bd4415 PDF

DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES
VOLUME 3 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

INSPECTION AND
MAINTENANCE
SECTION 4 ASSESSMENT
PART 14
BD 44/15
THE ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE HIGHWAY

BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
SUMMARY
This Standard gives requirements and guidance for the
assessment of existing concrete highway bridges and
structures on motorways and other trunk roads. This
is a revised document to be incorporated into Design
Manual for Roads and Bridges. It supersedes and
replaces BD 44/95 and BA 44/96.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

1. Remove existing contents pages for Volume 3
and insert new contents pages for Volume 3 dated
August 2015.
2. Remove BD 44/95 and BA 44/96 from Volume 3,
Section 4 which are superseded by this Standard
and archive as appropriate.
3. Insert BD 44/15 into Volume 3, Section 4,
Part 14.
4. Archive this sheet as appropriate.
Note: A quarterly index with a full set of Volume
Contents Pages is available separately from
The Stationery Office Ltd.
August 2015
BD 44/15
HIGHWAYS ENGLAND Volume 3, Section 4,
Part 14
TRANSPORT SCOTLAND
WELSH GOVERNMENT
LLYWODRAETH CYMRU
THE DEPARTMENT FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

NORTHERN IRELAND
The Assessment of Concrete

Highway Bridges and Structures
Summary: This Standard gives requirements and guidance for the assessment of existing
concrete highway bridges and structures on motorways and other trunk roads. This
is a revised document to be incorporated into Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
It supersedes and replaces BD 44/95 and BA 44/96.
Volume 3 Section 4
Part 14 BD 44/15 Registration of Amendments
REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS
Amend No Page No Signature & Date of incorporation Amend No Page No Signature & Date of incorporation
of amendments of amendments
August 2015
Volume 3 Section 4
Registration of Amendments Part 14 BD 44/15
REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS
Amend No Page No Signature & Date of incorporation Amend No Page No Signature & Date of incorporation
of amendments of amendments
August 2015
VOLUME 3 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

INSPECTION AND
MAINTENANCE
SECTION 4 ASSESSMENT
PART 14
BD 44/15
THE ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE

HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
Contents
Chapter
1. Introduction
2. Assessment of Strength
3. Limit States
4. Use of Appendix A and BS 5400-4:1990
5. References
6. Enquiries
Appendix A Amendments to BS 5400-4
August 2015
August 2015
Volume 3 Section 4 Chapter 1
Part 14 BD 44/15 Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
Background
1.1 This Standard gives requirements and guidance for the assessment of existing concrete highway bridges and
structures and their structural elements, and must be used in conjunction with BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3), BD 37
(DMRB 1.3), BD 86 (DMRB 3.4.19) and other relevant documents. It supersedes and replaces BD 44/95 and
BA 44/96.
1.2 Appendix A of this Standard contains the relevant assessment clauses which have been presented in the
same format as the design clauses in BS 5400-4. The assessment clauses have been specifically developed
to suit assessment conditions and therefore must not be used in design or construction of new structures.
It is noted that while BS 5400-4 has been withdrawn and replaced by BS EN 1992-2 (the Eurocode for
concrete bridges) for design purposes, the Eurocodes do not as yet include provisions for assessment. The
commentary is contained alongside the assessment clauses. It contains explanations for the main changes
from BS 5400-4, and gives advice on the interpretation of the assessment requirements. Also included are
comments and references which provide additional information appropriate to special situations. Where such
situations arise, any special method of analysis or variation of criteria proposed for an assessment must be
agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
1.3 In Appendix A of this Standard, any reference to characteristic strength must be to characteristic strength or
to worst credible strength as appropriate.
1.4 The major changes to the Standard compared with the earlier version are as follows:
a) A single BD with mandatory clauses including commentary/guidance replacing the previous BD and
BA 44.
b) Incorporation of the requirements of BD 24 (DMRB 1.3.1), IAN 4/96 and IAN 5/96, which are
withdrawn, and updating of superseded references in a number of clauses.
c) Updated guidance for calculating the worst credible strength in line with the approaches of BS EN
13791 and BS 6089.
d) Explicitly added requirements for SLS (Serviceability Limit State) checks for prestressed structures
and clarified loads and partial factors to be used when SLS checks are to be performed.
e) A reduced value of the partial safety factor to be applied to grade 460 reinforcing steel at the ultimate
limit state.
f) Updated methodology for assessing the shear capacity at support of beams with theoretically
inadequately anchored longitudinal reinforcement.
g) Added provisions for the assessment of structures with external and/or unbonded prestressing.
h) Clarifications made to a number of clauses and alternative approaches permitted which incorporate
provisions of the Eurocode for concrete structures (BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS EN 1992-2).
Scope
1.5 This Standard gives requirements for the assessment of existing concrete highway bridges and structures on
trunk roads and motorways.
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Chapter 1 Volume 3 Section 4
Introduction Part 14 BD 44/15
Mutual Recognition
1.6 The requirements and guidance in this Standard only cover the assessment of existing structures and
structural elements and are given on the basis that any construction and maintenance of concrete highway
bridges and structures will be carried out using the Specification for Highway Works (SHW, Vol.1).
However, products conforming to equivalent standards and specifications of other member states of the
European Economic Area and tests undertaken in other member states may be acceptable in accordance with
the terms of the 104 and 105 series of clauses of that Specification.
Implementation
1.7 This Standard must be used forthwith on all projects for the assessment of concrete highway bridges and
structures on motorway and all-purpose trunk roads (and on all roads in Northern Ireland). The requirements
must be applied to assessment already in progress provided that, in the opinion of the Overseeing
Organisation, its use would not result in significant additional expense or delay progress (in which case the
decision must be recorded in accordance with the procedure required by the Overseeing Organisation).
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Part 14 BD 44/15 Assessment of Strength
2 ASSESSMENT OF STRENGTH
General
2.1 A key objective of this Standard is to produce a more realistic assessment of the strength of a concrete element
than can be produced using the design code. This is in part achieved by taking advantage of the information
available to an assessor, such as material strength, which can only be predicted at the design stage.
2.2 Many of the criteria given in the design code are based on experimental evidence which in some cases have
been either conservatively interpreted for use in design or updated by later evidence allowing a less conservative
interpretation. For assessment purposes such criteria have been reviewed and amended where appropriate.
2.3 An important feature of BS 5400-4 is the application of the partial safety factor for material strength γm to the
characteristic values. This approach is retained in Appendix A but the concept of worst credible strength with a
reduced value of γm is introduced as an alternative.
Worst Credible Strength
2.4 The term worst credible strength is used in this Standard to allow for the actual material strengths of the
structural elements being used for assessment. Worst credible strength can be defined as the worst value of that
strength which the assessor, based on experience and knowledge of the material, realistically considers could be
obtained in the structural element under consideration. This value may be greater or less than the characteristic
strength of the material assumed at the design stage. Since this value eliminates some of the uncertainties
associated with the use of characteristic strengths, reductions may be made in the partial safety factor for
material γm.
2.5 The method of determining the worst credible strength must be agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
2.6 Worst credible strengths should be used in the following circumstances:
a) when an initial assessment using characteristic values has shown an element of structure to be
incapable of carrying the full assessment loading of BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3).
b) if a structure has suffered damage or deterioration in such a way that the actual strengths are known or
thought to be less than the assumed characteristic values.
c) where no information exists on the characteristic values used in design and it is not possible or
appropriate to adopt an assumed value from BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3).
2.7 Worst credible strengths should generally be derived from tests on concrete cores or steel samples. However,
it would be desirable to undertake assessments, or initial assessments, without undertaking the material
tests required to determine worst credible strengths. Advice on the strengths to be assumed in the absence
of definite information is given in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3). Where concrete strength is specified in terms of
28 day minimum cube strength, this should be considered as being equal to characteristic cube strength.
Where concrete is specified in terms of prescribed concrete mixes these may be used to estimate strengths
which should also be considered as equivalent to characteristic cube strengths. In estimating the strength
of prescribed mixes, it is important to use judgement based on contemporary or older information as there
has been a progressive increase in the strength of concrete with similar proportions due to increases in the
reactivity of cement.
2.8 If construction records include standard 28 day cube results for concrete which is representative of the
critical areas, these may be used. They should be processed in the same way that core results are processed
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Assessment of Strength Part 14 BD 44/15
to obtain worst credible values, see 2.10 below. Because of the difference between wet cured cubes and in
situ concrete, the uncertainty is higher than for in situ core tests so the representative value obtained from
records should be treated as a characteristic, rather than a worst credible value. Caution will be needed in
using the results of non-standard cube tests. Older age tests and tests on cubes stored with the structure may
be used. However, because the early age strength gain of cements varies significantly, extrapolation of early
age cube results is not normally reliable. Similarly, extreme caution is required in using cube results at ages
substantially greater than 28 days as they may show increases in strength which are not achieved in the real
structure.
2.9 Where assessment using the above approaches does not give the required strength, consideration should
be given to taking samples and using worst credible strength values instead. However, before undertaking
the tests, the sensitivity of the assessed strength to assumed material strength should be investigated. In
particular, the strength of lightly reinforced members is often very insensitive to the strength of concrete.
2.10 When samples are required, worst credible strength for concrete must be derived from tests carried out on cores.
Cores are destructive and cannot normally be taken at the critical (most highly stressed) locations of an element,
hence a reliable and realistic method based on the worst credible strengths data from adjacent locations should
be used to obtain worst credible strengths in the critical locations. To assist in determining the statistically most
reliable results of core tests, an integrated programme of testing which may include destructive, semi-destructive
(e.g. near surface tests) and non-destructive tests will be necessary for each element. The assessor should use
judgement in selecting the locations and numbers of samples for such tests. Methods of assessing the estimated
in-situ concrete strength at a location are given in BS EN 13791 and BS 6089. A location is a region
where, in the assessor’s judgement, there is no more than the normal random variation in concrete strength.
Information on the accuracy of the assessed value is also given. The worst credible strength at a location may
be taken as the lower bound to the estimated mean in situ concrete strength; e.g. for n concrete cores giving
equivalent cube strengths of fc ... fcn and a sample standard deviation of s, and for a confidence level of 90%
(corresponding to a fractile of 0.05 on a one-sided region of a Student’s t-distribution statistical curve), the
worst credible strength is equal to [(Sfc)/n]-t0.05(s/√n), where the value of t0.05 is a function of the number of
cores n and can be taken from BS 6089 or standard statistical t-tables. In applying this formula, the assessor
must be satisfied that the cores are representative of the location under consideration. The formula only
accounts for errors in estimating the mean strength of concrete in the location considered. In practice, due to
variations in water content, curing conditions and compaction, the strength of concrete can vary significantly
over short distances. It is therefore necessary to use caution in interpreting the results of tests. When either
the appearance of the concrete or the test results themselves suggest the variation of strength is significantly
greater than the formula assumes it is necessary to use judgement based on the actual variation or on the
minimum value recorded to obtain a more realistic estimate. The worst credible strength must be based on a
minimum of three cores.
2.11 If the assessor wishes to use a single worst credible concrete strength for the structure as a whole, rather than
individual values at individual critical locations, it will be necessary to determine the number and location of
cores required to produce a representative value for the in situ concrete strength. The sampling rate should
however not be less than one core for each 50 m3 of concrete. The worst credible strength may be taken as
either the least of the individual values or derived in accordance with the approach described above.
2.12 When samples are required for reinforcement or prestressing tendons and bars, the worst credible strength
should be obtained by testing samples taken from the element being assessed. However, it is often impractical
to extract samples from critical sections and the assessor should use judgement in selecting the locations and
numbers of samples for such tests. Removal of prestressing steel for sampling purposes will alter the stress
distribution in the concrete section, and this must be allowed for in the assessment calculations. In choosing
lengths of bars for testing, the assessor must check that the removal of samples will not significantly reduce
the load carrying capacity of the element under consideration. Testing of steel reinforcement and prestressing
strand should generally be carried out to the requirements of BS EN ISO 15630-1 and BS EN ISO 15630-3,
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Part 14 BD 44/15 Assessment of Strength
respectively. In accessing tendons and bars for testing, methods of concrete removal that minimise risk of
mechanical damage to bars must be used. Also, when cutting out the chosen samples of bars, adjacent bars
which may be highly stressed must not be damaged.
2.13 In the case of steel reinforcement or prestressing tendons, the worst credible strength may be taken as the
lower bound to the mean in situ steel strength based on a 98% confidence level (corresponding to a fractile
of 0.01 on a one-sided region of a Student’s t-distribution statistical curve) calculated with the formula for
concrete cores given above and the corresponding value of t0.01 taken from standard statistical t-tables. In
determining the steel strength, the assessor must be satisfied that the samples tested are representative of the
location under consideration.
2.14 When using a worst credible steel strength in excess of the characteristic strength, the assessor must
check that the bar anchorages and laps are capable of developing the higher steel stresses. The assessor’s
knowledge of material strengths which were typical of the period of construction may in some instances aid
consideration of appropriate values for the structure under consideration.
2.15 For non-conforming details, or details not covered by the code, laboratory testing can be used to determine
behaviour and strength. In some cases, test data may already be available.
Partial Safety Factor for Materials
2.16 The values of γm for concrete and reinforcing or prestressing steel are given in Appendix A Table 4A. The values
for use with the characteristic strength may be different from those for use with worst credible strengths. To
enable the correct value of γm to be used, all limiting criteria have been expressed as formulae with γm stated
explicitly rather than as tabulated values.
Application of Reliability Techniques
2.17 As part of the assessment process, reliability techniques may be used subject to the agreement of the
Overseeing Organisation. The full application of reliability techniques to bridge assessment requires specialist
knowledge and experience. Reference to BD 79 (DMRB 3.4.18) should be made for further guidance.
Deterioration and Condition Factors in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3)
2.18 Specific guidance on assessment of structures which have deteriorated due to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
and reinforcement corrosion is given in BA 52 (DMRB 3.4.10) and BA 51 (DMRB 3.4.13), respectively.
Reinforcement corrosion can also have a disproportionate effect on fatigue life and this is considered in BA
38 (DMRB 3.4.5).
2.19 While the application of the condition factor Fc in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3) is not affected in principle by the
requirements of this Standard, the estimated values of Fc must not allow for any deficiencies of the materials in
a structure which are separately allowed for by using worst credible strengths or by making other allowances.
Where possible, specific allowances for deterioration should be made directly, such as loss of material strength
or of material in assessment calculations, and a condition factor of 1.0 used.
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Assessment of Strength Part 14 BD 44/15
2/4 August 2015

Part 14 BD 44/15 Limit States
3 LIMIT STATES
General
3.1 Assessments must be carried out at the ultimate limit state in accordance with BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3). Checks
at the serviceability limit state must be carried out only in the limited number of cases required by this
Standard, or when explicitly required by the Overseeing Organisation.
3.2 Serviceability assessment may be useful for investigating the significance of visible signs of deterioration,
such as excessive cracking, considering factors such as deflection, fatigue and durability.
Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
3.3 The assessment must check that collapse or failure of a structural member will not occur under the
assessment loads as a result of rupture of one or more critical sections, by overturning or by buckling caused
by elastic or plastic instability, having due regard to the effects of sway when appropriate.
3.4 The effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete, temperature difference and differential settlement need not be
considered at the ultimate limit state.
Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
3.5 The need for a serviceability limit state assessment and the necessary criteria for that assessment must be
agreed with the Overseeing Organisation. Unless otherwise agreed with the Overseeing Organisation, the
only SLS check required is to determine that the stresses in prestressed concrete do not exceed the limits
given in 6.3.2 of Appendix A.
3.6 Where the Overseeing Organisation requires other serviceability limit state checks, the criteria should
generally be those specified in Appendix A.
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Limit States Part 14 BD 44/15
3/2 August 2015

Part 14 BD 44/15 Use of Appendix A and BS 5400-4:1990
4 USE OF APPENDIX A AND BS 5400-4:1990

4.1 Appendix A is based on BS 5400-4 and retains the terminology and clause numbering of that document.
In cases where the BS 5400-4 clauses are not required for assessment, the numbers and headings of
those clauses have been included to retain the structure of the document but the words “Not applicable to
assessment” have been added in italics. Advisory clauses have been provided with a suffix ‘A’.
4.2 Wherever possible, tabulated values in BS 5400-4 have been replaced by formulae in which γm is stated
explicitly. Modified tables, figures and equations retain their BS 5400-4 numbers.
4.3 Comments are given on those clauses where the changes from BS 5400-4 are substantial or are not self
evident. There are also comments on some of the clauses in Appendix A which have been marked as “Not
applicable to assessment”. A number of these relate to serviceability criteria which should only be included
in an assessment on the direction of the Overseeing Organisation.
4.4 When, in Appendix A, reference is made to other clauses within Appendix A, the referenced clause number is
given without any suffix. When, in Appendix A, reference is made to Chapters 1 to 5 of BD44, the referenced
clause numbers are provided with the suffix ‘B’.
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Use of Appendix A and BS 5400-4:1990 Part 14 BD 44/15
4/2 August 2015

Part 14 BD 44/15 References
5 REFERENCES
5.1 Normative References
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)
DMRB Volume 1: Section 3: General design
BD 37 Loads for Highway Bridges

(DMRB 1.3)
DMRB Volume 3: Section 4: Assessment
BD 21 The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures

(DMRB 3.4.3)
BD 86 The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures for the Effects of Special Types General Order
(STGO) and Special Order (SO) Vehicles
(DMRB 3.4.19)
British Standards (BS): BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION
BS 5400-4:1990. Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for design of concrete bridges
5.2 Informative References
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) and Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works
(MCHW) : HMSO
BA 38 Assessment of Fatigue Life of Corroded or Damaged Reinforcing Bars

(DMRB 3.4.5).
BA 51 The Assessment of Concrete Structures Affected by Steel Corrosion

(DMRB 3.4.13)
BA 52 The Assessment of Concrete Structures Affected by Alkali Silica Reaction

(DMRB 3.4.10)
BD 79 The Management of Sub-standard Highway Structures

(DMRB 3.4.18)
MCHW Volume 1 – Specification for Highway Works
BS 6089:2010. Assessment to in situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete components –
Complementary guidance to that given in BS EN 13791
BS EN 1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
(incorporating amendments 1 and 2, 2011)
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References Part 14 BD 44/15
BS EN 1992-2:2005. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures – Part 2: Concrete bridges – design and detailing
rules (incorporating amendment 1, 2010)
BS EN 13791:2007. Assessment of in situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete components
BS EN ISO 15630-1:2010. Steel for the reinforcement and prestressing of concrete. Test methods. Reinforcing
bars, wire rod and wire
BS EN ISO 15630-3:2010. Steel for the reinforcement and prestressing of concrete. Test methods. Prestressing steel
5/2 August 2015

Part 14 BD 44/15 Enquiries
6 ENQUIRIES
Approval of this document for publication is given by:
Highways England
Temple Quay House
Bristol M WILSON
BS1 6HA Chief Highway Engineer
Transport Scotland
8th Floor, Buchanan House
58 Port Dundas Road R BRANNEN
Glasgow, G4 0HF Director
Trunk Roads and Bus Operations
Welsh Government SHEENA HAGUE

Crown Buildings, Cathays Park Deputy Director
Cardiff, CF10 3NQ Network Management Division
The Department for Regional Development

Transport Northern Ireland
Clarence Court
10-18 Adelaide Street P B DOHERTY
Belfast, BT2 8GB Director of Engineering
All technical enquiries or comments on this Standard should be sent to

standards_enquiries@highwaysengland.co.uk
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Enquiries Part 14 BD 44/15
6/2 August 2015

Volume 3 Section 4 Appendix A
Part 14 BD 44/15 Amendments to BS 5400-4
APPENDIX A AMENDMENTS TO BS 5400-4

1. SCOPE
2. DEFINITION AND SYMBOLS
2.1 Definitions
2.1.1 General
2.1.2 Partial load factors
2.1.3 Materials
2.1.3.1 Strength
2.1.3.2 Characteristic stress
2.2 Symbols
3. LIMIT STATE PHILOSOPHY
3.1 General
4. ASSESSMENT: GENERAL
4.1 Limit state requirements

4.2 Loads, load combination and partial safety factors γfL and γf3
4.2.1 Loads
4.2.2 Serviceability Limit State
4.2.2A Serviceability Limit State
4.2.3 Ultimate Limit State
4.2.4 Deflection
4.3 Properties of materials
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 Material properties
4.3.2.1 Concrete
4.3.2.2 Reinforcement and prestressing steel
4.3.2.2A Reinforcement and prestressing steel
4.3.3 Value of γm
4.3.3.1 General
4.3.3.2 Serviceability Limit State
4.3.3.3 Ultimate Limit State
4.3.3.3A Ultimate Limit State
4.3.3.4 Fatigue
4.4 Analysis of structure
4.4.1 General
4.4.1A General
4.4.2 Analysis for Serviceability Limit State
4.4.2.1 General
4.4.2.1A General
4.4.2.2 Methods of analysis and their requirements
4.4.3 Analysis for Ultimate Limit State
4.4.3A Analysis for Ultimate Limit State
4.5 Analysis of section
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Appendix A Volume 3 Section 4
Amendments to BS 5400-4 Part 14 BD 44/15
4.6 Deflection
4.7 Fatigue
4.7A Fatigue
4.8 Combined global and local effects
4.8.1 General
4.8.2 Analysis of structure
4.8.2A Analysis of structure
4.8.3 Analysis of section
5. ASSESSMENT: REINFORCED CONCRETE
5.1 General
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Limit state assessment of reinforced concrete
5.1.3 Loads
5.1.4 Strength of materials
5.1.4.1 Definition of strengths
5.1.4.2 Strength of concrete
5.1.4.3 Strength of reinforcement
5.2 Structures and structural frames
5.2.1 Analysis of structure
5.2.2 Redistribution of moments
5.2.2A Redistribution of moments
5.3 Beams
5.3.1 General
5.3.1.1 Effective span
5.3.1.2 Effective width of flanged beams
5.3.1.3 Slenderness limits for beams
5.3.1.3A Slenderness limits for beams
5.3.2 Resistance moment of beams
5.3.2.1 Analysis of sections
5.3.2.1A Analysis of sections
5.3.2.2 Design charts “Not applicable in assessment”
5.3.2.3 Assessment formulae
5.3.2.3A Assessment formulae
5.3.3 Shear resistance of beams
5.3.3.1 Shear stress
5.3.3.1A Shear stress
5.3.3.2 Shear capacity
5.3.3.2A Shear capacity
5.3.3.3 Enhanced shear strength of sections close to supports
5.3.3.3A Enhanced shear strength of sections close to supports
5.3.3.4 Bottom loaded beams
5.3.3.5 Alternative method
5.3.3.5A Alternative method
5.3.3.6 Other approaches
5.3.3.6A Other approaches
5.3.3.7 Assessment of deck hinges and half joint structures
5.3.3.7A Assessment of deck hinges and half joint structures
5.3.4 Torsion
5.3.4.1 General
5.3.4.2 Torsionless systems
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5.3.4.3 Stresses and reinforcement

5.3.4.3A Stresses and reinforcement
5.3.4.4 Treatment of various cross-sections
5.3.4.4A Treatment of various cross-sections
5.3.4.5 Detailing
5.3.4.5A Detailing
5.3.5 Longitudinal shear
5.3.6 Deflection in beams
5.3.7 Crack control in beams
5.4 Slabs
5.4.1 Moments and shear forces in slabs
5.4.1A Moments and shear forces in slabs
5.4.2 Resistance moments of slabs
5.4.3 Resistance to in-plane forces
5.4.3A Resistance to in-plane forces
5.4.4 Shear resistance of slabs
5.4.4.1 Shear stress in solid slabs: general
5.4.4.2 Shear stresses in solid slabs under concentrated loads (including wheel loads)
5.4.4.2A Shear stresses in solid slabs under concentrated loads (including wheel loads)
5.4.4.3 Shear in voided slabs
5.4.4.3A Shear in voided slabs
5.4.5 Deflection of slabs
5.4.6 Crack control in slabs
5.4.7 Torsion in slabs
5.4.7.1 Slab interior
5.4.7.2 Slab edges
5.5 Columns
5.5.1 General
5.5.1.1 Definitions
5.5.1.2 Effective height of column
5.5.1.2A Effective height of column
5.5.1.3 Slenderness limits for columns
5.5.1.3A Slenderness limits for columns
5.5.1.4 Assessment of strength
5.5.2 Moments and forces in columns
5.5.3 Short column subject to axial load and bending about the minor axis
5.5.3.1 General
5.5.3.2 Analysis of sections
5.5.3.3 Design charts for rectangular and circular columns
“Not applicable in assessment”
5.5.3.4 Assessment formulae for rectangular columns
5.5.3.5 Simplified design formulae for rectangular columns
“Not applicable to assessment”
5.4.4 Short columns subject to axial load and either bending about the major axis or biaxial bending
5.4.4A Short columns subject to axial load and either bending about the major axis or biaxial bending
5.5.5 Slender columns
5.5.5.1 General
5.5.5.1A General
5.5.5.2 Slender columns bent about a minor axis
5.5.5.3 Slender columns bent about a major axis
5.5.5.4 Slender columns bent about both axes
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5.5.6 Shear resistance of columns

5.5.6A Shear resistance of columns
5.5.7 Crack control in columns
5.5.8 Bearing on columns
5.6 Reinforced concrete walls
5.6.1 General
5.6.1.1 Definition
5.6.1.2 Limits to slenderness
5.6.1.2A Limits to slenderness
5.6.2 Forces and moments in reinforcement concrete walls
5.6.3 Short reinforced walls resisting moments and axial forces
5.6.4 Slender reinforced walls
5.6.4A Slender reinforced walls
5.6.5 Shear resistance of reinforced walls
5.6.5A Shear resistance of reinforced walls
5.6.6 Deflection of reinforced walls
5.6.7 Crack control in reinforced walls
5.7 Bases
5.7.1 General
5.7.2 Moments and forces in bases
5.7.3 Assessment of bases
5.7.3.1 Resistance to bending
5.7.3.1A Resistance to bending
5.7.3.2 Shear
5.7.3.2A Shear
5.7.3.3 Bond and anchorage
5.7.3.3A Bond and anchorage
5.7.4 Deflection of bases
5.7.5 Crack control in bases
5.8 Considerations of details
5.8.1 Construction details
5.8.1.1 Size of members “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.1.2 Accuracy of position of reinforcement
5.8.1.2A Accuracy of position of reinforcement
5.8.1.3 Construction joint “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.1.4 Movement joints “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.2 Concrete cover to reinforcement
5.8.2A Concrete cover to reinforcement
5.8.3 Reinforcement general consideration
5.8.3.1 Groups of bars
5.8.3.2 Bar schedule dimensions
5.8.4 Minimum area of reinforcement in members
5.8.4.1 Minimum areas of main reinforcement
5.8.4.1A Minimum areas of main reinforcement
5.8.4.2 Minimum area of secondary reinforcement
5.8.4.2A Minimum area of secondary reinforcement
5.8.4.3 Minimum area of links
5.8.4.3A Minimum area of links
A/4 August 2015

5.8.5 Maximum areas of reinforcement in members

5.8.5A Maximum areas of reinforcement in members
5.8.6 Bond, anchorage and bearing
5.8.6.1 Geometrical classification of deformed bars
5.8.6.2 Local bond “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.6.2A Local bond
5.8.6.3 Anchorage bond
5.8.6.3A Anchorage bond
5.8.6.4 Effective perimeter of a bar or group of bars
5.8.6.4A Effective perimeter of a bar or group of bars
5.8.6.5 Anchorage of links
5.8.6.6 Laps and joints
5.8.6.7 Lap length
5.8.6.8 Hooks and bends
5.8.6.8A Hooks and bends
5.8.6.9 Bearing stress inside bends
5.8.6.9A Bearing stress inside bends
5.8.7 Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement
5.8.7A Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement
5.8.8 Spacing of reinforcement
5.8.8.1 Minimum distance between bars
5.8.8.1A Minimum distance between bars
5.8.8.2 Maximum distance between bars in tension
5.8.8.2A Maximum distance between bars in tension
5.8.9 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement
5.8.10 Arrangement of reinforcement in skew slabs
5.8.10A Arrangement of reinforcement in skew slabs
5.9 Additional consideration in the use of lightweight aggregate concrete
5.9.1 General
5.9.2 Durability “Not applicable to assessment”
5.9.3 Strength of concrete
5.9.4A Shear resistance of beams
5.9.5 Torsional resistance of beams
5.9.6 Deflection of beams
5.9.8 Deflection of slabs
5.9.9 Columns
5.9.9.1 General
5.9.9.2 Short columns
5.9.9.3 Slender columns
5.9.10 Local bond, anchorage bond and laps
5.9.10A Local bond, anchorage bond and laps
5.9.11 Bearing stress inside bends
August 2015 A/5

6. ASSESSMENT: PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
6.1 General
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.1A Introduction
6.1.2 Limit state assessment of prestressed concrete
6.1.2.1 Basis of assessment
6.1.2.2 Durability “Not applicable to assessment”
6.1.2.3 Other limit states and considerations
6.1.3 Loads
6.1.4.1 Definition of strength
6.1.4.2 Strength of concrete
6.1.4.3 Strength of prestressing tendons
6.2 Structure and structural frames
6.2.1 Analysis of structures
6.2.2 Redistribution of moments
6.3 Beams
6.3.1 General
6.3.1.1 Definitions
6.3.1.2 Slender beams “Not applicable to assessment”
6.3.2 Serviceability Limit State: flexure
6.3.2A Serviceability Limit State: flexure
6.3.3 Ultimate Limit State: flexure
6.3.3.1 Section analysis
6.3.3.1A Section analysis
6.3.3.2 Design charts “Not applicable to assessment”
6.3.3.3 Assessment formula
6.3.3.3A Assessment formula
6.3.3.4 Non-rectangular sections
6.3.4.1 General
6.3.4.1A General
6.3.4.2 Sections uncracked in flexure
6.3.4.2A Sections uncracked in flexure
6.3.4.3 Sections cracked in flexure
6.3.4.3A Sections cracked in flexure
6.3.4.4 Shear reinforcement
6.3.4.4A Shear reinforcement
6.3.4.5 Maximum shear force
6.3.4.5A Maximum shear force
6.3.4.6 Segmental construction
6.3.4.6A Segmental construction
6.3.4.7 Alternative method
6.3.4.8 Other approaches
6.3.5.1 General
6.3.5.2 Stresses and reinforcement
A/6 August 2015


6.3.5.3 Segmental construction
6.3.5.4 Other assessment methods
6.3.5.4A Other assessment methods
6.3.6 Longitudinal shear
6.3.7 Deflection of beams
6.3.7A Deflection of beams
6.4 Slabs
6.4A Slabs
6.5 Columns
6.6 Tension members
6.7 Prestressing requirements
6.7.1 Maximum initial prestress
6.7.2 Loss of prestress, other than friction losses
6.7.2.1 General
6.7.2.2 Loss of prestress due to relaxation of steel
6.7.2.3 Loss of prestress due to elastic deformation of the concrete
6.7.2.4 Loss of prestress due to shrinkage of the concrete
6.7.2.4A Loss of prestress due to shrinkage of the concrete
6.7.2.5 Loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete
6.7.2.5A Loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete
6.7.2.6 Loss of prestress during anchorage
6.7.2.7 Losses of prestress due to steam curing
6.7.3 Loss of prestress due to friction
6.7.3.1 General
6.7.3.2 Friction in the jack and anchorage
6.7.3.3 Friction in the duct due to unintentional variation from specified profile
6.7.3.3A Friction in the duct due to unintentional variation from specified profile
6.7.3.4 Friction in the duct due to curvature of the tendon
6.7.3.4A Friction in the duct due to curvature of the tendon
6.7.3.5 Friction in circular construction
6.7.3.6 Lubricants
6.7.4 Transmission length in pre-tensioned members
6.7.4A Transmission length in pre-tensioned members
6.7.5 End blocks and deviators
6.7.5A End blocks and deviators
6.8.1 General
6.8.2 Cover to prestressing tendons
6.8.2.1 General
6.8.2.1A General
6.8.2.2 Pre-tensioned tendons
6.8.2.3 Tendons in ducts
6.8.3 Spacing of prestressing tendons
6.8.3.1 General “Not applicable to assessment”
6.8.3.2 Pre-tensioned tendons “Not applicable to assessment”
6.8.3.3 Tendons in ducts
6.8.4 Longitudinal reinforcement in prestressed concrete beams
6.8.5 Links in prestressed concrete beams
6.8.6 Shock loading “Not applicable to assessment”
August 2015 A/7

6.8.7 Deflected tendons “Not applicable to assessment”

6.8.8 External tendons
6.8.8A External tendons
7. ASSESSMENT: PRECAST, COMPOSITE AND PLAIN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
7.1 General
7.1.1 Introduction
7.1.1A Introduction
7.1.2 Limit state assessment
7.1.2.1 Basis of assessment
7.1.2.2 Handling stresses “Not applicable to assessment”
7.1.2.3 Connections and joints
7.1.2.3A Connections and joints
7.2 Precast concrete construction
7.2.1 Framed structures and continuous beams
7.2.2 Other precast members
7.2.3 Supports for precast members
7.2.3.1 Concrete corbels
7.2.3.1A Concrete corbels
7.2.3.2 Width of supports for precast units
7.2.3.3 Bearing stresses
7.2.3.3A Bearing stresses
7.2.3.4 Horizontal forces or rotations at bearings
7.2.4 Joints between precast members
7.2.4.1 General
7.2.4.2 Half joint
7.2.4.2A Half joint
7.3 Structural connections between units
7.3.1 General
7.3.1.1 Structural requirements of connections
7.3.1.2 Assessment method
7.3.1.3 Consideration affecting design details
7.3.1.4 Factors affecting design and construction
7.3.2 Continuity of reinforcement
7.3.2.1 General
7.3.2.2 Sleeving
7.3.2.2A Sleeving
7.3.2.3 Threading
7.3.2.3A Threading
7.3.2.4 Welding of bars
7.3.2.4A Welding of bars
7.3.3 Other type of connections
7.3.3A Other type of connections
7.4 Composite concrete construction
7.4.1 General
7.4.2.1 General
7.4.2.2 Vertical shear
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7.4.2.2A Vertical shear

7.4.2.3 Longitudinal shear
7.4.2.3A Longitudinal shear
7.5 Plain concrete walls and abutments
7.5.1 General
7.5.1A General
7.5.2 Moment and forces in walls and abutments
7.5.3 Eccentricity in the plane of the wall or abutment
7.5.4 Eccentricity at right angles to walls or abutments
7.5.5 Analysis of section
7.5.5A Analysis of section
7.5.6 Shear
7.5.6A Shear
7.5.7 Bearing
7.5.8 Deflection of plain concrete walls or abutments
7.5.9 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement
7.5.10 Stress limitation for Serviceability Limit State
ANNEX A: REFERENCES
August 2015 A/9

A/10 August 2015

1. SCOPE
1.1 Refer to 1.5B.
2. DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS
2.1 Definitions
2.1.1 General. For the purposes of this Standard the definitions given in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3) apply. All
formulae are based on SI units in Newtons and millimetres unless otherwise stated.
2.1.2 Partial load factors. For the sake of clarity the factors that together comprise the partial safety factor for
loads are restated as follows. Assessment loads, QA*, are obtained by multiplying the nominal loads, Qk*, by γfL,
the partial safety factor for loads. γfL is a function of two individual factors, γfl and γf2, which take account of the
following:
γfl possible unfavourable deviations of the loads from their nominal values;
γf2 reduced probability that various loadings acting together will all attain their nominal values
simultaneously.
The relevant values of the function γfL (= γf1 γf2) are given in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3), BD 37 (DMRB 1.3), BD 86
(DMRB 3.4.19) and BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7) as appropriate.
The assessment load effects, SA*, are obtained from the assessment loads by the relation:
SA* = γf3 (effects of QA*) = γf3 (effects of γfL Qk*)
where
γf3 is a factor that takes account of inaccurate assessment of the effects of loading, unforeseen stress
distribution in the structure and variations in dimensional accuracy achieved in construction.
The values of γf3 are given in 4.2.
2.1.3 Materials
2.1.3.1 Strength. Material strengths are expressed in terms of the cube strength of concrete, fcu, the yield or proof
strength of reinforcement, fy or the breaking stress of prestressing tendon, fpu. The material strengths used may be
either:
(a) Characteristic strength, which is the strength below which not more than 5% of all possible test results
may be expected to fall, or
(b) Worst credible strength, refer to 2.4B to 2.15B.
2.1.3.2 Characteristic stress. that value of stress at the assumed limit of linearity on the stress-strain curve for
the material.
August 2015 A/11

