness in the digital era. Data flows are increasingly a means of production, as
well as an asset that can themselves be traded. Policy design needs to facilitate the movement of data
across borders and avoid measures that unduly restrict its movement while respecting the need for privacy
and data protection. Trade policy should therefore focus on continuing to ensure that appropriate
safeguards are available for pursuing legitimate public policy goals while preserving the significant
benefits from an open digital environment.

3
There is currently no agreed definition of digital trade, but a growing consensus that it encompasses
digitally enabled transactions in trade in goods and services which can be either digitally or physically
delivered and which involve consumers, firms and governments.

14
31. Digital trade issues are covered under multilateral and plurilateral agreements forged at the
World Trade Organisation (WTO). WTO agreements are technologically neutral, so disciplines pertaining
to trade in goods under GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), or trade in serviced under GATS
(General Agreement on Trade in Services) apply equally in the online and offline worlds. 4 Yet with rapid
changes in technology, and a range of new issues arising, there is a discussion among WTO Members
about whether there is a need to update or clarify existing rules and commitments. Indeed, as the digital
transformation has progressively deepened, countries have begun to include digital trade issues in
preferential trade agreements (PTAs). In addition to specifying that general provisions of the agreement
apply in the online world, some PTAs now include specific chapters on digital services, e-commerce and
telecommunications.

Making the digital transformation work for firms

32. The second main element of the OECD's preliminary framework relates to policies that can help
make the digital transformation work for firms and for the economy more broadly. Access to digital
networks provides the foundation for the digital transformation of economy and society, but does not
necessarily enable people and firms to use the technology effectively. For people, having the appropriate
skills to use and benefit from the technology is key, as further discussed below. Better informing people
about the opportunities offered by the digital transformation can also be valuable. For firms, notably
SMEs, a wide range of factors need to be addressed, notably skills; complementary investments in
knowledge-based capital, including data, organisational capital and process innovation; sound competition
and firm dynamics; as well as finance, taxation and regulation.

33. Greater use of digital technologies requires new skills. First, the production of digital products
and services requires specialist skills in ICTs to programme software, develop applications and manage
networks. Second, workers across an increasing range of occupations need generic and/or advanced ICT
skills to use such technologies effectively. Finally, the diffusion of digital technologies is changing how
work is done, raising demand for complementary skills such as information processing, self-direction,
problem solving and communication. Generic ICT skills and complementary skills are also crucial to
individuals’ effective use of digital technologies in their daily lives. Effective skills policies, as set out in
more detail below, are therefore important to help users make the most of digital technologies and also
facilitate the transition from job to job.

34. It is also crucial that governments enable firms to invest in other knowledge-based capital (e.g.
data, organisational change, process innovation) to help them realise the full potential of the digital
transformation. A range of OECD studies have shown that effective use of digital technologies relies on
the degree and scope for organisational changes and process innovation within firms and organisations, as
well as sound management and leadership. Closely related is the important role that governments continue
to play in supporting the digital transformation itself, notably in undertaking or financing research on the
underlying technologies or on key challenges affecting the digital transformation, such as security.

35. Effective use of digital technologies in an economy can also be affected by a lack of firm
dynamics, which can lead to the coexistence of poorly performing firms, with very low levels of ICT use,
with star performers. Costly delays and slow exit of such poorly performing firms, sometimes supported by
government guarantees, and compounded by financial institutions that do not want to realise non-
performing loans on their balance sheets, creates a particularly unfavourable environment for effective ICT
use in an economy, and will slow down the impact of ICT on growth and productivity. Ensuring sound

4
A wide range of WTO agreements are considered relevant to digital trade, including the Agreement on
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), the Agreement on Technical Barriers to
Trade (TBT) and the recently concluded Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA).

15
competition, including in digital markets, is key in allowing new firms to challenge incumbents, efficient
firms to grow, and inefficient ones to exit, thus helping boost economic growth and living standards.

36. The digital economy has brought new business models and rapidly expanding industries. Indeed,
never before have leading firms grown so large so quickly, and new businesses are challenging incumbents
in novel ways (OECD, 2013a). Competition in the digital economy could be affected by many factors,
including network externalities (i.e. the benefit from the network rises with the square of the number of
users), which are particularly prevalent in certain markets. These externalities can lead to growing
concentration and winner-take-most dynamics in such markets (Autor et al, 2017). In principle, this raises
no competition problems if any resulting market power is temporary, not due to anticompetitive behaviour,
and/or the resulting rents are eroded by competition, including from other firms and new business models
(OECD, 2013a; 2016c). Future OECD work will explore questions related to competition in the digital
economy in more detail.