2.2 Symbols
The symbols used in Appendix A are as follows:
Ac area of concrete
Acon contact area
Ae area of fully anchored reinforcement per unit length crossing the shear plane
Alv area of effectively anchored longitudinal reinforcement in excess to that required to
resist bending co-existent with the shear force
Ao area enclosed by the median wall line
Aps area of prestressing tendons in the tension zone
As area of tension reinforcement
A's area of compression reinforcement
A'sl area of compression reinforcement in the more highly compressed face of a column
As2 area of reinforcement in the other face of a column
Asc area of longitudinal reinforcement (for columns)
AsL cross-sectional area of one bar of longitudinal reinforcement provided for torsion
Ast cross-sectional area of one leg of a closed link
Asup supporting area
Asv cross-sectional area of the legs of a link
At area of transverse reinforcement
a' distance from compression face to a point at which the crack width is being calculated
ab centre-to-centre distance between bars
acr distance from the point (crack) considered to the surface of nearest longitudinal bar
av distance from the section under consideration to the supporting member; distance from the boundary of
the loaded area to the perimeter considered for punching shear
b width or breadth of section; distance between void centres in voided slabs
ba average breadth of section excluding the compression flange
bc breadth of compression face
bcol width of column
be width of the edge zone of a slab
bt breadth of section at level of tension reinforcement
bw breadth of web or rib of a member
c depth of cover concrete
cnom nominal cover
Dc density of lightweight aggregate concrete at time of test
d effective depth to tension reinforcement
d' depth of compression reinforcement from the more highly compressed face
dc depth of concrete in compression
de effective depth for a solid slab or rectangular beam; otherwise the overall depth of the compression flange
ds effective depth to tension steel in prestressed member
d0 depth to the horizontal reinforcement in the half joint
dt effective depth from the extreme compression fibre to either the longitudinal bars around which the
stirrups pass or the centroid of the tendons, whichever is the greater
d2 depth from the surface to the reinforcement in the face other than the more highly compressed
(EI)c flexural rigidity of the column cross-section
ex resultant eccentricity of load at right-angles to plane of wall
Fbst tensile bursting force
Fbt tensile force due to ultimate loads in a bar or group of bars
Fub ultimate anchorage capacity of tension reinforcement
Fub max anchorage capacity required for fully anchored behaviour
f stress
A/12 August 2015

fcav average compressive stress in the flexural compressive zone

fci concrete strength at (initial) transfer
scpb total direct stress at the location of the prestressed section being checked due to bending and axial load
effects, taken as positive in compression
scp mean compressive stress in the concrete due to the prestressing and axial loading
fcu characteristic or worst credible concrete cube strength
fpb tensile stress in tendons at (beam) failure
fpe effective prestress (in tendon)
fpt stress due to prestress
fpu characteristic or worst credible strength of prestressing tendons
f's stress in reinforcement in compression, taken as equal to fy/(γms + fy/2000)
fs2 stress in reinforcement in other face
ft maximum principal tensile stress; tensile strength of reinforcement
fy characteristic or worst credible strength of reinforcement
fyL characteristic or worst credible strength of longitudinal reinforcement
fyv characteristic of worst credible strength of shear reinforcement
h overall depth (thickness) of section (in plane of bending)
hf thickness of flange
hmax larger dimension of section
hmin smaller dimension of section
hred depth of concrete in compression under the ultimate loads on precast segmental structures with unbonded
prestressing only
hw wall thickness
hx overall depth of the cross-section in the plane of bending Miy
hy overall depth of the cross-section in the plane of bending Mix
I second moment of area
K factor depending on the type of duct or sheath used; reduction factor for the shear resistance of voided
slabs
k constant (with appropriate subscripts)
kt depends on the type of tendon
kl depends on the concrete bond across the shear plane
Ls length of shear plane
le effective height of a column or wall
lex effective height for bending about the major axis
ley effective height for bending about the minor axis
lo clear height of column between end restraints
l thickness of concrete member in the plane of a bent reinforcing bar
ll length of reinforcing bar measured inside the bend and bearing onto the concrete
lt transmission length
M bending moment due to ultimate loads
Ma,i* moment of resistance of a slab due to the i-direction reinforcement to the x-axis
Mcr cracking moment at the section considered
Mg moment due to permanent loads
Mi maximum initial moment in a column due to ultimate loads
Mix initial moment about the major axis of a slender column due to ultimate loads
Miy initial moment about the minor axis of a slender column due to ultimate loads
Mq moment due to live loads
Mtx total moment about the major axis of a slender column due to ultimate loads
Mty total moment about the minor axis of a slender column due to ultimate loads
Mu ultimate resistance moment
August 2015 A/13

Mux ultimate moment capacity in a short column assuming ultimate axial load and bending about the major
axis only
Muy ultimate moment capacity in a short column assuming ultimate axial load and bending about the minor
axis only
Mx,My moments about the major and minor axes of a short column due to ultimate loads; moments about the
axes of a slab
Mx,My moments of resistance of a slab about the axes in-plane
Mxy torsional moment about the axes of a slab
Mxy* torsional moment of resistance of a slab
Mn moment about an axis perpendicular to the n-direction in a slab
Mn moment of resistance of a slab about an axis perpendicular to the n-direction
Mnt twisting moment per unit length of a slab adjacent to the edge zone referred to axes perpendicular and
parallel to the edge
Mo moment necessary to produce zero stress in the concrete at the depth d
M1 smaller initial end moment in a column due to ultimate loads (assumed negative if the column is bent in
double curvature)
M2 larger initial end moment in a column due to ultimate loads (assumed positive)
N ultimate axial load at section considered; number of bars in a group
Nc ultimate resistance of a slab in compression (per unit length)
Ni* ultimate tensile resistance of a slab due to the i-reinforcement (per unit length)
Nx,Ny in-plane axial forces in a slab
Nxy in-plane shear force in a slab
Nu ultimate resistance axial load
Nuz axial loading capacity of a column ignoring all bending
nw ultimate axial load per unit length of wall
Pf effective prestressing force after all losses
Ph horizontal component of the prestressing force after all losses
Pk basic load in tendon
Po prestressing force in the tendon at the jacking end (or at tangent point near jacking end)
Px prestressing force at distance x from jack
QA* assessment load
Qk* nominal load
RA* Assessment reaction at support
r internal radius of bend
rps radius of curvature of a tendon
S first moment of area of the part of the section excluding any area below the location being checked,
calculated about the centroidal axis of the whole section
SA* assessment load effects
sv spacing of links along the member
u0 perimeter of the loaded area for a concentrated load
t breadth of bearing area over a support
T torque due to ultimate loads
Tu ultimate torsional strength
V shear force due to ultimate loads
Vc ultimate shear resistance of concrete
Vc' shear resistance of a solid slab
Vco ultimate shear resistance of a section uncracked in flexure
Vcr ultimate shear resistance of a section cracked in flexure
Vi shear capacity of infill concrete
Vp shear capacity of precast prestressed section
V1 longitudinal shear force due to ultimate load
A/14 August 2015

Vs shear resistance of shear reinforcement

Vsv shear resistance due to links in a voided slab
Vt Flexural shear force per unit width at the edge of a slab
Vu ultimate shear resistance of section; ultimate punching shear capacity of a slab
Vux ultimate shear capacity of a section for the x-x axis
Vuy ultimate shear capacity of a section for the y-y axis
Vx applied shear due to ultimate loads for the x-x axis
Vy applied shear due to ultimate loads for the y-y axis
v shear stress
vu ultimate shear stress in concrete (for half joints)
vc ultimate shear stress in concrete
v1 ultimate longitudinal shear stress per unit area of contact surface
vt torsional shear stress
vtmin minimum ultimate torsional shear stress above which reinforcement is required
vtu ultimate torsional shear stress
x neutral axis depth; distance form jack
x1 smaller centre-line dimension of a link
y distance of the fibre considered in the plane of bending from the centroid of the concrete section
yo half the side of end block
ypo half the side of loaded area
y1 larger centre-line dimension of a link
z lever arm
a inclination of shear reinforcement to the member axis; factor to determine fpb
al angle between the axis of the design moment and the direction of the tensile reinforcement
a2 angle of friction at the joint
acw coefficient taking into account of the state of the stress in the compression chord
an coefficient as a function of column axial load
as factor that takes account of the increased bond strength due to transverse pressure
b coefficient dependent on bar type
γf1, γf2, γf3 partial load factors
γfL product of γf1 and γf2
γm partial safety factor for strength
γmb partial safety factor for bond
γmbs component of partial safety factor for bond allowing to the variation in bond strength
γmc partial safety for concrete
γmcw partial safety for plain concrete wall
γms partial safety factor for steel
γmv partial safety factor applied to vc
ε strain
εm average strain
εs strain in tension reinforcement
ε1 strain at level considered
µ coefficient of friction
ξs depth factor
ρ geometrical ratio of reinforcement, generally equal to As/bd
ρnet ρ for a flange
SAsv area of shear reinforcement
Sbd area of the critical section for punching shear
f size (nominal diameter) of bar or tendon
j diameter of the void in voided slabs
Г reduction factor for short anchorage
August 2015 A/15

κ shear enhancement factor for short shear spans

σ stress, pressure
σ r stress level for fatigue life
q angle between the concrete compression strut and the beam axis perpendicular to the shear force used in
variable truss method; angle between the n-direction and the x-axis in a slab
u strength reduction factor for concrete cracked in shear
3. LIMIT STATE PHILOSOPHY
3.1 General. Refer to 3.1B to 3.6B.
4. ASSESSMENT: GENERAL
4.1 Limit state requirements. Refer to 3.1B to 3.6B.
4.2 Loads, load combinations and partial safety factors γfL and γf3
4.2.1 Loads. The nominal values of loads are given in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3), BD 37 (DMRB 1.3), BD 86
(DMRB 3.4.19) and BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7) as appropriate. However, Type HB loading to BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) must
only be used when required by the Overseeing Organisation, as Special Type General Order (STGO) and Special
Order (SO) vehicles and associated SV and SOV load models to BD 86 (DMRB 3.4.19) are now the load models
for abnormal loading. Creep and shrinkage of concrete and prestress (including secondary effects in statically
indeterminate structures) must be regarded as permanent loads. Collision loading to BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7) must be
considered only when required by the Overseeing Organisation.
4.2.2 Serviceability Limit State. For serviceability limit state checks, the Assessment Live Loading (ALL)
derived from type HA loading or Authorised Weight (AW) vehicles to BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3) and the SV/SOV
load models (or STGO/SO vehicles) must be used, together with the other non-vehicular loads defined in BD 37
(DMRB 1.3); they must be applied and have the load factors and combinations in accordance with BD 86 (DMRB
3.4.19) and BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) as appropriate, with the γfL factor equal, for load combinations 1 to 5 of BD 37
(DMRB 1.3), to 1.0 for all SV/SOV load models (or STGO/SO vehicles) and associated ALL (or AW vehicles),
in accordance with 2.7 of BD 86 (DMRB 3.4.19). When it has been agreed with the Overseeing Organisation that
Type HB loading has to be included, the ALL (or AW vehicles) and Type HB loading must be used, together with
the other non-vehicular loads defined in BD 37 (DMRB 1.3); they must be applied and have the load factors and
combinations in accordance with BD 37 (DMRB 1.3).
The value of γfL for creep and shrinkage of concrete and for prestress (including secondary effect in statically
indeterminate structures) must be taken as 1.0. The value of γf3 must be taken as 1.0.
For the limitations given in 4.1.1.1 b) of BS 5400-4 for prestressed concrete, all members must be checked as being
in class 2 for load combinations 1 to 5 of BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) except that, for load combination 1, live loading
can be ignored for lightly trafficked highway bridges (e.g. accommodation bridges, bridleway bridges and foot/
cycle bridges) and railway bridges where the live loading is controlled. For load combination 1, live loading must
comprise ALL or AW vehicles only; however, for transverse cantilever slabs, transversely and two-way spanning
slabs and central reserves (including skew slabs with significant transverse action), the loading must comprise AW
vehicles only, applied as a single vehicle or convoy of vehicles in accordance with Annex D of BD 21 (DMRB
3.4.3). Single wheel loads need not to be considered except for cantilever slabs and the top flanges in beam-
and-slab, voided slabs and box-beam construction. Cracking type checks for prestressed concrete are considered
satisfied when the requirements of 6.3.2 are met; cracking type checks do not need to routinely be performed for
bridges of prestressed concrete construction where all tendons in a particular section are external and unbonded
except that, for segmental structures with precast elements, the stresses at unreinforced contact joints must comply
with the requirements of 6.3.2.
A/16 August 2015

If cracking type checks in reinforced concrete are required by the Overseeing Organisation, crack widths must
be calculated in accordance with 5.8.8.2, and for the limitations given in 4.1.1.1 a) of BS 5400-4 for reinforced
concrete, only load combination 1 of BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) needs to be considered. Live loading must comprise
ALL or AW vehicles only; however, for transverse cantilever slabs, transversely and two-way spanning slabs and
central reserves (including skew slabs with significant transverse action), the loading must comprise AW vehicles
only, applied as a single vehicle or convoy of vehicles in accordance with Annex D of BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3). Single
wheel loads need not to be considered except for cantilever slabs and the top flanges in beam-and-slab, voided slabs
and box-beam construction.
For the stress limitations given in 4.1.1.3 of BS 5400-4 for prestressed concrete and, where required by the
Overseeing Organisation, for reinforced concrete, checks must be performed for load combinations 1 to 5 of BD
37 (DMRB 1.3). For prestressed concrete, stress limitations checks are considered satisfied when the compressive
stress limits of 6.3.2 are met.
As the tendons in externally prestressed structures do not rely on concrete for corrosion protection, and as the problem
of high stress fluctuations in tendon associated with cracks in bonded construction are not relevant to unbonded
prestressing, the serviceability cracking criteria have been relaxed in the case of external unbonded prestressing. In
longer span prestressed girder concrete bridges, temperature effects often give greater stresses than live loads and
should not be overlooked, especially if required to investigate the cause of observed cracking.
4.2.3 Ultimate Limit State. For ultimate limit state checks, the ALL (or AW vehicles) and the SV/SOV
load models (or STGO/SO vehicles) must be used, together with the other non-vehicular loads defined in BD
37 (DMRB 1.3) and, when required by the Overseeing Organisation, with the loads in BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7);
they must be applied and have the load factors and combinations in accordance with BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3), BD
86 (DMRB 3.4.19), BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) and BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7) as appropriate, with the γfL factor equal, for
load combinations 2 and 3 of BD 37 (DMRB 1.3), to 1.0 for all SV/SOV load models (or STGO/SO vehicles), in
accordance with 2.9 of BD 86 (DMRB 3.4.19). When it has been agreed with the Overseeing Organisation that
Type HB loading has to be included, the ALL (or AW vehicles) and Type HB loading must be used, together with
the other non-vehicular loads defined in BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) and, when required by the Overseeing Organisation,
with the loads in BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7); they must be applied and have the load factors and combinations
in accordance with BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3), BD 37 (DMRB 1.3) and BD 48 (DMRB 3.4.7) as appropriate. In
calculating the resistance of members to flexure, vertical shear and torsion, γfL for the prestressing force must be
taken as 1.15 where it adversely affects the resistance and 0.87 in other cases, except that, when no unbonded
prestressing is present, the factor γfL must be applied only for calculating the resistance of members to vertical shear
and torsion. In calculating secondary effects in statically indeterminate structures, γfL for the prestressing force may
be taken as 1.0. The value of γf3 must be taken as 1.10 in accordance with BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3) except that where
plastic upper bound methods are used for the analysis of the structure (e.g. yield-line analysis), γf3 must be taken as
1.15. For other non-elastic methods, the factor may be taken as 1.10.
4.2.4 Deflection. When required by the Overseeing Organisation, deflection must be calculated for the most
unfavourable distribution of loading for the member (or strip of slab) and may be derived from an elastic analysis
of the structure. The partial safety factors are those of the serviceability limit states.
4.3 Properties of materials
4.3.1 General. Either the characteristic strength, or the worst credible strength (see 2.1.3.1), may be used for a
material strength. In general, in analysing a structure to determine load effects, the material properties appropriate
to the characteristic, or worst credible, strength must be used, irrespective of the limit state being considered.
August 2015 A/17

For the analysis of sections, the material properties to be used for the individual limit states must be as follows:
(a) Serviceability limit state: values are given in 4.3.1 of BS 5400-4
(b) Ultimate limit state: values are given in 4.3.2
The appropriate γm values are given in 4.3.3: γmc for concrete, and γms for steel.
4.3.2 Material properties
4.3.2.1 Concrete. In assessing the strength of sections at the ultimate limit state, the assessment stress-strain
curve for normal weight concrete may be taken from Figure 1, using the value of γmc for concrete given in 4.3.3.3.
The modulus of elasticity to be used for elastic analysis must be appropriate to the cube strength of the concrete,
and, in the absence of test data, the short term value must be taken as (20 + 0.27 fcu) kN/mm² with fcu in N/mm²
units. The effect of creep under long term loading may be allowed for by using half of the short term modulus of
elasticity. To determine the effects of imposed deformations, for the calculation of deflections and to determine
crack widths and stresses due to the effects of long and short term loading and imposed deformations, an
appropriate intermediate value between the two above may be used.
For lightweight concrete having an air dry density between 1400 kg/m³ and 2300 kg/m³, the values given in the
previous paragraph must be multiplied by (Dc/2300)² where Dc is the density of the lightweight aggregate concrete
in kg/m³.
Poisson’s ratio may be taken as 0.2. The value for the coefficient of thermal expansion may be taken from Table 4.3
of BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3).
A/18 August 2015

VolumeAppendix
3 SectionA4 to BS 5400-4
Amendments Volume
Part 14 3BD Appendix
Section
44/XX 4 A
Part 14Amendments
BD 44/15 to BS 5400-4 Amendments to
Part 14 BD 44/XXBS 5400-4
Figure 1 Short term assessment stress-strain curve for normal weight concrete
Figure 1 Short
Figure term
1 Short assessment
term assessmentstress-strain curvefor
stress-strain curve fornormal
normalweight
weight concrete
concrete
Figure
Figure 2 Short
2 Short termassessment
term assessment stress-strain
stress-strain curve
curvefor
forreinforcement
reinforcement
Figure 2 Short term assessment stress-strain curve for reinforcement
August 2015 A/19

Mmmm/yyyy Chapter/Page
Appendix A to BS 5400-4
Amendments Volume
Part 14 3BD
Section
44/XX4
Amendments
Appendix A to BS 5400-4 Part 14Volume
BD 44/XX
3 Section 4
Figure 3 Short
Figure term
3 Short assessment
term stress-strain
assessment stress-straincurve
curve for normaland
for normal andlow
lowrelaxation
relaxation products
products
Figure 3 Short term assessment stress-strain curve for normal and low relaxation products
Figure
Figure 4 Short4term
Short term assessment
assessment stress-strain
stress-strain curve
curve for ‘as for wire
drawn’ 'as drawn'
and ‘as wire
spun’ strand
Figure 4 Short term assessment
and 'asstress-strain
spun' strandcurve for 'as drawn' wire
andThe
4.3.2.2 Reinforcement and prestressing steel. 'as assessment
spun' strand
stress-strain curves may be taken as follows:
(a) for reinforcement, from Figure 2, using the value of γms given in 4.3.3 or, for steels with sufficient
ductility, from the stress-strain diagram with the inclined top branch in 3.2.7 of BS EN 1992-1-1, using
the value of γms given in 4.3.3;
(b) for prestressing steel; from Figure 3 or Figure 4, using the value of γms given in 4.3.3.
Chapter/Page Mmmm/yyyy
A/20 Chapter/Page August 2015
Mmmm/yyyy
Alternatively where the reinforcement or tendon type is known, manufacturers’ characteristic stress-strain curves
may be used with the values of γms given in 4.3.3.
For reinforcement, the modulus of elasticity may be taken as 200 kN/mm². For prestressing steel, the modulus of
elasticity may be taken from Figure 3 or Figure 4 as the appropriate tangent modulus at zero load.
4.3.2.2A Reinforcement and prestressing steel
The stress-strain diagram with the inclined top branch of BS EN 1992-1-1 should only be used, at the ultimate limit
state, for reinforcing steels whose properties are not inferior to those corresponding to class B of Annex C of BS
EN 1992-1-1.
4.3.3 Values of γm
4.3.3.1 General. For the analysis of sections, the values of γm are summarised in 4.3.3.2 to 4.3.3.4.
4.3.3.2 Serviceability Limit State. Where a serviceability limit state check is required, the values of γmc and
γms to be applied to the characteristic stresses defined in 2.1.3.2 and 4.3.1 must be based on Table 4 of BS 5400-
4 unless worst credible strengths are used, when the values of γmc may be reduced by 10% provided they are not
taken as less than unity.
4.3.3.3 Ultimate Limit State. For both reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete, the values of γm applied
to either the characteristic strengths or worst credible strengths are summarised in Table 4A; these replace the γm
values for reinforced and prestressed concrete given in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3).
Table 4A Values of γm at the Ultimate Limit State.
Application Symbol Value for use with:

Characteristic strength Worst credible strength
Reinforcement and prestressing tendons γms 1.15 1 1.10 2
Concrete γmc 1.50 1.20
Shear in concrete γmv 1.25 1.15
Bond γmb 1.40 1.25
Plain concrete wall γmcw 2.25 1.80
1 May be reduced to 1.05 for grade 460 steel.
2 May be reduced to 1.05 for grade 460 steel or for any steel grade if measured steel depths are used in addition to the
worst credible steel strength.
4.3.3.3A Ultimate Limit State
The partial safety factor γm is composed of two sub-factors:
i. γm1 which takes account of possible reductions in the strength of the material in the structure as a whole as
compared with the characteristic value deduced from control specimens;
ii. γm2 which takes account of possible weaknesses of the structure arising from any other cause.
August 2015 A/21

In the case of steel, BS 8110-1 suggests that the γms value of 1.15 used in BS 5400-4 and in earlier issues of BS
8110-1 is unjustifiably conservative. The γms value of 1.15 used here may therefore be reduced to 1.05 for grade
460 steel. If the worst credible strength has been determined by testing samples of bars or tendons extracted from
the structure, then γm1 could be taken as 1.0. Furthermore, if measured effective depths are used in calculations, γm2
could be reduced from its value used in design. The actual design value of γm2 is not known, but both reference (1)
and BS 8110-2 suggest that γm could be reduced from its design value of 1.15 to 1.05 for assessment. Hence, a γm
value of 1.10 has been adopted for use with the worst credible steel strengths and 1.05 when measured steel depths
are also used.
In the case of concrete, γm1 is often taken to be 1/0.8 = 1.25 (2). This implies that, at the design stage, γm2 = 1.5/1.25
= 1.2. If the worst credible concrete strength has been determined then, in an assessment, γm1 can be taken as
1.0. Hence, γm = γm2. It is emphasised that γm2 has to allow for any future deterioration of the concrete due to, for
example, chemical attack, weathering, shrinkage and thermal movements. Hence, γm2 could take a value between
1.2 for new concrete (i.e. the value implied in design) and 1.0 for old concrete which is not expected to deteriorate
further. BS 6089 implies that a γm value of 1.2 should be applied to the mean estimated in situ cube strength,
whereas BS 8110-2 states that a value not less than 1.05 should be applied to the worst credible strength. The latter
value is considered to be rather low, and hence, allowing for the fact that it is difficult to determine accurately the
worst credible strength for concrete, the higher value of 1.20 has been adopted for both new and old concrete.
If concrete strengths obtained from original construction records are used, the γmc values used should be those
from Table 4A for characteristic strength. This is because, although some of the uncertainty about the potential
strength of the concrete is eliminated, the actual strength of concrete is greatly influenced by the curing conditions
(temperature and humidity). BS cured specimens used for concrete control are typically some 20% stronger than
concrete in structure. If steel strengths from original construction records are used, the factors for characteristic
strength may be used.
4.3.3.4 Fatigue. When applying 4.7, the values of γms applied to a reinforcement stress range is 1.00.
4.4 Analysis of structure
4.4.1 General. The requirements of methods of analysis appropriate to the determination of the distribution of
forces and deformations which are to be used in ascertaining that the limit state criteria are satisfied are described
in BS 5400-1. Where a member is continuous over a support which is considered to provide no restraint to rotation
and the analysis is undertaken assuming a span equal to the distance between the centres of point supports, the
bending moment at the support may be reduced by an amount equal to RA*t/8, with RA* being the assessment
reaction at support and t being the breadth of the bearing area.
4.4.1A General
The permitted reduction in bending moment over supports (moment rounding) is that adopted by the Eurocodes
(5.3.2.2 of BS EN 1992-2).
4.4.2 Analysis for Serviceability Limit State
4.4.2.1 General. Elastic methods of analysis must be used to determine internal forces and deformations.
The flexural stiffness constants (second moment of area) for sections of discrete members or unit widths of slab
elements may be based on any of the following:
(a) Concrete section: The entire member cross-section, ignoring the presence of reinforcement.
(b) Gross transformed section: The entire member cross-section including the reinforcement, transformed on
the basis of modular ratio.
A/22 August 2015

(c) Net transformed section: The area of the cross-section which is in compression together with the tensile
reinforcement, transformed on the basis of modular ratio.
A consistent approach must be used which reflects the different behaviour of various parts of the structure.
Axial, torsional and shearing stiffness constants, when required by the method of analysis, should be based on the
concrete section and used with (a) or (b). In assessment, however, it is often beneficial to use cracked properties, and
these should be used with reduced torsional properties to achieve compatibility with (c). For slabs (where torsion
and flexure are not really separate effects) it is appropriate to reduce the torsional stiffness in proportion to the ratio
of the average cracked to uncracked flexural stiffness for the two directions.
Moduli of elasticity and shear moduli values must be appropriate to the characteristic, or worst credible, strength of
the concrete.
4.4.2.1A General
BS 5400-4 allows cracked or uncracked properties to be used. In assessment intermediate properties may be used.
4.4.2.2 Methods of analysis and their requirements. The method of analysis must take account of all the
significant aspects of behaviour of a structure governing its response to loads and imposed deformations.
4.4.3 Analysis for Ultimate Limit State. Elastic methods can be used to determine the distribution of forces
and deformations throughout the structure. Stiffness constants can be based on any of those listed in 4.4.2.1. The
torsional stiffness may be reduced where appropriate in accordance with 5.3.4.2. Other constants may also be
adjusted to give some allowance for redistribution where this will give a more realistic representation of behaviour.
Non-linear and plastic methods of analysis may be used with the agreement of the Overseeing Organisation.
4.4.3A Analysis for Ultimate Limit State
A wide variety of analytical approaches can be used to assess concrete bridges, ranging from simple static load
distributions, through conventional elastic analyses to sophisticated non-linear analyses. It should be borne in
mind that static analysis and conventional linear elastic analyses normally give safe lower bound solutions for
ultimate strength. It is therefore often appropriate to use the approach of “progressive screening”. That is, starting
with simple conservative approaches and progressing to more realistic approaches until either adequate strength is
proved or the structure is found to be genuinely inadequate.
Concrete bridges are generally designed by performing elastic analyses using uncracked section properties, and
ensuring that individual sections can resist the elastic stress resultants. The elastic analysis is not intended to predict
the actual behaviour of the structure being designed, but is used merely because it results in a set of stress resultants
which are in equilibrium and, hence, provides a safe design (3). However, in assessment, one is attempting to predict
the actual behaviour of an existing structure. Although an elastic analysis would give a conservative assessment,
there is scope for more accurate analysis, because the section properties are fully defined.
Elastic analysis can be made more realistic by using reduced stiffness for element properties corresponding to
load effects which would otherwise exceed section strengths. This is commonly done for torsion. In particular,
if analysis of simply supported skew slab structures suggests that top steel is required when not provided or is
overstressed in the obtuse corners, this can be avoided by the use of torsionless analysis. Also, because many earlier
concrete beam and slab bridges were designed using static load distribution approaches, with little allowance for
either torsion or global transverse moments, it is often advantageous to analyse them using reduced transverse and
torsional stiffnesses. In principle, provided ductility is adequate, any elastic analysis is a safe lower bound solution
whatever section properties are used.
August 2015 A/23

Although elastic analysis is safe, it is often advantageous to use more realistic analyses. These include:
i. Upper bound collapse analyses which predict the collapse load of the complete structure, as opposed to
checking discrete critical sections. It is emphasised that experience of these methods is necessary in order
that the critical collapse mechanism can be identified. Guidance on the applications of such methods to
bridges can be found in references (4-8).
ii. Non-linear analyses which are capable of predicting the behaviour of a structure at all stages up to
collapse. Most non-linear analyses are capable of predicting only flexural failures. Guidance on their use
can be found in references (1) and (9).
iii. Methods which take account of restraints which are generally ignored in design, e.g. membrane action
in top slabs of beam and slab decks (10). Guidance on the use of compressive membrane action for
assessment of bridge deck slabs is given in BD 81 (DMRB 3.4.20).
4.5 Analysis of section
4.5.1 Serviceability Limit State. An elastic analysis must be carried out. In-plane shear flexibility in concrete
flanges (shear lag effects) must be allowed for. This may be done by taking an effective width of flange (see
5.3.1.2).
4.5.2 Ultimate Limit State. The strength of critical sections must be assessed in accordance with clauses 5,
6 or 7 to satisfy the requirements of 4.1. In-plane shear flexibility in concrete flanges (shear lag effects) may be
ignored.
4.6 Deflection. When deflection checks are required by the Overseeing Organisation, the material properties,
stiffness constants and calculations of deflections may be based on the information given in 4.3.2.1 and/or in
Appendix A of BS 5400-4.
4.7 Fatigue. When the assessor considers a structure to be fatigue prone, the effect of repeated live loading on
the fatigue strength of a bridge must be assessed. For reinforcing bars that have been subjected to welding, details
of compliance criteria are given in BS 5400-10 as implemented by BD 9 (DMRB 1.3).
For unwelded non-corroded reinforcement the fatigue life must be determined in accordance with BS 5400-10 as
implemented by BD 9 (DMRB 1.3), using the following parameters for the σr - N relationship:
bars < 16mm diameter; m = 9 k2 = 0.75 x 1027

bars > 16mm diameter; m = 9 k2 = 0.07 x 1027
The effective stress range to be used in fatigue assessment should be obtained by adding 60% of the range from
zero stress to maximum compressive stress to that part of the range from zero stress to maximum tensile stress.
However, where the stress range under load combination 1 of the Assessment Live Loading at the serviceability
limit state of 4.2.2 is less than the value given below, no further fatigue check is required.
Span bars < 16mm dia bars > 16mm dia

less than 3.5m 280 N/mm² 220 N/mm²
3.5m - 5.0m 250 N/mm² 190 N/mm²
5.0m - 10.0m 195 N/mm² 150 N/mm²
10.0m - 200m 155 N/mm² 120 N/mm²
200m and greater 250 N/mm² 190 N/mm²
A/24 August 2015

Provided the following requirements are met, the local effects of wheel loads applied directly to a slab spanning
between beams or webs need not be checked for fatigue:
1. The clear span to overall depth ratio of the slab does not exceed 18.
2. The slab acts compositely with its supporting beams or webs.
3 Either (a) the slab acts compositely with transverse diaphragms or webs or (b) the width of the slab
perpendicular to its span exceeds three times its clear span.
4 The slab does not contain welded reinforcement or reinforcement couplers.
4.7A Fatigue
The requirements for unwelded non-corroded bars given in 4.7 are based on a study carried out for the Department
of Transport. Many deck slabs would fail fatigue checks. However, extensive testing has shown that the stress
range due to wheel loads experienced by the reinforcement in most cases is substantially less than that predicted by
conventional analysis. Accordingly, checks are not required for local effects provided the conditions in 4.7 above
are met.
Guidance on determining the fatigue life of corroded reinforcement is given in BA 38 (DMRB 3.4.5). Guidance on the
fatigue strength of tack welded reinforcing bars is given in BA 40 (DMRB 1.3.4).
Failure to satisfy the fatigue requirements should not necessitate immediate remedial action. Management of the
structure may however be affected; for instance inspection frequency of the affected elements may be increased as
advised by the assessor.
4.8 Combined global and local effects
4.8.1 General. In addition to the assessment of individual primary and secondary elements to resist loading
applied directly to them, it is also necessary to include the loading combination(s) that produces the most adverse
effects due to global and local loading where these coexist in an element.
4.8.2 Analysis of structure. Analysis of the structure may be accomplished either by one overall analysis (e.g.
using finite elements) or by separate analyses for global and local effects. In the latter case the forces and moments
acting on the element from global and local effects must be combined as appropriate.
In order to take advantage of the beneficial effects of membrane action, methods of analysis which take account of
in-plane as well as flexural effects may be considered. See also 4.4.3.
4.8.2A Analysis of structure
Guidance on the use of compressive membrane action for the assessment of bridge deck slabs is given in BD 81
(DMRB 3.4.20).
4.8.3 Analysis of section. Section analysis for combined global and local effects must be carried out in
accordance with 4.5 to satisfy the requirements of 4.1.
(a) Serviceability Limit State
(1) For reinforced concrete elements, if a crack width check is required by the Overseeing Organisation, the
total crack width due to combined global and local effects will be determined in accordance with 5.8.8.2.
August 2015 A/25

(2) For prestressed concrete elements, coexistent stresses, acting in the direction of prestress, may be added
algebraically in checking the stress limitations.
(b) Ultimate Limit State: The resistance of the section to the combination of local and global effects must
be checked using the assumptions given in 5.3.2.1 or 6.3.3.1 as appropriate allowing for any axial force.
However, in the case of a deck slab, the resistance to combined global and local effects is deemed to be
satisfactory if the axial force from the global effects is checked separately from the resistance to local
moments.
5. ASSESSMENT: REINFORCED CONCRETE
5.1 General
5.1.1 Introduction. This clause gives methods of assessment which will in general ensure that, for reinforced
concrete structures, the requirements set out in 4.1 are met.
5.1.2 Limit state assessment of reinforced concrete. Clause 5 follows the limit state philosophy set out in
3.1B to 3.6B.
5.1.3 Loads. In clause 5 the assessment load effects (see 2.1) for the ultimate and serviceability limit states are
referred to as ‘ultimate loads’ and ‘service loads’ respectively. The values of the loads to be used in assessment are
derived from 4.2. When analysing sections, the terms ‘strength’, ‘resistance’ and ‘capacity’ are used to describe the
assessment resistance of the section (see also BD 21, DMRB 3.4.3).
5.1.4.1 Definition of strengths. Throughout clause 5 the symbol fcu represents either the characteristic
or the worst credible cube strength of concrete, and the symbol fy represents either the characteristic or the worst
credible reinforcement strength.
5.1.4.2 Strength of concrete. Assessment may be based on either the specified characteristic cube strength,
or the worst credible cube strength assessed as the lower bound to the estimated in situ cube strength determined in
accordance with 2.4B to 2.11B. For structures designed to codes prior to the adoption of the term characteristic
strength, the concrete strength was specified in terms of the minimum 28 day works cube strength. For the purpose
of assessment, the characteristic strength of concrete may be taken as the minimum 28 day works cube strength.
5.1.4.3 Strength of reinforcement. Assessment must be based on either the specified characteristic yield or
proof stress, or the worst credible yield or proof stress assessed from tests on reinforcement samples extracted
from the structure. For structures designed to codes prior to the adoption of the term characteristic strength, the
reinforcement strength was specified in terms of the guaranteed yield strength. For the purpose of assessment, the
characteristic strength of reinforcement may be taken as the guaranteed yield strength.
5.2 Structures and structural frames
5.2.1 Analysis of structures. Structures must be analysed in accordance with the requirements of 4.4.
5.2.2 Redistribution of moments. Redistribution of moments obtained by rigorous elastic analysis under the
ultimate limit state may be carried out provided all of the following conditions are met:
(a) Checks are made to ensure that adequate rotation capacity exists at sections where moments are reduced,
making reference to appropriate test data. In the absence of a special investigation, the plastic rotation
capacity may be taken as the lesser of:
A/26 August 2015

are met:
(a)
VolumeChecks are 4made to ensure that adequate rotation capacity exists at sections where
3 Section Appendix A
Part 14moments
BD 44/15are reduced, making reference to appropriate test data. In the absenceAmendments
of a special to BS 5400-4
investigation, the plastic rotation capacity may be taken as the lesser of:
1) 0.008 + 0.035 (0.5 - d / d )

1) 0.008 + 0.035 (0.5 - dcc / dee )
or
or
0.6
2)
2) but not
but not less thanless
0 than 0
d dc
where
where
dc is the calculated depth of concrete in compression at the ultimate limit state;
dc isdthe
e is the effective
calculated depthdepth for a solid
of concrete in slab or rectangular
compression beam,
at the otherwise
ultimate limitthe overall depth of the
state;
de compression flange;
is the effective depth for a solid slab or rectangular beam, otherwise the overall depth
is the diameterflange;
off the compression of the smallest tensile reinforcing bar;
d is the effective depth to tension reinforcement.
is the diameter of the smallest tensile reinforcing bar;
(b) Proper account is taken of changes in transverse moments and transverse shears consequent on
redistribution of longitudinal moments.
(b) Proper account is taken of changes in transverse moments and transverse shears
(c) consequent onreactions
Shears and redistribution
used inofassessment
longitudinal
aremoments.
taken as those calculated either prior to, or after
redistribution, whichever are the greater.
(c) Shears and reactions used in assessment are taken as those calculated either prior to, or
after redistribution,
As an alternative whichever
to the approach in theare the greater.
previous paragraph, a linear elastic analysis with limited moment
redistribution under the ultimate limit states may be carried out, without explicit checks done on the rotation
As an alternative
capacity, to thewith
in accordance approach
5.5 of in
BSthe
ENprevious paragraph,
1992-2 and a linear elastic
the accompanying 5.5 ofanalysis with limited
BS EN 1992-1-1, provided the
conditions
moment and limitations
redistribution contained
under thereinlimit
the ultimate are met.
states may be carried out, without explicit checks
Criterion (d) of BS 5400-4 has been omitted. The BS 5400-4 criterion (d) limited moment redistribution to
members up to 1.2m deep, whereas the available test data (11) on rotation capacity only cover
Chapter/Page members up to about
Mmmm/yyyy
0.8m deep. In view of the fact that BS 5400-4 limits moment redistribution to members of a certain depth whilst
permitting plastic methods to be applied to members of any depth, and given that criterion (a) requires either a
special investigation or the adoption of conservative formulae, 1) and 2), for rotation capacity, it is not considered
necessary by the Overseeing Organisation to include also a specific limitation on depth.
In BS EN 1992-2 and BS EN 1992-1-1 a clear distinction is made between the conditions and limitations for
performing a linear analysis with limited moment redistribution and plastic analysis. Provided the requirements
in 5.5 of BS EN 1992-2 and 5.5 of BS EN 1992-1-1 are met, ultimate limit state analysis with limited moment
redistribution may be performed without explicitly checking the rotation capacity. Further restrictions on ductility
and rotation capacity are generally necessary when a plastic analysis is performed.
5.3 Beams
5.3.1 General
5.3.1.1 Effective span. The effective span of a simply-supported member must be taken as the smaller of:
(a) the distance between the centres of bearings or other supports;
(b) the clear distance between supports plus the effective depth;
August 2015 A/27

(c) for members resting directly on masonry, concrete or brick, the distance between the centroids of the
bearing pressure diagrams. In this case, the bearing pressure diagrams must be determined by assuming
that the reaction is distributed linearly from a maximum at the front edge of the support to zero at the
back of the bearing area. The length of the bearing area must not be taken as greater than the depth of the
beam where the support is of soft brick, or one-quarter of the depth of the beam where the support is of
hard material such as granite or concrete.
The effective span of a member framing into supporting members must be taken as the distance between the shear
centres of the supporting members.
The effective span of a continuous member must be taken as the distance between centres of supports except where,
in the case of beams on wide columns, the effect of column width is included in the analysis.
The effective length of a cantilever must be taken as its length from the face of the support plus half its effective
depth except where it is an extension of a continuous beam when the length to the centre of the support must be
used.
5.3.1.2 Effective width of flanged beams. In analysing structures, the full width of flanges may be taken as
effective.
In analysing sections at the serviceability limit state, and in the absence of any more accurate determination, the
effective flange width must be taken as the width of the web plus one-tenth of the distance between the points of
zero moment (or the actual width of the outstand if this is less) on each side of the web. For a continuous beam the
points of zero moment may be taken to be at a distance of 0.15 times the effective span from the support.
In analysing sections at the ultimate limit state the full width of the flanges may be taken as effective.
5.3.1.3 Slenderness limits for beams. A simply-supported or continuous beam is considered to have adequate
lateral stability when the clear distance between lateral restraints does not exceed 300 bc²/d, where d is the effective
depth to tension reinforcement and bc is the breadth of the compression face of the beam midway between
restraints.
A cantilever with lateral restraint provided only at the support is considered to have adequate lateral stability when
the clear distance from the end of the cantilever to the face of the support does not exceed 150 bc²/d.
Beams outside these limits, require additional analysis and calculation to demonstrate their stability.
5.3.1.3A Slenderness limits for beams
BS 5400-4 gives two limits: one a function of bc, and the other a function of bc2/d. According to reference (12), the
first limit is not a major parameter, and the second limit is conservative. The assessment limits on bc2/d are obtained
by dividing the value in reference (12) by a partial safety factor of 1.5.
5.3.2 Resistance moment of beams
5.3.2.1 Analysis of sections. When analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate moment of resistance, the
following assumptions must be made:
(a) The strain distribution in the concrete in compression and the strains in the reinforcement, whether in
tension or compression, are derived from the assumption that plane sections remain plane.
A/28 August 2015

Appendix
TheA
Appendix A Volume 33curve
Volume Section 444
(b)
Appendix Volume 3 Section
Astresses in the concrete in compression are either derived from the stress-strain in Figure
Section 1
Amendments
Amendments to
to BS
BS 5400-4 Part 14 BD 44/XX
with the
Amendments BS 5400-4
to appropriate Part
5400-4 value of γmc given in 4.3.3.3 or, in the case of rectangular 14
14 BD
Partsections 44/XX
BDand
44/XXin flanged,
ribbed and voided sections where the neutral axis lies within the flange, the compressive stress may be
taken as equal to 0.6 fcu/γmc over the whole compression zone. In both cases the strain at the outermost
(d)
(d) The
(d) The
The stresses
stresses in
stresses in the
the reinforcement
the
infibre reinforcement
reinforcement are
areasderived
are 0.0035.from
derived
derived from 4.3.2.2.
from 4.3.2.2. The
4.3.2.2. The values
The values of
values of ��ms
of are
are given
given in
in
compression at failure is taken ms are given in
ms
4.3.3.3.
4.3.3.3.
4.3.3.3.
(c) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
In
In the
In the analysis
the analysis of
analysis of aaa cross-section
of cross-section of
cross-section of aaa beam
of beam that
beam that has
that has to
has to resist
to resist aaa small
resist small axial
small axial thrust,
axial thrust, the
thrust, the effect
the effect of
effect of the
of the
the
ultimate
(d)
ultimate axial
The force
stresses
axial force may
in
maythebe ignored
reinforcement
be ignored if
if it
it does
are
does not exceed
derived
not from
exceed 0.1 f
4.3.2.2.
0.1 fcu times
The
times the
values
the
ultimate axial force may be ignored if it does not exceed 0.1 fcu times the cross-sectional
cu cross-sectional
of γms are given
cross-sectional area.
in
area.
area.4.3.3.3.
In5.3.2.1A
5.3.2.1A Analysis
Analysis of of sections
the analysis
5.3.2.1A of a cross-section
Analysis of sections of a beam that has to resist a small axial thrust, the effect of the ultimate axial
sections
force
The may
The be ignored
concrete
concrete stressifstrain
stress it doescurve
strain not exceed
curve in 0.1 f1
in Figure
Figure timesthe
1cu and
and thethefailure
cross-sectional
failure strain ofarea.
strain of 0.0035
0.0035 are
are appropriate
appropriate to to
The concrete stress strain curve in Figure 1 and the failure strain of 0.0035 are appropriate to
unbound
unbound concrete.
concrete.
unboundAnalysis
concrete. Higher
Higher failure
Higher failure stresses
failure stresses and
stresses and strains
and strains are
strains are achieved
are achieved when
achieved when the
when the concrete
the concrete is
concrete is
is
5.3.2.1A
laterally of
restrained sections
by helical binding or, to a lesser extent, by conventional links. If the
laterally
laterally restrained
restrained byby helical
helical binding
binding or, or, to
to aa lesser
lesser extent,
extent, byby conventional
conventional links.
links. If
If the
the
ultimate
ultimate
ultimate strength
strength
strength of
of aaa member
of member
member is
is governed
is governed
governed by
by failure
by failure
failure of
of the
of theofconcrete
the concrete
concrete compression
compression
compression zone
zone
zone and
and if
and if
ifconcrete.
The
the concrete
member stress strain
marginally curve
fails in
anFigure 1
assessment and the failure
using the strain
unbound 0.0035 are appropriate
stress-strain curve, to
it unbound
would be
the
the member
member marginally
marginally fails
fails an
an assessment
assessment using
using the
the unbound
unbound stress-strain
stress-strain curve,
curve, it
it would
would
Higher failure stresses and strains are achieved when the concrete is laterally restrained by helical binding or, to be
be
advisable to
to allow for
for thethe enhancing effects of
of links or
or helical binding. Appropriate guidance
a advisable
advisable to
lesser extent, allow
allow for the
by conventional enhancing
enhancing
links.(13) effects
effects
If the ultimate
(14)
of links
links or
strength helical
helical binding.
binding.
of a member Appropriate
Appropriate
is governed guidance
guidance
by failure of the concrete
can
can
can be
be
be obtained
obtained
obtained from
from
from references
references
references
(13)
(13) and
and
and
(14)
(14) .
.
.
compression zone and if the member marginally fails an assessment using the unbound stress-strain curve, it would
be advisable to allow for the enhancing effects of links or helical binding. Appropriate guidance can be obtained
The
The BS
BS 5400-4
BS 5400-4
Thereferences
from 5400-4 (13)requirement
requirement
requirement
and (14). to
to check
to check the
check the steel
the steel strain
steel strain and
strain and the
and the provision
the provision of
provision of an
of an alternative
an alternative
alternative
method
method of
method of analysis
of analysis are
analysis are not
are not relevant
not relevant to
relevant to assessment.
to assessment. However,
assessment. However, it
However, it should
it should be
should be remembered
be remembered that
remembered that if
that if
if
the
The
the section
theBS
section
5400-4
section is
is over-reinforced
over-reinforced
is requirement it
it
to check
over-reinforced could
it could fail
fail
the steel
could in
in a brittle
in aa brittle
failstrain mode
and themode
brittle with
with
provision
mode withoflittle
little warning.
warning.
an alternative
little warning. method of analysis are not
relevant to assessment. However, it should be remembered that if the section is over-reinforced it could fail in a
5.3.2.2
brittle
5.3.2.2
5.3.2.2mode with Design
Design
Design charts.
charts. “Not
little warning.
charts. “Not applicable
“Not applicable to
applicable to assessment”
to assessment”
assessment”
5.3.2.2
5.3.2.3 Design charts.
5.3.2.3 “Not applicable
Assessment formulae. toProvided
assessment”
5.3.2.3 Assessment
Assessment formulae. Provided
formulae. Provided that
that the
that the amount
the amount of
amount of redistribution
of redistribution of
redistribution of the
of the elastic
the elastic
elastic
ultimate
ultimate moments
moments has
ultimateAssessment has been
been less
moments has less than
than 10%,
10%, the
the formulae
formulae below
been lessProvided
than 10%, below may
may be
the be used
used to
formulae to calculate
calculate the
the
5.3.2.3
ultimate moment of formulae.
resistance of aaa solid that
slabthe
oramount ofbelow
rectangular
may be used
redistribution
beam, or of thetoelastic
ofa flanged calculate
ultimate
beam,
the moments has
ribbed
ultimate
ultimate moment
moment of
of resistance
resistance of
of solid
solid slab
slab or
or rectangular
rectangular beam,
beam, or
or of
of aa flanged
flanged beam,
beam, ribbed
ribbedof a solid slab
been
slab less
or than 10%,
voided slab the
whenformulae
the belowaxis
neutral mayliesbe used
withinto calculate
the flange the
andultimate
the moment
flange is inofcompression.
resistance
slab or voided slab when the neutral axis lies within the flange and the flange is in compression.
orslab
For
or voided
rectangular
flanged
slab or
beam,
beams
when
of a the
where the
neutral
flanged beam,
flange
axisribbed
is in
lies within
tension orthe
slabthe flange
voided
formulae
and
slab the the
when
below
flange
may
is inaxis
neutral
be used
compression.
lies within the flange
without
For
For flanged
flanged beams
beams where
where the
the flange
flange is
is in
in tension
tension the
the formulae
formulae below
below may
may be
be used
used without
without
and the flange
limitation on is in compression. For flanged beams where the flange is in tension the formulae below may be used
limitation
limitation
without on the
on the
theon
limitation
neutral
neutral
neutral axis
axis depth.
axis
the neutral depth.
depth.
axis depth.
For
For sections
For sections
sections without
without
without
For sections
compression
compression
compression
without compression
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement
the
the
thethe ultimate
ultimate
ultimate
ultimate moment
moment of resistance may be taken as the lesser of the values obtained from Equations 111 and 2.
of resistance may be taken as the lesser of the values obtained from Equations 1 and 2. Equations 3 2.
moment
moment of
of resistance
resistance may
may be
be taken
taken as
as the
the lesser
lesser of
of the
the values
values obtained
obtained from
from Equations
Equations and
and 2.
and 4 may
Equations
Equations 3
3 and
and 4
4 may
may be
be used
used for
for sections
sections with
with compression
compression reinforcement.
reinforcement. A
A rectangular
rectangular stress
stress
beEquations 3 and 4 with
used for sections maycompression
be used for sections with compression
reinforcement. A rectangularreinforcement.
stress block of A rectangular
maximum depth stress
0.5d and a
block
block of
block
uniform of
of maximum
maximum
maximum stress
compression depth
depth
depth of0.5d
0.6fand
0.5d
0.5d and
and/γ aaa uniform
uniform
uniform
has been compression
compression
compression
assumed. stress
stress
stress of
of
of 0.6f
0.6f
0.6f cu
cu /�
/�
/� mc
mc has
has
has been
been
been assumed.
assumed.
assumed.
cu mc cu mc
M =
= ((( ff yy /// ms )) A
Ass zz Equation 1
M
M uuu = y ms ms ) As z Equation Equation
Equation
1 11
22
M
M =
=
= ((( 000...225
225 fff cu
225 /// mc )bd
)bd
)bd 2
Equation Equation
Equation
2
Equation 222
M uuu cu
cu mc
mc
M
M =
= ((( 000...666 fff cu // mc )bx(d
)bx(d -- 00..55 x) + ff sA'
x) + (d -- dd ))
A' s (d Equation Equation
Equation
3 333
M uuu = cu / mc
cu mc )bx(d - 0.5 x) + f ss A' ss (d - d ) Equation
((( fff yy /// ms )) A

Ass =
= ((( 000...666 fff cu // mc )bx + ff s A
)bx + A'' s Equation Equation
4
Equation 444
ms ) As = cu / mc
mc )bx + f ss A' ss
y ms cu Equation
where
where
where
where
Mu is the ultimate resistance moment;
AMM
Ms u
uu is
is the
is
is the areaultimate
the
the ultimate
ultimate
of tensionresistance
resistance
resistance moment;
moment;
moment;
reinforcement;
A
A'A s
As ss is
is
is the the
is the
the area
areaarea
area of
of tension
of tension reinforcement;
tension reinforcement;
of compression reinforcement;
reinforcement;
b A’
A’
A’sss is
is the
is
is the the area
width
the of of
area
area thecompression
of
of compression
compression reinforcement;
reinforcement;
section in compression, at the level of the neutral axis;
reinforcement;
bbb is
is the
is the width
the width of
width of the
of the section
the section in
section in compression,
in compression, at
compression, at the
at the level
the level of
level of the
of the neutral
the neutral axis;
neutral axis;
axis;
ddd is
is the
the effective
effective depth
depth to
to the
the tension
tension reinforcement;
reinforcement;
is the effective depth to the tension reinforcement;
d'
d'
August
d' is
is the
is
2015the depth
the depth to
depth to the
to the compression
the compression reinforcement;
compression reinforcement;
reinforcement; A/29
fffyy is
is the characteristic, or worst credible strength,
is the
the characteristic,
characteristic, or
or worst
worst credible
credible strength, of
strength, of the
of the reinforcement;
the reinforcement;
reinforcement;
y
Appendix Ato BS 5400-4
Amendments Volume 3 Section 4 BD 44/15
Part 14
Amendments to BS 5400-4 Part 14 BD 44/XX
d f’ is the effective
is equal to fdepth
/(�msto+the tension reinforcement;
fy/2000);
s
d' f’s is the is equal
depth to fyy/(�compression
to the ms + fy/2000);
reinforcement;
x is the neutral axis depth;
fy x is is
the the neutral
characteristic,axisor depth;
worst credible strength, of the reinforcement;
zf’s is equal to farm;
the lever y/(�ms + fy/2000);
f’zs is equal is thetoneutral
lever arm;
fy/(γms + fy/2000);
fx is the
x fcu
is the
neutral axis
axis depth;
characteristic, or worst credible strength, of the concrete;
depth; or worst credible strength, of the concrete;
cu
z , �ms is is the characteristic,
z ��mc arethe
thelever arm;partial safety factors given in 4.3.3.3.
material
mc , �is
msthe lever
arethe arm;
thecharacteristic,
material partial safety credible
factors given in 4.3.3.3.
fcu is or worst strength,
fcu is the characteristic, or worst credible strength, of the concrete;
of the concrete;
γmc�mcγ, �lever
The areare
ms the the
arm, material
material partial
z, in Equation
partial 1safety
may
safety factors
be
factors givengiven
calculated in 4.3.3.3.
from
in 4.3.3.3. the equation:
The, mslever arm, z, in Equation 1 may be calculated from the equation:
Thelever
The leverarm,
arm,
z, z,
in in Equation
Equation 1 may
yy / be
0.84(1fmay be calculated
)calculated fromfrom the equation:
the equation:
ms Ass
z = [1 - 0.84( f y / ms ) As ]d
ms
Equation 5
z = [1 - ( f / )bd ]d Equation 5
0.84( cuf/ /mc
( f cu )bd
ms
mc ) As
cu y mc
z = [1 - ]d Equation 5Equation 5
( f / )bd
The value z should not be taken as greater than 0.95d.
cu mc
The value z should not be taken as greater than 0.95d.
The
Thevalue
Whenvaluez should notnot
z should
using Equationsbe 3
taken
be 4asfor
taken
and greater thanthan
as sections
greater 0.95d.
with0.95d.
compression reinforcement the neutral axis
When
When using
using Equations
Equations 33 and
and 44 for
for sections
sections with
with compression
compression reinforcement
reinforcement the
the neutral
neutral axis
axis
depth x must first be calculated from Equation 4.
depth
When xusing
Whenusing must first be 3calculated
Equations
Equations from Equation
and 4 for sections
3 and 4 for with4.compression
with compression
sections reinforcement the neutral axis depth x must first be
reinforcement the neutral axis
calculated from Equation 4.
depth
If d' < x0.429x
must first
thenbethecalculated from Equation
ultimate resistance moment4. must be determined from Equation 3.
If d' < 0.429x then the ultimate resistance moment must be determined from Equation 3.
If d' < 0.429x then the ultimate resistance moment must be determined from Equation 3.
< 0.429x then either
If d' > the ultimate resistance moment
the compression steel must must be determined
be ignored and thefrom Equation
section treated3.as singly
If d' > 0.429x then either the compression steel must be ignored and the section treated as singly
Ifreinforced
d' > 0.429xor
reinforced
the either
orthen
the
ultimate
ultimatethe resistance
compression
resistance
determined
steel mustusing
determined
5.3.2.1.
be ignored
using and the section treated as singly reinforced or the
5.3.2.1.
If d' > 0.429x
ultimate resistancethen either the
determined compression
using 5.3.2.1. steel must be ignored and the section treated as singly
reinforced
For flangedorbeams,
the ultimate
whereresistance
the flangedetermined using 5.3.2.1.
is in compression, but where the neutral axis extends below
For flanged beams, where the flange is in compression, but where the neutral axis extends below
theflanged
For bottombeams,
of the where
flange,thetheflange
ultimate
is inresistance
compression, moment may the
but where be taken
neutralasaxis
theextends
lesser ofbelow
the values
the bottom of the
the
For
flange,
bottom
flanged
the
ofbeams,
ultimate
the resistance
flange,
where the ultimate
the flange
moment may
resistance
is inbe taken
moment
compression,
as the
may
but bethe
where
lesser of
taken
the as the
neutral
values
lesser
axis
given by
of the values
extends below
Equations 6 and 7, where
given by Equations 6 and 7, where hf is the thickness of the flange:
given
hfthe by
bottom
is the Equations 6
of theofflange,
thickness and 7, where h f is the thickness of the flange:
the ultimate resistance moment may be taken as the lesser of the values
the flange:
given by Equations 6 and 7, where hfhisff the thickness of the flange:
M u = ( f / ms )) Ass (d (d h f ) Equation 6Equation 6
M uu = ( f yyy / ms ms As 2 ) Equation 6
h2f
M u = ( f y / ms ) As (d ) Equation 6
2 h ff
M = (0.6 f cu / mc )
mc bh ff
(d h f ) Equation 7Equation 7
M uu = (0.6 f cu cu / mc ) bh f (d 2 ) Equation 7
u
h2f
M u = (0.6 f cu / mc ) bh f (d ) Equation 7
5.3.2.3A
5.3.2.3AAssessment formulaeformulae
Assessment 2
5.3.2.3A Assessment formulae
BS 5400-4 has a limitation on the compressive stress in steel which it inherited from CP110. This
BSBS 5400-4 has aAssessment
limitation on the compressive stress in steel which it inherited from CP110.hasThis
has5400-4
5.3.2.3A has
not been a limitation
justified by on the
tests compressive
formulae
and was abandoned stress ininsteel which
BS 8110-1 itand
inherited from
does not CP110.
appear in This
BS EN not been
has not
justified been
by testsjustified
hasand by tests
was abandoned and
on the inwas abandoned
BS 8110-1 and in BS
does 8110-1
not appear and does not appear in BS EN
BS 5400-4
1992-1-1. a limitation
Therefore, the restriction compressive
on stress
steel compression in steel been in
has which itBS EN 1992-1-1.
inherited
removed. Therefore,
from CP110. Thisthe
1992-1-1.
restriction onTherefore,
steel the
compressionrestriction
has on
been steel
removed. compression has been
has not been justified by tests and was abandoned in BS 8110-1 and does not appear in BS EN removed.
1992-1-1.
5.3.3 Therefore,
Shear the restriction
resistance of beams on steel compression has been removed.
5.3.3
5.3.3 Shear resistance
Shear resistanceofofbeams
beams
5.3.3 Shear
5.3.3.1
5.3.3.1 resistance
ShearThe of beams
stress. The shear stress, v, at any cross-section must befrom:
calculated from:
5.3.3.1 Shear stress. shear
Shear stress. stress,
The v, at
shear any cross-section
stress, must be calculated
v, at any cross-section must be calculated from:
5.3.3.1 Shear
V stress. The shear stress, v, at any cross-section must be calculated from:
vv = V Equation 8Equation 8
= b ww dd Equation 8
bVw
v = Equation 8
where
where bw d
where
V is the shear force due to ultimate loads;
V is the
V where is the shear
shear forceforce due
due to to ultimate
ultimate loads;loads;
bw is the breadth of the section which, for a flanged beam, must be taken as the rib width;
bVw is the
bw is the breadth
breadth
shearof the ofsection
force the
duesection
towhich, which, for a flanged
for a flanged
ultimate loads; beam,
beam, must bemust
takenbe
as taken
the ribas the rib width;
width;
d
d d is the
is the effective depth to tension reinforcement.
bw is the effective
effective depthdepth to
to tensiontension reinforcement.
reinforcement.
is the breadth of the section which, for a flanged beam, must be taken as the rib width;
A/30 August 2015
Except
Except when
when
Except thethe section
section is is assessed
assessed in in accordance
accordance with
with 5.3.3.5,
5.3.3.5, thethe shear
shear stress,
stress, v, v, must
must notnot
Except when
exceed:
exceed: when the
the section
section is
is assessed
assessed in
in accordance
accordance with
with 5.3.3.5,
5.3.3.5, the
the shear
shear stress,
stress, v,
v, must
must not
not
exceed:
Appendix
exceed: A Volume 3 Section 4
Volume 3 Section
Amendments to BS4 5400-4 Part 14 BD 44/XXAppendix A
0
Part 14 0BD
.36. 36
( 0(.
44/15
0.36 (0.7 0
7 .7
f cuff cu
/ 250 ) f))cuff cu/ // mc mc
// 250
250 Amendments to BS 5400-4
0.36 (0.7 fcucu / 250) fcucu / mc
mc
Except
(where
(where �mc�when
�mcis is the
the
thethe section
partial
partial is assessed
safety
safety factor
factor infor
for accordance
concrete
concrete given with
given in5.3.3.5,
in 4.3.3.3)
4.3.3.3) the shear stress,
whatever
whatever shear
shear v, must not
reinforcement
reinforcement
(where
(where
exceed: �mc is is the partial
partial safety
safety factor
factor for
for concrete
concrete given
given in
in 4.3.3.3)
4.3.3.3) whatever
whatever shear
shear reinforcement
reinforcement
isExcept
is when
provided.
provided.
is
mc the section is assessed in accordance with 5.3.3.5, the shear stress, v, must not exceed:
is provided.
provided.
In In
In
some some 0situations
.36 (0.7where
situations where 250 ) f cu / axial
f cu /significant
significant axial
mc compressive
compressive forces
forces exist,
exist, theythey may may enhance
enhance shear
shear
In some
some situations
situations where
where significant
significant axial
axialfor compressive
compressive forces
forces exist,
exist, they
they may
may enhance
enhance shear
shear
capacity
capacity
capacity (resistance).
(resistance).
(resistance). This This
This may may
may be be
be allowed
allowed
allowed for
forin in
in assessment
assessment
assessment e.g.e.g.
e.g.by by
by using
using
using the the
the corresponding
corresponding
corresponding
capacity
(where
(where γ
requirement
requirement (resistance).
is
�mc for
mc the
is for
the
for partial This
safety
partial safety
columns
columns in
inin may
factor befor allowed
concrete for
givenin assessment
in 4.3.3.3)
factor for concrete given in 4.3.3.3) whatever shear reinforcement
5.5.6.
5.5.6. e.g.
whatever by using
shear the corresponding
reinforcement is provided.
requirement
requirement columns 5.5.6.
is provided. for columns in 5.5.6.
In some situations where significant axial compressive forces exist, they may enhance shear capacity (resistance).
In
InThis
In aaamay
haunched
a haunched
haunched
be allowed beam,
beam,
beam, the the
forthe in component
component
component
assessment of
ofe.g.
of the
thethe by flange
flange
usingforces
flange forces
forces
the perpendicular
perpendicular
perpendicular
corresponding tototo the
thethe
requirement longitudinal
longitudinal
longitudinal
for columns in 5.5.6.
In
In haunched
some axis
centroidal
centroidal situations
axis beam,
ofofof the
thethe beamthe
where
beam component
significant
calculated
calculated of
from the
axial
from flange
ancompressive
an elastic
elastic forces perpendicular
section
section forces exist,
analysis
analysis to
under
under the
theythe maylongitudinal
the enhance
relevant
relevant shear
load
load
centroidal
centroidal axis
axis of the beam
beam calculated
calculated from
from an
an elastic
elastic section
section analysis
analysis under
under the
the relevant
relevant load
load
casecapacity
case
a may
Incase may
haunched (resistance).
be subtracted
be subtracted This may
algebraically
thealgebraically be allowed
offromfrom the
thethe for in
applied
applied assessment
shear shear force.e.g. by using the corresponding
force. to the longitudinal centroidal axis of the
case may
may be
requirement be beam,
subtracted
subtracted
for columns
component
algebraically
algebraically
in 5.5.6.
the
from
from flange the forces
applied
applied perpendicular
shear
shear force.
force.
beam calculated from an elastic section analysis under the relevant load case may be subtracted algebraically from
5.3.3.1A
5.3.3.1A
the applied shear
5.3.3.1A ShearShear
force.
Shear stress
stress
stress
The 5.3.3.1A
In
The a haunched
upper
upper limit
limit toShear
beam,
to
shear the
shear stress
component
stress
stress inin in
BSBSBS of5400-4
5400-4 the flange
5400-4 is
is is forces
known
known totoperpendicular
tobebebe conservative
conservative to theand longitudinal
and the
thethe increased
increased
The
The upper
upper limit
limit to
to shear
shear stress
stress in BS 5400-4
(5) (5) is known
known to be conservative
conservative and
and the increased
increased
centroidal
limit
limit
5.3.3.1A
limit here
here
here axis
is
is is
Shear based
based of
stress
based the
onon on beam
plasticity calculated
plasticity
plasticity theory theory
theory from ,
,(5)which
(5)
, an
which
which elastic
is is is
thethesection
the basisbasis
basis analysis
of
ofof the
thethe under
varying
varying
varying the
angle relevant
angle
angle truss
truss
truss load
limit
case
approach
approach here
mayofbe is
of based
BSsubtracted
BS EN EN on plasticity
algebraically
1992-1-1
1992-1-1 given
given theory
asfrom
asanan an , which
the
alternative
alternative is
appliedmethod the shearbasis
method of
force. the
given
given varying
ininin 5.3.3.5.
5.3.3.5. angle truss
However,
However, the
thethe
approach
approach of
of BS
BS EN
EN 1992-1-1
1992-1-1 given
given as
as an alternative
alternative method
method given
given in 5.3.3.5.
5.3.3.5. However,
However,
The
maximum upper
maximum
maximum
limit
shear
shear
shear
to shear
limit
limit
limit
stress
ofof 0
in
0..36
of0.36 36 BS
(0((.700..5400-4
7
7 f cuff cu
/ 250is
/ 250
/
known
250 to be conservative
) f))cuff cu/ // mc mcis is
is more
more
more
and
conservative
conservative
conservative
the increased
than
than
than that limit
that
that in the is based
inin here
onmaximum
plasticity theory
5.3.3.1A shearShear limit
(5), which of 0is
stress .36the(0basis.7 of fcucuthe/ 250 varying / mc
) fcucu angle is more
mc truss conservative
approach of BS EN than that ingiven as an
1992-1-1
5.3.3.5,
5.3.3.5,
5.3.3.5, so so
so sections
sections
sections which
which
which do do
donotnot
not satisfy
satisfy
satisfy this this
this maximum
maximum
maximum to to 5.3.3.1
5.3.3.1
to 5.3.3.1 may may
may still
still
stillhavehave
have adequate
adequate
adequate
alternative
5.3.3.5, method given in 5.3.3.5. However, the ismaximum shear limit of 0.36still(0.7 fcu adequate
– the 250) fcu / γmc is more
/ increased
The
strength
strength
strength
conservative toso
upper to sections
limit
5.3.3.5
5.3.3.5
to 5.3.3.5
than
to
that
which
if shear
if
they
ifin
they
they havedo sufficient
stress
have
have
5.3.3.5,
not
so
in satisfy
BS
sufficient
sufficient
sections
5400-4 this
transverse
(5)
maximum
transverse
transverse
which do
known and
not
and
and
totolongitudinal
be5.3.3.1
longitudinal
satisfy longitudinal
this
may
conservative
maximum
and
reinforcement. have
reinforcement.
reinforcement.
to 5.3.3.1 may still have adequate
strength
limit heretois5.3.3.5
based on if they have sufficient
plasticity theory ,transverse which is the andbasis longitudinal
of the varying reinforcement.
angle truss
strength
approach to 5.3.3.5
of BSinEN if they have
1992-1-1 sufficient
given transverse
as anforalternative and longitudinal
method reinforcement.
given ingenerally
5.3.3.5. However, the
The The
The sub-clauses
sub-clauses
sub-clauses in
BSBS
in BS 5400-4
5400-4
5400-4 are are
are written
written
written for
for prismatic
prismatic
prismatic beamsbeams
beams andand
and are
areare generally
generally conservative
conservative
conservative
for The
maximum
for sub-clauses
haunched
haunched shear ones.
ones. inThis
limit BS
This of 5400-4
0.36 (0are
sub-clause
sub-clause written
.7allows
allows for
f cu / advantage
250 )prismatic
f cu / tomcto
advantage bebeams
isbemore
taken
taken and are
conservative
of the generally
vertical than conservative
that in ofof
component
The
for sub-clauses
haunched in BS
ones. 5400-4
This are written
sub-clause for prismatic
allows advantage beams to and
be are of
taken the
generally
of thevertical
vertical component
conservative componentfor haunched
of
for
flange haunched
5.3.3.5,
flange so
forces
forces in ones.
sections
in these.
these. This
which
If If sub-clause
do
three
three notdimensional
dimensional allows
satisfy this advantage
maximum
finite
finite element
element to to be taken
5.3.3.1
models
models areof
may
are the
used used vertical
still
for have
forboxbox component
adequate
beams,
beams, the of
the
ones.
flange This sub-clause
forces in these.allows If advantage
three dimensionalto be taken of
finite the
elementvertical component
models are of
used flange
for forces
box in
beams, these.
the If three
web flange
strength
web forces
shears
shears tofromfrominthe
5.3.3.5 these.
theif theyIf three
computer
computer have dimensional
model sufficient
model will will finitehave
transverse
already
already element
have and
the the models
longitudinal
flange
flange are
forces
forces used for box beams, the
reinforcement.
subtracted.
subtracted.
dimensional
web shears finite
from element
the models
computer are
model used willfor box
already beams, have the theweb shears
flange from
forces the computer
subtracted. model will already
web shears from
have the flange forces subtracted.
the computer model will already have the flange forces subtracted.
The
5.3.3.2sub-clauses
5.3.3.2
5.3.3.2 Shear in BS
Shear
Shear 5400-4 are written for prismatic beams and are generally conservative
capacity
capacity
capacity
5.3.3.2
5.3.3.2
for haunched Shear
Shear ones.
capacity capacity
This sub-clause allows advantage to be taken of the vertical component of
flange
Sections
Sections
Sections forces
without inshear
without
without these.
shear
shear If three dimensional
reinforcement:
reinforcement:
reinforcement: In
InIn the
thethe finite
absence
absence
absenceelement
of
ofof
shear models
shear are used
reinforcement,
reinforcement,
shear reinforcement,thefor
the box beams,
ultimate
ultimate
the the
shear
shear
ultimate shear
Sections
Sections
web shears
resistance without
without
V from
VuVof of a shear
shearthe reinforcement:
reinforcement:
computer
section is In
model
given by: In
the the
will absence
absence of
already of
shear
have shear
the reinforcement,
reinforcement,
flange the
forces the ultimate
ultimate shear
subtracted. shear
resistance Vu of a
resistance u a section is given by:
resistance
resistance
section Vuu of
is given by:aa section
of section isis given
given by:
by:
5.3.3.2V uV u = == Shear
svs c vbccapacity
wbdw d
V uu = ss vvcc bbww dd
V
Sections
where
where thethewithout
depth
depth shear
factor
factor sisreinforcement:
is given
isssgiven
given by: In the absence of shear reinforcement, the ultimate shear
by:by:
where
where the
the depth
depth
where the V factor
factor
depth x is given
by:
resistance u of afactor
section s is given by:
s
500
500 500)0.25 d but
but not less than 0.7.
0.25
ssu = ( (((ds500
sV vc )b))00w..25
d
25 but
but
but
not
not
not
not
less
less
less
less
than
than
than
than
0.7.
0.7.
0.7.
0.7.
s
d in ind
TheThe ultimate
ultimate shear
shear stress
stress concrete
concrete c is:
vcvvis:
where the depth factor ins in
The
The
The ultimate
ultimate
ultimate shear
shear
shear stress
stress
stress in concrete
concrete
is given
concrete by: vcc is:
vc is: is:
0.24
0.24 24100 100 AsAA1ss/)311// 33 ( 1 /)311// 33 (but see 5.3.3.2A)
v cvv c == = 00.500 . (
24 ( 100
( 100 ) ( f f) (but
0.25 As ) 1 / 3 ( cuf cu ) 1 / 3 (but
seesee
(but 5.3.3.2A)
5.3.3.2A)
= (
vcs (mv mv b)wbbdww d but
c d ) not ( f cuculess
) than(butsee
see5.3.3.2A)
0.7. 5.3.3.2A)
mv
d
mv bw d
The ultimate shear stress in concrete vc is:
Ass should not be taken less than 0.15 or greater than 3.0, and the partial safety factor for
where
where
where
where
the
thethe
the
term
termterm
term ( 100
( 100AsA
( 100 ))) should
A)s shouldshould notnot bebe taken
taken less
less than
than 0.15
0.15 oror greater
greater than
than 3.0,
3.0, and
and thethe partial
partial
where the term ( 100 0.b24 bdww dd100 should not not be be taken
taken less
less than
than 0.15
0.15 or
or greater
greater than
than 3.0,
3.0, and
and the
the partial
partial
=
wb
b ( d As )1 / 3 ( )1 / 3 (but see 5.3.3.2A)
safety visc taken
factor forfor shear f
��mv is taken from cu Table 4A.
w
shear
safety γfactor
safety from
shear �Table is is 4A.
taken from Table 4A.
safety factor
factor for for shear
mv wdtaken
taken from from Table Table 4A.
mv mv
mvbis
mv
shear 4A.
The term As is the area of longitudinal tension reinforcement that continues at least a distance equal to the effective
A
depth, d, beyond the section
where the term ( 100 s being considered. At supports the area of longitudinal tension reinforcement that continues
) should not be taken less than 0.15 or greater than 3.0, and the partial
Mmmm/yyyy
up to the
Mmmm/yyyy
Mmmm/yyyysupport may bebused,
wd
appropriately Chapter/Page
reduced in accordance with 5.8.7 when thereChapter/Page
isChapter/Page
insufficient anchorage at
safety factor for shear �mv is taken from Table 4A.
August 2015 A/31