37. The effective use of ICT can also be constrained by other barriers, in particular for SMEs. For
example, although many ICT applications, e.g. cloud computing, have become cheap and easily accessible
for SMEs, poor access to finance may still limit their scope for investments in the complementary assets
and organisational changes that are required. Policies that facilitate access to finance can be useful in this
regard, building on the G20/OECD High-level Principles on SME Financing. A poor understanding by
management of the opportunities offered by digitalisation and a lack of basic digital capabilities can also
play a role. Collaboration with larger firms can sometimes help address these challenges. Comprehensive
national digital strategies that take into account SMEs, policies that facilitate access to finance, and SME
engagement with competency centres and/or technology extension services, can be helpful for SMEs in
this regard. National digital security strategies can also help address the specific needs of SMEs by
providing them with practical guidance and the appropriate incentives to adopting good practices.

38. Inadequate or outdated regulation may also limit the returns that firms can achieve from their
investments in digital technologies, as it can hold them back from entering new markets or developing new
products or business models. For example, recent OECD work finds that product market regulation,
employment protection legislation, and ICT regulation have significant effects on the uptake of ICT
hardware (DeStefano, De Backer and Moussiegt 2017). More generally, the digital transformation is
changing the world faster than many rules and regulations have evolved. Governments could benefit from
mechanisms to periodically review their regulatory frameworks and, where appropriate, update them to
ensure that they are well-suited to the increasingly digitalised world.

39. The new business models that are emerging from the digital economy, such as e-commerce, app
stores, online advertising, cloud computing, participative networked platforms, high speed trading, and
online payment services, also raise issues for tax policy, that are important for government and business
alike (OECD, 2015). Key features of the digital economy that are potentially relevant from a tax
perspective include mobility, reliance on data, network effects, the spread of multisided business models,
and a tendency toward monopoly or oligopoly and volatility. While the digital economy and its business
models do not generate unique issues for base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS), some of its key features
exacerbate BEPS risks.

40. The digital economy also raises broader tax challenges for policy makers. These challenges relate
in particular to nexus, data, and characterisation for direct tax purposes, which often overlap with each
other. Moreover, the digital economy also creates challenges for value added tax (VAT) collection,
particularly where goods, services and intangibles are acquired by private consumers from suppliers
abroad. The Task Force on the Digital Economy (TFDE), under the auspices of the Inclusive Framework
on BEPS, has discussed and analysed a number of potential options to address these challenges, and has
drawn some conclusions for tax policy (OECD, 2015). Given that these conclusions may evolve as the

16
digital economy continues to develop, the TFDE is currently monitoring developments over time in the
digital economy and will continue to work on these tax policy issues.

41. The sector-specific aspects of the digital transformation also require close attention from policy
makers. The potential impacts of the digital transformation on finance are particularly important in this
context. Digital innovations in finance have the potential to disrupt financial intermediation and challenge
business models of the traditional financial industry, with the potential to enhance financial inclusion and
the ‘democratisation of finance’. They can have cross-cutting effects in a wide variety of sectors and
services, including digital banking, consumer and small business financing, payments, insurance and
pension provision, and investment management. There are benefits to financial consumers and financial
service providers alike. Finance providers mainly benefit from lower cost, improved efficiency and
enhanced client relations, Benefits to customers include easier usage and better access to a wider range of
products and services at a lower cost.

42. At the same time, these innovations introduce additional challenges for privacy, cybersecurity
and consumer protection. New technologies potentially increase digital security vulnerabilities that could
undermine customer confidence and trust, and undermine cyber resilience with systemic implications.
Policy makers play a key role in unlocking the potential efficiency benefits of financial innovation, while
seeking to ensure financial stability and consumer protection, maintain a level playing field for market
participants, and ensure consumer and investor confidence and trust. Policy and regulatory approaches may
also need to evolve given the potential impact of technology on risks, information asymmetries, and other
market dynamics, which may require a rethinking of market failure analysis in the financial sector.

43. Finally, as noted in the Declaration on the Digital Economy: Innovation, Growth and Social
Prosperity [C(2016)116], there is also an important need for continued multi-stakeholder, consensus-
driven approaches to developing global technical standards that enable interoperability and a secure, stable,
global, open, and accessible Internet.

Making the digital transformation work for governments

44. The digital transformation of governments and public services implies a shift towards a demand-
and data-driven strategy, requiring new forms of partnerships and engagement, new skills and
accountability models for the public sector. They offer opportunities to maximise access, reach and quality
of public services while empowering beneficiaries and communities – e.g. by engaging them (through
online channels, Social Media platforms, or smartphones) in providing feedback on services’ content and
quality. Through these mechanisms of public engagement, governments are also leveraging technologies to
test open and participatory decision-making mechanisms that can be cost-effective, with the implicit goal
of progressively developing a more inclusive and transparent form of governance.

45. Nevertheless, enhancing the use of digital technologies in interactions with the public sector
appears to remain an important policy challenge, in particular in some countries (Figure 5). In 2015, about
34% of individuals from OECD member countries submitted filled forms via public authorities’ websites.
However, there are persisting differences in the use of digital government services across various
population groups. When comparing the level of education of users of digital government services,
substantial differences can be found. This can be linked to different needs, but also to stronger or weaker
socioeconomic inequality among the population that affects the varying levels of digital skills.
Governments need to be aware of these differences in order to develop tailored public service delivery
approaches and avoid creating new forms of digital exclusion.

17
 Figure 5. Individuals using the Internet for sending filled forms via public authorities websites in the past 12
months, by education level, 2015

Source: OECD, ICT Database; Eurostat, Information Society Statistics Database and ITU, World Telecommunication/ICT indicators
Database, July 2015; Government at a Glance (2017 forthcoming).

46. Beyond the implications for specific policy areas, the wide scope and pace of the uptake of
digital technologies and data use across the public sector is putting pressure on governments to consider
how to leverage the new digital opportunities to improve their work. There are a number of challenges that
OECD governments are facing as they try to advance the digital transformation of their public sectors.
These include redesigning how the public sector functions and how actors are provided incentives to
collaborate, share and integrate; rethinking policy making processes to make them more open and
participatory; and addressing the resulting implications on the management of core processes and
activities. Additionally, the governance of ICT use in governments and the regulatory environment
concerning these new (potentially disruptive) areas require action. For example, there is a need for strategic
public sector investments in digital technologies and management of data value chains (to spur data-driven
public sectors) that deliver improved policy outcomes in specific areas. How to secure the alignment of
strategic decisions on key projects and investments across policy sectors, in line with the central
government’s objectives, is still a challenge for many countries, e.g. in the field of welfare services and
social security.

47. Addressing the challenges mentioned above requires overcoming organisational and regulatory
barriers to integration, sharing and horizontality of decisions and use of data and digital technologies
across the public sector. These questions are at the core of the Recommendation of the Council on Digital
Government Strategies [C(2014)88], which focuses on the changes and efforts needed in terms of
governance and investments in digital technologies and data use. For example:

 Public service delivery: The digital revolution disrupts public service delivery in several ways.
Not only do citizens expect to access services in a different way, but they increasingly expect to
have services that are tailored to their needs and contexts, be accessible in a seamless
environment, and to be engaged in their design. This calls for significant interagency co-
ordination and shared resources, such as a common digital identity, enabling public institutions to
have comprehensive view of the user’s digital interactions with the public sector, as well as a
coherent policy framework for data sharing and re-use in the public sector.

18
  New partnerships and ways of solving problems: Government is no longer necessarily the
provider of public services but acts increasingly as a convener that allows for the right solutions
to a specific user’s problem to emerge delivered by the provider best fit to do it. This enables new
forms of collaboration with civil society and the private sector as well as within government to
address complex social and economic problems.

 Resource-sharing: New digital trends enable a thorough re-engineering of how government

works, enabling them to benefit from the effects of scale and network to share infrastructure and
resources such as storage, data and processing capability in ways that were not possible before.
This is however leading to complex trade-offs, such as balancing privacy and convenience.

 Data governance: The growing availability of data enables governments to make more informed
and evidence-based decisions on public issues. However, creating a data-driven public sector
requires the recognition of data as a strategic asset, the establishment of policies for enhanced
access and use of public sector information, building on the Recommendation of the Council on
Enhanced Access and More Effective Use of Public Sector Information [C(2008)36], and a
framework for the whole public administration that helps reap the benefits of evidence-based
decision-making and foresight.

 Accountability: Digitalisation is a key enabler for robust public expenditure oversight, allowing
governments to ensure two-way controls and enhanced accountability of revenues and expenses.
By improving data management and leveraging new data processing techniques, countries are
trying to better tailor welfare benefits.

48. In particular, enhanced access and (re-)use of public sector information and open government
data as well as new data analytics can benefit governments and citizens and contribute to good governance
(e.g. by improving public expenditure oversight, service delivery and transparency, upping the fight against
fraud and corruption, and by better tailoring welfare benefits) (OECD, 2016d; Ubaldi, 2013). For example,
France is using data mining to identify and fight fraud in family allowances and social benefits. Many
countries are also using digital technologies to detect and prevent tax fraud and tax evasions, helping them
to better detect crimes, contributing to higher revenue recovery, and enabling synergies that can make tax
compliance easier for business and tax administrations (OECD, 2017b). Several countries, among which
France, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United States, have committed to publishing contracting
data in open formats as a mechanism to strengthen the governance, transparency and accountability of
public procurement (OECD, 2017c, forthcoming).