The term
equal to theAseffective
is the area of longitudinal
depth, d, beyond the tension reinforcement
section that continues
being considered. at least
At supports theaarea
distance
of
equal to the effective
The term As tension
longitudinal is the area depth, d, beyond
of longitudinal
reinforcement the section
thattension
continues being
reinforcement considered. At
that continues
up to the support supports the
at least
may be used, area of
a distance
appropriately
longitudinal
equal
reduced to in
the tension reinforcement
effective depth, d, beyond thatthe
continues
section up to the
being support
considered. may be used, the
Atatsupports appropriately
area both
ofVolume
Appendix
reduced A accordance
in accordance
with 5.8.7
with 5.8.7
when
when
there
there
is insufficient
is insufficient
anchorage
anchorage at
support.
support.
Where
Where both
top 3 Section 4
top
longitudinal
and bottom tension
reinforcement
Amendments to BS 5400-4 reinforcement
are that
provided, continues
the area up
of A to
s the
used support
must be may
that be used,
which is appropriately
in tension Part 14 BD 44/15
and bottom
reduced
under reinforcement
theinloading
accordance whichwith are provided,
5.8.7
produces when the force
there
the shear area As used
ofbeing
is insufficient must be that
anchorage
considered. at which
support.is Where
in tensionboth top
under the loading which produces the shear force being considered.
and bottom reinforcement are provided, the area of As used must be that which is in tension
under the
Sections
support. loading
with
Where shearwhich
both top andproduces
reinforcement: the shear
Shear
bottom reinforcement force being considered.
reinforcement
are provided, maythetake
areathe form
of A ofmust
vertical links,
Sectionslinks
with or shear reinforcement: Shearonly
reinforcement mayeffective
take theinforms used
of vertical
be that which is in tension
links,
inclined bent-up bars, and must
under the loading which produces the shear force being considered.be considered resisting shear if the
inclinedof
Sections
spacing links
with or
the shear
legsbent-up bars,
ofreinforcement:
links, anddirection
in the must
Shearonly ofbe
theconsidered
reinforcement
span and effective
mayat take thein
the right resisting
form
anglesof to shear
vertical
it, does ifnot
the
links,
spacing
inclinedthe
exceed
Sections of the
links
with legs of
or bent-up
effective
shear links,
depthbars,in
d and
reinforcement: the
and direction of the
if:mustreinforcement
Shear span
only be considered and
may take at the
effectiveright angles
the forminofresisting to it,
vertical sheardoes not
if the links or bent-
links, inclined
upexceed
spacing the
bars, and effective
of the
mustlegs only depth
ofbe links,d and
considered if:
in the direction
effective inof resisting
the spanshearand atif the
the right angles
spacing tolegs
of the it, does not in the direction
of links,
ofexceed
the spanthe effective
and at the depth
right d
anglesand toif:
it, does not exceed
Asv (sin cos ) ( f yv / ms ) 0.2bw s y and 30 o the effective depth od and if:
Asv (sin cos ) ( f yv / ms ) 0.2bw s y and 30

where Asv (sin cos ) ( f yv / ms ) 0.2bw s y and 30 o
A wheresv is the cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement at a particular cross-section;
where
Asv is the
the spacing
cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
swhere
v is of the shear reinforcement along theatmember;
a particular cross-section;
s�Avsv is the
is the spacing of the
cross-sectional
inclination shear
of thearea reinforcement
of shear
shear along
reinforcement
reinforcement the member;
ataxis
a particular cross-section;
A�sv is the is cross-sectional
the inclination area
of of
the shear
shear reinforcement
reinforcement atto
a the
to particular
the axis
ofcross-section;
of
the member;
the member;
sv fsfyv
v is the
is the spacing
spacing
is the
the
ofshear
of the the or
characteristic,
characteristic,
shear reinforcement
worst credible,
orreinforcement
worst along
credible,
along
strength
the
strength
thethe
of
member;
of the
member;
shear reinforcement but not greater
shear
α � yv is
than inclination
500 N/mm²; of the shear reinforcement to the axis
is the inclination of the shear reinforcement to the axis of the member; of thereinforcement
member; but not greater
�fyv than
is the500 N/mm²;
characteristic,
material partial orsafety
worst credible,
factor strength
for steel ofinthe4.3.3.3;
shear reinforcement but not greater
fyv ms is the characteristic, or worst credible, strength of given
the shear reinforcement but not greater than 500 N/mm²;
b � ms is the
than
is the material
500 N/mm²;
breath of partial
the safety factor
cross-section. for steel given in 4.3.3.3;
γms w is the material partial safety factor for steel given in 4.3.3.3;
b�wbms is the
is
w is the the breath
material
breath ofpartial
of the the cross-section.
safety factor for steel given in 4.3.3.3;
cross-section.
bw
Where is the breath
effective of the
vertical cross-section.
links are present, Vu must be taken as:
Where effective vertical links areare
Where effective vertical links present,
present, Vu must
V must
u
be taken
be taken as: as:
Where effective vertical links are present, Vu must d be taken as:
V u = s vc b w d + ( f yv / ms ) d Asv
V u = s vc b w d + ( f yv / ms ) sv Asv
sdv
V u = s vc b w d + ( f yv / ms ) Asv
where the parameters s , vc , bc and d are as defined sv above.
where
wherethethe
parameters xs ,vsc ,, vbcc ,and
parameters d aredasare
bc and defined above.above.
as defined
where
For
For the parameters
vertical
vertical linkstoto
links bebe s , vc , b
effective,
effective, c and
thethe d arecapacity
tensile
tensile ascapacity
defined above.
of
of the the longitudinal
longitudinal reinforcement
reinforcement at a A f /γ , must be
at a section,
For vertical
section, links to be effective,
Asfy/�ms, must be greater than:the tensile capacity of the longitudinal reinforcement at a s y ms
greater than:
section,
For Asfylinks
vertical /�ms, must
to be be greater the
effective, than: tensile capacity of the longitudinal reinforcement at a
section, A Msfy/�ms, must (V be s greater
vc b w d)than:
M + (V s vc b w d)
z + 2
M z (V s2vc b w d)
+
where
whereMMand zandV V areare thethe 2
co-existent
co-existent ultimate
ultimate bending moment
bending moment and shear forceforce
and shear at theatsection under under
the section consideration, z is
thewhere M and V are the co-existent ultimate bending moment and shear
consideration, z is the lever arm, which may be taken as 0.9d or calculated from Equation 5, not to be taken
lever arm, which may be taken as 0.9d or calculated from Equation 5, force
whichever at the
the section
greater under
(but
consideration,
aswhichever
greater
where Mthanand z are
is the
the0.95d),
Vgreater and
the lever
Asnotisarm,
co-existent
(but to which
the effectively
beultimate
taken may be takenthan
asanchored
bending
greater as 0.9d
longitudinal
moment or
andcalculated
0.95d), reinforcement
shear
and Asforce from
is the Equation
inthe
thesection 5,under
tensile
ateffectively zone, as defined
Appendix A isformula
the Volume 3 Section 4
whichever
inanchored
the formula
consideration,
Amendments
theforzgreater
to is
longitudinalBSthe
(but
calculating
lever not
c intothe
varm,
reinforcement
5400-4
beprevious
which taken may
in the astensile
greater
section.
be taken than
However,
zone,as as 0.95d),
0.9d or
defined and
within A
inan
calculated
the fromeffectively
sindividual sagging
Equation
Part
or hogging region,
BD5,44/XX
for14calculating
theanchored
vwhichever longitudinal
longitudinal the tension
c in the previous greater reinforcement
force
(but
section. must
not
However,tonot beintaken
be taken
withintheastensile
anas more
greater zone,
thanas
than
individual Mdefined orinhogging
max/z, and
0.95d),
sagging where AtheMformula
theis
s ismax
thefor
region, calculating
maximum
effectively
the ultimate moment
within that region.
vc in the previous section. However, Volume 3 Section 4
anchored
longitudinal longitudinal
tension reinforcement
force must not bewithin
intaken an
asindividual
the tensile
more thanassagging
zone, Mdefined orinhogging
max/z, where theM region,
formula
max is the
the
formaximum
calculating
longitudinal tension force must not be Part
taken14asBD more44/XXthan M /z, where M is the maximum
vc in the previous
ultimate moment within section.that However,
region. within an individual f yv sagging or hogging region, the
max max
Inclined
ultimatelinks
maximum or bent-up
stress inwithin
any bars
link must
or be assumed
bar to formas the tension members of one or more single
for systems of
longitudinal moment tension force that
must notmust
region.
lattice girders in which the concrete forms the compression
be takenbe taken
as more than
. Bent-up
Mmax/z,The
members.
bars
where mustMmax
maximum
beis checked
the maximum
stress in any link or bar must
ms
ultimate links
Inclined moment
f within that
or bent-up barsregion.
must be assumed to form the tension members of one or more
bar must be anchorage
Inclined
takensystems (see
aslinks
yv or 5.8.6.3)
bent-up
Bent-up andbars
bars bearing
must
must (see
be 5.8.6.8
assumed and
to form5.8.6.9).
the(see
tension members of one(see
or more
besingle as . of
Bent-up
latticebars
girdersmust inbebe
whichchecked
checked the forfor
anchorage
concrete forms the5.8.6.3) and bearing
compression members. 5.8.6.8
The and 5.8.6.9).
single systems of lattice girders in which the concrete forms
Inclined links or bent-up bars must be assumed to form the tension members of one or more
ms the compression members. The
The
aring (see 5.8.6.8 treatment
and 5.8.6.9). of shear reinforcement at an angle to the member axis (inclined links or bent
single systems of lattice girders in which the concrete forms the compression members. The
up bars) as members of a lattice is conservative when there
The treatment of shear reinforcement at an angle to the member axis (inclined links or bent up bars) is a long length of inclined linksas members of
cement ata or
an bent
angle
lattice isuptobars. In such
the member
conservative when situations,
axis
there is a the
(inclined ultimate
longlinks
lengthor ofshear
bent
inclinedresistance
links or indicated
bent up bars. in Figure
In such 5.1 may the ultimate
situations,
be
ce is conservativetaken
shear resistance as:
when indicated
there is ainlong Figurelength5.1 may be takenlinks
of inclined as:
Chapter/Page
ions, the ultimate shear resistance indicated in Figure 5.1 may Mmmm/yyyy
f yv d
Chapter/PageVu s vc bw d Asv (sin cos ) Mmmm/yyyy
ms s v
f yv d
(sin cos )
However, s v � > 45o, Vu must not be taken as greater than
mswhen
ust not beA/32 A1v ( f y ms )

taken as greater 2than August 2015
Vu s v c bw d
1 cot
yv
be taken as: Vu s vc bw d Asv (sin cos )
s
ms v
Volume 3 Section 4 f yv d Appendix A
V s vc b�w >
However,
Part 14 BDu 44/15when
d 45A o
,svV(sin cos ) as greater than
u must not be taken Amendments to BS 5400-4
ms s v
2 A1v ( f y ms )
However, Vu �>o45o, Vu must not betaken
when s v c bw d
as greater than
However, when α > 45 , V1u
must
cot not
be taken as greater than
2 A1v ( f y ms )
where s vc banchored
Vu Alv is the area of effectively wd longitudinal reinforcement in the tensile zone in
1 cot
excess of that required to resist that bending moment which is co-existent with the shear
force under consideration.
where
whereAlvAis the area of effectively anchored longitudinal reinforcement in the tensile zone in excess of that required
lv is the area of effectively anchored longitudinal reinforcement in the tensile zone in
toexcess
resist that bending
of that moment
required whichthat
to resist is co-existent with the which
bending moment shear force under consideration.
is co-existent with the shear
force under consideration.
Figure
Figure5.1
5.1 Inclined
Inclinedshear
shear reinforcement
reinforcement
Shear Shear
has to behasresisted
to be resisted by a combination
by a combination of links and of longitudinal
links and longitudinal
reinforcement. reinforcement.
Hence, part ofHence,
the longitudinal
tensionpart
reinforcement
of the longitudinal Figure
in a section
tension 5.1reinforcement
is used Inclined
to resist shearshear in reinforcement
andaissection
not available
is usedtotoresist theshear
resist co-existing
and is moment.
not If
under available
a specifiedto assessment loading there is sufficient longitudinal tension reinforcement
resist the co-existing moment. If under a specified assessment loading there is to resist the bending
Shearsufficient
moment has
but to belongitudinal
resisted
insufficient by atension
excess combination
reinforcement toofresist
reinforcement linksthe and
to longitudinal
co-existing
resist shearreinforcement.
the bending force, then the
moment Hence,
butsection is incapable of
insufficient
part of the longitudinal tension reinforcement in a section is used to resist shear
excess reinforcement to resist the co-existing shear force, then the section is incapable of loading
carrying the specified assessment loading. However, the section would be capable of and
resisting isa not
smaller
available
which wouldtoinduce
carrying resist athe co-existing
smaller
the specified bendingmoment.
assessment moment, Ifand,
loading. under
thus,a result
However, specified assessment
in asection
the greater excessloading
would thereofisresisting
of reinforcement
be capable to resist
the smaller
sufficient co-existing
longitudinal
a smaller loading shear force.
tension
which Hence the section
reinforcement
would induce should
to resist
a smaller be bending
the checked
bending under
moment
moment, progressively
and, but smaller
insufficient
thus, result in a assessment
loadings until the combined
excess reinforcement bending
to resist themoment
co-existingand co-existing
shear force, shear
then force
the can be resisted.
section is incapable of
carrying the specified assessment loading. However, the section would be capable of resisting
An alternative
a smaller methodwhich
loading for determining the shear
would induce capacity
a smaller based onmoment,
bending varying angle truss approach
and, thus, result in is
a given in 5.3.3.5.
Mmmm/yyyy
5.3.3.2A Shear capacity Chapter/Page
Assessment sub-clause 5.3.3.2 is a rearrangement of the BS 5400-4 design sub-clause. It covers sections both with
Mmmm/yyyy
and Chapter/Page
without shear reinforcement (either in the form of links or bent-up bars). All of the shear can be resisted by
bent-up bars, since it has been demonstrated (15) that such shear reinforcement is fully effective. However, since test
data are not available for α < 30o, no attempt has been made to allow for shear reinforcement bent at such angle.
The upper limit of 460 N/mm2 for the strength of shear reinforcement in BS 5400-4 is merely what was the
standard grade at the time of publication. 480 N/mm2 is the value which was found (16) should be imposed in order
to guarantee that the shear reinforcement would yield at collapse prior to crushing of the concrete. However, the
480 N/mm2 limit is the actual reinforcement strength, so increasing the upper limit of the unfactored strength to
500 N/mm2 is justified, as the actual value for use in assessment would always be reduced to values lower than
480 N/mm2 after the material partial safety factor for steel is applied.
August 2015 A/33

The constant 0.27 in the BS 5400-4 expression for vc has been reduced to 0.27 x 1.1/1.25 = 0.24, because the BS
5400-4 expression is actually the mean value divided by γm (17). However, γm should be applied to the characteristic
value, and the BS 5400-4 expression actually implies a γm value in the range 1.0 to 1.1 applied to the characteristic
shear strength. Hence, the correction detailed above has been carried out. However, where a substantial volume of
concrete would be involved in the shear failure, as in the case of slabs, the constant can be taken as 0.27 (see 5.4.4.1).
The BS 5400-4 requirement to over-design links to resist an additional shear stress of 0.4 N/mm2 has been
omitted from the assessment code. It is understood that its introduction was to allow for a possible reduction in
shear capacity under fatigue loading. In general, it is not considered necessary to make such an allowance in an
assessment. However, when it is known or suspected that links have been tack welded to main steel it would be
advisable to include the additional shear stress, since significant reductions in fatigue strength can occur as a result
of tack welding (18). See also 4.7 and BA 40 (DMRB 1.3.4).
Appendix AA
Appendix Volume33Section
Volume Section44
Amendments
The maximum
Amendments to BS 5400-4
spacing
to BS 5400-4 Part
of links is specified as d because test data (19) show a reduction
Part 1414 BD
in shear44/XX
strength at this
BD 44/XX
spacing rather than the BS 5400-4 value of 0.75d.
The
TheTheBS
BS BS 5400-4
5400-4 requirement
5400-4requirement for
for
upper limit on additional
fcuadditional longitudinal
longitudinal
of 40 N/mm reinforcement
reinforcement
2 is not included hasbeen
has
because it has been
been relaxed
relaxed
shown inthe
in
(4) that the
it is not justified
following
by test respects:
data collected
following respects: for values up to 117 N/mm 2. More recent work (20) suggests this may not be valid for
concretes made with some aggregates, notably limestone. Special considerations (tests or evidence of satisfactory
(1)performance
(1) Thecontribution
The contribution
of the mixtoto shear
with resistance
theresistance
shear types fromthe
theused)
of aggregates
from concrete has
should
concrete has beentaken
taken
therefore
been intobefore
be made
into account
accountusing values of fcu
above when
60 calculating
N/mm 2 for thethe additional
calculation of longitudinal
the shear reinforcement
capacity. requirement.
when calculating the additional longitudinal reinforcement requirement.
(2)The BS
An5400-4
upperrequirement
limitof
ofM for/zadditional
Mmax on the total longitudinal
longitudinal force to be
reinforcement hasresisted is laid
been relaxed in down.
the following respects:
(2) An upper limit max/z on the total longitudinal force to be resisted is laid down.
(1)
shouldThe contribution to shear
stressresistance from themay
concrete
havehas been taken into account
thanfwhen
fyv/�/�mscalculating the
ItItshould benoted
be notedthat
additional
thatthe
the stress
longitudinal
inbent-up
in bent-up
reinforcement
bars
bars may have
requirement.
tobe
to be limited
limited toless
to lessthan yv ms if
if
theanchorage
the anchorageor orbearing
bearingstress
stressrequirements
requirementsof of5.8.6.3,
5.8.6.3,5.8.6.8
5.8.6.8and
and5.8.6.9
5.8.6.9are
arenot
notcomplied
complied
with.
with.
(2) An upper limit of Mmax/z on the total longitudinal force to be resisted is laid down.
BSIt5400-4
BS 5400-4 requires
requires
should be beams
beams
noted that tohave
to have
the stress aminimum
minimum
in abent-up areahave
area
bars may ofshear
of shear links.
to belinks.
limited Intoassessment
In assessment
less than fyvitit is
/γis
ms if the anchorage or
recognised
recognised that some beams
that requirements
bearing stress some beams of designed
designed to previous
to previous
5.8.6.3, 5.8.6.8 codes
codesare
and 5.8.6.9 may
may have
nothave no shear
no shear
complied links or,
with.links or, less lessthan
than
theminimum,
the minimum,but butare
arestill
stillcapable
capableof ofresisting
resistingshear.
shear.Therefore
Thereforethe therequirement
requirementto toprovide
provide
minimum
BS 5400-4
minimum shear
shear links
requires has
linksbeams been
has been removed.
to have a minimum
removed. However, it should
area ofitshear
However, should be
links.
be In remembered
assessment that
remembered that a beam that some
it is recognised
a beam
without
without links
beamslinks
designedcould
could failin
to fail inaabrittle
previous brittlemay
codes mode
mode havewith
with littlewarning.
nolittle
shear warning.
links or, lessWhen
When the
thanthe shear
theshear
minimum,reinforcement in
but are stillin
reinforcement capable
a member does
of resisting
a member does not
shear. satisfy
not Therefore either the minimum
the requirement
satisfy either the minimum area
to provide or the
area orminimum maximum
the maximum spacing
shear links criteria,
has criteria,
spacing been removed. the
the However, it
shear capacity
should be of the
remembered member
that a should
beam be
withouttaken
links as that
could resulting
fail in a from
brittle
shear capacity of the member should be taken as that resulting from the contribution of the the
mode contribution
with little of
warning.theWhen the shear
reinforcement
concrete in a member
resistance alone, does not satisfy
disregarding the either the minimum
contribution from area
the or the reinforcement.
shear maximum spacing criteria, the shear
concrete resistance alone, disregarding the contribution from the shear reinforcement.
capacity of the member should be taken as that resulting from the contribution of the concrete resistance alone,
disregarding the
5.3.3.3 contribution
Enhanced from
shear the shearofreinforcement.
strength sections close to supports. For sections within a
5.3.3.3 Enhanced shear strength of sections close to supports. For sections within a
distanceaav<<3d
distance 3dof
of asupport,
support,an
anenhancement
enhancementto tothe
theshear
shearstrength
strengthofof5.3.3.2
5.3.3.2may
may beallowed
allowed
5.3.3.3 vEnhanceda shear strength of sections close to supports. For sections within abe
distance av < 3d of a support,
where
where the term
the term to the shear strength of 5.3.3.2 may be allowed where the term
an enhancement
s s vvcc bbwwdd
isisreplaced
replaced
is replacedby
byby
s s vvcc bbwwdd
andwhere
and wherethe
theshear
shearcapacity
capacityVVuin in5.3.3.2,
5.3.3.2,for
forboth
bothcases
caseswith
withand
andwithout
withouteffective
effectiveshear
shear
u
reinforcement, is multiplied by the factor �, giving, for sections without effective shear
reinforcement, is multiplied by the factor �, giving, for sections without effective shear
reinforcement,aashear
reinforcement, shearcapacity
capacityofof
VVuA/34
u s vvc bb wdd
== c w
s
August 2015
and,for
and, forsection
sectionwith
witheffective
effectiveshear
shearreinforcement,
reinforcement,aashear
shearcapacity
capacityof
of
is
is replaced
replaced by
by

4ss vvcc bbww dd
Volume 3 Section Appendix A
and
and where
where the
the shear
shear capacity
capacity V Vuu in
in 5.3.3.2,
5.3.3.2, for
for both
both cases
cases with
with and
and without
without effective
effective shear
shear
reinforcement,
reinforcement, is
is multiplied
multiplied by
by the
the factor
factor �,
�, giving,
giving, for
for sections
sections without
without effective
effective shear
shear
and where the shear capacity
reinforcement, a shear Vucapacity
in 5.3.3.2,
of for both cases with and without effective shear reinforcement, is
reinforcement,
multiplied by the factora Γ,
shear capacity
giving, of without effective shear reinforcement, a shear capacity of
for sections

V
V uu =
= ss vvcc bb ww dd
and,
and, for for
for section
section
and, with
with effective
with effective
section shear
shear reinforcement,
shear reinforcement,
effective aa shear
a shear capacity
reinforcement, of capacity
shear capacity of
of
d
V uu
V =
=
+ (( ff yv // ms )) d A
ss vvcc bbww dd + Asv
sv
ss vv
yv ms

In the In
Appendix
AppendixIn the
above
A
A above
above formulae,
the formulae,formulae, for
for the
for the purpose purpose
theof
purpose of
of calculating
calculatingcalculating vvcc the
vc the full area of full
the area
tensile
full of tensile
tensile reinforcement
reinforcement
area ofVolume
Volume 33that 44 that
continues
Section
reinforcement
Section up to the
that
Appendix
support A
must
continuesbe used.
up to Volume 3 Section 4
Amendments to
to BS
continues
Amendments BS
to the
the support
up5400-4
5400-4 support must
must bebe used.
used. Part
Part 14
14 BD BD 44/XX
Part 14 BD 44/XX
44/XX
The term κ is a shear enhancement factor for short shear spans which may be applied if theapplied
main reinforcement
The term �� is
The term is aa shear
3d enhancement
shear enhancement factor
factor for
for short
short shear
shear spans
spans which
which may
may be be applied if if the
the main
main
continues to the support.
For sections within a distance
reinforcement continues to the support. For sections
reinforcement continues
av < 3d of
within a distance av < 3d ofgiven
a support, the value of κ is by: the
a support,
to the support. For sections within a distance av < 3d of a support, the
33�ddis givenav
value
value of
of 3�dis given by: by:
aav
where thea vvdistance av is measured from the edge of a rigid bearing, the centre-line of a flexible
bearing or the face of a support.
where
where the
the distance aavv is measured from the edge of aa rigid bearing, the centre-line of a flexible
wherethe
where distance aavv is
thedistance
distance measured
issupport.
measured from
measured from the
fromthe edge
edgeofof
theedge a rigid
a rigid
of bearing,
bearing,
rigid the the
bearing, centre-line
centre-line
the of
of aa flexible
of a flexible
centre-line bearing or the face of a
flexible
bearing
bearing or
or the
the face
Mmmm/yyyy
Mmmm/yyyyface of
of a
a support. Chapter/Page
Chapter/Page
The
support. term � is equal
bearing or the face of a support. to:
The
Theterm
The term�
term � isisequal
equal to:
The term �Γisis equal
equal to:
to: s Fub
(to be taken not greater than unity)
F Fub max

sss FFubub (to betaken
takennotnot greater than unity)

F ub (to (to
(tobebe
be taken
taken not greater
greater
not than
greater than unity)
unity)
than unity)
F ub max
where s isFuba max ub max
factor that takes into account the increased bond strength due to bearing
pressure in the support region, given by
where
where
where
ss isis aa factor
factor that
factor that takes
takes into
into account
account thethe
the increased
increased bond
bond strength
strength due
due to
to bearing
bearing
where a sisisaafactor that takes
takes into
into account
account theincreased
increased bond strength
bond due to
strength duebearing
to pressure in the support
bearing
pressure
pressure
region,
sin
in
given the
the support
support
by region,
region, given
given by
by
pressure in the support 5.3 given by
s 1.0region, (to be taken not greater than 2.6)
55..33 f cu

ss 11..00
5.3 (to (to
(to bebetaken
takennotnot greater
greater thanthan2.6)2.6)
s 1 . 0 ff cu (to bebe taken
taken notnot greater
greater than
than 2.6)
2.6)
and � is the bearing f cu
cu pressure on the reinforcement due to the ultimate loads (that may be taken as
and
equal to the reaction at support divided bydue thetobearing area), is themay
Fub (that total ultimate anchorage
and
and �� σis
isisthe
the thebearing
bearingpressure
bearing pressure on
pressure on
on the
the
the reinforcement
reinforcement
reinforcement due
due thethe
to
to ultimate
the loads
ultimate
ultimate loads
loads (that
(that be taken
may
may be
be as equal
taken
taken as
as to the reaction
and
at
equal isforce
� to
support the divided
the
in theby
bearing
reaction
tension
pressure
at the reinforcement
ondivided
bearing
support the
area), F by
atthe
is
the
thetotal
reinforcement front
due
bearing
face
to
ultimate
area),
ofanchorage
the F
the support
ultimate
is the loads(calculated
force
total (that
in the
ultimatemay inbeaccordance
tension taken
anchorage as
reinforcementwith
at the
equal
equal to
to the
5.8.6.3)
the reaction
reactionand Fat
at support
is
support divided
given by
divided
ub the bearing area), Fub is the total ultimate anchorage
by
by the bearing area), F ub
is the total ultimate anchorage
front
force face
in the of the support ubmax
tension reinforcement (calculated atin accordance
the front with
face of 5.8.6.3)
the supportand
ub F is
(calculated given by
in accordance with
force
force in the
the tension
in and tension reinforcement
reinforcement at
at the
the front
front face
face of
of the
the support
support (calculated
(calculated in
ubmax
in accordance
accordance withwith
5.8.6.3)
5.8.6.3) and FF ubmax is
is given
given by
by
5.8.6.3)
F
and ub max 6
Fubmax is given
ubmax v
s c byb w d
F 6 s vvc bbw dd
F
Fub
ub
ub
max
Inmax
the In
max the66formula

formula s vc Г
sfor c bwabove,
w d s Fub and
for �aabove, sFF are not to be taken as greater than As fy/γmsthan
ub and Fubmax are not to be taken as greater
ubmax . For Ainternal supports of
s fy/�ms. For
continuous structures Γ may be taken as 1.0.
internal supports of continuous structures � may be taken as 1.0.
In
In the
the formula
formula for
for � above, ss F and F ubmax are not to be taken as greater than Ass ffyy/�ms.. For
forof� above,
above, s F ub and Fubmax are
are not to be
be taken as
as greater
greater than
than A As fy/� For
ub
In the formula
internal supports � continuous Fstructures
ub and Fubmax � may not
be to
taken taken
as 1.0. /�ms
ms. For
Where supports
internal this sub-clause of gives a lower
continuous shear strength
structures � may than
be that
takengiven
as by 5.3.3.2 the greater value
1.0. should be used.
internalWhere
supports thisofsub-clause
continuous gives a lower�shear
structures may strength
be takenthan that given by 5.3.3.2 the greater value
as 1.0.
should be used.
Where
Where this
this sub-clause
Notwithstanding
sub-clause gives
the permitted
gives aa lower
lower shear
shear enhancement
shear strength
strength than
above,
than that
the given
shear
that given by
stress
by 5.3.3.2 the
upper limit
5.3.3.2 the greater
of 5.3.3.1
greater value
must not be exceeded,
value
Where this
whatever
should sub-clause
shear
be used. gives
reinforcement a lower
is present.shear strength than that given by 5.3.3.2 the greater value
should
should be used.
Notwithstanding
be used. the permitted shear enhancement above, the shear stress upper limit of 5.3.3.1
must not
Sections within the be exceeded,
a distance d fromwhatever sheargenerally
theenhancement
support reinforcement
need is present.
not be assessed for shear, providing the shear
Notwithstanding
Notwithstanding the permitted
permitted shear
shear enhancement above,
above, the
the shear
shear stress
stress upper
upper limit
limit of
of 5.3.3.1
5.3.3.1
Notwithstanding
reinforcement
must not be the permitted
calculated
exceeded, whatever for the shear
sectionenhancement
at distance
shear reinforcement above,
d is the
continued
is present. shearto stress
the upper
support. limit of 5.3.3.1
must
must not be
be exceeded,
notSections
exceeded, withinwhatever
a distanceshear
whatever d from
shear reinforcement
the support is
reinforcement present.
isgenerally
present. need not be assessed for shear, providing
the shear reinforcement calculated for the section at distance d is continued to the support.
Sections
Sections within
within aa distance
distance dd from
from the
the support
support generally
generally need
need not
not be
be assessed
assessed for
for shear,
shear, providing
providing
Sections
the shear
August within
reinforcement
2015 a distance d from
calculated the
for support
the generally
section at need
distance not
d is be assessed
continued tofor
the shear,
support. providing A/35
the
the shear reinforcement
shear5.3.3.3A
reinforcementEnhanced calculated
calculated shear for
for the section
section at
thestrength atofdistance
sectionsdd close
distance is
is continued to
to the
to supports
continued the support.
support.
Two factors are introduced. The factor � is the shear enhancement factor which is a
5.3.3.3A
5.3.3.3Amodification Enhanced
Enhanced shear strength of
of sections close to supports
of theshear
enhancementstrengthdefined sections closeof
in 5.3.3.3 toBSsupports
5400-4. This factor is less
Amendments
Appendix A to BS 5400-4 Part4 14 BD 44/15
Volume 3 Section
Amendments
Appendix A to BS 5400-4 Part 14 3BD
Volume 44/XX4
Section
5.3.3.3A Enhanced shear strength of sections close to supports
Appendix
Appendix A
A Volume
Volume 33,Section 44
33 Section
(22)
assessment
Appendix
Appendix rules introduce a reduction factor � in the equation for Vu. This method
A
A Volume
Volume Section
Section 44
Amendments
Amendments to
to BS
BS 5400-4
5400-4 Part
Part 14
14 BD
BD 44/XX
44/XX
derived by
Amendments
Two factors
assessment application
are to
rules BS of
5400-4
introduced.
introduce
Amendments to BS 5400-4 the
The
a variable
factor κ
reduction angle
is the truss
shear
factor � approach
enhancement
in the described
equationfactor
for which
V u in
. This5.3.3.5
is a Partand14consistent
(22)
modification
method BD
,
Part 14 BD 44/XXof 44/XX
the enhancement
with BSinby
defined
derived EN 1992-1-1,
5.3.3.3
application gives
of the more
of BS 5400-4. This accurate
factor
variable predicted
is less
angle shearthan
conservative
truss approach capacities
the BS 5400-4
described inthan the previous
values
5.3.3.5 andand the length over
consistent
version
which
with BS of
shear
ENBD 44 and
enhancement
1992-1-1, hasis been
effective
gives verified
aaamore accurateagainst
is increased a 3d
to large
predicted number
in shear
line with offor
the test
proposal
capacities data. in (21) , which(22)
gives a good lower
assessment
assessment
assessment
bound fit to
rules
rules
rules
the test
introduce
introduce
introduce
data.
reduction
reduction
reduction factor
factor
factor �
� in
� in the
in the equation
the equation
equation for Vuuuthan
for V
V ... This
This
This
themethod
previous
method
method (22),,
(22)
(22),
assessment
version
derivedof BDrulesby introduce
44 and has been
applicationa reduction factor �a in
verified against
of the the number
large
variable equationoffortestVdata.
u. This method
angle truss approach , described in 5.3.3.5 and consistent
derived
derived by
by application
application of
of the
the variable
variable angle
angle truss
truss approach
approach described
described in
in 5.3.3.5
5.3.3.5 and
and consistent
consistent
Sections
derived
with BS less
byEN than
application
1992-1-1,d from of the
gives thesupport
variable
more are
accurate not
angle normally
truss
predicted critical
approach
shear for shear,
described
capacities inas tests
5.3.3.5
than the indicate
and that
consistent
previous
BSwith
with BS
BS
5400-4 EN
EN 1992-1-1,
1992-1-1,
requires a 20 gives
gives
diameter more
more
anchorage accurate
accurate to predicted
predicted
allow short shear
shear
shear capacities
capacities
span than
than
enhancement the
the
to beprevious
previous
used. However, tests (22)
where
with BS
Sections
version a <
v less ofEN d the
than
BD load
1992-1-1,
44 dand is
from transferred
hasgives
thebeen more
support to
verified accuratethe
are not support
normally
against aby
predicted direct
large shear
criticalstrut
number action,
capacities
forofshear,
test and
than the ultimate
the indicate
as tests
data. previousthat shear
version
version of BD 44 and has been verified against a large number of test data.
av <of dBD 44canand
is has beento verified
the shear against
supportaaby large number of
of test
test data.
show
strengththatrises
version stirrups
of BDsharply.
44 andcontribute
has been verified capacity and shear enhancement can occur at short shear spans, even
where the load transferred to the against large
directnumber
strut action, data.
and the ultimate shear
at short anchorage lengths. The revised assessment rules introduce a reduction factor Г in the equation for Vu. This
strength
Sections rises sharply.
Sections
method
Sections (22) ,less
less
derived
less than
than
than byd from
dd application
from
from the
the
the support
support
of the variable
support are
are
are not
not
not normally
angle truss critical
normally
normally critical
approach
critical for
for shear,
shear,
described
for shear, as
as
asintests
tests
5.3.3.5
tests indicate
indicate
indicate that
that
and consistent
that with
5.3.3.4
Sections
where a less
< d Bottom
than
the loadd fromloaded
is the beams
support
transferred to. Where
are
the not load
support is
normallyapplied
by near
critical
direct strut the
for bottom
shear,
action, as
andof a
tests
the section,
indicate
ultimate that
shear
BSwhere < dd the
aaavvvvertical
EN 1992-1-1, v
< thegivesloadmore
load is transferred
is transferred
accurate predicted to the
to the support
support by direct
shear capacities
by directthanstruttheaction,
strut action,
previousandversion
and the ultimate
ultimate
of BD 44 shear
and has been
where
sufficient
where against
5.3.3.4
strength < d the
rises Bottomreinforcement
loadnumber
sharply. is transferred
loaded to carry
beams to. Where the load
support
loadto the
isby top
direct
applied of the section
strut
near action,
the must
bottom bethe
andof apresent
the in shear
ultimate
section, shear
strength
verified
strength rises
rises asharply.
large
sharply. of test data.
addition
strengthtovertical
sufficient any reinforcement
rises sharply.
reinforcement required
to carrytothe resistloadshear.
to the top of the section must be present in
addition
5.3.3.4
Sections
5.3.3.4 to
lessany thanreinforcement
Bottom
d from the
Bottom loaded
loaded required
supportbeams
beams are to not resist
... Where shear.
normally
Where load
load is applied
critical
is near
for shear,
applied near the
as
the bottom
tests of
indicate
bottom of aaa that
section,
where av < d the load
section,
5.3.3.4
5.3.3.5
5.3.3.4 Bottom
Alternative
Bottom loaded
loaded methodbeams
beams . As . Where
an
Where load
alternative
load is
is applied
to the
applied near
method
near the
the bottom
given
bottom in of
5.3.3.2,
of a section,
shear
section,
issufficient
transferredvertical
sufficient reinforcement
to the support
vertical reinforcement by directto tostrutcarry
carryaction, the
the load
loadandtothethe
to top
top of
ultimate
the the
the section
of shear strength
section must
risesbe
must present
present in
besharply. in
sufficient
capacity of
sufficienttovertical vertical
members reinforcement
with
reinforcement links to
may carry
to carry be the
assessed
the load
load to the
using top
the
to thetotop of the
varying section
angle must
truss be present
approach in
5.3.3.5
addition
addition to any
any Alternative
reinforcement
reinforcement method
required
required . Asto toan alternative
resist
resist shear.
shear. theofmethod
the section
given must be present
in 5.3.3.2, in
shear
addition
adopted
additionby to any
the
tomembers reinforcement
anyEurocodes
reinforcement (BS required
EN
required 1992-1-1 to
to resist
andshear.
resist BS
shear. ENthe 1992-2). The shear strength V u is, reinforcement
capacity
5.3.3.4 of
Bottom loaded with beams. links may
Where be load assessed
is applied using
near varyingof
bottom angle truss
a section, approach
sufficient vertical
for elements
to5.3.3.5
carry
adopted the byload thewithto vertical
the
Eurocodes top of links,
Alternative themethod
(BS EN the1992-1-1
section lesser
must beof:present
and BSinENaddition tomethod
1992-2). anyThereinforcement
shear strengthrequired to resist shear.
Vushear
is,
5.3.3.5
5.3.3.5 Alternative
Alternative method
method ... As As
As an
an
an alternative
alternative
alternative to
to
to the
the
the method
method given
given
given in
in
in 5.3.3.2,
5.3.3.2,
5.3.3.2, shear
shear
5.3.3.5
for elements
capacity of with Alternative
vertical method
links, the .
lesser As an
of: alternative to the method given in 5.3.3.2, shear
capacityAlternative
capacity
5.3.3.5
of members
of members
members with
with links
with
method.
links
links may
may
As anmay alternative
be
be assessed
be assessed
assessed using
using
to the using
method
the
the varying
thegiven
varying
varying angle
angle
in 5.3.3.2,
truss
angleshear approach
trusscapacity
truss approach
approach of members with
capacity
adopted A of
by f
members
the Eurocodes with links
(BS ENmay 1992-1-1be assessed and using
BS EN the varying
1992-2). angle
The truss
shear approach
strength V uu is,
adopted
adopted
links may by
sv
by
be z the
the
yv
assessed Eurocodes
cot
Eurocodes
using the(BS
(BS EN
EN
varying 1992-1-1
1992-1-1
angle truss and
and BS
BS
approach EN
EN 1992-2).
1992-2).
adopted by The
The
the shear
shear
Eurocodes strength
strength
(BS ENV
V is,
is,
u1992-1-1 and BS
adopted
for A
elementss by the
f
with Eurocodes
vertical (BS
links, ENthe 1992-1-1
lesser of: and BS EN 1992-2). The shear strength V u is,
ENfor
for elements
elements sv with
with
yv
zThewith vertical
vertical
cot strength links,
links, the
the lesser
lesser of:
of:
for1992-2). shear Vu is,the forlesser elements of: with vertical links, the lesser of:
v ms
elements vertical links,
s v ms
and A
Asv ff yv
Asvsvsv zzz ff yv
A cot
yv
yv cot
cot
and s
s z
cot 0.8 f cu
cwss vvvv bw z ms ms(1 0.5 cos )
ms
/ cot tan
ms 0.8mcf cu
cw bw z (1 0.5 cos ) / cot tan
and
and
and
and mc
and 000...888the fff cu
and, for elements with inclined links, lesser of
cu / cot tan

b z
(1 0 . 5 cos
) // cot tan

b z (1
w z (1 0.5 cos )0 . 5 cos ) 0 . 8 f cu
cw bw
tan
cu
/ cot tan
cw w
cw bw zwith
and, for elements cw (1 inclined ) the
0.5 coslinks, mc lessercotof
Asv f yv mc
mc
mc
z cot cot sin
and,
and, for
forAselements
elements f yv with with inclined
inclined links,
links, the
the lesser
lesser of
of
and,forfor
and,
and, forelements
elements
sv
z mswith
elements with
with
cotinclinedinclined
inclined links,
cotlinks, links,
sinthe the the
lesser lesser
of of
lesser of
s ms
and Asvsv z fff yv
A
Asvsv zz f yv cot
A
sin
yv
yv
cot
cot

and sss z ms cot
cot
cot

cot
cot
sin
sin
sin
s ms ms
0.8 f cu
ms
cw bw z (1 0.5 cos )
0 . 8
mccu f

cot cot / 1 cot 2
and
and
and
and cw bw z (1 0.5 cos )
and
cot cot / 1 cot 2
mc
for elements with inclined links. 000...888 fff cu
cw
bbbww zzz
(((111 cos
000...555 cos
cos ))) 0.8 f cu cu cot
cot
cu cot cot
cot