49. Beyond the many specific applications of digital technologies across different policy areas, the
broader advantages of digital tools include potential improvements in policy design and service delivery
(e.g. through better targeting the users’ needs and preferences), better monitoring and evaluation, using
digital tools to facilitate experimentation with new policies at a small scale before their broader
implementation, and using digital technologies for policy implementation and reform. Some countries are
moving rapidly in this direction - New Zealand and Denmark, for example, are bringing together a wide
range of data to better underpin policy development. Similarly, the Mexican Ministry of Social
Development is building a new system that crosses household, beneficiary and geographic data to support
more accurate targeting of social services. By processing these data, the system may help government
identify individuals who qualify for specific social services and have not yet used them as well as those
that under-report income to receive assistance (OECD, 2016e).

19
Helping workers adapt

50. Previous major technological innovations such as the steam engine, electricity and the assembly
line were economically and socially disruptive. They often resulted in substantial job losses in the short-
term, even if these were more than offset in the long term by the creation of more productive and
rewarding jobs, and improvements in living standards (Mokyr, Vickers and Ziebarth, 2015; OECD, 2016f).

51. Today, the digital transformation is already affecting workers. Some jobs are disappearing due to
automation, and the skills that are needed are changing for many other jobs. In some cases, entire
industries are being disrupted. Digitalisation is reducing demand for routine and manual tasks, while
increasing demand for non-routine tasks and for problem-solving and interpersonal skills.

52. At the same time, OECD work suggests that so far, while leading to restructuring and
reallocation, ICT has not led to an overall increase in technological unemployment (OECD, 2016g). This is
because, if adopted successfully, i.e. if combined with organisational changes and good managerial
practices (OECD, 2004), ICTs can contribute to increased productivity, which progressively translates into
lower prices and/or new products, higher final demand and higher employment, thus compensating for the
initial job displacement. Recent OECD work shows that technological innovation contributes to higher
employment levels in both routine and non-routine jobs (Marcolin, Miroudot and Squicciarini, 2016).

53. However, most digital technologies require higher levels of skill than those they displace,
implying a process of skill-biased technological change (SBTC). For example, in the United States, the
employment share of workers in high-skill occupations increased by 11 percentage points from 26% in
1983 to 37% in 2012 (Tuzemen and Wills, 2013). However, a simple version of the SBTC hypothesis
suggests that the share of low-skill jobs should have fallen. Instead, the employment share of low-skill
occupations rose from 15% in 1983 to 18% in 2012 in the United States. This pattern has been mirrored in
other countries and point to another possible link between technological change, productivity and
employment – the ‘hollowing-out’ or job-polarisation hypothesis.

54. Developments in artificial intelligence, robotics, the IoT and Big Data, among other
technological advancements may change the nature of the link between technology and employment. Some
studies suggest that digitalisation makes it possible that, in the near future, a large proportion of tasks or
even entire occupations currently carried out by workers could be performed by machines (Frey and
Osborne, 2013). This has led to fears that computers and robots will replace some types of human labour,
throwing workers into a “race against the machine” that many are bound to lose (Brynjolfsson and
McAfee, 2011).

55. Those jobs relying on a high proportion of automatable tasks are at high risk of being substituted
for by new technology, but only if these technologies are taken up by firms, or if firms that do not use the
technologies exit. Computers and algorithms mainly substitute for “routine” tasks that can be easily
codified, which are typically in middle-skilled jobs. “Non-routine” tasks, either at the top end (conceptual
jobs) or at the bottom end (manual jobs) of the skill distribution may therefore remain in demand.

56. As the technology continues to evolve, this is a rapidly moving target, however, and the extent
and permanence of hollowing-out remains controversial. Some authors (e.g. Frey and Osborne, 2013)
suggest that a large share of occupations is already at risk of being automated. However, such estimates
have been criticised on the basis that it is specific tasks rather than occupations that are at risk (Arntz, et
al., 2016). Occupations are more likely to evolve – as many have for the past century – to accommodate
the penetration of technology rather than face complete substitution (Bessen, 2015). Some studies have
estimated that only 9% of jobs may be at a high risk of automation, but that another 25% of jobs could
undergo significant change, with between 50% and 70% of the tasks at risk of automation (Arntz et al.,

20
2016). Workers with the skills to adapt to changes in workplace technologies are at less risk of being left
behind. Also, with the productivity gains and adoption of technology, new direct and complementary jobs
are likely to be created (Autor, 2015).

57. While the precise impact of the digital transformation remains to be seen, and digital
technologies may sometimes mainly augment and complement human capabilities, it is clear that many
workers will be displaced. They should be provided with active job search and adequate income support, to
speed up job finding and reduce the cost of job loss. Interventions should come early in the unemployment
spell, and be coupled with retraining and requalification so that displaced workers can take advantage of
new job opportunities arising elsewhere in the economy.