/// 111
cot

cot 222
2

for
elements
cwwith
cw
cw w b

w zinclined
( 1 0 . 5links.
cos
)
mc
mc
mc
cot
cot
cot
/ 1 cot
cot
In these equations: mc
zIn
Infor these isequations:
the lever
equations:
elements with arm and may be taken as 0.9d for members without axial force;
for
for
these
elements
elements with inclined
with inclined links.
inclined links.
links.
zz for elements
is isthe
thelever with
leverarminclined
armand andmay links.
maybe taken as 0.9d for members
be taken memberswithout withoutaxial axialforce;
force;
In these is equations:
the angle between the concrete compression strut and the beam axis perpendicular to
In these
these equations:
equations:
zIn
In
zz
the
these
is is
is
shear
isequations:
the
theangle
the
the
force;
angle
lever
lever between
between
arm
arm and the
and the
may concrete
mayconcrete
be
be taken
taken compression
compression
as strut
forstrut
as 000...999ddd for members
members andand the
thewithout
beam
without beamaxis axis perpendicular
perpendicular
axial
axial force;
force; to theto
shear force;
z is the
is shear
the leverlever arm
arm and and may may be be taken
taken as as 0.9d for for members
members without without axial axial force;
force;
the force;
cw isis isa athe
is the
coefficient
coefficient
angle
angle
taking into
taking
between
between into
the
the
account
accountofcompression
concrete
concrete
thethe
of state
compression
of the
state of strut
strut
stress
theand
and
inthe
stress thein
the
compression chord, taken
the compression
beam
beam axis
axis chord,as
perpendicular
perpendicular to
to
1.0 for non-
is the
prestressed angle between
structures. the
Where concrete compression
the section is subjected strut and
to an the
external beam axis
applied perpendicular
axisload, an enhanced to
cw taken isis a the
the
the asangle
coefficient
shear
shear 1.0force;
for
force;
between
taking the concrete
into
non-prestressed account compression
of the
structures. state
Where of strut the
the and
stress
section thein
isbeam
the compression
subjected to an chord,to value in
perpendicular
external
the shear
accordance
the shear force;
with 6.3.4.7 may be used;
applied
taken 1.0force;
asload, foran enhanced
non-prestressed value in accordance
structures. Wherewith the 6.3.4.7
section mayisbesubjected
used; to an external

cw is
applied
is
is aaa coefficient
load, an enhanced
coefficient
coefficient taking
taking
taking into
into
intovalueaccount
account
account of
in accordance
of
of the
the
the state
withof
state
state of
of the
6.3.4.7
the
the stress
may be
stress
stress in
in
in the
used;
the
the compression
compression
compression chord,
chord,
chord,
cw
cw
is a coefficient taking into account of the state of the stress in the compression chord,
A/36
cw
taken
taken as
as 1.0
1.0 for
for non-prestressed
non-prestressed structures.
structures. Where
Where the
the section
section is
is subjected
subjected to
to an
an external
external
taken
taken
applied
as 1.0
as 1.0 for for non-prestressed
non-prestressed in structures.
structures. Where Where the section
the section is subjected
is subjected to an externalAugust 2015
to an external
applied load,
applied load, an
load, an enhanced
an enhanced value
enhanced value in
value in accordance
accordance with
accordance with 6.3.4.7
with 6.3.4.7 may
6.3.4.7 may be
may be used;
be used;
used;
applied load, an enhanced value in accordance with 6.3.4.7 may be used;

AppendixAA
Appendix Volume3 3Section
Volume Section4 4
Part 14 BD 44/15 Amendments
AmendmentstotoBS
Amendments BS5400-4
5400-4 Part 014
Part14 fBD
.8BD 44/XX BS 5400-4
cu44/XX
to
is a strength reduction factor for concrete cracked in shear, taken as 0.6 1 ;
250
is the inclination of the shear reinforcement to the axis of the member.
0.08.8f cuf cu
isisaisastrength astrength
strength reduction
reduction
reduction factor
factor
factor forfor
for concrete
concrete
concretecracked crackedinininshear,
cracked shear,taken
shear, takenasas0.06.611
taken ; ;
In the above, the angle may be chosen within the limits of 1.0 cot 2.5 to provide 250250
the
isisthe
maximum isthe
shear inclination
capacity,ofexcept
inclination
the inclination ofof
the the
the shear
in
shear
shear reinforcement
elements
reinforcement
reinforcement whereto tothe
shear
to theaxis
the axisofofofthe
co-exist
axis themember.
with
the member.
externally applied
member.
tension, where cot must be taken as 1.25. The other symbols are as in 5.3.3.1 and 5.3.3.2. In
Inthe
InIn the
addition, above,
theabove,
above,
the the the
maximum angleθshear
angle
theangle may
maymay bebe chosen
bechosen
force, inwithin
chosen within
Newtons,
within thethe limits
the
must ofnot
limits
limits 1.0
ofof ≤
be
1.0cot≤
1.0 θcot
cot
greater 2.5 to2.5
than provide
2.5 the
totoprovide
200b 2 maximum shear capacity,
provide
w the
at sections
the
except
maximum
more than in elements
d shear
from where
capacity,
the edge
maximum shear capacity, except in elements where shear except
of aco-exist
in
support with
elements with externally
bwhere
w in shear co-exist with externally applied as 1.25. The other
mm. applied
shear tension,
co-exist where
with cotθ
externally must be
appliedtaken
symbols where are as incot 5.3.3.1 andbe
tension,
tension, where cot mustmust be 5.3.3.2.takenasIn
taken
2 at sections more than d from the edge of a support with b in mm.
addition,
as1.25.
1.25.The the
Theother othermaximum symbols
symbols shear
areareasforce, in Newtons,
asinin5.3.3.1
5.3.3.1 and must notInbe greater than
and5.3.3.2.
5.3.3.2. In
If 200b
this
addition,approach the is
maximumused, the flexural
shear force, reinforcement
in Newtons, at any
must section
not be must
w greater be capable
than 200b 2
of 2
resisting
at sections the
addition, the maximum shear force, in Newtons, must not be greater than 200bw wat sections
w
maximum
morethan
more than d dfrom
bending fromthe moment
theedge edgeof inofany sectionwith
a asupport
support within
with bwbatwin
a in mm. z (cot� - cot�)/2 in the direction of
distance
mm.
If this approach is used, the flexural reinforcement any section must be capable of resisting the maximum bending
increasing moment from the section and be provided with effective anchorage in accordance
moment in any section within a distance z (cotθ - cotα)/2 in the direction of increasing moment from the section and be
with
IfIfthis 5.8.6.3.
this
provided approach
approachwith However,
isisused,
effective used, attheathe
anchorage simply-supported
flexural
flexural reinforcement
reinforcement
in accordance end,
withthe bond
atany
at5.8.6.3.anysection stressmust
section
However, inmust
the a length
at be be capable
capable of reinforcement
simply-supported ofofresisting
resisting
end, the thebond stress in
the
immediately
maximum
maximum
the lengthbending over
bending the
of reinforcement bearing
moment
momentimmediately may
in any be
in any section taken
sectionoverwithinas 1.5
within
the bearing times
a that
distance
a distance may be z
given (cot�
z (cot� in 5.8.6.3.
-
taken -ascot�)/2cot�)/2
1.5 times Where
in
in the the this
direction
thatdirection of
given in 5.8.6.3. of Where this
requirement
increasing
increasing is
moment
moment not satisfied,
from
from thethe the
section shear
section
requirement is not satisfied, the shear capacity Vu is limited to: and capacity
and be be provided V
provided u is limited
withwith to:
effective
effective anchorage
anchorage in in accordance
accordance
with5.8.6.3.
with 5.8.6.3.However,However,atata asimply-supportedsimply-supportedend, end,the thebond bondstress stressininthe thelength
lengthofofreinforcement
reinforcement
immediatelyover
immediately overthe thebearing
bearing M may maybebetaken takenasas1.5 1.5times timesthat thatgivengiveninin5.8.6.3.5.8.6.3.Where Wherethis this
requirement is 2 Fsatisfied,
not ub the shear capacity Visislimited limited to:
requirement is not satisfied,z the shear capacity Vu u to:
Vu
(cot cot )
F MM
2 2 F ub ub
InInthisthisequation,
equation, FF
is the
the z z
maximum
maximum force
forcethat that cancan be be developed
developed in the inmain
the main tension reinforcement at the section
tension
VuVu ub
ub
considered, that is (cot
(cot
the
sum

cotcotof
the
) ) forces in
reinforcement at the section considered, that is the sum of the forces in the bars in the bars in the section limited to either the available
the section bond strength to
5.8.6.3 (with the modification for simply
limited to either the available bond strength to 5.8.6.3 (with the modification supported ends noted above) or to A f /g
s y ms for simply less, and M is the
whichever is
co-existing moment acting at maximum
theorsection.
InIn thisequation,
supported
this equation,
ends noted
FubFub isthe
isabove) the maximum to Asfforce y/force thatcan
ms whichever
that canbebe developed
isdeveloped
less, and in Mintheisthe
themain main
co-existingtensionmoment
tension
reinforcement
acting at the section.
reinforcement atatthe thesection
sectionconsidered, considered,that thatisisthe thesum sumofofthe theforces
forcesininthe thebarsbarsininthe thesection
section
limited to either the available bond strength
limited to either the available bond strength to 5.8.6.3 (with the modification for simply to 5.8.6.3 (with the modification for simply
5.3.3.5A
supported
supported
The traditional endsends Alternative
noted
noted
shear above)
above)
checking method
or ortotoAA
approach sfysf/adds
y/ms whichever
mswhichever
the concreteiscontributionisless,
less,and andMM toisaisthe theco-existing
link co-existingmoment
contribution moment
calculated assuming a
acting
The
acting atatthe
45°traditional
truss. the
An section.
shear checking
section.
alternative approach, approach
which isadds arguablythe concretetheoretically contribution
more correct to aand linkis contribution
based on BS EN 1992-1-1, is
calculated
to assumeassuming the entire shear a 45force truss.toAn alternative
be taken by theapproach,
truss but allow which theistrussarguably
angle to theoretically
be varied to give a higher shear
5.3.3.5A
more
5.3.3.5A
force. correct and
The equations Alternative
is based
Alternative givenon can method
BS
method
then EN be1992-1-1,
optimised with is to respect
assumetothe theentire
angle shear force to the
q to determine be taken
best lower bound
byThe
The the traditional
truss
thattraditional but
does not exceed shear
allow
shear the checking
the
checking truss
relevantapproach approach
angle to
limits. A flatterbe adds
varied
adds the the to concrete
trussconcrete give
angle gives a contribution
higher
contribution shear
a greater assessed to
force. a link
The
to a linkstrength contribution
equations
contribution for a given shear
calculated
given can then
reinforcement
calculated assuming
assuming a a4545
be optimised
area. However, truss.
truss.with
it also
An An
respect
givesalternative
alternative atohigher approach,
the approach,
angle
compressive to which which
determine
stress isisin arguably
the concrete
arguably theoretically
besttheoretically
lower bound
“struts” and a requirement
more
to
that
moredoes correct
continue
correct the
not and and
main
exceed is based
flexural
the relevant
is based on
on BS EN BS EN
reinforcement
limits. 1992-1-1,
further
A flatter
1992-1-1, is
beyond
is truss to
to assumeassume the
anglethe the
section
gives entire
entirewhere
a greater shear
it is
shear assessed noforce
longer
force to be to be takenaccording to
required
strength
taken
forpurely
byby athe
thegiven flexural
truss
truss shear
but butcalculations.
allowthe
reinforcement
allow thetruss trussangle angleto
area. tobebevaried
However, varied it toalsotogivegive
gives a ahigher
ahigher
higher shear
shear force.The
compressive
force. The equations
stress
equations in
the
given
given concrete
cancanthen “struts”
then and a requirement
bebeoptimised
optimised withrespect
with respect totocontinue
tothetheangle angle the main flexural the
totodetermine
determine reinforcement
thebest bestlower lowerboundfurther
bound
Thedoes
beyond
that
that method
the
does notnot can
section give
exceed
exceed greater
where
thetherelevant benefit
itrelevant
is no limits.for links
longer
limits. A than
required
Aflatter
flatter the conventional
according
truss
truss angleangle togives approach,
purely
gives flexural
a agreater
greater so can give higher
calculations.
assessed
assessed strength. For
strength
strength
convenience,
fora agiven
givenshear separate
shearreinforcement equations
reinforcementarea. are given
area.However, for vertical
However,it italso links
alsogives and for
givesa ahigher inclined links
highercompressive although
compressivestress stressinin can be
the former
for
derived from the latter. When using either pair of equations for members without curtailments, the angle of the
The
the
the method
concretecan
concrete “struts”give and
“struts” greater benefit forto
anda arequirement
requirement links than the
tocontinue
continue thetheconventional
main mainflexuralflexural approach,
reinforcement
reinforcement so canfurther give
further
struts θ will be determined first. For members with low shear stresses this will be the flattest allowed (tan-1 0.4).
higher
beyond
beyond strength.
thethesection Forwhere
section convenience,
whereit itisisnonolonger separate
longerrequired equations
required are given
according
according for
totopurely vertical
purely flexural
flexural links and for
calculations.
calculations.
With higher shear stresses it will be such that the crushing equations (the ones including f ) give the actual shear
inclined links although the former can be derived from the latter. When using eithercupair of
force. The shear strength is then given by the other equation (the web crushing limit) that when the provision of
equations
The
Thelinks method
method
is suchforcan members
cangive
that give
the without
greater
greater
angle does curtailments,
benefit
benefit
not have forfor links
tolinks
be muchthe
thanthananglethe
flatter ofconventional
the45°
theconventional
than struts can�approach,
will
approach,
give be determined
shear sosocan
strengths cangive first.
give
significantly above the
-1
For
higher members
higher strength.
strength. with For low
For shear
convenience,
convenience, stresses this
separate
separate will be
equations
equations
BD 44 limit given in 5.3.3.1. This is particularly significant with high concrete strengths (23). the flattest
are are allowed
given
given forfor (tan
vertical
vertical 0.4).
links
links With
andand higher
forfor
shear
inclined
inclined stresseslinksit
links will be the
although
although such
theformerthat the
former can crushing
can bebederived equations
derived fromfromthe (the onesWhen
thelatter.
latter. including
Whenusing using ) either
givepair
fcueither the
pairofof
actual
equations
equations shear for force.
for members
members The shear
without
without strength is
curtailments,
curtailments, then given
the
The same approach can be used for members with curtailments and with short anchorage. However, the angle by
angle the
of of other
thethe equation
struts
struts � � will
will (the
be be web crushing
determined
determined first.the angle of the
first.
-1 -1 0.4). With higher
limit)
For
For that
maywhen
members
members
struts need with the
with
then provision
low
low also shear
shear of links
stresses
stresses
be limited bythis isthis
the such willthat
will bebethe
curtailments. the angle
flattestdoes
theflattest not (tan
allowed
allowed have
(tan to 0.4).be With
muchhigher flatter
shear
than
shear 45 stresses
can give
stresses it itwill
will
shearbebesuch suchthat
strengths thatthe thecrushing
crushingequations
significantly equations
above the (the BD(theones
44oneslimit including
given in
including ) givethe
fcuf5.3.3.1.
)cugive the is
This
(23)
actual
5.3.3.6
particularly shear
Other
actual shear significant force.
force. The with The
approaches. shear
shearhigh Withstrength
strength the
concrete is
approval
is then then of
strengthsgiven
the
given by the by
Overseeingthe other equation (the
. other equation (the web crushing plasticity
Organisation, methods web crushing
employing
theory
limit)
limit) thatmay
that when be used
when thethefor the assessment
provision
provision ofoflinkslinks ofistheissuch shear
such that capacity
that the theangle of concrete
angle doesdoesnot beams.
not havetotobebemuch
have muchflatter flatter
than4545
than can cangive giveshear shearstrengths
strengthssignificantly
significantlyabove abovethe theBD BD4444limit limitgiven giveninin5.3.3.1. 5.3.3.1.This Thisisis
(23)(23)
particularly significant with
particularly significant with high concrete strengths . high concrete strengths .
August 2015 A/37
Chapter/Page
Mmmm/yyyy
beams.
Methods
5.3.3.6AA employing Othertheapproaches
lower-bound and upper bound theorem of plasticity theory, including
Appendix Volume 3 Section 4
strut and tie
Methods
Amendments
methodsthe
employing
to BS 5400-4
andlower-bound
collapse mechanisms and upper have
bound been successfully
theorem of applied
plasticity to problems
theory, including of
Part 14 BD 44/15
(5)
shear in concrete, as described in reference . A generalised
strut and tie(6)methods and collapse mechanisms have been successfully applied to problems of upper-bound model has been
developed
shear in concrete, for the as shear
described capacity of beam-and-slab
in reference (5) concreteupper-bound
. A generalised bridges. However, model hasthese methods
been
should
developed
5.3.3.6A be applied
(6)
Otherfor with care and following approval from the Overseeing
the shear capacity of beam-and-slab concrete bridges. However, these methods
approaches Organisation.
should be applied with care and following approval from the Overseeing Organisation.
5.3.3.7 employing
Methods Assessment
the lower-bound of deck and hinges
upper and bound half joint structures
theorem of plasticity. The
theory, assessment
including of halfand tie
strut
joints isand
methods
5.3.3.7 coveredcollapse in 7.2.4.2
mechanisms
Assessment ofofthis
deckStandard.
have been successfully
hinges and half joint applied to problems
structures . The ofassessment
shear in concrete,
of halfas described
injoints
reference
is covered
(5) . A generalised
in 7.2.4.2 of upper-bound
this Standard. model has been developed for the shear capacity of beam-and-slab
(6)
5.3.3.7A
concrete bridges. Assessment
However, these of methods
deck hinges should and be half
appliedjointwithstructures
care and .following
Guidanceapprovalon the from the Overseeing
assessment
Organisation.
5.3.3.7A of bridges containing deck hinges is given in
Assessment of deck hinges and half joint structures. Guidance on the BA 93 (DMRB 3.1.5).
assessment of bridges containing deck hinges is given in BA 93 (DMRB 3.1.5).
5.3.3.7 Assessment of deck hinges and half joint structures. The assessment of half joints is covered in 7.2.4.2
5.3.4 Torsion
of this Standard.
5.3.4 Torsion
5.3.4.1 General. In some members, the maximum torsional moment does not occur
5.3.3.7A Assessment of deck hinges and half joint structures. Guidance on the assessment of bridges containing
under the same General
5.3.4.1 loading asInthe maximum flexural moment. In such circumstances reinforcement
deck hinges is given in BA.93 some
(DMRB members,
3.1.5). the maximum torsional moment does not occur
in excess of that required for
under the same loading as the maximum flexural flexure and other forces moment.may be In used
such in torsion.
circumstances reinforcement
in excess of that required for flexure and other forces may be used in torsion.
5.3.4 Torsion
5.3.4.2 Torsionless systems. In general, where the torsional resistance or stiffness of
members
5.3.4.2
5.3.4.1 General.has not been
Torsionless
In some taken into account
systems
members, the. In in the torsional
general,
maximum analysis
where the of the structure,
torsional
moment not no
doesresistanceoccurspecific calculations
or stiffness
under the same of loading as the
for torsion
members
maximum haswillnot
flexural be necessary.
been
moment. takenIn suchHowever,
into account
circumstancesit in
is essential
the analysisthatofsound
reinforcement the engineering
structure,
in excess of that judgement
norequired
specific has and other forces
calculations
for flexure
shown
may
for be thatin
used
torsion torsion
will torsion. plays onlyHowever,
be necessary. a minor role it isinessential
the behaviour
that soundof theengineering
structure, otherwise
judgementtorsional
has
stiffness must be used in analysis.
shown that torsion plays only a minor role in the behaviour of the structure, otherwise torsional
5.3.4.2
stiffnessTorsionless
must be used systems. In general, where the torsional resistance or stiffness of members has not been taken
in analysis.
5.3.4.3
into account in the Stresses and reinforcement
analysis of the structure, no specific . Where calculations
torsion infora torsion
sectionwill be necessary.
substantially However, it is
increases
essential
the shear
5.3.4.3 thatstresses,
sound engineering and judgement
the torsional
Stresses shear stress
reinforcement has shown
must
. Wherethatcalculated
be torsion plays
torsion only a minor
inassuming
a section a plasticrolestress
substantially in the behaviour of the
increases
structure, otherwise
distribution. torsional stiffness must be used in analysis.
the shear stresses, the torsional shear stress must be calculated assuming a plastic stress
distribution.
5.3.4.3
Where the Stresses
torsional and shear
reinforcement.
stress, vt, Where
exceeds torsion in a section
the value substantially
vtmin given increasesreinforcement
below, torsion the shear stresses, the
torsional
must betheshear
present: stress must be calculated assuming a plastic stress distribution.
Where torsional shear stress, vt, exceeds the value vtmin given below, torsion reinforcement
must be
Where the present:
torsional shear stress, vt, exceeds the value vtmin given below, torsion reinforcement must be present:
vtmin = 0.082 f cu / mc
vtmin = 0.082 f cu / mc
The sum of the shear stresses resulting from shear force and torsion (v + vt) must not exceed the
value
Thesum
The ofofthe
sum ultimate
ofthethe shear
shear shear
stresses
stresses stress,
resulting
resulting , nor,
vtufrom from in shear
shear theforce
case of small
force
and and sections
torsion
torsion (v + (vvt) (y v1 t<) must
+must 550mm), shall
not exceed
not exceed the
the of the
the value
torsional
ultimate shear
shear stress,
stress, v ,v ,
nor, exceed
in the vcasey /550,
of
value of the ultimatetushear stress, vtu, nor, in the case of small
t tu 1 small where y
sections1 is the
(y1 < larger
550mm),centre-line
shall the dimension
torsional
sections (y1 < 550mm), shall the of
shear a link
stress, vt, exceed
and
vtutorsional
y1/550, where y
shear stress, 1 is the larger centre-line dimension of a link and
vt, exceed vtu y1/550, where y1 is the larger centre-line dimension of a link
and
vtu = 0.36 (0.7 f cu / 250) f cu / mc
vtu = 0.36 (0.7 f cu / 250) f cu / mc
Torsion reinforcement must consist of rectangular closed links in accordance with 5.8.6.5 together with longitudinal
reinforcement. Only reinforcement in excess of that required to resist shear or bending must be considered as
torsion reinforcement.
Torsional capacity must be calculated assuming that the closed links form a thin-walled tube, the shear stresses in
which are balanced by longitudinal and transverse forces provided by the resistance of the reinforcement.
As an alternative approach, combined shear and torsion may be assessed by considering the resulting shear flow in
accordance with 5.3.3.5 and the corresponding approach for torsion in 6.3 of BS EN 1992-2 and 6.3 of
BS EN 1992-1-1.
A/38 August 2015

As an alternative
resistance approach, combined shear and torsion may be assessed by considering the
of the reinforcement.
resulting shear flow in accordance with 5.3.3.5 and the corresponding approach for torsion in 6.3
of BS
As EN 1992-2approach,
an alternative and 6.3 ofcombined
BS EN 1992-1-1.
shear and torsion may be assessed by considering the
Volume 3 Section 4
resulting shear flow in accordance with 5.3.3.5 and the corresponding approach for torsion in 6.3 Appendix A
5.3.4.3A
of BS EN 1992-2 Stresses
and 6.3and reinforcement
of BS EN 1992-1-1.
vtmin is 25% of the pure torsional strength without torsional reinforcement, and was chosen (24)
5.3.4.3A
as the torque below Stresses andareinforcement
which significant reduction in shear or flexural strength of a member
5.3.4.3A Stresses and reinforcement 2
vdoes
tmin not
is occur.
25% of Hence,
the pure there is nostrength
torsional need towithout to 40N/mm
limit fcutorsional as requiredand
reinforcement, by BS chosen (24)
was5400-4.
vasThe theupper limit
torque has which
below been brought into line
a significant with that
reduction for shear.
in shear or flexural strength of a (24)
member
tmin is 25% of the pure torsional strength without torsional reinforcement,2 and was chosen as the torque below
does not occur. Hence, there is no need to limit
which a significant reduction in shear or flexural strength f to 40N/mm as required by BS 5400-4.
cu of a member does not occur. Hence, there is no need to
5.3.4.4
The
limit fupper limitTreatment
has of various
been brought intocross-sections
line with that for shear.
cu to 40N/mm as required by BS 5400-4. The upper limit has been brought into line with that for shear.
2
5.3.4.4
5.3.4.4 Treatment
(a) Box Treatment
sections: The of cross-sections
ultimate
of various various
torsionalcross-sections
strength (Tu) must be taken as the greater of:
(a)
(a) Box Box sections:
sections: TheThe ultimate
ultimate torsional
torsional strength (Tu)u)must
strength(T must be
be taken
taken as
asthe
thegreater
greaterof:of:
AsL ( f yL / ms ) Ast ( f yv / ms )
Tu = 2 Ao Equation 10/11
2 ( x y ) s
AsL (l f yL /l ms ) Ast ( f yv / ms )
v
Tu = 2 Ao Equation Equation
10/11 10/11
2 ( x y ) s
and l l v
and
and Tu = 2hw Ao vtmin
Tu = 2hw Ao vtmin
where Tu = 2hw Ao vtmin
where
hw
where is the thickness of the thinnest wall;
hw Ao is the is the area enclosed
thickness by thewall;
of the thinnest median wall line;
AhA o wst is the is the area of one
areathickness
enclosed ofleg
by theof a closed
thinnest
median link
wall;
wall line;of a section;
AA st o sL is the
is area
the of
area one
of leg
one
enclosedof a
bar closed
byof link of
longitudinal
the median awall
section;
reinforcement;
line;
AA fsL
yv st is the area of one bar of
characteristic,
is the area of one legorlongitudinal
ofworst
a closed reinforcement;
credible,
link ofstrength
a section;of the links;
fyv
AfyLsL is the characteristic,
is the area of oneorbar
characteristic, worst
or credible,
ofworst strength
credible,
longitudinal of the links;
strength
reinforcement;of the longitudinal reinforcement;
fyL
fsyvv is the characteristic, or worst
spacing of the or
is the characteristic, credible,
links along
worst strengthstrength of the links;reinforcement;
the member;
credible, of the longitudinal
sv fx is the spacing of the links
smaller centre-line
is the characteristic, along
or worst the member;
dimension
credible, ofstrength
a link; of the longitudinal reinforcement;
yL l
xsl y is the smaller centre-line
larger centre-line
is the spacing dimension
of the links dimensionof a link;
along theofmember;
a link;
vl
yl is the larger centre-line dimension of a link;
xfyvl and fis must
yLthe not becentre-line
smaller taken as greater
dimensionthan of 500 N/mm².
a link;
fyv and fyL must
Appendix A not be taken as greater than 500 N/mm². Volume 3 Section 4
yl is the larger centre-line dimension of a link;
InfIn
yv addition,
and fyL the
addition, the
must torsional
not beshear
torsional shear
taken as stress
stressgreater calculated500 from:
thanfrom:
calculated N/mm².
Amendments
In addition, the to BS 5400-4
T shearofstress
torsional calculated Part 14 BD 44/XX
must satisfy vt the= requirements 5.3.4.3, where Tfrom: is the torque due toEquation
ultimate 9Equation
loads. 9
2 h w Ao
(b) Rectangular T
sections: The ofultimate
must satisfy
vt the= requirements 5.3.4.3,torsional
where Tresistance mustdue
is the torque betotaken as the
ultimate greater of
loads.
Equation 9 the
must satisfy the
value calculated from2
requirements of
h w Equation
Ao 5.3.4.3, where T is the torque due to ultimate
10/11 (with Ao taken as 0.8 x1y1), and loads.
(b) Rectangular sections: The ultimate torsional resistance must be taken as the greater of the
(b) Rectangular 2sections: The ultimate torsional resistance must be taken as the greater of the value calculated
value calculated from h minEquation 10/11 (with Ao taken as 0.8 x1y1), and
hmin taken
from
T
Chapter/Page
u =
Equation ( hmax(with
10/11 A o ) vtmin as 0.8 x1y1), and Mmmm/yyyy
2 3
2
h min h
Tu =
Chapter/Page ( hmax min ) vtmin Mmmm/yyyy
2 3
where hmin and hmax are, respectively, the smaller and larger dimensions of the section.
where hmin and hmax are, respectively, the smaller and larger dimensions of the section.
In addition, the torsional shear stress calculated from:
Inwhere
addition, and
hminthe hmax are,
torsional respectively,
shear the smaller
stress calculated from: and larger dimensions of the section.
In addition, = 2T stress calculated from:

the torsional shear
vt Equation 9(a)
Equation 9(a)
2 hmin
h min ( hmax )
2T 3
vt = Equation 9(a)
hmin
must
h 2 min ( hmaxof5.3.4.3.
)
mustsatisfy
satisfythetherequirements
requirements of 5.3.4.3.
3
(c)
mustT,satisfy
August L2015
and Ithe
sections: Such sections
requirements must be divided into component rectangles for purposes of
of 5.3.4.3. A/39
torsional assessment. Any division into component rectangles may be chosen which is
compatible
(c) T, L andwith the torsional
I sections: reinforcement
Such sections must bepresent.
dividedHence, any unreinforced
into component regions
rectangles of a of
for purposes
(c) T, L and I sections: Such sections must be divided into component rectangles for purposes of torsional
assessment. Any division into component rectangles may be chosen which is compatible with the torsional
reinforcement present. Hence, any unreinforced regions of a section may be ignored for torsional
assessment purposes. A component rectangle must be treated as reinforced for torsion only if its link
reinforcement ties it to its adjacent rectangles.
The ultimate torsional resistance of each component rectangle must then be determined using 5.3.4.4(b), and the
sectional torsional resistance taken as the sum of the torsional resistances of the component rectangles. In addition,
the torsional shear stress in each component rectangle must be calculated from Equation 9(a) and must satisfy the
requirements of 5.3.4.3.
Provided that the sum of the torsional resistances of the chosen component rectangles exceeds the torque due to
assessment loading at the ultimate limit state, it can be assumed that the section has adequate torsional strength.
5.3.4.4A Treatment of various cross-sections
(a) – Box sections
Equations 10 and 11 of BS 5400-4 are derived by considering a space truss model and imposing the restriction
that the longitudinal and transverse steel contributions to torsional strength are equal. Equation 10/11 is the
general expression for torsional strength when the longitudinal and transverse steel do not necessarily make equal
contributions to the torsional strength (25).
It should be noted that excessive torsional cracking could occur under service load conditions if the ratio of the first
to second term under the square root sign of Equation 10/11 lies outside the range 2/3 to 3/2.
(b) – Rectangular sections
Equation 10(a) of BS 5400-4 is identical to Equation 10 of BS 5400-4 if Ao = 0.8 x1y1. Hence, Equation 10(a) is not
used in the assessment code.
5.3.4.5 Detailing. A section will be treated as reinforced for torsion only if the pitch of the closed links is less than
the smaller of (x1 + y1)/4 or 16 times the longitudinal corner bar diameter. The diameter of the longitudinal corner bars
must not be less than the diameter of the links.
In areas subjected to simultaneous flexural compressive stress, the value of AsL used in Equation 10/11 may be
notionally increased by:
fcav (area of section subject to flexural compression)/(fyL/γms)
where fcav is the average compressive stress in the flexural compressive zone.
In the case of beams, the depth of the compression zone used to calculate the area of section subject to flexural
compression must be taken as twice the cover to the closed links.
5.3.4.5A Detailing
The BS 5400-4 link spacing limit of 300mm is intended to control cracking at the serviceability limit state and has
been omitted from the assessment code. The last paragraph of the BS 5400-4 sub-clause, which relates to varying
the ratio of link to longitudinal steel, is now covered by Equation 10/11.
A/40 August 2015

5.3.5 Longitudinal shear. For flanged beams, the longitudinal shear resistance at the horizontal flange/web
junction and across vertical sections of the flange which may be critical must be checked in accordance with
7.4.2.3.
5.3.6 Deflection in beams. If required by the Overseeing Organisation, deflections may be calculated in
accordance with 4.2.4 and 4.6.
5.3.7 Crack control in beams. If required by the Overseeing Organisation, flexural crack widths in beams may
be calculated in accordance with 5.8.8.2.
5.4 Slabs
5.4.1 Moments and shear forces in slabs. Moments and shear forces in slab bridges and in the top slabs of beam
and slab, voided slab and box beam bridges may be obtained from a general elastic analysis, or such particular elastic
analyses as those due to Westergaard or Pucher. Strength enhancement due to compressive membrane action can be
taken into account, in accordance to the provisions of BD 81 (DMRB 3.4.20).
Appendix
AppendixAA Volume
Volume3 3Section
Section4 4
Amendments
Non-linear
Amendments totoBS
methods 5400-4
BSmay also be used. Alternatively, Johansen’s yield line method may
5400-4 Part
Part 1414
be BD
used 44/XX
BDto obtain the slab
44/XX
Appendix A
strength directly. Volume 3 Section 4
Guidance
Guidance
The ononspans
effective the
theapplication
must be inofaccordance
application ofyield
yieldline methods
linewith
methods ofofanalysis
5.3.1.1. analysisfor
forconcrete
concreteslabs
slabsisisgiven
giveninin
(5) (26)
references (5)and
references and (26)..
Guidance on the application
5.4.1A Moments and shearofforces yield in
line methods of analysis for concrete slabs is given in
slabs
(5) (26)
references
5.4.2
5.4.2 Resistance and moments
Resistance . momentsofofslabs slabs . The
. Theultimate
ultimateresistance
resistancemoment
momentinina areinforcement
reinforcement
Guidance
direction on
may thebe application
determined of yield
by the line methods
methods givenof
direction may be determined by the methods given in 5.3.2. In assessing analysis
in 5.3.2. for
In concrete
assessing slabs is given
whether
whether the
thein references (5) and (26).
5.4.2 Resistance
reinforcement
reinforcement can moments
canresist of slabs. The
resista acombination
combination ultimate
ofoftwo
two bending
bendingresistance
moments
moments moment
and in a reinforcement
anda atwisting
twisting moment
momentatata a
5.4.2 in aResistance
direction
point may
slab, be
allowancemoments
determined must ofbe
by slabs.
the
made The
methodsforultimate
given
the factresistance
in 5.3.2.
that the moment
In inmoment
assessing
principal a reinforcement
whetherand the direction may be
reinforcement
point in a slab, allowance must be made for the fact that the principal moment and reinforcement
determineddo
reinforcement bynotthe generally
methods a given in 5.3.2. In must
assessing whether the reinforcement can moment
resist a directions.
combination of two
directions
directions
bending do can
moments notandresist
generally
a
combination
coincide.
twisting coincide.
moment
Thisof
This
at a
two
must
point
bending
bebedone
in a donemoments
slab,
bybycheckingand the
checking
allowance
athe
must
twisting
strength
be strength
made
ininallall
for the
at a
directions.
fact that the principal
point in a slab, allowance must be made for the fact that the principal moment and reinforcement
moment and reinforcement directions do not generally coincide. This must be done by checking the strength in all
directions
The do not
Thefollowing
following generallygive
formulae
formulae coincide.
give the This must
thegeneral
general be done
equations
equations by checking
which
which allow
allowforthe
foranystrength
any number
numberin of
all directions.
ofsets
setsofof
directions.
skewed reinforcement in a slab. For the sign convention shown
skewed reinforcement in a slab. For the sign convention shown in Figure 5.2, the applied in Figure 5.2, the applied
The following
moment,
moment,
The
MM
following n, n, formulae
about
about
formulae
give
ananaxis
axis
give
the general equations
perpendicular
perpendicular
the
totothe
general equations the which
n-direction
n-direction
which
allow
is: for any number of sets of
allow foris:any number of sets of skewed reinforcement
skewed reinforcement in a slab. For the sign convention
in a slab. For the sign convention shown in Figure 5.2, the applied moment, shown in FigureMn, 5.2,
aboutthean applied
axis perpendicular to the
moment,
M
n-direction
Mn M M
is: n, about
cos 2
2an
axis
M perpendicular
sin 2

2 2M
Mx cos My sin 2 Mxy sin cos to
sin the
cosn-direction
is:
n x y xy
M x cos 2 moments
M n corresponding
The M y sinof2 resistance
2 M xy sin cos (sagging) and negative (hogging)
for
The corresponding moments of resistance forpositive
positive (sagging) and negative (hogging)
bending
bending should be
should be calculated
calculated separately,
separately, based
basedonon(sagging)
reinforcement
reinforcement ininthe
thebottom
bottomand
and top
topfaces
faces
The
The corresponding
corresponding
respectively. For amoments
moments
slab ofjof
with resistance
directions forofpositive
resistance for positive
reinforcement and
(sagging)
in a negative
and
face, (hogging)
negative
the moment bending
(hogging)
of should be
resistance,
respectively.
calculated
**
For a slab with j directions of reinforcement in a face, the moment of resistance,
separately, based on reinforcement in the bottom and top faces respectively. For a slab with j directions
bending
MMn n, is should
, isgiven
givenby:be calculated separately, based on reinforcement
by: in the bottom and top faces
of reinforcement in a face, the moment of resistance, Mn*, is given by:
respectively. For a slab with j directions of reinforcement in a face, the moment of resistance,
Mn*, is given
MMn * by:
* * * *
cos2 MMy sin sin2 22MMxy sinsincos
cos
2 2
MMx *cos * *
n x y xy
* * * *
Mn M cos 2 M*y* sin2 22 2 M xy sin cos
MMx * x ( M
*
x cosi )i )
(M ,i ,i cos
MMy* * ((M
* *
M *sin 22
where
where
where M x y ( M ,i*,i cos
,i
sin 2ii ))i )
MMxy* * ((M
* *
M *sin2 cos )
where M
y xy
( M ,*i sin
,i ,i
sini ) cos i )
ii i
(M
* *
in which a is theMangle between
in the angle between thesin cos
the i-direction reinforcement
)
reinforcement and the x axis and M is the moment
** of resistance
*
inwhich
whichi is i-direction and the x axis and M,i,i isisthe
i xy ,i i i a,i
i is the angle between the i-direction reinforcement and the x axis and M the
of the slab due to the i-direction reinforcement alone. This assumes the reinforcement in different directions acts
moment
momentofofresistance
resistanceofofthe theslab
slabdue
duetotothe
thei-direction
i-directionreinforcement
reinforcementalone. alone.ThisThisassumes
assumes the
the
*
in which
reinforcement
reinforcement
i is the
in angle
differentbetween the
directions i-direction
acts reinforcement
independently. Care and
is the
needed
in different directions acts independently. Care is needed to ensure ,i x axis
to and
ensure M the is the
correct
the correct
moment
sign of resistance
signconvention
convention isisusedofincluding
used the slab due
including forto
for MMthe i-direction
xyxyasasdifferent reinforcement
differentsignsignconventions
conventions alone.
are This assumes
aresometimes
sometimes the
used.
used.
August 2015 in different directions acts independently. Care is needed to ensure the correct
reinforcement A/41
sign
The convention
Theslab
slabhas is usedcapacity
hasadequate
adequate including
capacity for Mxythat,
provided
provided as different
that, for sign
forallallvalues
valuesconventions
ofof,,MMn lies are sometimes
between used.
the values
n lies between the values
ofofMMn*n*calculated
calculatedfor forsagging
saggingand andhogging.
hogging.The Thelimiting
limitingcasecasewhen
whenMM n equals Mn*n*for
n equals M foronly
onlya a
My (M ,i sin i )
(M
* *
M xy ,i sin i cos i )
Amendments to BS 5400-4 * Part 14 BD 44/15
h i is the angle between the i-direction reinforcement and the x axis and M,i is the
nt of resistance of the slab due to the i-direction reinforcement alone. This assumes the
cement in different directions acts independently. Care is needed to ensure the correct
independently. Care is needed to ensure the correct sign convention is used including for Mxy as different sign
nvention is used including for Mxy as different sign conventions are sometimes used.
conventions
Appendix Aare sometimes used. Volume 3 Section 4
Amendments
Appendix to BS 5400-4
A provided that, for all values of , Mn lies between the values Volume Part 14 3BD 44/XX4
Section
b has adequate
The slabcapacity
has adequate capacity provided that, for all values of q, Mn lies between the values of Mn* calculated for
calculated Amendments
forAppendix
sagging to BS
and 5400-4 The limiting case when Mn equals Mn* for only a Part 14 BD 44/XX
hogging.
sagging and hogging.
A The limiting case when Mn equals Mn* for only a single value of qVolume
arises when:
3 Section 4
value of arises when:

* *

M x M x M y M y M xy M xy
*
2

m/yyyy Chapter/Page
Figure 5.2 Forces in a concrete slab

Figure 5.2 Forces in a concrete slab
In voided slabs, the transverse flexural Figure
strength5.2 Forces
must beincalculated
a concreteallowing
slab for the effects of
transverse
In voided slabs, shear the by an appropriate
transverse Figure
analysis
flexural 5.2
strength Forces
(e.g.must in
an analysisa concrete
based on
be calculated slabthe assumption
allowing that the
for the effects of
Intransverse
voided slabs, the transverse
section acts as a flexural strength
Vierendeel frame). must be calculated allowing for the effects of transverse shear by
transverse shear by an appropriate analysis (e.g. an analysis based on the assumption that the
an appropriate
In voided analysis
slabs,acts (e.g.
the an analysis
transverse based strength
flexural on the assumption that the transverse
must be calculated allowingsection
for theacts as a of
effects Vierendeel
transverse section as a Vierendeel frame).
frame).
5.4.3transverse
Resistance shearto byin-plane
an appropriate forces.analysis
When checking (e.g. an analysis
whether based on the assumption
reinforcement can resist athat the
transverse
combination
5.4.3 Resistance section
of two to acts
in-plane as
in-plane a Vierendeel
direct
forcesforces
. When frame).
and checking
an in-plane shear force,
whether allowance
reinforcement must beamade
5.4.3 Resistance to in-plane forces. When checking whether reinforcement cancan resist
resist a combination of two
for the
combinationfact that
of the
twoandprincipal
in-plane stress and
direct shear reinforcement
forcesforce,
and an directions
in-planemust do
shearbeforce,not generally
allowance coincide.
must This
be principal
made
in-plane5.4.3 direct forces
Resistance an in-plane
to in-plane forces . When allowance
checking made for
whether reinforcement the fact that the
can resist a stress and
must
for the befact
reinforcement donethat bythechecking
directions principal
do notthestressstrength
generally and in all directions.
reinforcement
coincide. This must directions
be donedobynot generally
checking the coincide.
strength inThis all directions.
mustcombination
be done by of two in-plane
checking the strengthdirect forces and an in-plane shear force, allowance must be made
in all directions.
for the fact that the principal stress and reinforcement directionseachdo not ofisgenerally coincide.
angle This
IfIfa aslab
slabofof overall
overall thickness
thickness h has h has n directions
n directions of reinforcement,
of reinforcement, each of which which
at angleis aati to the* x-axis (see
i
to must
the x-axisbe done
(see by
Fig. checking
5.2) and the strength
provides a in all directions.
resistive tensile force in its own direction of N ,
If a slaband
Fig. 5.2) of provides
overall thickness
a resistivehtensile has n force
directions
in its ownof reinforcement,
direction of Ni ,each
* then of which
it can is the
resist at angle i
set of in-plane
i
then
forces N it can
to the x-axis
x , N resist
, N
y (seexy
the
if: set of in-plane forces N , N , N if:
Fig. 5.2) and provides a resistive tensile force in its own direction of Ni ,
x y xy
*
thenIfitacan slabresist
of overall
the setthickness
of in-plane h has
forcesn directions
Nx, Ny, Nofxyreinforcement,
if: each of which is at angle i

to the x-axis
N
* (see
cos N
2 Fig. 5.2) and provides
N
*
sin N
2a resistive tensile force *in its own direction of Ni ,
N sin cos N
*

i i x i i y i i i xy
then it can *resist2 the set of in-plane*forces Nx, Ny, Nxy if:
N i cos i N x N i sin 2 i N y N i sin i cos i N xy
*
and
and
and
( N c NNx )* (cos
i
N c 2N
i
y )N
x
N 2 xyN * sin 2 N
2 i
i y N i sin i cos i N xy
*

( N N x ) ( N c N y ) N xy
and c
where Nc = 0.6h fcu/�mc.
where Nc = 0.6h ( N cf /γN .x ) ( N c N y ) N 2 xy
where Nc = 0.6h cu f mc
cu/�mc.
The
5.4.3Awhere
above c = 0.6h fcu/�
Nexpressions
Resistance mc.the general yield criterion for a slab element subjected to in-plane
are
to in-plane forces
(5)
forces .
The above expressions are the general yield criterion for a slab element subjected to in-plane
forces5.4.3A
(5) Resistance to in-plane forces
.
A/42The above expressions are the general yield criterion for a slab element subjected to in-plane August 2015
5.4.4 Shear (5)
resistance of slabs
5.4.4 forces Shear . resistance of slabs

Appendix A expressions are the general yield criterion for a slab element subjectedVolume
The above 3 Section
to in-plane forces 4(5).
5.4.4.1 Shear stress in solid slabs: general. The shear stress, v, at any cross-section in a solid
5.4.4.1 Shear stress in solid slabs: general. The shear stress, v, at any cross-section in a solid slab, must be
slab,
calculatedbefrom:
must calculated from:
V
v = Equation 12
bd Equation 12
where
where
V V is the
is the shear
shearforce
forcedue
duetotoultimate loads;
ultimate loads;
b b is the width of slab under consideration;
is the width of slab under consideration;
d d is the
is effectivedepth
the effective depthtototension reinforcement.
tension reinforcement.
The value of v must not exceed the appropriate maximum value given in 5.3.3.1 for beams.
The value of v must not exceed the appropriate maximum value given in 5.3.3.1 for beams.
The shear capacity must be assessed in accordance with 5.3.3.2 and 5.3.3.3, with the following amendments:
The shear capacity must be assessed in accordance with 5.3.3.2 and 5.3.3.3, with the following
amendments:
(a) bw must be replaced with b in all equations;
(a)(b) bw must
shear be replaced with
reinforcement b in
must notallbeequations;
considered as effective in slabs less than 200mm thick;
(b)(c) shear
thereinforcement must
constant 0.24 in the not be considered
equation for vc mustasbeeffective intoslabs
increased 0.27.less than 200mm thick;
(c) the constant 0.24 in the equation for vc must be increased to 0.27.
August 2015 A/43

A/44
Appendix A
Figure 5 Parameters for shear in solid slabs under concentrated loads

Figure 5 Parameters for shear in solid slabs under concentrated loads
August 2015
Part 14 BD 44/15
Volume 3 Section 4

Figure
Figure 66 Openings
Openings in
in slabs
slabs
5.4.4.2
5.4.4.2 Shear
Shear stresses
stresses in
in solid
solid slabs
slabs under
under concentrated
concentrated loads
loads (including
(including wheel
wheel
loads)
loads).. The
The maximum
maximum shear
shear capacity
Figureof
capacity of6aaOpenings
solid
solid slab under
slab in aa concentrated
slabs
under concentrated load
load must
must not
not exceed:
exceed:
Figure 6 Openings in slabs
5.4.4.2
5.4.4.2 Shear 00..36
36Shear((00stresses
..77 ff cuin// 250
stresses solid f cu d uunder
in) slabs
solid slabs Figure
0 / mcunder
6 concentrated
concentrated Openings loads in (including
slabs
loads (including wheelThe maximum shear
wheel loads).
cu 250) f cu d u 0 / mc
loads)
capacity. Theofmaximuma solid slabshear undercapacity
a concentrated of a solid loadslab must under a concentrated load must not exceed:
not exceed:
where 5.4.4.2
uu0 is the perimeter Shearofstresses the in solid slabs underthe concentrated loads (including wheel
whereloads) 0 is .the The perimeter
maximum the loaded
of shear loaded
capacity
area.
area. of
In
In
a
this
this case
solid case
slab the
under
dispersal
dispersal
a
of
of wheel loads
wheel load
concentrated
allowed
loadsmust
allowed not
in
in
exceed:
BD 0 . 36 ( 0 . 7 1.3.14)
f cu / 250 must) f be
cu d taken
u 0 /
BD 37 (DMRB 1.3.14) must be taken to the top surface of the concrete slab only and not down to
37 (DMRB to
mc the top surface of the concrete slab only and not down to
the
the neutral
neutral axis. axis.
where u0 is the 0 .36 (0.7 of
perimeter f cu loaded / 250) f cu d In / mc
u 0this
where u0 is the perimeter of thethe loadedarea. area. In this case the dispersal of wheel loads allowed in BD 37 (DMRB 1.3.14)
case the dispersal of wheel loads allowed in
must
The be taken
shear to
capacity the top
must surfacebe of
assessed the concrete
on a slab
perimeter only 1.5dand not from down the to the neutralofaxis.
BDThe 37 (DMRB
shear capacity 1.3.14)must mustbebeassessed taken toon thea top surface1.5d
perimeter of the from the boundary
concrete slab only
boundary the
the loaded
ofand not down
loaded area
toas
area as
shown
theThe where
neutral
shown in axis.
incapacityu
Figure
Figure 5(a),
0 is the
5(a), perimeter
where
where d of
is
d is thethe loaded
effective
effective area.
depth
depth In this
to the
tofrom case
the the the
flexural
flexural dispersal
tension
tension of wheel loads
reinforcement.
reinforcement. allowed
Where
Where in
shear
BD 37 (DMRB
concentrated must
loads occur be
1.3.14) assessed
on aamust on a
be taken
cantilever perimeter
slab to or 1.5d
theneartop unsupported boundary
surface of theedges, of
concrete the
the loaded
slab area
onlyportions
relevant as shown
and not of in
down to Figure
concentrated
5(a), where d isloads occur
the effective ondepth cantilever
to the flexural slab or near
tension unsupported
reinforcement. edges,
Where theconcentrated
relevant portions of
loads occur on a
The theshear
the thecapacity
critical
critical neutral
section
section axis.
must must
must be be taken
assessed
be taken edges, as
onthe
as worst
a perimeter
the worst case
case from
1.5d
from from (a),
(a),the (b) or (c)
(c) of
boundary
(b)theorcriticalof Figure 5. For
of the loaded
Figure 5. Forbe aaarea
group
group of
as as
ofthe worst
cantilever slab or near unsupported the relevant portions of section must taken
shownconcentrated
in Figure loads,
5(a), adjacent
where d is loaded
the areas
effective must
depth be toconsidered
the flexural singly
tension and in combination
reinforcement. using
Where the
case from (a), (b) or (c) of Figure 5. For a group of concentrated loads, adjacent loaded areas must bethe
concentrated loads, adjacent loaded areas must be considered singly and in combination using considered
The
preceding
concentrated shear capacity
requirements. must be assessed on a
near unsupported edges, the relevant portions of area as
perimeter 1.5d from the boundary of the loaded
and inloads
preceding
singly requirements.
combination occur onusing a cantilever
the preceding slab orrequirements.
the critical shown section in Figure must be 5(a), takenwhere as the d isworst
the effective
case from depth(a), to (b)the or flexural tension
(c) of Figure reinforcement.
5. For a group of Where
The
concentrated
The concentrated
ultimate
Theultimate
ultimate loads, punching
punching
punching loads
adjacentshear occur
shear
shear loaded on a
capacity, cantilever
areas
capacity,
capacity, Vu, V V
must , is
, isbe
isuugiven slab
given
given
by: or
by:
considered
by: near unsupported
singly and in combination usingportions
edges, the relevant the of
preceding therequirements.
critical section must be taken as the worst case from (a), (b) or (c) of Figure 5. For a group of
concentrated
V
Vuu = = V loads,
c adjacent
Asv sin loaded ( f yv / areasms )
must
11..66be
Vccconsidered
V singly and Equation
in combination13 using the
V c Asv sin ( f yv / ms ) Equation Equation 13 13
The ultimate preceding punching requirements.
shear capacity, Vu, is given by:
IfIfthis
If this
thisThegives
gives
gives V uV
Vuu >
ultimate
>
> 1.6V
1.6V
1.6V c then
c then
punching
thethe
c then shear the following
following
following
capacity,
equation
equation
equation
V
mustmust
mustbe used:be
be used:
used:
Vu = Vc Asv sin ( f yv / ms ) 1.6 Vc by: u, is given Equation 13
V
Vuu V= = 11=..44 V VccV A sin
Asvsv sin (( ff yvyv // ms ) / 3.5 22..00 V
ms ) / 3.5 1 .6 Vc Vcc
u c Asv sin ( f yv / ms ) Equation 13
If this gives Vu > 1.6Vc then the following equation must be used:
In these equations:
In
In these
these equations:
equations:
If this gives 4VVu c>1.6V Acsvthen the( ffollowing
/ ms ) / 3equation 0must be used:
Vfyv
u =is the 1.characteristic, or
sin worst yv credible, .5 2.of
strength Vthe
c shear reinforcement but not greater than
ffyv is
is the 500characteristic,
the N/mm²; or worst credible, strength of the shear reinforcement but
but not
not greater
yv
than Vcharacteristic,
500 = 1.4 Vcorworst
N/mm²; Asvcredible,
sin ( f yvstrength / ms ) / 3of.5theshear 2.0 Vreinforcement greater
In these γequations:
ms than is500 the material
u
N/mm²; partial safety factor for steel given in 4.3.3;
c
��ms α is is the is the

the material
materialinclinationpartial
partial ofsafetythe shear
safety factor
factor for
for steel
reinforcement steel given
givento the in 4.3.3;
inplane
4.3.3;of the slab;
ms
� In
fyv � is c theV these
is
is thethe
is equations:
inclination
the
characteristic, shear
inclination of of
resistance the
or the
worst shear
of
shear the reinforcement
credible,concrete;
reinforcementstrength to to the
of the plane plane
shear of the
the slab;
reinforcement
of slab; but not greater
V SA is is
the the
shear area of
resistance shear reinforcement
of the concrete; within the area between the loaded area and the critical perimeter,
Vc thanis 500
c sv
the
except
N/mm²;
shear resistance
for case (c)(ii)
ofof theFigure
concrete; 5 when it is the area of shear reinforcement within
�ms fyvthe material
is is the characteristic,
partial safety or worst
factor for credible,
steel given strength
in 4.3.3; of the shear reinforcement butanotdistance
greaterfrom the
loadthanequal 500 to the effective depth.
N/mm²;
� is the inclination of the shear reinforcement to the plane of the slab;
VcHowever, �msthe shear
is is the material of
resistance partial safety factor for steel given in 4.3.3;
the concrete;
Mmmm/yyyy shear reinforcement must be considered effective only if SAsvsinα (fyv/γms) > 0.2Chapter/Page Sbd, where Sbd is the
�
Mmmm/yyyy is the inclination of the shear reinforcement to the plane of the slab; Chapter/Page
area of the critical section;
Vc is the shear resistance of the concrete;
August 2015 A/45
Vc must be taken as the sum of the shear resistances of each portion of the critical perimeter (see Figure 5). The
value of 100 As/(bd) to be used to calculate vc from 5.3.3.2 must be derived by considering the effectively anchored
flexural tensile reinforcement associated with each portion, as shown in Figure 5.
The ultimate punching shear capacity must also be checked on perimeters progressively 0.75d from the critical
perimeter. The value of Asv to be used in Equation 13 is the area of shear reinforcement between the perimeter
under consideration and a perimeter 1.5d within the perimeter under consideration.
If a part of a perimeter cannot, physically, extend 1.5d from the boundary of the loaded area, then the part perimeter
must be taken as far from the loaded areas as is physically possible and the value of vc for that part may be
increased by a factor 1.5d/av, where av is the distance from the boundary of the loaded area to the perimeter actually
considered.
When openings in slabs and footings (see Figure 6) are located at a distance less than 6d from the edge of a
concentrated load or reaction, then that part of the periphery of the critical section which is enclosed by radial
projections of the openings to the centroid of the loaded area must be considered as ineffective.
Where one hole is adjacent to the loaded area and its greatest width is less than one-quarter of the side of the loaded
area or one-half of the slab depth, whichever is the lesser, its presence may be ignored.
5.4.4.2A Shear stresses in solid slabs under concentrated loads (including wheel loads)
All shear reinforcement within the critical perimeter is considered effective. The upper limit to the shear force has
been made more conservative and the effectiveness of large areas of links has been reduced in line with BS 8110-1.
The upper limit on fyv has been increased to 500 N/mm2 (see 5.3.3.2A).
The reduction factor of 0.8 in Figure 5 (b) and (c)(i) was introduced into building codes to allow for moment
transfer at edge and corner columns (27).
Enhancement of vc has been permitted for short shear spans.
5.4.4.3 Shear in voided slabs. The longitudinal ribs between the voids must be assessed as beams (see 5.3.3) to
resist the shear forces in the longitudinal direction including any shear due to torsional effects.
The top and bottom flanges, acting as solid slabs, must each be capable of resisting a part of the global transverse
shear force proportional to the flange thickness. The top flange of a rectangular voided slab must be capable of
resisting the punching effect due to wheel loads (see 5.4.4.2). Where wheel loads may punch through the slab as a
whole, this must also be checked.
The longitudinal shear resistance of a circular voided slab may be calculated in accordance with the formulae below
provided that the following criteria are met:
i. φ/b is not greater than 0.8, where φ is the diameter of the void and b is the distance between void centres.
ii. φ/h is no greater than 0.75 where h is the overall depth of the slab.
iii. The thickness of the compression flange is not be less than 0.35(h-φ).
The shear capacity of a circular voided slab, Vcv, can then be derived from:
Vcv = K Vc'
A/46 August 2015

where
Vc' is the shear resistance of the solid slab ignoring the presence of voids, calculated in accordance with 5.4.4.2.
K is a variable reduction factor based on the structure’s geometry and may be taken as:
K = 1 - {0.4(φ/b) + 0.6(φ/b)2.5}
Alternatively, the web between the voids may be assessed in accordance with 5.3.3.5.
5.4.4.3A Shear in voided slabs
The BS 5400-4 requirement to include shear due to torsion when checking the flanges has been omitted because the
torsional shear flow in a flange is perpendicular to the flexural shear flow. Alternative methods of checking flanges
for transverse effects, which are based on Vierendeel action, are available (4).
The formulae for the longitudinal shear resistance of a circular voided slab are based on reference (28). Guidance on the
punching of loads through a voided slab as a whole is given in reference (29).
5.4.5 Deflection of slabs. If required by the Overseeing Organisation, deflections may be calculated in
accordance with 4.2.4 and 4.6.
5.4.6 Crack control in slabs. If required by the Overseeing Organisation, flexural crack widths in slabs may be
calculated in accordance with 5.8.8.2.
5.4.7 Torsion in slabs
5.4.7.1 Slab interior. The assessment of interior regions of slabs to resist twisting moments must be in
accordance with 5.4.2.
5.4.7.2 Slab edges. This sub-clause is concerned with slab edge zones of width equal to the overall depth of the
slab.
An edge zone must be capable of resisting a total shear force of (Vtbe + Mnt) when assessed in accordance with
5.3.3, with bw taken as the width of the edge zone (be) which may be assumed to be equal to the slab overall depth
(h). Vt is the flexural shear force per unit width at the edge acting on a vertical plane perpendicular to the edge, and
Mnt is the twisting moment per unit length in the slab adjacent to the edge zone referred to axes perpendicular (n)
and parallel (t) to the edge.
5.5 Columns
5.5.1 General
5.5.1.1 Definitions. A reinforced concrete column is a compression member whose greater lateral dimension is
less than or equal to four times its lesser lateral dimension, and in which the reinforcement is taken into account when
considering its strength.
A column must be considered as short if the ratio le/h in each plane of buckling is less than 12, where:
le is the effective height in the plane of buckling under consideration;

h is the depth of the cross-section in the plane of buckling under consideration.
August 2015 A/47

Otherwise it must be considered as slender.
5.5.1.2 Effective height of column. The effective height, le, in a given plane may be obtained from Table 11
where lo is the clear height between end restraints.
The values given in Table 11 are based on the following assumptions:
(a) rotational restraint is at least 4(EI)c/lo for cases 1,2 and 4 to 6, and 8(EI)c/lo for case 7, (EI)c being the
flexural rigidity of the column cross-section;
(b) lateral and rotational rigidity of elastomeric bearings are zero.
Case 4 from Table 11 may be used for columns which are restrained at the base and which have roller bearings at
the top, provided the rollers are equipped with racks or other effective means to maintain them in position.
Where a more accurate evaluation of the effective height is required or where the end stiffness values are less than
those values given in (a), the effective heights must be derived from first principles.
The accommodation of movements and the method of articulation will influence the degree of restraint developed
for columns. These factors must be assessed as accurately as possible using engineering principles based on elastic
theory and taking into account all relevant factors such as foundation flexibility, type of bearings, articulation
system.
5.5.1.2A Effective height of column
The effective heights in Table 11 relate to idealised situations. In design, the designer can compare the actual
bearing condition with the idealised conditions of Table 11 and choose a conservative effective height. This
approach is also applicable to assessment. However, in assessment, it may be necessary to make a more accurate
estimate of the effective height in order to prove the adequacy of a particular column. The assessor should then
consult specialist literature (30-32). Reference should also be made to 5.8.3.2 of BS EN 1992-1-1.
5.5.1.3 Slenderness limits for columns. In each plane of buckling, the ratio le/h must not exceed 60. If this
slenderness limit is exceeded a full non-linear analysis should be undertaken.
5.5.1.3A Slenderness limits for columns
The BS 5400-4 slenderness limit of le/h of 40 was chosen because it was considered to be a practical upper limit (4).
However, the study (33) on which the BS 5400-4 column sub-clauses are based, included le/h values of up to 60.
Hence, the latter limit, which was also in BS 5400-4:1978, has been adopted in the assessment code.
The BS 5400-4 limit on le/h of 30 for a column not restrained in position at one end is intended to control service
load lateral displacements. It has been omitted from the assessment code which is concerned predominantly with
ultimate rather than service load behaviour.
When a full non-linear analysis is required, it may be performed in accordance with the method described in 5.8.6
of BS EN 1992-1-1, using the stress-strain relationships and material properties for concrete and steel defined in
4.3.2, with the effect of creep allowed for by multiplying all strain values in the concrete stress-strain diagram by a
factor of 2.
5.5.1.4 Assessment of strength. Sub-clauses 5.5.2 to 5.5.8 give methods for assessing the strength of columns
at the ultimate limit state, which are based on a number of assumptions. These methods may be used provided
the assumptions are realized for the case being considered and the effective height is determined accurately.
A/48 August 2015

In addition, for columns subject to applied bending moments, crack widths may need to be calculated at the
serviceability limit state if required by the Overseeing Organisation (see 4.1).
Table
Table 1111 Effective
Effective height,lel,e,for
height, forcolumns
columns
5.5.2 Moments and forces in columns. The moments, shear forces and axial forces in a column must be
determined in accordance with 4.4, except that if the column is slender the moments induced by deflection must be
considered. An allowance for these additional moments is made in the assessment requirements for slender columns
which follow, and the bases or other members connected to the ends of such columns must also be capable of
resisting these additional moments.
In columns with end moments it is generally necessary to consider the maximum and minimum ratios of moment to
axial load.
August 2015 A/49
5.5.3 Short columns subject to axial load and bending about the minor axis
5.5.3.1 General. A short column must be assessed at the ultimate limit state in accordance with the following
requirements provided that the moment at any cross-section has been increased by that moment caused by the
actual eccentricity of the (assumed) axial load arising from construction tolerances. If the actual eccentricity has not
been determined, the construction tolerance eccentricity must be taken as equal to 0.05 times the overall depth of
the cross-section in the plane of bending, but not more than 20mm.
5.5.3.2 Analysis of sections. When analysing a column cross-section to determine its ultimate resistance to
moment and axial load, the following assumptions must be made:
(a) The strain distribution in the concrete in compression and the compressive and tensile strains in the
reinforcement are derived from the assumption that plane sections remain plane.
(b) The stresses in the concrete in compression are either derived from the stress-strain curve in Figure 1 with
the appropriate value of γmc from 4.3.3.3, or taken as equal to 0.6 fcu/γmc over the whole compression zone
where this is rectangular or circular. In both cases, the concrete strain at the outermost fibre at failure is
taken as 0.0035.
(c) The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
(d) The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from 4.3.2.2 with the appropriate value of γms from 4.3.3.3.
For rectangular and circular columns the following assessment methods, based on the preceding assumptions, may
be used. For other column shapes, assessment methods must be derived from first principles using the preceding
assumptions.
See comment on 5.3.2.1A regarding the enhancement of concrete strength and failure strain arising from restraining
links or helical binding.
5.5.3.3
Appendix A charts for rectangular and circular columns. “Not applicable to assessment”
Design Volume 3 Section 4
Appendix A
Amendments to BS 5400-4 Volume
Part 14 3BD
Section
44/XX4
5.5.3.4 Assessment
Amendments to BS formulae
5400-4 for rectangular columns. The following formulae (based Part on
14 aBD
concrete
44/XX stress of 0.6
fcu/γmc over the whole compression zone and the assumptions in 5.5.3.2) may be used for the analysis of a rectangular
column havingaxial
the ultimate longitudinal
load, N,reinforcement
and the ultimatein themoment,
two facesM,
parallel
musttonottheexceed
axis ofthe
bending,
valueswhether that M
of Nu and reinforcement
u
the ultimate
isgiven
symmetrical axial load, N,
or not. Both
by Equations and
the15
14 and the
ultimate ultimate
for theaxial moment,
load, N, and
appropriate M, must
theof
value not
ultimate exceed the values of N and M
dc. moment, M, must not exceed the values
u u of Nu
given by Equations 14 and 15 for the appropriate value of
and Mu given by Equations 14 and 15 for the appropriate value of cdc. d .
Nu = (0.6 f cu / mc ) bd c + ( f y / ms ) A'sl + f s2 As2 Equation 14
Nu = (0.6 f cu / mc ) bd c + ( f y / ms ) A'sl + f s2 As2 Equation
Equation 14 14
h
Mu = (0.3 f cu / mc ) bd c (h d c ) + ( f y / ms ) A'sl ( h d’ ) Equation 15
Mu = (0.3 f cu / mc ) bd c (h d c ) + ( f y / ms ) A'sl ( 2 d’ )
2 Equation 15
h Equation 15
f s2 A s2 ( h d 2 )
f s2 A s2 ( 2 d 2 )
2
where
where
where
N N is the
is the ultimate
ultimate axial
axialload
loadapplied
appliedononthe
thesection considered;
section considered;
N
M is the moment applied about the axis consideredconsidered;
is the ultimate axial load applied on the section due to ultimate loads including the
M is the moment applied about the axis considered
allowance for construction tolerance (see 5.5.3.1); due to ultimate loads including the
allowance for construction tolerance (see 5.5.3.1);
Nu, Mu are the ultimate axial load and bending capacities of the section for the particular value of
Nu, Mu are the ultimate axial load and bending capacities of the section for the particular value of
dc assumed;
A/50 d assumed; August 2015
fcu is the characteristic, or worst credible, cube strength of the concrete;
c
fbcu is the
is the characteristic, or worst credible, cube strength of the concrete;
breadth of the section;
b is the breadth of the section;
M is the moment applied about the axis considered due to ultimate loads including the allowance for
construction tolerance (see 5.5.3.1);
Nu, Mu are the ultimate axial load and bending capacities of the section for the particular value of dc assumed;
fcu is the characteristic, or worst credible, cube strength of the concrete;
b is the breadth of the section;
dc is the depth of concrete in compression assumed subject to a minimum value of 2d';
A'sl is the area of compression reinforcement in the more highly compressed face;
fs2 is the stress in the reinforcement in the other face, derived from Figure 2 and taken as negative if tensile;
As2 is the area of reinforcement in the other face which may be considered as being:
(1) in compression,
(2) inactive, or
(3) in tension,
as the resultant eccentricity of load increases and dc decreases from h to 2d';
h is the overall depth of the section in the plane of bending;
d' is the depth from the surface to the reinforcement in the more highly compressed face;
d2 is the depth from the surface to the reinforcement in the other face;
fy is the characteristic or worst credible strength of reinforcement.
5.5.3.5 Simplified design formulae for rectangular columns. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.5.4 Short columns subject to axial load and either bending about the major axis or biaxial bending. The
moment about each axis due to ultimate loads must be increased by that moment caused by the actual eccentricity
arising from construction tolerances of the (assumed) axial load. If the actual eccentricity has not been determined, the
construction tolerance eccentricity must be taken as equal to 0.03 times the overall depth of the cross-section in the
appropriate
Appendixplane
A of bending, but not more than 20mm. Volume 3 Section 4
Appendix
For A rectangular columns having a symmetrical arrangement of reinforcement
square and Volume 3 Section
about 4 the
each axis,
Amendments
section to BS 5400-4
may be analysed for axial load
n and bending about each axis in accordance Part
with 14
any BD
one 44/XX
of the methods of
n
M
M
n
assessment given
x
in 5.5.3.2 M
n or 5.5.3.4.
y
The following relationship must be satisfied:
Mx + y 1 .0 Equation 16
M ux n + M uy n 1 .0 Equation 16
M
M x
ux M
M uyy
+ 1.0 Equation
Equation1616
where M ux
where M uy
M x, M y
where
where are the moments about the major x-x axis and minor y-y axis respectively due
M x, M y are the moments about the major x-x axis and minor y-y axis respectively due
to ultimate loads including the allowance for construction tolerances (see
MM , M are the to ultimate
moments loads
about including
the about
major the the allowance
x-x major
axis and minor for axis
construction tolerances (see loads including
x x, My y preceding paragraph);
are the moments
preceding paragraph); x-x axisy-yand minorrespectively
y-y axisdue to ultimate
respectively due
Mux the allowance
is the
to the for
ultimateconstruction
ultimate
loadsmoment tolerances
includingcapacity (see preceding
about
the allowance the paragraph);
major
for x-x axis
construction assuming an
tolerancesan(seeultimate
MM ux
ux is
is the ultimate
axial
ultimate
moment
load
moment
capacity
capacity,
capacity
Nuabout
aboutx-x
the major
, not less than the
theaxismajor x-x axis
valueassuming
assuming
an ultimate
of the ultimate axial
axial load,
ultimate
load
N;capacity, Nu, not
preceding
axial load paragraph);
capacity, N , not less than the value of the ultimate axial load, N;
M less thanisthe
thevalue of
ultimatethe ultimate
moment u axial load, N;
capacity about the minor y-y axis assuming
assuming an an ultimate
Muy uy is the
the ultimate
ultimate moment
moment capacity
capacity about
about the
the minor
major x-x
y-y axis an ultimate
MM ux is
is the ultimate
axial moment
load capacity
capacity, N about the minor y-y axis assuming axis
an assuming
ultimate axial ultimate
load capacity, Nu,
uu,, not less than the value of the ultimate axial load, N;
uy
axial
axial load
load capacity,
capacity, N
N
not less than the value of the ultimate
u , not
not less
less than
than the
the
axial load, N; value
value of
of the
the ultimate
ultimate axial
axial load,
load, N;
N;
�
M n uy is givenisby:the ultimate moment capacity about the minor y-y axis assuming an ultimate
α�n n is
is given by:
by:
axial load capacity, Nu, not less than the value of the ultimate axial load, N;
ngiven= 0.67 + 1.66 N / N but not < 1.0 and not > 2.0
�n n is = by:0.67 + 1.66 N u / N uz
u uz butnot
but not< <1.01.0
andand
notnot > 2.0
> 2.0
where = 0.67 + 1.66 N u / N uz but not < 1.0 and not > 2.0
where n
where
NN
where
uzuz is
is the axial loading
loadingcapacity
capacityofofa acolumn
columnignoring
ignoring
allall bending,
bending, taken
taken as: as:
Nuz
is the axial loading capacity of a column ignoring all bending, taken as:
Nuz Nthe f cu / mc )ofAac +
= (0.675 capacity f A ignoring all bending, taken as:
Equation1717
isN uz axial
uz = loading
(0.675 f cu / mc ) Ac + f yy Ascsc Equation
column Equation 17
fcu and fyNare

uz as= (0.675
defined f cu / mc ) Ac + f y Asc
in 5.5.3.4 Equation 17
fcu and fy are as defined in 5.5.3.4
A is the area of concrete
Acc
August is the area of concrete
2015 A/51
A
fcusc is the total
scand fy are area of longitudinal reinforcement.
A is theas defined
total in longitudinal
area of 5.5.3.4 reinforcement.
Ac is the area of concrete
For
A other
is column
the totalsections, assessment reinforcement.
area of longitudinal must be in accordance with 5.5.3.2.
fcu and fy are as defined in 5.5.3.4
Ac is the area of concrete

Asc is the total area of longitudinal reinforcement.
For other column sections, assessment must be in accordance with 5.5.3.2.
5.5.4A Short columns subject to axial load and either bending about the major axis or biaxial bending
The expression for αn gives the same values as Table 12 of BS 5400-4. It should be noted that the αn values are
conservative (4). Hence, a column which is apparently inadequate when using Equation 16 could, possibly, be
shown to be adequate if assessed in accordance with 5.5.3.2.
The BS 5400-4 sub-clause states that Equation 16 is also applicable to circular columns. However, a circular
column subject to biaxial bending can be assessed for the resultant moment about a single axis.
5.5.5 Slender columns