58. Digitalisation is also changing the way work is organised (OECD, 2016h). The ‘platform',
'sharing', or 'collaborative' economy, though still small in scale, is allowing businesses to access a larger
pool of potential workers and suppliers, with workers increasingly engaged as independent contract
workers. This has benefits for some workers, providing them with greater flexibility, and allowing people
to earn additional income and access work, sometimes for the first time. At the same time, such jobs rely
mostly on non-standard work arrangements (e.g. self-employment, temporary hiring and contract work).
Even though the platform “sharing” economy is creating job opportunities for people who may have no
access to regular jobs, it may also offer less promising employment trajectories and lower access to social
protection or training opportunities. It could also limit worker’s access to union representation and wage
setting mechanisms. Policy will need to ensure sufficient social and regulatory protection for all.

59. The challenge of the adjustment in the labour market will depend on the speed at which the
digital transformation unfolds. Compared to earlier industrial revolutions, induced by steam and
electrification, the development and international diffusion of digital technologies appears to be transpiring
over a shorter time period, potentially complicating the adjustment process. However, it could take
considerable time for new technologies, once invented, to diffuse throughout the economy and for their
productivity effects to be fully realised. Moreover, the duration of this period is uncertain and depends on a
wide range of economic, social and regulatory factors (McKinsey Global Institute, 2017). As discussed in
the OECD work on the Next Production Revolution, the past has sometimes seen unrealistic expectations
regarding timescales for the delivery and implementation of a number of key technologies. Better
understanding and anticipating the coming developments will therefore be important.

Continuously assessing the skills needed for a digital world and adapting formal education and training
systems to remain up-to-date

60. Independent of the size of the impact of digitalisation on jobs, it is clear that workers will need
different skills, not just more skills (OECD, 2016i). Regardless of the precise number of jobs at risk of
automation, continued hollowing-out will disrupt the labour market, leading to job losses in some areas and
gains in others. Up-skilling will be part of the answer – the same policy priority as required to respond to
skill-biased technological change. But workers will also need a different sort of skill-set. Data from the
PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills show that, on average across the 22 countries that implemented the first
Survey, 55% of workers lack basic problem-solving skills in technology-rich environments. This suggests
weak prospects for these workers, but also for employers’ and for countries’ aiming to capitalise on the
opportunities offered by a digital economy (OECD, 2013b). Younger people are better prepared for this
environment than older people (Figure 6).

21
 Figure 6. Younger people are better prepared for the digital working environment than older people

Share of 25-34 and 55-64 year-olds performing at Level 2 or 3 in Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments,
2012

aged 25 to 34 aged 55 to 65 All age groups

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Source: OECD (2015e), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) (2015).

61. Addressing the challenges arising in an increasingly digital world will require changes to current
employment and skills policies. Governments in collaboration with stakeholders must help ensure that the
digital economy yields better quality jobs and that both employers and workers have the means to take
advantage of new job opportunities. There are four key priorities for skills policies to facilitate take-up of
these opportunities and promote inclusive growth:

 Ensuring that initial education equips all students with solid literacy, numeracy and problem-
solving skills, as well as basic ICT skills and complementary socio-emotional skills, such as
teamwork, flexibility and resilience. Many of these skills are also acquired outside of education
and training institutions – for instance, in the workplace – emphasising the need to recognise
skills acquired outside formal channels.

 Better assess and anticipate changing skill needs and foster more responsive education and
trainings providers in order to adapt programmes and pathways offered and guide students
towards choices that lead to good outcomes. Big data, e.g. from the Internet, can be harnessed to
complement labour market information systems and monitor changing needs (OECD, 2016j).

 Improve the use of skills across different workplace setting and working arrangements so as to
achieve higher productivity and greater competitiveness. Policy can also encourage the use of
high performance work practices such as teamwork, work autonomy, training, flexible work
hours, etc., within firms and across the economy, as well as fostering the skills needed to support
these practices.

22
  Offer better incentives for individuals and firms to re-skill and up-skill. This also means using the
possibilities of new technologies to adapt new job tasks to the skills sets of incumbent workers.
At the same time, the diffusion of "on-demand" jobs on digital platforms puts increasing
responsibility on individuals to manage their own skills development (OECD, 2016i). Low- and
medium-skilled adults are the least likely to participate in training, even though they may face the
greatest risk of job loss.

Enhancing trust and social acceptance

62. Trust is fundamental to the functioning of the digital economy; without it, individuals, firms and
governments won't be able to use digital technologies, and an important source of potential growth and
social progress will be left unexploited. Moreover, the growing dependence of critical infrastructures on
digital technologies exposes the very functioning of society to digital security risks.