Amendments to BS
5.5.5.1 General. The5400-4
cross-section of a slender column may be assessed by the methods Part 14given
BD for
44/XX
a short column
(see 5.5.3 and 5.5.4) but, in the assessment, account must be taken of the additional moments induced in the column
by its deflection. For slender columns of constant rectangular or circular cross-section having a symmetrical
sufficient tooflimit
arrangement the minimum
reinforcement, value ofmust
the column moment to not
be able less than
to resist the allowance
the ultimate given
axial load, in 5.5.3 or
N, together with the
5.5.4, respectively.
moments Mtx and Mty derived in accordance with 5.5.5.4. Alternatively, the simplified formulae given in 5.5.5.2 and
5.5.5.3 may be used where appropriate; in this case the moment due to ultimate loads need not be increased by the
5.5.5.1A for construction
allowance General tolerances given in 5.5.3 and 5.5.4; it will be sufficient to limit the minimum value of
The additional
moment to not lessmoment
than theapproach
allowancetogiven
allowing fororlateral
in 5.5.3 column deflection of 5.5.5.2 to
5.5.4, respectively.
5.5.5.4 can be very conservative for certain end restraint conditions (32). Hence, in some cases
it may be preferable to carry out a full non-linear analysis (32-36), which may be performed in
5.5.5.1A General
accordance with the method described in 5.8.6 of BS EN 1992-1-1, using the stress-strain
The additional moment
relationships approach
and material to allowing
properties for lateraland
for concrete column
steeldeflection
defined in of 5.5.5.2 to 5.5.5.4
4.3.2, with can beofvery
the effect
conservative
creep allowedfor certain
for by end restraint conditions
multiplying
(32)
all strain values. Hence, in some
in the casesstress-strain
concrete it may be preferable
diagramtobycarry
a out a full
non-linear analysis (32-36), which may be performed in accordance with the method described in 5.8.6 of BS EN
factor of 2. A circular column subject to biaxial bending can be assessed for the resultant
1992-1-1,
moment using
aboutthe stress-strain
a single axis. relationships and material properties for concrete and steel defined in 4.3.2, with
the effect of creep allowed for by multiplying all strain values in the concrete stress-strain diagram by a factor of 2.
A circular column subject to biaxial bending can be assessed for the resultant moment about a single axis.
5.5.5.2 Slender columns bent about a minor axis. A slender column of constant cross-
section bent about the minor
5.5.5.2 Slender columns benty-y axisa must
about minorbeaxis.
assessed for its
A slender ultimate
column axial load,
of constant N, together
cross-section bentwith
about the minor
the moment M given by:
y-y axis must be assessed for its ultimate axial load, N, together with the moment M given by:
ty
ty
2
Nh x l e ) 0.0035 l e
M ty = M iy + ( (1 ) Equation
Equation1818
1750 h x hx
where
where
MM
iy is the
is the initial
initial moment
momentdueduetotoultimate
ultimateloads,
loads,but
butnotnot
less than
less thatthat
than corresponding to the
corresponding to allowance
the for
iy
construction tolerances as given in 5.5.3;
allowance for construction tolerances as given in 5.5.3;
hx is the overall depth of the cross-section in the plane of bending M ;
h is the overall depth of the cross-section in the plane of bendingiyMiy;
le x is the effective height either in the plane of bending or in the plane at right-angles, whichever is greater.
le is the effective height either in the plane of bending or in the plane at right-angles,
whichever is greater.
For a column fixed in position at both ends where no transverse loads occur in its height the value
of Miy may be reduced to:
A/52 M iy = 0 .4 M 1 + 0 . 6 M 2 Equation 19 August 2015
where
Miy allowance
is the initialfor construction
moment due totolerances as given
ultimate loads, but in
not5.5.3;
less than that corresponding to the
hx is the overall depth of the cross-section in
allowance for construction tolerances as given in 5.5.3; the plane of bending Miy;
hlex
Volume
is the
the effective
isSection
3whichever
overall height
depth
4 is greater.
of either in the planeinofthe
the cross-section bending or bending
plane of in the plane
Miy;at right-angles, Appendix A
le 14 BD
Part is the
44/15effective height either in the plane of bending or in the plane at right-angles, Amendments to BS 5400-4
whichever is greater.
For a column fixed in position at both ends where no transverse loads occur in its height the value
of
ForM may befixed reducedposition
to:
a acolumn
iycolumn
For fixed in in at both
position at both ends ends where
where no transverse
no transverse loadsloads
occuroccur
in its in its height
height the value
the value of Miy may be
of
reduced M may
iy to: be reduced to:
M iy = 0.4 M 1 + 0.6M 2 Equation 19
M iy = 0.4 M 1 + 0.6M 2 Equation Equation 1919
where
where
where
M1 is the smaller initial end moment due to ultimate loads (assumed negative if the column is
MM 1 is the
theinsmaller
bent
is doubleinitial
smaller end
endmoment
curvature):
initial momentdue duetotoultimate
ultimate loads
loads(assumed
(assumednegative
negativeif the column
if the is bent
column is in double
1
M2 curvature):
is theinlarger initial end moment due to ultimate loads (assumed positive).
bent double curvature):
M2 is the larger initial end moment due to ultimate loads (assumed positive).
M2 is the larger initial end moment due to ultimate loads (assumed positive).
Miy must not be taken as less than 0.4 M2 or such that Mty is less than M2.
5.5.5.3 Slender columns bent about a major axis. When the overall depth of its cross-section,
5.5.5.3 Slender columns bent about a major axis. When the overall depth of its cross-section, hy, is less than
hAppendix
y, istimes
less A three
than Volume 3 Section
be 4 axial
5.5.5.3
three
Appendix Slender
the
A width, htimes
columns the width,
bent abouthax, major
a slenderaxiscolumn
. Whenbent
the about
overallthe major
depth
x, a slender column bent about the major x-x axis must be assessed
x-x
ofVolume axis
for3must
its cross-section,
its ultimate
Section 4
hassessed
load,y, isN,
Amendments less for
than
togetheritsthree
ultimate
towith times
the
BS 5400-4
axial
the load,
moment MtxN,
width, hxtogether
given, a by:
slenderwith the moment
column Mtx given
bent about by: x-x axis must be
the major Part 14 BD 44/XX
assessed for its ultimate axial load, N, together with the moment Mtx given by:
2
where Nh y l e 0.0035 l e
where M tx = M ix + 1750 ( ) 2 (1 ) Equation Equation 2020
Nh y hl ex 0.0035
h x le
= M ix +
M txas defined ( ) (1 ) Equation 20
le, hx are in 5.5.5.2;
1750 h x h
lMe, hx
where ix
are as initial
is the defined in 5.5.5.2;
moment
x
due to ultimate loads, but not less than that corresponding to the
Mix is the initial moment
allowance for construction due totolerances
ultimate loads,
as givenbut in
not5.5.4;
less than that corresponding to the
leh, yhx allowance
arethe
is as overallfordepth
defined construction
in 5.5.5.2; tolerances asingiven
of the cross-section in 5.5.4;
the plane of bending Mix.
h
Mix y is
is the initial moment due to ultimate loads, but not lessofthan
the overall depth of the cross-section in the plane bending Mix.
that corresponding to the allowance for
Where hconstruction tolerances as given in 5.5.4;
y is equal to or greater than three times hx, the column must be considered as bi-axially
Chapter/Page
hWhere hisy is
theequal to or
overall greater
depth than
of the three timesinhthe
cross-section x, the column
plane must be
of bending M considered
. asMmmm/yyyy
bi-axially
loaded with the moment about the minor axis equal to that due to construction
y ix tolerances (see
loaded
5.5.3). with the moment about the minor axis equal to that due to construction tolerances (see
5.5.3).hy is equal to or greater than three times hx, the column must be considered as bi-axially loaded with the
Where
moment about the minor axis equal to that due to construction tolerances (see 5.5.3).
5.5.5.4 Slender columns bent about both axes. A slender column bent about both axes must be
5.5.5.4
assessedSlender columnsaxial
for its ultimate bentload,
about
N, both axeswith
together . A slender column
the column
moments bent
Mabout about both axes must be
tx about its major axis and Mty
5.5.5.4
assessed Slender
for columns
its ultimate bent
axial about both axes. A slender bent
load, N, together with the moments Mtx about bothitsaxes
majormust beand
axis assessed
Mty for its
about its
ultimate minor
axial load,axis,
N, given
togetherby:
with the moments M about its major axis and M about its minor axis, given by:
about its minor axis, given by: tx ty
2
Nh y l ex 2 0.0035 l ex
M tx = M ix + Nh y ( l ex ) (1 0.0035 l ex ) Equation
Equation2121
M tx = M ix + 1750 ( h y ) (1 hy ) Equation 21
1750 h y 2 hy
Nh x l ey 2 0.0035 l ey
M ty = M iy + Nh x ( l ey ) (1 0.0035 l ey ) Equation 22
M ty = M iy + 1750 ( h x ) (1 hx ) Equation
Equation2222
1750 h x hx
where
where
where
h ,h
x y are as defined in 5.5.5.2 and 5.5.5.3 respectively;
hh x,xh
,ixyh y are
are as
as defined
defined inin5.5.5.2
5.5.5.2 and 5.5.5.3
5.5.5.3respectively;
MM
M is
is
the
the
initial moment
initial
moment dueand
due
toultimate
to
ultimate respectively;
loads about
loads
the x-x axis, including the allowance for
ix ix is the initial
construction moment
tolerancesdue to
(see ultimate
5.5.4); loadsabout thethe
about x-xx-x
axis, including
axis, the the
including allowance for construction
allowance for
tolerances (see
construction 5.5.4); (see 5.5.4);
tolerances
MM Miy is
is the
the initial moment
initial moment duetotoultimate
due ultimateloads
loads about the y-y axis, including the allowance for
iy
iy is the initial moment
construction tolerancesdue(see
to ultimate
5.5.4); loadsabout thethe
about y-yy-y
axis, including
axis, the the
including allowance for construction
allowance for
tolerances (see 5.5.4);
lex construction
is tolerances
heightinin(see 5.5.4);
lex is the effective
the effective height respect
respect ofofbending
bending about
about thethe major
major axis;
axis;
llex is
is the
the effective
effective height
height in
in respect
respect of
of bending
bending about
about the
the major
minor axis;
axis.
ley ey is the effective height in respect of bending about the minor axis.
ley is the effective height in respect of bending about the minor axis.
5.5.6 Shear resistance of columns. A column subject to uniaxial shear due to ultimate loads
5.5.6
must beShear resistance
assessed of columns
in accordance . A column
with 5.3.3 exceptsubject
that thetoultimate
uniaxialshear
shearstress,
due to�sultimate loads
vc, may be
must be assessed
multiplied by: in accordance with 5.3.3 except that the ultimate shear stress, � v
s c, may be
multiplied by:
August 2015 A/53
0.15 N
1 + 0.15 N
1 + Ac
Miy
Miy is the
is the initial
initial moment
moment due
due toto ultimate
ultimate loads
loads about
about the
the y-y
y-y axis,
axis, including
including the
the allowance
allowance for
for
construction tolerances (see 5.5.4);
construction tolerances (see 5.5.4);
l
lex
Appendix
ex isAthe
is the effective
effective height
height in
in respect
respect of
of bending
bending about
about the
the major
major axis;
axis; Volume 3 Section 4
l
ley is the effective
is thetoeffective
Amendments
ey BS 5400-4 height
height in respect of bending about the minor axis.
in respect of bending about the minor axis. Part 14 BD 44/15
5.5.6
5.5.6 Shear
Shear resistance
resistance of
of columns
columns.. A A column
column subject
subject to
to uniaxial
uniaxial shear
shear due
due to
to ultimate
ultimate loads
loads
must
must
5.5.6 be
be assessed
assessed in
in accordance
accordance with
with 5.3.3
5.3.3 except
except that
that the
the ultimate
ultimate shear
shear stress,
stress, �
�
Shear resistance of columns. A column subject to uniaxial shear due to ultimate v
v ,
, may
may be
be
s c loads must be assessed
s c
inmultiplied
accordanceby:
multiplied by:
with 5.3.3 except that the ultimate shear stress, ξsvc, may be multiplied by:
0.15 N
+ 0.15 N
11 +
A
Acc
where
where
where
N
N is
is the
the ultimate
ultimate axial
axial load
load (in
(in Newtons)
Newtons) << 0.11f cu A
0.11fcu Acc
N
A is
is the
the ultimate
area of axial
the load
entire (in Newtons)
concrete <
section0.11f
(in A
mm²)
Ac is the area of the entire concrete section (in mm²)
cu c
Ac c is the area of the entire concrete section (in mm²)
A column subjected to biaxial shear due to ultimate loads must satisfy the expression:
AAcolumn
columnsubjected
subjected
to to biaxial
biaxial shear
shear duedue to ultimate
to ultimate loads
loads mustmust satisfy
satisfy the expression:
the expression:
V xx
V V
V yy
+
+ 1.0
1.0
V ux
V ux V
V uy
uy
where Vx and Vy are the applied shears due to ultimate loads for the x-x axis and y-y axis respectively, and Vux and
Vuy are the corresponding ultimate shear capacities of the concrete and link reinforcement for the x-x and y-y axis
respectively, derived allowing for the enhancement factor given in this clause.
In calculating the ultimate shear capacity of a circular column, the area of longitudinal reinforcement As to be
Mmmm/yyyy
Chapter/Page
used to calculate vc must be taken as the area of reinforcement which is in the half of the column opposite the
extreme compression fibre. The effective depth must be taken as the distance from the extreme fibre with maximum
compression to the centroid of this reinforcement. The web width must be taken as the column diameter.
5.5.6A Shear resistance of columns
The shear strength enhancement factor to allow for the axial load is that adopted in BS EN 1992-1-1 and is less
conservative than the BS 5400-4 factor. The requirements for calculating the shear capacity of a circular column are
based on those in reference (37).
5.5.7 Crack control in columns. When required, a column subjected to bending must be considered as a beam
for the purpose of calculating flexural crack widths (see 5.8.8.2).
5.5.8 Bearing on columns. Bearing stresses due to ultimate loads of a purely local nature, as at girder bearings,
must be limited in accordance with 7.2.3.3.
5.6 Reinforced concrete walls
5.6.1 General
5.6.1.1 Definition. A reinforced wall is a vertical load-bearing concrete member whose greater lateral dimension
is more than four times its lesser lateral dimension, and in which the reinforcement is taken into account when
considering its strength.
Retaining walls, wing walls, abutments, piers and other similar elements subjected principally to bending
moments, and where the ultimate axial load is less than 0.1 fcu Ac, may be treated as cantilever slabs and assessed in
accordance with 5.4. In other cases, this sub-clause applies.
A reinforced wall must be considered as either short or slender. In a similar manner to columns, a wall must be
considered as short where the ratio of its effective height to its thickness does not exceed 12. It must otherwise be
considered as slender.
A/54 August 2015

5.6.1.2 Limits to slenderness. The slenderness ratio is the ratio of the effective height of the wall to its thickness.
The effective height must be obtained from Table 11. When the wall is restrained in position at both ends and the
reinforcement complies with the requirements of 5.8.4, the slenderness ratio must not exceed 40 unless more than 1%
of vertical reinforcement is provided, when the slenderness ratio may be up to 45.
When the wall is not restrained in position at one end the slenderness ratio must not exceed 30.
5.6.1.2A Limits to slenderness
See comments in 5.5.1.2A and 5.5.1.3A.
5.6.2 Forces and moments in reinforced concrete walls. Forces and moments must be calculated in accordance
with 4.4 except that, if the wall is slender, the moments induced by deflection must also be considered. The distribution
of axial and horizontal forces along a wall from the loads on the superstructure must be determined by analysis and
their points of application decided by the nature and location of the bearings. For walls fixed to the deck, the moments
must similarly be determined by elastic analysis.
Unless the actual eccentricity of load is determined, the moment per unit length in the direction at right-angles
to a wall must be taken as not less than 0.05 nwh, where nw is the ultimate axial load per unit length and h is the
thickness of the wall. Moments in the plane of a wall can be calculated from statics for the most severe positioning
of the relevant loads.
Where the axial load is non-uniform, consideration must be given to deep beam effects and the distribution of
axial loads per unit length of wall. It will generally be necessary to consider the maximum and minimum ratios of
moment to axial load in assessing a wall.
5.6.3 Short reinforced walls resisting moments and axial forces. Each cross-section of the wall must be capable
of resisting the appropriate ultimate axial load and the transverse moment per unit length calculated in accordance
with 5.6.2. The assumptions made when analysing beam sections (see 5.3.2.1) apply, also when the wall is subject to
significant bending only in the plane of the wall.
When the wall is subjected to significant bending both in the plane of the wall and at right-angles to it,
consideration must be given first to bending in the plane of the wall in order to establish a distribution of tension
and compression along the length of the wall. The resulting tension and compression must then be combined with
the compression due to the ultimate axial load to determine the combined axial load per unit length of wall. This
may be done by an elastic analysis assuming a linear distribution along the wall.
The bending moment at right-angles to the wall must then be considered and the section checked for this moment
and the resulting compression or tension per unit length at various points along the wall length, using the
assumptions of 5.3.2.1.
5.6.4 Slender reinforced walls. The distribution of axial load along a slender reinforced wall must be determined
as for a short wall. The critical portion of wall must then be considered as a slender column of unit width and assessed
as such in accordance with 5.5.5.
5.6.4A Slender reinforced walls
See comment in 5.5.5.1A.
5.6.5 Shear resistance of reinforced walls. A wall subject to uniaxial shear due to ultimate loads must be assessed
in accordance with 5.4.4.1 except that the ultimate shear stress, ξsvc, may be multiplied by:
August 2015 A/55

See comment in 5.5.5.1A.
5.6.5 Shear
Appendix A resistance of reinforced walls. A wall subject to uniaxial shear due to ultimate
Volume 3 Section 4
loads must be
Amendments to assessed
BS 5400-4in accordance with 5.4.4.1 except that the ultimate shear stress, �svc, may
Part 14 BD 44/15
be multiplied by:
0.15 N
1 +
Appendix A Ac Volume 3 Section 4
where
where
N
N is
is the
the ultimate load(in
ultimate load (inNewtons)
Newtons)<<0.11f
0.11fcu Ac;
cu Ac;
AA
c
c is
is the
the area of entire
area of entireconcrete
concretesection
section(in(inmm²).
mm²).
AAwall
wallsubject
subject
to to biaxial
biaxial shear
shear duedue to ultimate
to ultimate loads
loads mustmust satisfy
satisfy the expression:
the expression:
Vx Vy
+ 1.0
V ux V uy
where
where
Vx and Vy are the applied shears due to ultimate loads for the x-x axis and y-y axis respectively;
Vx and Vy are the applied shears due to ultimate loads for the x-x axis and y-y axis respectively;
VV ux and Vuy are the corresponding ultimate shear capacities of the concrete and link reinforcement
ux and Vuy are the corresponding ultimate shear capacities of the concrete and link reinforcement for the x-x axis
for the axis
and y-y x-x respectively,
axis and y-y derived
axis respectively,
allowing forderived allowing for
the enhancement the given
factor enhancement factor given in
in this clause.
this clause.
Seecomment
See commentonon 5.5.6.
5.5.6.
5.6.6
5.6.6 Deflection of
Deflection ofreinforced
reinforcedwalls.
wallsDeflections of walls
. Deflections needneed
of walls not be calculated.
not be calculated.
5.6.7 Crack control
5.6.7 Crack controlininreinforced
reinforcedwalls.
walls If.required, flexural
If required, crackcrack
flexural widths in walls
widths in subject to bending
walls subject to must be
calculated in accordance with 5.8.8.2.
bending must be calculated in accordance with 5.8.8.2.
5.7 Bases
5.7 Bases
5.7.1 General. Where pockets have been left for precast members allowance must be made, when calculating the
5.7.1 and
flexural General . Whereofpockets
shear strength have been
base sections, lefteffects
for the for precast
of thesemembers allowance
pockets unless mustbeen
they have be made,
grouted up using a
when calculating the flexural and shear strength of base sections, for the
cement mortar of compressive strength not less than that of the concrete in the base.effects of these pockets
unless they have been grouted up using a cement mortar of compressive strength not less than
that of the
5.7.2 concreteand
Moments in forces
the base.
in bases. Except where the reactions to the applied loads and moments are derived
by more accurate methods, e.g. an elastic analysis of a pile group or the application of established principles of soil
5.7.2 Moments
mechanics, and assumptions
the following forces in bases
must. be made:where the reactions to the applied loads and
Except
moments are derived by more accurate methods, e.g. an elastic analysis of a pile group or the
(a) Where
application the base is axially
of established loaded,
principles the mechanics,
of soil reactions to ultimate loads are
the following uniformlymust
assumptions distributed per unit area or
be made:
per pile.
(a) Where the base is axially loaded, the reactions to ultimate loads are uniformly distributed
(b)
per unit Where
area orthe
perbase
pile.is eccentrically loaded, the reactions vary linearly across the base. For columns and walls
restrained in direction at the base, the moment transferred to the base must be obtained from 5.5.
(b) critical
The Where theinbase
section is eccentrically
the assessment of anloaded,
isolatedthe reactions
base vary linearly
may be taken across
as the face thecolumn
of the base. For
or wall.
columns and walls restrained in direction at the base, the moment transferred to the base must be
obtained
The momentfrom 5.5.vertical section passing completely across a base must be taken as that due to all external
at any
ultimate loads and reactions on one side of that section. No redistribution of moments must be made.
The critical section in the assessment of an isolated base may be taken as the face of the column
or wall.
The moment at any vertical section passing completely across a base must be taken as that due to
all external ultimate loads and reactions on one side of that section. No redistribution of moments
A/56
must be made. August 2015

5.7.3.1 Resistance to bending. Bases must be assessed in accordance with 5.4, and must be capable of resisting the
total moments and shears at the sections considered.
Where the width of the section considered is less than or equal to 1.5 (bcol+3d), where bcol is the width of the
column and d is the effective depth to the tension reinforcement of the base, all reinforcement crossing the section
may be considered to be effective in resisting bending. For greater widths, all reinforcement within a band of width
(bcol+3d) centred on the column may be considered to be effective and the area of effective reinforcement outside
this band should be taken as the lesser of:
(a) the actual area of reinforcement outside the band, and
(b) 50 % of the area of reinforcement within the band.
Pile caps may be assessed either by bending theory or by truss analogy with strut and tie systems taking the apex
of the truss at the centre of the loaded area and the corners of the base of the truss at the intersections of the centre-
lines of the piles with the tensile reinforcement.
Pile caps may only be assessed as beams if the reinforcement is uniformly distributed across the section under
consideration.
In pile caps assessed by truss analogy, the effective area of reinforcement at a section must be taken as the lesser of
(a) the total area at the section and (b) 1.25 times the area of reinforcement in the strips linking the pile heads.
An alternative method of analysis for a slab base is yield line theory.
5.7.3.1A Resistance to bending
When assessing pile caps by truss analogy using strut and tie systems, further guidance on sizing of struts, ties and
nodes can be found in BS EN 1992-1-1.
5.7.3.2 Shear. The assessment shear force is the algebraic sum of all ultimate vertical loads acting on one side
of or outside the periphery of the critical section. The shear strength of bases in the vicinity of concentrated loads is
governed by the more severe of the following two conditions:
(a) Shear along a vertical section extending across the full width of the base, at a distance equal to the
effective depth from the face of the loaded area, where the requirements of 5.4.4.1 apply.
(b) Punching shear around the loaded area, where the requirements of 5.4.4.2 apply.
The shear strength of pile caps is governed by the more severe of the following two conditions:
(1) Shear along any vertical section extending across the full width of the cap. The requirements of 5.4.4.1
apply, except that the enhancement of the shear resistance for sections close to supports (see 5.3.3.3) must
be applied only to strips of width not greater than twice the pile diameter centred on each pile. Where av
is taken as the distance between the face of the column or wall and the nearer edge of the piles, it must
be increased by 20% of the pile diameter. In applying 5.4.4.1, the allowable ultimate shear stress must be
taken as the average over the whole section.
(2) Punching shear around loaded areas, where the requirements of 5.4.4.2 apply. When considering case (c)(ii)
of Figure 5, the allowable ultimate shear stress may be enhanced in accordance with 5.3.3.3, over a width
August 2015 A/57

not greater than twice the pile diameter centred on the corner pile. The short shear span enhancement factor
permitted for punching shear in 5.4.4.2 will often be beneficial when assessing pile caps.
5.7.3.2A Shear
With reference to the note (1) on the shear strength of pile caps, the short shear span enhancement factor is greater
than the BS 5400-4 value (see comment on 5.3.3.3). BS 8110-1 allows shear enhancement over a much greater
width than BS 5400-4. This rule is a relaxation of the BS 5400-4 rule but is still more conservative than BS 8110-1.
Difficulties can arise in applying 5.4.4.2 and Figure 5 to the assessment of certain pile caps (e.g. circular pile caps
with circumferential and radial bars). It is not possible to give general recommendations to cover all such situations,
and it is necessary to consider the actual punching shear failure surfaces which could occur. Useful information is
given in references (9), (27) and (38).
5.7.3.3 Bond and anchorage. The requirements of 5.8.6 apply to reinforcement in bases.
5.7.3.3A Bond and anchorage
The local bond sub-clause of BS 5400-4 is not relevant: see 5.8.6.2.
5.7.4 Deflection of bases. The deflection of bases need not be considered.
5.7.5 Crack control in bases. If required, crack widths may be calculated in accordance with 5.8.8.2 taking into
account the type of base and treatment of assessment (see 5.7.3.1).
5.8.1 Constructional details
5.8.1.1 Size of members. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.1.2 Accuracy of position of reinforcement. When the reduced material partial safety factor for steel of 1.05
given in 4.3.3.3 is adopted for the worst credible strengths of steel reinforcement other than grade 460, then covers and
effective depths must be measured.
5.8.1.2A Accuracy of position of reinforcement
Guidance on the measurement of the location of reinforcement can be found in reference (39).
5.8.1.3 Construction joints. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.1.4 Movement joints. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.2 Concrete cover to reinforcement. ‘Nominal’ cover is that dimension used in design and indicated on
the drawings. In accordance with the provisions of BS 5400-4, the actual cover may be up to 5mm less than the
nominal cover.
The nominal cover indicated on the drawings should be not less than the size of the bar or maximum aggregate size,
plus 5mm; in the case of a bundle of bars (see 5.8.3.1 and 5.8.8.1), it should be equal to or greater than the size of a
single bar of equivalent area plus 5mm.
A/58 August 2015

Where surface treatment such as bush hammering has cut into the face of the concrete, the depth of treatment must
not be considered as contributing to the cover.
If the nominal cover is less than the values defined above, the bond strength of the reinforcing steel could be
reduced and the assessor must exercise appropriate engineering judgment in evaluating its contribution to the load
capacity.
5.8.2A Concrete cover to reinforcement
Adequate cover to reinforcement should ideally be present in all concrete structures designed to standards
containing appropriate provisions for durability, and the cover generally varies with the concrete grade and with the
particular condition of exposure. When the cover is less than the size of the bar, bond strength could be reduced (40),
and reinforcement corrosion is most likely to occur. Guidance on the assessment of concrete structures affected by steel
corrosion and with low cover is given in BA 51 (DMRB 3.4.13).
5.8.3 Reinforcement: general considerations
5.8.3.1 Groups of bars. Subject to the reductions in bond stress, bars arranged as pairs in contact or in groups of
three or four bars bundled in contact must be considered as effective only if the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) the bundle is restrained by links;
(2) the bars in a bundle terminate at different points spaced at least 40 times the bar size apart except for
bundles stopping at a support;
(3) bars in pairs or bundles of three may be lapped one bar at a time, but the laps must be so staggered that in
any cross-section there are no more than four bars in a bundle.
5.8.3.2 Bar schedule dimensions. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.4 Minimum area of reinforcement in members
5.8.4.1 Minimum area of main reinforcement. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.4.1A Minimum area of main reinforcement
The minimum areas of tension reinforcement in a beam or slab specified in BS 5400-4 are intended to ensure that
the reinforcement does not yield as soon as cracking occurs, and wide cracks are thereby avoided. This may also
be achieved by ensuring that the area of tension reinforcement is not less than 0.167 bad(ft/fy) (4) where ft is the
flexural tensile strength of the concrete, which may, in the absence of other information, be taken as 0.556 √fcu. The
BS 5400-4 values can be obtained from this expression by assuming a value of 50 N/mm2 for fcu. Although it is
not considered necessary to impose a minimum steel area in a beam or slab for assessment purposes, the assessor
should be aware that if a section has less reinforcement than the specified minimum it may have adequate strength
but could develop wide cracks.
The minimum number of longitudinal bars present in a column should be four in rectangular columns and six
in circular columns. The BS 5400-4 minimum bar diameter of 12mm is intended to ensure a rigid cage for
construction. This requirement is not relevant to assessment. The BS 5400-4 minimum steel areas for columns
ensure that reinforcement yield does not occur under service load conditions (4). Although it is not considered
necessary to impose a minimum steel area for assessment purposes, the assessor should be aware that high service
load stresses can occur in columns having less than the BS 5400-4 minimum steel areas.
August 2015 A/59

A wall should not be considered as a reinforced concrete wall unless the percentage of vertical reinforcement
provided is at least 0.4% of the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. This vertical reinforcement may be in one
or two layers. Failure to comply with the above requirement may result in large cracks developing.
5.8.4.2 Minimum area of secondary reinforcement
In a solid slab or wall, the main reinforcement may be considered able to resist compression if the area of
secondary reinforcement restraining the main reinforcement is at least 0.12% of btd in the case of high strength
reinforcement and 0.15% of btd in the case of mild steel reinforcement. The diameter of the secondary bars should
not be less than one-quarter of the size of the main bars and the spacing should not exceed 300mm.
When there is less secondary reinforcement than the specified minimum, the compressive strength of the bars must
be reduced in proportion to the ratio of the actual to specified minimum secondary steel areas, or alternatively the
reinforcement acting in compression omitted altogether from the respective strength calculations.
5.8.4.2A Minimum area of secondary reinforcement
Wide cracks may develop if the following minimum amounts of reinforcement are not present:
(1) In the predominantly tensile area of a solid slab or wall, the minimum area of secondary reinforcement
should be not less than that given in the first paragraph of 5.8.4.1A.
(2) In beams where the depth of the side face exceeds 600mm, longitudinal reinforcement should be present
having an area of at least 0.05% of bt d on each face with a spacing not exceeding 300mm, where:
bt is the breadth of the section at the level of tension reinforcement;

(3) In a voided slab, the amount of transverse reinforcement, expressed as a percentage of the minimum
flange cross-sectional area, should be at least 0.6% in the case of high strength steel and 1% in the case of
mild steel. These minimum areas are intended to prevent the first crack from immediately passing through
the flange thickness (4) whereas the minimum areas given in 5.8.4.1 merely ensure that the steel will not
yield at first cracking (41).
The purpose of the minimum amount of secondary steel in beams and slabs with compression reinforcement is to
restrain the latter reinforcement so that its full compressive strength can be developed. It should be noted that the
secondary reinforcement has to be arranged outside the main reinforcement for it to be considered as having the
potential to restrain the main reinforcement effectively.
The BS 5400-4 reference to early shrinkage and thermal cracking is not relevant to assessment.
5.8.4.3 Minimum area of links
When, in a beam or column, part or all of the main reinforcement is required to resist compression, links or ties at
least one-quarter the size of the largest compression bar should be present at a maximum spacing of 12 times the
size of the smallest compression bar. Links should be so arranged that every corner and alternate bar or group in an
outer layer of reinforcement is supported by a link passing round the bar and having an included angle of not more
than 135°. All other bars or groups within a compression zone should be within 150mm of a restrained bar in order
to be considered effective in resisting compression.
For circular columns, where the longitudinal reinforcement is located round the periphery of a circle, adequate
lateral support is provided by a circular tie passing round the bars or groups.
A/60 August 2015

When the percentage of reinforcement required to resist compression in the compression face of a wall or slab
exceeds 1%, links at least 6 mm or one-quarter of the size of the largest compression bar, whichever is the greater,
should be present through the thickness of the member. The spacing of these links should not exceed twice the
member thickness in either of the two principal directions of the member and be not greater than 16 times the bar
size in the direction of the compressive force.
When in a beam, column, wall or slab there is less link reinforcement than that specified in the above paragraphs,
the compressive strength of the bars must be reduced in proportion to the ratio of the actual to specified minimum
link areas, or alternatively the reinforcement acting in compression omitted altogether from the respective strength
calculations.
5.8.4.3A Minimum area of links
These minimum link requirements are intended to ensure restraint of compression bars so that their full
compressive strength can be developed.
As discussed in 5.3.3.2 and 5.3.3.2A, for links to be effective in a beam their spacing should not exceed the
effective depth of the beam, nor should the lateral spacing of the individual legs of the links exceed this value.
5.8.5 Maximum areas of reinforcement in members. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.5A Maximum areas of reinforcement in members
Maximum steel areas are specified in BS 5400-4 to ensure that concrete can be placed and compacted easily. These
maxima are not directly relevant to assessment. However where the steel areas exceed the BS 5400-4 maxima (4%
in beams, slab and walls, and 6% to 10% in columns) the concrete could be poorly compacted.
5.8.6 Bond, anchorage and bearing
5.8.6.1 Geometrical classification of deformed bars. For the purposes of this Standard there are two types of
deformed bars, as follows:
Type 1 A plain square twisted bar or a plain chamfered square twisted bar, each with a pitch of twist not greater
than 18 times the nominal size of the bar.
Type 2 A bar with transverse ribs with a substantial uniform spacing not greater than 0.8 f (and continuous helical ribs
where present), having a mean area of ribs (per unit length) above the core of the bar projected on a plane normal to the
axis of the bar, of not less than 0.15 mm²/mm where f is the size (nominal diameter) of the bar.
5.8.6.2 Local bond. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.6.2A Local bond
Local bond stress is not considered applicable in assessment provided that at both sides of any cross section, the
force in each bar is developed by an appropriate embedment length or other end anchorage. Hence only anchorage
bond need to be considered.
5.8.6.3 Anchorage bond. To prevent bond failure the tension or compression in any bar at any section due to
ultimate loads must be developed on each side of the section by an appropriate embedment length or other end
anchorage. The anchorage bond stress, assumed to be constant over the effective anchorage length, taken as the force
August 2015 A/61

end anchorage. Hence only anchorage bond need to be considered.
5.8.6.3
Appendix A Anchorage bond. To prevent bond failure the tension or compression in any3bar
Volume Section 4
Amendments to BS 5400-4 Part
at any section due to ultimate loads must be developed on each side of the section by an 14 BD 44/15
appropriate embedment length or other end anchorage. The anchorage bond stress, assumed to be
constant over the effective anchorage length, taken as the force in the bar divided by the product
in the bar
of divided by theanchorage
the effective product oflength
the effective
and theanchorage
effectivelength and the
perimeter effective
of the bar orperimeter
group of of the(see
bars bar or group of
5.8.6.4),
bars (see 5.8.6.4),must
mustnot
notexceed
exceedthe value f cu / mb where:
thevalue where:
� is a coefficient dependent on bar type, and given in Table 15;
β is a coefficient dependent on bar type, and given in Table 15;
fcu is the characteristic, or worst credible, concrete cube strength;
fcu is the characteristic, or worst credible, concrete cube strength;
γmb
�mbis a partial
is a partial safety factor equal to 1.4, unless the worst credible concrete strength is used, in
safety factor equal to 1.4, unless the worst credible concrete strength is used, in which case it is
which
equal to 1.25. case it is equal to 1.25.
Bar type Bond coefficient β
Bar type Bars in tension Bars

Bond coefficient � in compression
Plain bars 0.39 0.49
Type 1: deformed bars 0.56 Bars in 0.70 in
Bars
tension compression
Type 2: deformed bars 0.70 0.88
Fabric 0.91 1.13
Plain bars 0.39 0.49
Type 1: deformed bars 0.56 β
Table 15 Values of bond coefficient 0.70
Type 2: deformed bars 0.70 0.88
5.8.6.3A AnchorageFabric
bond 0.91 1.13
The allowable ultimate anchorage bond stress expression is that given in BS 8110-1 and gives values almost
identical to the BS 5400-4 Table 15 values. It should be noted that values have been included for fabric.
BS 8110-1 specifies a partial safety factor on the bond stress of 1.4. This partial safety factor allows for variations
in both Chapter/Page
concrete strength and bond strength (when the concrete strength is constant). If the worstMmmm/yyyy
credible concrete
strength is used it is reasonable to reduce the partial safety factor (see 4.3.3.3A). If it is assumed that γmb can be
expressed as √(γmc γmbs), where γmc allows for the variation in concrete strength and γmbs allows for the variation
in bond strength, then with γmc and γmb equal to their design values of 1.5 and 1.4, respectively, γmbs = 1.31.
Hence, if γmc is equal to its assessment value of 1.20 when using the worst credible concrete strength (see 4.3.3.3),
γmb = √(1.20 x 1.31) = 1.25.
The BS 5400-4 allowable ultimate anchorage bond stresses in Table 15 are functions of only concrete strength, bar
type and whether the bar is in tension or compression. Hence, the bond failure mechanism is grossly simplified by
BS 5400-4 because it is assumed that the code’s covers, nominal link requirements and detailing sub-clauses will
be satisfied. In an assessment these various sub-clauses are often not satisfied and it may be necessary to express
allowable ultimate anchorage bond stresses in terms of the additional variables of cover, bar diameter and spacing,
quantity and arrangement of restraining reinforcement, lateral pressure applied by external loads or reactions and
location of bar within the member. Further guidance on these aspects can be obtained from references (40) and (42-48).
Reference should also be made to 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6 of BS EN 1992-1-1. Methods of analysis to evaluate the post-slip
behaviour of partially anchored bars should be agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
5.8.6.4 Effective perimeter of a bar or group of bars. The effective perimeter of a bar may be taken as 3.14 times
the nominal size. The effective perimeter of a group of bars (see 5.8.3.1) must be taken as the sum of the effective
perimeters of the individual bars multiplied by (1.2-0.2N), where N (≤ 4) is the number of bars in the group.
5.8.6.4A Effective perimeter of a bar or group of bars
The multiplier (1.2-0.2N) gives the same values as Table 16 of BS 5400-4. Test data do not appear to be available
for more than 4 bars in a group.
A/62 August 2015

5.8.6.5 Anchorage of links. A link may be considered to be fully anchored if it passes round another bar through an
angle of 90° and continues beyond for a minimum length of eight times its own size, or through 150° and continues for
a minimum length of four times its own size. Where full anchorage of links is not achieved, its effective size must be
taken as the equivalent bar diameter that the anchorage provides.
5.8.6.6 Laps and joints. Continuity of reinforcement may be achieved by a connection using any of the following
jointing methods:
(a) lapping bars;
(b) butt welding (see 4.7);
(c) sleeving (see 7.3.2.2);
(d) threading of bars (see 7.3.2.3).
The strength of joints using the methods given in (c) and (d) and any other method not listed must be verified by
test evidence (see 7.3.2.1).
5.8.6.7 Lap lengths. When bars are lapped, the strength of the lap must be derived from 5.8.6.3 from the
anchorage bond of the smaller of the two bars lapped. The lap strength as calculated above must be reduced for bars
in tension by a factor of 1.4 if any of the following conditions apply:
(a) the cover to the lapped bars from the top of the section as cast is less than twice the bar size;
(b) the clear distance between the lap and another pair of lapped bars is less than 150 mm;
(c) a corner bar is lapped and the cover to either face is less than twice the bar size.
Where conditions (a) and (b) or conditions (a) and (c) apply the lap strength must be reduced by a factor of 2.0.
The minimum lap length for bar reinforcement under any condition must not be less than 15 times the size of the
smaller of the two bars lapped. Where the minimum lap length is not achieved the effective size of the smaller bar
at the section must be determined as being l/15 where l is the lap length provided.
The factors of 1.4 and 2.0 should be applied only to the calculated lap strengths of bars in tension.
5.8.6.8 Hooks and bends. Hooks, bends and other reinforcement anchorages should be of such form, dimension and
arrangement as to avoid overstressing the concrete.
The effective anchorage length of a hook or bend must be measured from the start of the bend to a point four times
the bar size beyond the end of the bend, and may be taken as the lesser of 24 times the bar size or:
(a) for a hook, eight times the internal radius of the hook;
(b) for a 90° bend, four times the internal radius of the bend.
The radius of the bend must not be less than twice the radius of the test bend guaranteed by the manufacturer of the
bar. However, it will be sufficient to ensure that the bearing stress at the mid-point of the curve does not exceed the
value given in 5.8.6.9.
August 2015 A/63