63. Digital security risk has traditionally been approached as a technical problem but the changing
nature and scale of digital security incidents is driving countries to re-evaluate their strategies and policies.
In recent years, many governments and stakeholders have emphasised the importance of considering
digital security risk as a strategic economic issue for organisations which needs to be addressed at the
highest level of corporate governance, as recommended by the Recommendation of the Council on Digital
Security Risk Management for Economic and Social Prosperity [C(2015)115]. It should be integrated in
economic decision making and existing enterprise and government risk management frameworks. This
requires a culture of dialogue and co-operation among all stakeholders in organisations. Co-operation is
also essential between government, private sector and civil society to foster trust in the digital
environment, in particular for the development and implementation of effective national strategies.

64. In today's data-rich environment, new privacy challenges are also emerging. The growing number
of entities, such as online retailers, platforms (especially ones that are consumer-facing), Internet Service
Providers (ISPs), financial service providers (i.e. banks, credit card companies, etc.), and governments are
increasingly collecting vast amounts of personal data. In addition, complementary information can be
derived, by “mining” available data for patterns and correlations, many of which do not need to be personal
data (Box 3). Advances in data analytics now make it possible to infer sensitive information from data
which may appear trivial at first, such as past individual purchase behaviour or electricity consumption.
The misuse of these insights can implicate the core values and principles which privacy protection seeks to
promote, such as individual autonomy, equality and free speech, and this may have a broader impact on
society as a whole. At the same time, it is important to recognize that digital technologies can also enhance
privacy and security.

65. While protection by the law is essential, privacy in an increasingly data-driven economy would
benefit from a multifaceted strategy, reflecting a whole-of-society vision, and supported at the highest
levels of government, as called for in the Recommendation of the Council concerning Guidelines
Governing the Protection of Privacy and Trans-border Flows of Personal Data (Privacy Guidelines)
[C(80)58/FINAL, as amended]. Such strategies need to strike the right balance between the social and
economic benefits of enhanced reuse and sharing of data and analytics, and individuals’ and organisations’
legitimate concerns about such openness, including the protection of privacy and intellectual property
rights. Coordinated privacy strategies at the national level would enhance privacy protection in an
increasingly data-driven environment.

66. Consumers are increasingly engaging in the digital environment where a large variety of products
are available at competitive prices, within and across borders. Consumer engagement online through, for
example, product ratings and reviews shapes business reputations, informs other consumers, driving
innovation and competition. Continued growth may be fuelled by the emergence of new technology-driven

23
products and markets, such as 3D printing, the IoT, and “collaborative” digital platforms (or “peer
platforms”), which enable consumers to design, produce and sell products themselves.

Box 3. Data - the new resource of the digital economy

More data are being generated every week than in the last millennium. Accelerating digitalisation is leading to
growing volumes of data – the equivalent of around 50 000 years of DVD-quality video every day, a figure set to rise as
smart devices and the IoT become pervasive – with important implications for economy and society.

On the positive side, data hold the promise of significantly accelerating research and the development of new
products, processes, organisational methods and markets – a phenomenon known as data-driven innovation (DDI).
This will result in greater productivity across the economy, as available evidence suggests that firms using DDI have
raised productivity faster than non-users. DDI can and is already helping address social and global challenges,
including climate change and natural disasters, health and ageing populations, water, food and energy security,
urbanisation, and issues of public governance.

But the growing role of data comes with considerable challenges and accentuates some of the pressing issues
related to digitalisation, like questions of privacy and security. And new concerns are emerging, e.g. around automated
decision making, data-driven discrimination, and a “data divide,” based on who owns, collects and analyses the data.

Seizing the benefits from DDI requires government action. Policies are needed to encourage investments in data,
promote data sharing and reuse, and reduce barriers to cross-border data flows that could disrupt global value chains,
reducing the potential for new market opportunities. They also need to better distinguish different types of data - for
example, personal data raise quite different questions than those derived from scientific experiments. There is also a
need to find better ways of dealing with the global nature of data flows, understanding that it underpins trade, and the
different conceptions of privacy among countries.

Recent OECD work is helping establish good practices and provide guidance to governments on how to manage
sensitive data. For example, the recent Recommendation of the Council on Health Data Governance [C(2016)76] calls
upon Adherents to develop and implement national health data governance frameworks according to twelve high level
principles, setting the conditions for greater harmonisation so that more countries are able to benefit from statistical
and research uses of data in which there is a public interest, and from international comparisons.

67. Yet, e-commerce growth will only be possible if consumer trust in a dynamic but complex
market is strengthened. In 2014, 75% of consumers accessed the Internet across the OECD, but only one
out of two made an online purchase; this untapped potential is even more pronounced across borders.
Concerns include the growing complexity of online transactions and related terms and conditions, as well
as the uncertainty about where consumers should turn when they suffer detriment as a result of misleading
or fraudulent business practices, or unsafe products. They also relate to the wealth of data that consumers'
online activities generate, which, while enabling businesses to sketch rich consumer profiles, also brings
risks. Policy makers need to stay current with the evolving challenges. The 2016 revisions to the
Recommendation of the Council on Consumer Protection in E-commerce [C(2016)13] provide a blueprint
for fair business practices, information disclosures, payment protections, unsafe products, dispute
resolution, enforcement and education. Continued efforts are however needed to assess how to apply
consumer protection, product safety and liability frameworks to transactions involving new products and
non-traditional actors, and which reflect the growing complexity of online interactions. This can benefit
from co-operation among consumer protection and other relevant authorities within and among countries.

68. Beyond these questions, the broader social acceptance of new technologies is also important
(OECD, 2017a). In the past, public resistance to novel technologies has emerged, sometimes as the result
of distrust in government and regulatory authorities. In this context, it is important that policymakers and

24
institutions voice realistic expectations about new technologies. Moreover, science advice should be
demonstrated to be unbiased and trustworthy. At the same time, broad public engagement about the
development of new technologies can help to build understanding across economy and society.

Using the digital transformation to foster well-being

69. Beyond its economic impacts, the digital transformation also has important impacts on broader
well-being and can support more inclusive growth.5 For example, digital technologies can promote social
inclusion by creating better access to quality education, offer new opportunities for skills development,
enhance access to health care, or improve access to free and low-cost information, knowledge and data. For
example, the Danish OnlineTele is a web-based portal that offers a range of services to vulnerable elderly
people, including video communications (one-on-one, one-to-many, many-to-many) that can be used to
deliver remote care. Mobile telephony in particular has been used intensively in a number of inclusive
innovation initiatives that aim at improving the welfare of lower-income and excluded groups in
developing countries (OECD, 2015f). A famous example includes mPesa, which has provided millions of
Kenyans with access to basic banking services.

70. More broadly, new digital platforms allow consumers to negotiate better prices for products (as
well as identify better quality products). They also facilitate access to key goods and services, e.g. mobility
and accommodation, sometimes avoiding consumers from making costly purchases. Digital technologies
can also be a significant driver of improved services to vulnerable groups in society (Mickoleit, 2014;
OECD/ITU, 2011). For example, opportunities to file taxes and apply for public support online have made
application procedures more convenient, benefitting in particular individuals located in remote areas and
lower-income and excluded groups who rely on public support. Social media also allows governments to
reach specific groups with information most relevant to their needs, offering the potential for better citizen-
government communication. Moreover, it helps disadvantaged groups connect and cooperate.

71. But while digital technologies can provide important benefits for broader wellbeing, they cannot
fully overcome some of the inherent barriers that prevent certain disadvantaged group from benefiting
from these technologies. For example, even though it enhances access to education, there is little evidence
that more open education lowers existing inequalities in education opportunities. And older people - that
could benefit most from applications in the health area - are less likely to use digital tools than younger
ones.

72. The digital transformation also raises some broader challenges. For example, digital technologies
like block chain could greatly enhance the ability of a government to manage its payments while reducing
the potential for fraud. But they could also enhance the ability to undertake illegal financial transactions.
Criminal and terrorist activities have been aided by digital tools that allow for secure messaging alongside
broader recruitment possibilities. Further, the ‘dark net’ is extensively used by criminal organisations for
financial crimes and illegal trade. Bitcoin, while it has legal use, can be used to avoid government
oversight (e.g. in illegal arms and drug trade).

73. There is also growing recognition of the risks associated with the digital revolution for the role of
the democratic nation-state, the social fabric of nations and for individual citizens and their relationship to
each other. These risks are compounded by the speed and pervasiveness of these technologies that may
sometimes stretch beyond the capacities of society to adapt. The digital transformation can be highly
beneficial for wellbeing but the risks of adverse outcomes are real and should not be ignored by policy
makers. The challenge is how to maximise the advantages while minimising the negative impacts.

5
A broader discussion of policies for inclusive growth is contained in a separate paper for the Ministerial
Council Meeting [see C/MIN(2017)3].

25
Policy coherence and strategy development

74. The digital transformation affects all corners of the economy, society, and government
activities. To realise its full benefits, governments need to reach across traditional policy silos and across
different levels of government and develop a whole-of-government approach to policymaking. This means
more co-ordination when making decisions and implementing policy measures across ministries and levels
of government as well as actively involving all key stakeholders, including the business community, trade-
unions, civil society and Internet technical community, in the policymaking process as well as
implementation and monitoring. By identifying the key policy areas affected by the digital transformation,
it will be easier to link up the relevant ministries and government bodies that need to be connected and co-
ordinated to ensure that all policies are mutually reinforcing and aligned with one coherent and strategic
national digital agenda. The OECD's project on Going Digital intends to support governments in this goal.

Conclusions and Next Steps

75. This paper is intended to provide Ministers with a first and preliminary set of policy conclusions
that are emerging from OECD work on the digital transformation. Further work will deepen the analysis of
key policy issues, and provide more concrete policy recommendations and a roadmap for the OECD to
better measure the digital transformation. Going forward, the Project will deliver a range of stand-alone
reports and policy notes, a report to the 2018 MCM, and a final synthesis report at the end of the project. It
will also go "beyond the book" and involve roundtables and national discussions to help develop:
i) national digital strategies; ii) one or more draft Recommendations of the Council related to the digital
transformation; and iii) a Going Digital toolkit, including a final integrated policy framework that would
provide countries with practical examples and good practices.

76. Two other aspects of the digital transformation are worth mentioning at this stage. First, the
digital transformation will go on for some time and thus continue to disrupt the economy, society and
government policy. Better anticipating trends through strategic foresight could assist policy across all
policy domains. Foresight processes can also bring benefits in themselves, such as strengthened
stakeholder networks. Long-term and pro-active thinking is also essential to help respond to the ongoing
transformation. Leaders in business, unions, civil society and government must be ready to examine the
policy implications of the transformation and prepare for developments beyond typical election cycles.
This also requires constant reflection on how policy priorities might need to evolve, for instance as a
consequence of technological change itself.

77. Second, designing better policies for a digital economy and society not only requires better
knowledge about the technological changes underway, but also further efforts to improve measurement,
evidence and analysis, e.g. as regards growth and productivity. New areas, such as trust, data flows, the
IoT and artificial intelligence, are at the next frontier for measurement. All countries need to work together
to fill the data gaps and in doing so enable better benchmarking, evidence building, policy development,
and the identification and prioritisation of policy review and action. At the same time, new opportunities
are emerging thanks to digital technologies, e.g. through the use of big data analytics and non-official data
sources. Statistics could be enriched with timelier, more granular and less costly data.

26
 ANNEX - THE GOING DIGITAL PROJECT

The Going Digital (GD) Horizontal Project was officially launched at the start of 2017. It originated
as a vision from the four Chairs of STI policy Committees in the autumn of 2015 as they reflected on the
2017-18 PWB, and gained further support and momentum from a range of sectoral Ministerial meetings,
notably on science and technology policy (October 2015), employment (January 2016), skills (June 2016)
and on the digital economy (June 2016), as well as the Ministerial Council Meeting 2016 and the
corresponding statement that "encourage[s] the OECD to develop a horizontal policy strategy on
digitalisation, its opportunities and challenges." Following the 2016 MCM call, the initiative was further
developed and included in the PWB 2017-18 as a Horizontal Project.

The project aims to help policymakers better understand the digital transformation that is taking place
and develop tools to create a policy environment that enables their economies and societies prosper in a
world that is increasingly digital and data-driven. To achieve these objectives, the project leverages the
unique capacity of the OECD to bring together a wide range of policy communities to collectively identify
the opportunities and address the challenges our economies and societies face in a digital world. The Going
Digital project will support discussions on the digital transformation at the highest levels – national,
regional and international.

The project builds on three main pillars, each designed to break new ground in our understanding of
the digital transformation and its effects on our economies and societies:

 Pillar 1: An integrated policy framework for making the digital transformation work for growth
and well-being and other activities that require collaboration across all policy areas, including
insights into some of the new technological and other drivers of the digital transformation and
what this implied for policy. This will yield a new narrative, supported by indicators, that
provides a whole-of-government view of the digital transformation and how policies may need to
adjust to make the most of this for the economy and society.

 Pillar 2: Relevant analysis of the digital transformation in specific policy areas (e.g. tax, trade,
competition, etc.) and in the broader economy as outlined in the respective work programme of
each OECD Committee for 2017-18. A mix of qualitative analysis and quantitative indicators by
domain experts will show the extent, nature, benefits and challenges of the digital transformation
in each policy area and in the broader economy.

 Pillar 3: A set of modules focusing on key cross-cutting issues. This work will involve a “deep
dive” into specific cross-cutting to gain key insights into some of the big challenges we face in
the digital era and that are at the intersection of more than one policy area. Key modules include
jobs and skills in the digital economy, the implications of the digital transformation for
productivity, competition and market structure, measuring the digital transformation, and making
the digital transformation work for society and well-being.

Going forward, the Project will deliver a range of stand-alone reports and policy notes, a report to the
2018 MCM, and a final synthesis report in Q4 2018 or Q1 2019. It will also go "beyond the book" and
involve roundtables and national discussions to help develop: i) national digital strategies; ii) one or more
OECD Council Recommendations related to the digital transformation; and iii) a Going Digital toolkit,
including an integrated policy framework, practical examples and good practices.

For more information: http://oe.cd/goingdigital

27
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