Appendix
AppendixAA Volume43 Section 4
Volume 3 Section
Amendments
Amendmentstoto
BSBS
5400-4
5400-4 Part 14 BD 44/15
Part 14 BD 44/XX
The
For effective
a hooked baranchorage length
to be effective at of a hook or
a support, thebend whichofdoes
beginning not satisfy
the hook must beparagraphs 3 and
at least four 4 of
times the bar size
this sub-clause
inside the face of must be taken as not greater than the actual length of bar from the start of the bend
the support.
to a point four times the bar size beyond the end of the bend.
The effective anchorage length of a hook or bend which does not satisfy paragraphs 3 and 4 of this sub-clause must
be5.8.6.8A
taken as not greater
Hooks than
andthebends
actual length of bar from the start of the bend to a point four times the bar size
beyond the end of the bend.
An additional paragraph has been added to the BS 5400-4 sub-clause to clarify the anchorage
value of hooks and bends which do not satisfy the BS 5400-4 requirements.
5.8.6.8A Hooks and bends
5.8.6.9 Bearing stress inside bends. The bearing stress inside a bend, in a bar which
An additional paragraph has been added to the BS 5400-4 sub-clause to clarify the anchorage value of hooks and
does which
bends not extend
do notorsatisfy
is not the
assumed to berequirements.
BS 5400-4 stressed beyond a point four times the bar size past the
end of the bend, need not be checked.
5.8.6.9 Bearing stress inside bends. The bearing stress inside a bend, in a bar which does not extend or is not
The bearing
assumed to be stress inside
stressed a bend
beyond in any
a point fourother
timesbar
the must be past
bar size calculated
the endfrom the
of the equation:
bend, need not be checked.
Bearing
The bearing stress stress
inside =a Fbt/(r)
bend in any other bar must be calculated from the equation:
where Bearing stress = Fbt/(rf)
where
F is the tensile force due to ultimate loads in a bar or group of bars;
bt
Fbt is the tensile force due to ultimate loads in a bar or group of bars;
r is the internal radius of the bend;
r is the internal radius of the bend;
f is the size of the bar or, in a bundle, the size of a bar of equivalent area.
is the size of the bar or, in a bundle, the size of a bar of equivalent area.
The stress must not exceed
The stress must not exceed
1/3
5.63 ab l
( ) ( ) f cu
mc ll
where
where
aba for aa particular
for particularbar
barororgroup
groupofofbars
barsinincontact
contactmust bebe
must taken as the
taken centre-to-centre
as the distance between bars
centre-to-centre
b
distance between bars or groups of bars perpendicular to the plane of the bend; for a barto the face of
or groups of bars perpendicular to the plane of the bend; for a bar or group of bars adjacent
the member, ab must be taken as the cover plus f. The ratio of ab/f must not exceed 8.
or group of bars adjacent to the face of the member, ab must be taken as the cover plus .
l1 is the length of the bar measured inside the bend and bearing on to the concrete.
l The
is theratio of ab/ofmust
thickness not exceed
concrete member8.in the plane of the bend, but not greater than 3l .
1
l1
Values of is
thethe length
partial of the
safety bar measured
factor inside
γmc are given the bend and bearing on to the concrete.
in 4.3.3.3.
l
5.8.6.9A is the thickness
Bearing of concrete
stress inside bends member in the plane of the bend, but not greater than 3l1.
The allowable
Values of thebearing
partial stress
safetyexpression
factor �mc isare
based onintests
given (49) which show the BS 5400-4 requirement to be
4.3.3.3.
conservative. The maximum values of l = 3li and ab/f = 8 represent the limits of the test evidence available.
5.8.6.9A Bearing stress inside bends
5.8.7 Curtailment
The allowable andstress
bearing anchorage of reinforcement.
expression Curtailment
is based on tests (49) lengths
which show and
theanchorages
BS 5400-4of bars must be
assessed by rigorous analysis at the curtailment or anchorage point for the worst load case in accordance with
requirement to be conservative. The maximum values of l = 3li and ab/ = 8 represent the
5.8.6.3. Where the actual anchorage length of a bar is less than the full anchorage length required from 5.8.6.3, its
limits of the test evidence available.
effective area may be reduced in proportion to the ratio between the actual anchorage length and the full anchorage
length.
5.8.7 Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement. Curtailment lengths and
anchorages of bars must be assessed either by rigorous analysis at the curtailment or anchorage
A/64 August 2015
bar is less than the full anchorage length required from 5.8.6.3, its effective area may be reduced
in proportion to the ratio between the actual anchorage length and the full anchorage length.
Part 14 BD 44/15
5.8.7A Curtailment and anchorage of reinforcement Amendments to BS 5400-4
The assessment is based on a rigorous analysis of the forces at the curtailment point for the
worst load case. In carrying out such an analysis the actual bending moment distributions
5.8.7A
needCurtailment and anchorage
to be considered, and it isofalso
reinforcement
essential to take account of the fact that the tension
reinforcement has to resist tensile forces which arise from both the bending moment and the
The assessment is based
shear force at the on a rigorous
section underanalysis of the forces
consideration at the
(4, 50-51) curtailment
. This point for
is particularly the worst
relevant loadthe
when case. In
carrying out such an analysis the actual bending moment distributions need to be considered, and it is also essential
alternative approach of 5.3.3.5 based on BS EN 1992-1-1 is used.
to take account of the fact that the tension reinforcement has to resist tensile forces which arise from both the
bending moment and the shear force at the section under consideration (4, 50-51). This is particularly relevant when
5.8.8 Spacing of reinforcement
the alternative approach of 5.3.3.5 based on BS EN 1992-1-1 is used.
5.8.8 5.8.8.1 Minimum distance between bars. "Not applicable to assessment"

Spacing of reinforcement
5.8.8.1A
5.8.8.1 Minimum
Minimum distance distance
between bars.between bars to assessment”
“Not applicable
Minimum bar spacings are specified in BS 5400-4 to aid placing and compacting of concrete.
These
5.8.8.1A minimadistance
Minimum are not directly
between relevant
bars to assessment. However, in sections where the bar
spacings are less than the BS 5400-4 minima, the concrete could be poorly compacted and
Minimum bar spacings
particular are should
attention specifiedbeingiven
BS 5400-4 to aid placing
to inspection andsections.
of such compacting of concrete. These minima are not
directly relevant to assessment. However, in sections where the bar spacings are less than the BS 5400-4 minima,
the concrete
5.8.8.2could be poorly compacted
Maximum and between
distance particular bars
attention should.be
in tension givenrequired
When to inspection
by theofOverseeing
such sections.
Organisation as part of serviceability limit state checks, crack widths under the specified loads
5.8.8.2 Maximum distance between bars in tension. When required by the Overseeing Organisation as part of
must be calculated in accordance with the following:
serviceability limit state checks, crack widths under the specified loads must be calculated in accordance with the
following:
(a) For solid rectangular sections, stems of T beams and other solid sections shaped without
(a) Forre-entrant angles, sections,
solid rectangular the crackstems
widthsof at the surface
T beams (or, where
and other the cover
solid sections to the
shaped outermost
without bar angles,
re-entrant
theiscrack
greater thanatcthe
widths nom,surface
on a surface at a distance
(or, where the covercto from
the
nom the outermost
outermost bar) must
bar is greater than cbe
nom, on a surface
calculated from the following equation:
at a distance cnom from the outermost bar) must be calculated from the following equation:
3 a cr m
Crack
Crack width
width = Equation 2424
Equation
1 + 2( acr - c)/(h - d c )
where
where
acr is the distance from the point (crack) considered to the surface of the nearest bar which controls the crack
acr width;is the distance from the point (crack) considered to the surface of the nearest bar which
cnom is thecontrols
nominalthe crack
cover width;
to the outermost reinforcement (see 5.8.2);
c cnom is the nominal cover to the outermostwhich
is the effective cover to the reinforcement reinforcement
controls the (see 5.8.2);
width of the cracks under consideration and
c mustisbethe effective
taken as the cover
lesser to
of the reinforcement
(a) actual which
cover to this controls theand
reinforcement width of the cracks under
(b) perpendicular distance from
consideration to
this reinforcement and must beattaken
a surface as thecnom
a distance lesser
from ofthe
(a)outermost
actual cover to this reinforcement and
bars;
dc is the(b) perpendicular
depth of the concretedistance from this reinforcement
in compression (if dc = 0 the crackto a surface at a distance
widths must cnom using
be calculated from the
Equation
26); outermost bars;
h Appendix Aisoverall
dc is the depth
the depth of of
thethe section;in compression (if dc = 0 the crack widths
concrete Volume
must3beSection 4
calculated
Amendments
εm to BS
is theusing 5400-4
calculated strain
Equation 26); at the level where cracking is being considered, Part
allowing 14
for BD
the 44/XX
stiffening effect of
h the concrete in the depth
is the overall tensionofzone; a negative value of ∈m indicates that the section is uncracked. The value
the section;
�m of ∈ is must be obtained from
m the calculated strain at the the equation:
level where cracking is being considered, allowing for the
stiffening effect of the concrete in the tension zone; a negative value of m indicates that
3.8bt h(a dThe
c ) value M q must_ 9 be
m the = section
1 - is uncracked. (1 of m obtained from the
) 10 Equation equation:
Equation 25 25
s A s (h d c ) M g
but not greater than �1.
but not greater than ε1.
Chapter/Page
where Mmmm/yyyy
�1 is the calculated strain at the level where cracking is being considered, ignoring the
stiffening effect of the concrete in the tension zone;
bt is the width of the section at the level of the centroid of the tension steel;
a' is
August 2015the distance from the compression face to the point at which the crack width is being A/65
calculated;
Mg is the moment at the section considered due to permanent loads;
but not greater than �1.
where
�1 is the calculated strain at the level where cracking is being considered, ignoring the
stiffening effect of the concrete in the tension zone;
bwhere
t is the width of the section at the level of the centroid of the tension steel;
a' is the distance from the compression face to the point at which the crack width is being
ε1 calculated;
is the calculated strain at the level where cracking is being considered, ignoring the stiffening effect of the
Mg isconcrete
the momentin theattension zone;considered due to permanent loads;
the section
Mbt q isisthe
themoment
width ofatthethesection
sectionat considered
the level of due
the centroid of the tension steel;
to live loads;
a'
�s is the distance from the compression face to the
is the calculated strain at the centroid of reinforcement, point at which the the
ignoring crack width is effect
stiffening being of
calculated;
Mg is the moment at the section
the concrete in the tension zone; considered due to permanent loads;
M
As q isisthe
thearea
moment at the reinforcement.
of tension section considered due to live loads;
εs is the calculated strain at the centroid of reinforcement, ignoring the stiffening effect of the concrete in the
tension zone;
Where the axis of the moment and the direction of the tensile reinforcement resisting that
As is the area of tension reinforcement.
moment are not normal to each other (e.g. in a skew slab), As must be taken as:
Where the axis of the moment
4
and the direction of the tensile reinforcement resisting that moment are not normal to
As (e.g.
each other = (A int acos
skew�1slab),
) As must be taken as:
where
As = S(At cos4 α1)
A
where
t is the area of reinforcement in a particular direction;
�1 is the angle between the normal to the axis of the moment and the direction of the tensile
At is the area
reinforcement, of reinforcement
At, resisting in a particular direction;
that moment.
α1 is the angle between the normal to the axis of the moment and the direction of the tensile reinforcement,
(b) ForAflanges
t, resisting that moment.
in overall tension, including tensile zones of box beams, rectangular voided
slabs and, when subjected to longitudinal bending, circular voided slabs, the crack width at
(b) For flanges in overall tension, including tensile zones of box beams, rectangular voided slabs and, when
the surface (or at a distance cnom from the outermost bar) must be calculated from the
subjected to longitudinal bending, circular voided slabs, the crack width at the surface (or at a distance
following equation:
cnom from the outermost bar) must be calculated from the following equation:
Crack
Crackwidth
width == 33 aacr ε�m Equation
Equation 26 26
cr m
where
where ε�mmisisobtained
obtainedfrom
from Equation
Equation 25.25.
For flanges
flangesof ofcircular
circularvoided
voidedslabs
slabssubjected
subjected
to to transverse
transverse bending,
bending, the the crack
crack width
width at theatsurface
the surface
(or at a distance
(or
cnomatfrom
a distance cnom from
the outermost bar)the outermost
must bar) must
be calculated from be
thecalculated from the following equation:
following equation:
Crack
Crackwidth 1.2 m ( h f / net ) (c/ ) Equation
width = Equation 26A 26A
Appendix A
where Volume 3 Section 4
where
hf is the minimum flange thickness;
hf is the minimum flange thickness;
ρnet is the area of transverse reinforcement in the flange as a percentage of the minimum flange area;
�f net isis
isthe
thearea
the of transverse
diameter
diameter of the
of reinforcement
theoutermost
outermost in the
transverse
transverse flange as a percentage of the minimum
bar;
bar;
flange area;
3.8 bt h f Mq
m = 1 (1 ) 10-9 Equation
Equation 25A 25A
s As Mg
(c) Whereglobal
(c) Where globaland
andlocal
local effects
effects are
are calculated
calculatedseparately
separately(see
(see4.8.3)
4.8.3)the
thevalue ofof
value εm�may be obtained
m may be
by algebraic addition of the strains calculated separately. The crack width must
obtained by algebraic addition of the strains calculated separately. The crack width mustthen be calculated in
accordance with (b) but may, in the case of deck slab where a global compression
then be calculated in accordance with (b) but may, in the case of deck slab where a global is being combined with
a local moment, be obtained using (a), calculating dc on the basis of the local moment only.
compression is being combined with a local moment, be obtained using (a), calculating dc
on the basis of the local moment only.

The main reason for limiting maximum bar spacings in design is to control crack widths.
A/66 August 2015
Assessment sub-clause 5.8.8.2 is very similar to the BS 5400-4 sub-clause but has been
rearranged as a "crack width calculation" sub-clause. The general spacing of 300mm and the
limit for voided slabs in (d) of the BS 5400-4 sub-clause have been omitted because they are
The main reason for limiting maximum bar spacings in design is to control crack widths. Assessment sub-clause
5.8.8.2 is very similar to the BS 5400-4 sub-clause but has been rearranged as a “crack width calculation” sub-
clause. The general spacing of 300mm and the limit for voided slabs in (d) of the BS 5400-4 sub-clause have been
omitted because they are not directly relevant to assessment.
In (b), Equation 26 is not appropriate for calculating crack widths in voided slabs subjected to transverse bending.
An additional Equation, 26A, has been added for these situations, which is based on (41). Similarly, a more
appropriate tension stiffening formula has been added (52, 53).
The approaches given in (c) are conservative. A more accurate method is to base calculations on the strains due to
the combined global and local effects.
5.8.9 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.10 Arrangement of reinforcement in skew slabs. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.8.10A Arrangement of reinforcement in skew slabs
Many existing skew slab bridges have very small amounts of transverse reinforcement compared with the amounts
required to comply with current design standards. However, a small amount of transverse reinforcement does not
necessarily imply that the bridge is inadequate. When required, yield line theory can often be used to demonstrate
that such a bridge has adequate strength, although such decks may suffer from serviceability problems due to
premature yielding of the transverse reinforcement, and may warrant more frequent inspection and maintenance. In
using yield line theory it is not always possible to state in advance which will be the critical collapse mechanism,
particularly for continuous decks. Hence, the assessing engineer will need to consult specialist literature. Guidance
on the application of yield line methods of analysis for concrete slabs is given in references (5) and (26).
5.9 Additional considerations in the use of lightweight aggregate concrete
5.9.1 General. Lightweight aggregate concrete may generally be assessed in accordance with the requirements
of clause 4 and of 5.1 to 5.8. Sub-clauses 5.9.2 to 5.9.11 relate specifically to reinforced lightweight aggregate
concrete of strength 25 N/mm² or above. Only the requirements of 7.5 (plain concrete walls) apply to concretes
below a strength of 25 N/mm².
For lightweight aggregate concrete, the properties for any particular type of aggregate can be established far more
accurately than for most naturally occurring materials and, when the aggregate type can be identified, specific data
must be obtained from the aggregate producer.
All the properties of lightweight aggregate concrete to be used in assessment must be supported by appropriate test
data.
5.9.2 Durability. “Not applicable to assessment”
5.9.3 Strength of concrete. See 5.1.4.2.
5.9.4 Shear resistance of beams. The shear resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete beams must be
established in accordance with 5.3.3.1 to 5.3.3.3 except that the value of vc calculated from the expression given in
5.3.3.2 must be multiplied by 0.9 and the maximum allowable value of v referred to in 5.3.3.1 and 5.3.3.3 must be
multiplied by 0.8.
August 2015 A/67

5.9.4A Shear resistance of beams
BS 5400-4 applies a reduction factor of 0.8 to vc for lightweight aggregate concrete. The higher values in this
Standard are consistent with test data (54).
5.9.5 Torsional resistance of beams. The torsional resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete beams must be
established in accordance with 5.3.4 except that the values of vtmin and vtu calculated from the expressions given in
5.3.4.3 must be multiplied by 0.8.
5.9.6 Deflection of beams. Where required, deflection of lightweight aggregate concrete beams may be
calculated using a value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete as described in 4.3.2.1.
5.9.7 Shear resistance of slabs. The shear resistance of lightweight aggregate concrete slabs must be
established in accordance with 5.4.4, except that vc and the maximum allowable value of v must be modified in
5.9.8 Deflection of slabs. Where required, deflection of lightweight aggregate concrete slabs may be calculated
using a value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete as described in 4.3.2.1.
5.9.9 Columns
5.9.9.1 General. The requirements of 5.5 apply to lightweight aggregate concrete columns subject to the
conditions in 5.9.9.2 and 5.9.9.3.
5.9.9.2 Short columns. In 5.5.1.1, the ratio of effective height, le, to thickness, h, for a short column must not
exceed 10.
5.9.9.3 Slender columns. In 5.5.5, the divisor 1750 in Equations 18, 20, 21 and 22 must be replaced by the
divisor 1200.
5.9.10 Local bond, anchorage bond and laps. Anchorage bond stresses and lap lengths in reinforcement for
lightweight aggregate concrete members must be assessed in accordance with 5.8.6 except that the bond stresses
must not exceed 80% of those given in 5.8.6.3.
In lightweight aggregate concrete members containing foamed slag however, bond stresses must not exceed 50% of
those given in 5.8.6.3 for reinforcement that was in a horizontal position during casting.
5.9.10A Local bond, anchorage bond and laps
Anchorage bond stresses for mild steel bars embedded in lightweight aggregate concrete have been increased from
50% to 80% of those for normal weight aggregate concrete (see BS 8110-2).
5.9.11 Bearing stress inside bends. The requirements of 5.8.6.9 apply to lightweight aggregate concrete, except
that the bearing stress must not exceed two-thirds of the allowable value given by the expression in 5.8.6.9.
A/68 August 2015

6. ASSESSMENT: PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
6.1 General
6.1.1 Introduction. This clause gives methods of assessment which will in general assure that, for prestressed
concrete construction, the requirements set out in 4.1 are met. In certain cases the assumptions made in this clause
may be inappropriate and the assessor may adopt, with the approval of the Overseeing Organisation, a more
suitable method having regard to the nature of the structure in question.
Assessment criteria for post-tensioned structures where inadequately grouted ducts and/or tendon corrosion is
encountered must be agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
This clause covers prestressed concrete construction using external and/or unbonded tendons. It does not cover
prestressed concrete construction using lightweight aggregate concrete.
6.1.1A Introduction
Bonded prestressing is prestressing where, in the finished structure, continuous bond is provided between the
prestressing elements and the concrete section. This is always the case in pre-tensioned structures, except for zones
where debonding sleeves are present. In post-tensioned structures, bond between the prestressing elements and
the concrete is generally provided by the provision of grout in ducts after stressing. Where no continuous bond is
provided the prestressing is termed unbonded. The term external prestressing is applied to that class of unbonded
prestressed structures where some or all of the prestressing is unbonded and outside the concrete section, and where
the load is transferred to the concrete through end anchorages and deviators. Unbonded internal prestressing is
where unbonded prestressing elements are used in ducts which lie within the concrete section.
When tendon corrosion is encountered in an assessment (which is often associated with the ingress of de-icing salts
through inadequately grouted ducts), the normal rules for prestressed concrete should be modified by taking into
account the following:
i) Local failure of wires or strands may occur when the tendon strength is reduced to the prestressing force.
Hence, wires which have suffered sectional loss which has resulted in them being unable to sustain their
prestress force (typically a 40% section loss) should be considered ineffective. The strength of a section at
the ultimate limit state should be based on the remaining cross-sectional area of the effective wires only.
ii) In bonded post-tensioning, tendons, strands or wires which are ineffective locally can re-anchor and
become fully effective elsewhere. The anchorage length will depend on the quality of the grouting in the
ducts. Where the grouting is good and where nominal links to BS 5400-4 are provided, the re-anchorage
length may be taken as the transmission length given in 6.7.4 multiplied by the square root of the number
of strands in the tendon.
iii) Where there is evidence of extensive inadequate grouting or where the BS5400-4 minimum link
requirement is not met, assessments which depend on re-anchorage of tendons should not be undertaken
without special investigation. Where in the opinion of the assessor the grouting is too poor to allow re-
anchorage of tendons, the member should be treated as unbonded and assessed accordingly.
iv) In external and/or unbonded prestressing, failure of a tendon at any position makes it ineffective over
its entire length. Hence structures with unbonded prestressing may be vulnerable to a disproportionate
collapse, which is particularly true for continuous bridge decks where localised failure in one span could
result in progressive collapse of the spans. Structures with external and/or unbonded prestressing should
be checked to ensure that failure of either any two tendons or 25% of those at one section, whichever has
the more onerous effect, would not lead to collapse at the ultimate limit states under permanent loads.
August 2015 A/69

v) In assessing the strength of a structure with corroded tendons, there is a need to consider the possibility
of further deterioration. Management strategies for keeping damaged, deteriorating and substandard
structures in service will need information on sensitivity of the load assessment to further loss of
prestress. Information on possible failure modes is essential for the design of monitoring schemes.
Further guidance in assessing structures with tendon corrosion is given in BA 51 (DMRB 3.4.13).
If the extent of tendon corrosion cannot be directly measured by observing damage to steel, overall levels of
prestress in a member can be determined from concrete stress measurements. Before adopting this approach, the
agreement of the Overseeing Organisation should be obtained. Specialist advice should also be sought. As there is
a possibility of significant errors in determining the level of prestress, spot checks on levels of remaining prestress
in individual tendons should also be made. In calculations, it will always be necessary to assume a value of
effective prestress to a greater accuracy than is actually known. Calculations should therefore be performed using
an upper and lower bound to the estimated effective prestress. In practice, the lower bound will normally be critical
for assessments. Having estimated the effective level of prestress in a structure, the flexural, shear and torsional
strength can be assessed.
Additional requirements and modifications to the BS 5400-4 provisions are introduced throughout clause 6
specifically for the assessment of prestressed concrete structures with external and/or unbonded tendons. Specialist
literature on this topic may also need to be consulted (55, 56).
Guidance on prestressed lightweight concrete can be found in reference (57).
6.1.2 Limit state assessment of prestressed concrete
6.1.2.1 Basis of assessment. Clause 6 follows the limit state philosophy set out in 3.1B to 3.6B.
6.1.2.2 Durability. “Not applicable to assessment”
6.1.2.3 Other limit states and considerations. Clause 6 does not specify special requirements for vibration or
other limit states.
6.1.3 Loads. In clause 6 the assessment load effects (see 2.1) for the ultimate and serviceability limit states are
referred to as ‘ultimate loads’ and ‘service loads’ respectively.
The values of the ultimate loads and service loads to be used in assessment are derived from 4.2.
In clause 6, when analysing sections, the terms ‘strength’, ‘resistance’ and ‘capacity’ are used to describe the
assessment resistance of the section (see BD 21, DMRB 3.4.3).
Consideration must be given, at both ultimate and serviceability limit states as appropriate, to the construction
sequence and to the secondary effects due to prestress.
6.1.4.1 Definition of strength. In clause 6 the symbol fcu represents either the characteristic or the worst credible
cube strength of the concrete; and the symbol fpu represents either the characteristic or the worst credible tendon
strength.
The assessment strengths of concrete and prestressing tendons are given by fcu/γmc and fpu/γms, respectively, where
γmc and γms are the appropriate material partial safety factors given in 4.3.3.3.
A/70 August 2015

6.1.4.2 Strength of concrete. Assessment may be based on either the specified characteristic cube strength, or the
worst credible cube strength determined in accordance with 2.4B to 2.11B. For structures designed to codes prior to
the adoption of the term characteristic strength, the concrete strength was specified in terms of the minimum 28 day
works cube strength. For the purpose of assessment, the characteristic strength of concrete may be taken as the
minimum 28 day works cube strength.
Appendix
Appendix A
A Volume 33 Section
Section 44 strength,
6.1.4.3 Strength
Amendments to BS prestressing tendons. Assessment may be based on either theVolume
of5400-4 specified
Part 14 characteristic
BD 44/XX
or the worst credible Part
strength assessed from tests on tendon samples extracted from the 14 BD For
structure. 44/XX
structures
designed to codes prior to the adoption of the term characteristic strength, the tendon strength was specified in
terms ofStructures
6.2 minimum ultimate strength. For the purpose of assessment, the characteristic strength of tendons may be
6.2 Structures and
and structural
structural frames
frames
taken as the minimum ultimate strength.
6.2.1
6.2.1 Analysis
Analysis of structures .. Complete
Complete structures
structures and
and complete
complete structural
structural frames
frames may
6.2
be Structures andof structures
structural frames may
be analysed in accordance with the requirements of 4.4 but, when appropriate, the methods given
analysed in accordance with the requirements of 4.4 but, when appropriate, the methods given
in
in 6.3
6.3 may
may be
be used
used for
for the
the assessment
assessment of
of individual
individual members.
members.
6.2.1 Analysis of structures. Complete structures and complete structural frames may be analysed in
accordance with the requirements of 4.4 but, when appropriate, the methods given in 6.3 may be used for the
The
The relative stiffness
relativeof
stiffness of
of members
members must be based on the concrete section as described in 4.4.2.1.
assessment individual members.must be based on the concrete section as described in 4.4.2.1.
6.2.2
6.2.2 Redistribution
The relative stiffness of membersof
Redistribution moments
ofmust .. Redistribution
be based
moments of
on the concrete
Redistribution moments
ofsection
moments obtained
as described by
obtained in rigorous
by4.4.2.1.
rigorous
elastic analysis under the ultimate limit state may be carried out provided the following
elastic analysis under the ultimate limit state may be carried out provided the following
conditions
6.2.2
conditions are
are met:
Redistribution
met: of moments. Redistribution of moments obtained by rigorous elastic analysis under the
ultimate limit state may be carried out provided the following conditions are met:
(a)
(a) Appropriate
Appropriate checks
checks are
are made
made to
to ensure
ensure that
that adequate
adequate rotation
rotation capacity
capacity exists
exists at
at sections
sections
where
where moments are reduced, making reference to appropriate test data. For structures which
(a) moments are
Appropriatereduced, making
checks are madereference
to ensure to appropriate
that test
adequate rotationdata. For structures
capacity
which do
exists at sections where moments
do
not are reduced, making reference to appropriate test data. For structures which do not contain external and/or
not contain
contain external
external and/or
and/or unbonded
unbonded tendons,
tendons, in
in the
the absence
absence ofof aa special
special investigation
investigation the
the plastic
plastic
rotation unbonded tendons, in thethe
absence ofof:
a special investigation the plastic rotation capacity may be taken as
rotation capacity
capacity may
may be
be taken
the lesser of: taken as
as the lesser
lesser of:
0.008 + 0.035
0.035 (0.5
(0.5 dd c
(1)
(1)
(1) 0.008 + d c ))
d ee
or
or
or
10 10
(2)
(2)
(2) dd
dd cc
but not
but less than0 0
but not
not less
less than
than 0
where
where where
d is the calculated depth of concrete in compression at the ultimate limit state (in mm);
ddc is
is the
c
the calculated
de calculated
depth
is thedepth
of
of concrete
effective concrete
depth forin
in compression
compression
a solid
at
at the
the ultimate
ultimate
slab or rectangular
limit
beam,limit
state
state (in
otherwise (in mm);
themm);
overall depth of the
c
dde is the effective
is the effective depth for a solid
depth forflange
compression slab
a solid(inslab
mm);or
or rectangular beam, otherwise the overall depth of
rectangular beam, otherwise the overall depth of
e
the compression
d
the compression flange (in
is the(in
flange mm);
effective
mm); depth to tension reinforcement (in mm).
dd is
is the
the effective
effective depth
depth toto tension
tension reinforcement
reinforcement (in (in mm)
mm)
(b) Proper account is taken of changes in transverse moments and transverse shears consequent on
(b)
(b) Proper account
account is
redistribution
Proper isoftaken of
of changes
longitudinal
taken in
in transverse
transverse moments
moments.
changes moments and
and transverse
transverse shears
shears
consequent
consequent on
on redistribution
redistribution ofof longitudinal
longitudinal moments
moments
(c) Shears and reactions used in assessment are taken as those calculated either prior to or after redistribution,
(c) whichever
Shears are the greater.
and reactions used in assessment are taken as those calculated either prior to or
(c) Shears and reactions used in assessment are taken as those calculated either prior to or
after
after redistribution, whichever
redistribution, whichever are
are the
the greater.
greater.
6.2.2A
6.2.2A Redistribution
Redistribution ofof moments
moments
When
When aa linear
linear analysis
analysis is
is performed,
performed, both
both primary
primary and
and secondary
secondary effects
effects of
of prestressing
prestressing
August 2015 A/71
should be applied before any redistribution of moments is calculated.
should be applied before any redistribution of moments is calculated.
Item (2) in 6.2.2 was derived from the ultimate elongation and gauge length specified in
When a linear analysis is performed, both primary and secondary effects of prestressing should be applied before
any redistribution of moments is calculated.
Item (2) in 6.2.2 was derived from the ultimate elongation and gauge length specified in British Standards for
various types of prestressing steels and from data provided by manufacturers of prestressing steels. For tendons
installed before the 1970’s or for tendons not specified to British Standards, information should be obtained on the
tendon’s ductility from past records.
6.3 Beams
6.3.1 General
6.3.1.1 Definitions. The definitions and limitations of the geometric properties for prestressed beams are as given
for reinforced concrete beams in 5.3.1.
6.3.1.2 Slender beams. “Not applicable to assessment”
6.3.2 Serviceability Limit State: flexure. The tensile stress calculated on the gross concrete section under the
loading given in 4.2 must be checked against the class 2 values from BS 5400-4, i.e. it must not exceed the design
flexural tensile strength of (0.56/γmc) (fcu)1/2. The compressive stress must be limited to 0.5(fcu/γmc). The calculated
tensile stress at unreinforced contact joints in segmental structures with precast elements must not exceed 0.0 N/
mm2, i.e. no tensile stress is allowed, except for cement mortar joints, where the stress must be in compression
throughout and not less than 1.5 N/mm2. The values of the partial factors must be taken from 4.3.3.2. In the stress
analysis it may be assumed that plane sections remain plane and elastic behaviour exists for the concrete up to the
compressive and tensile stress limits given above.
In situations where, subject to the agreement of the Overseeing Organisation, serviceability limit state cracking
checks are undertaken against the class 3 values of BS 5400-4, elastic behaviour is deemed to exist up to the
compressive stress of 0.5(fcu/γmc) and the hypothetical tensile stress at the maximum size of cracks defined in
4.1.1.1 of BS 5400-4, and the cracking checks must be performed in accordance with 6.3.2.4 a) 3) of BS 5400-4.
However, prestressed structures containing external and/or unbonded prestressing must be treated as reinforced
concrete sections in which the axial force and moment due to prestress is considered as an applied load, and the
maximum crack widths, calculated as for reinforced concrete columns (see 4.2.2), must be less than the crack
widths given in Table 1 of BS 5400-4.
When assessment is required for other serviceability conditions, the necessary criteria must be agreed with the
Overseeing Organisation.
6.3.2A Serviceability Limit State: flexure
The partial safety factors to be taken are those from Table 4 of BS 5400-4, where distinction is made between pre-
tensioned and post-tensioned members in tension. Note that 4.3.3.2 allows a reduction of 10% for γmc when worst
credible strengths are used, with the caveat that γmc is not to be taken as less than unity.
For prestressed concrete, class 2 stress limit (as defined by 4.1.1.1 of BS 5400-4) aims to avoid cracking and is
dependent on the tensile strength of concrete. Failure to comply with serviceability criteria will not always require
remedial action, and further consideration by the assessor should be given to the actual consequences of SLS check
failures before this is recommended. In particular, it is unlikely to be justified to take remedial action for non-
compliance with class 2 tensile stress limits if there are no signs of distress and the class 3 tensile stress limits are
complied with.
A/72 August 2015

6.3.3 Ultimate Limit State: flexure
6.3.3.1 Section analysis. When analysing a cross-section to determine its ultimate strength the following
assumptions must be made:
(a) The strain distribution in the concrete in compression is derived from the assumption that plane sections
remain plane.
(b) The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived either from the stress-strain curve given in
Figure 1 with the appropriate value of γmc given in 4.3.3.3 or, in the case of rectangular sections or flanged
sections with the neutral axis in the flange, the compressive stress may be taken as equal to 0.6 fcu/γmc
over the whole compression zone; in both cases the strain at the outermost compression fibre is taken as
0.0035.
(c) The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
(d) The strains in bonded prestressing tendons and in any additional reinforcement, whether in tension or
compression, are derived from the assumption that plane sections remain plane. In addition, the tendon
will have an initial strain due to prestress after all losses. When unbonded prestressing is used, the initial
strain of the tendons due to prestress after all losses must be multiplied by the appropriate value of γfL
given in 4.2.3.
(e) The stresses in bonded prestressing tendons, whether initially tensioned or untensioned, and in
additional reinforcement, are derived either from the appropriate stress-strain curve in Figures 2, 3 and
4 or, when available, manufacturers’ stress-strain curves. The values of γms are given in 4.3.3.3. An
empirical approach for obtaining the stress in the tendons at failure for structures containing only bonded
prestressing is given in 6.3.3.3.
(f) The strain in unbonded tendons must be assumed not to increase above the initial value due to prestress
after all losses including γfL except that either:
In slabs and beams, the strain in the mid-span region of cables which are within 0.1d of the soffit at
(i)
mid-span and which do not extend beyond the supports may be taken to increase by 0.0005, with
no additional calculation;
(ii) The strain in the tendons at failure may be calculated from a non-linear analysis of the structure.
If this is done checks must be made to ensure that conventional ‘conservative’ assumptions, such
ignoring the tensile strength of concrete, do not have the effect of increasing the tendon strain and
hence the ultimate strength.
(g) In structures with unbonded tendons, tendons and reinforcing bars which are anchored within a distance
equal to h/2 of the section being considered must be ignored. However, within h/2 of a simply supported
end, all prestress which is anchored beyond the centre line of the support and all reinforcement which is
positively assessed as being anchored in accordance with 5.8.7 may be considered effective.
6.3.3.1A Section analysis
The concrete stress strain curve in Figure 1 and the failure strain of 0.0035 are appropriate to unbound concrete.
Higher failure stresses and strains are achieved when the concrete is laterally restrained by helical binding or, to
a lesser extent, by conventional links. If the ultimate strength of a member is governed by failure of the concrete
compression zone and if the member marginally fails an assessment using the unbound stress-strain curve, it would
August 2015 A/73

can be obtained from references and . See also comment 5.3.2.1A.
As the ultimate strength of structures with unbonded prestressing is dependant on the

Appendix
prestressAforce, allowance has to be made for the actual prestress force present being less
Volume
than 3 Section 4
which is assumed in design. This may be, for instance, a result of the jacking force being less
than intended or the prestress loss being greater than calculated. A partial safety factor �fL of
0.87 is therefore applied to the prestress force due to the unbonded tendons.
be advisable to allow for the enhancing effects of links or helical binding. Appropriate guidance can be obtained
from references (13) and (14). See also comment 5.3.2.1A.
Since the strain in unbonded tendons at the ultimate limit state is unlikely to be sufficient to
cause
As yield, failure
the ultimate strengthis of
likely to be with
structures through crushing
unbonded of the concrete.
prestressing However,
is dependant the overall
on the prestress force, allowance
behaviour of the structure should remain ductile with extensive cracking and excessive
has to be made for the actual prestress force present being less than which is assumed in design. This may be, for
deflections
instance, being
a result apparent
of the jackingbefore yield.less than intended or the prestress loss being greater than calculated.
force being
A partial safety factor γfL of 0.87 is therefore applied to the prestress force due to the unbonded tendons.
In bonded prestressed construction plane sections, including their prestressing tendons,
remain
Since the plane. This
strain in assumption
unbonded tendonsdepends on the tendons
at the ultimate limit stateremaining
is unlikelybonded to the concrete
to be sufficient and failure is
to cause yield,
is therefore
likely not valid
to be through with of
crushing unbonded prestressing.
the concrete. However, The increase
the overall in steelofstrain
behaviour in unbonded
the structure should remain ductile
prestressing
with extensive at failureand
cracking is less than for
excessive bonded being
deflections tendons and usually
apparent not sufficient to reach yield.
before yield.
Sub-clause 6.3.3.1(f) introduces a simple but conservative rule to estimate the steel strain, and
Inhence
bonded
theprestressed construction
stress at failure. As anplane sections,a including
alternative their prestressing
more rigorous non-linear tendons,
analysisremain
may beplane.
used.This
assumption depends on the tendons remaining bonded to the concrete and is therefore not valid with unbonded
prestressing. The increase in steel strain in unbonded prestressing at failure is less than for bonded tendons and
usually
6.3.3.2not sufficient to reach
Design yield.
charts Sub-clause
. “Not 6.3.3.1(f)
applicable introduces a simple but conservative rule to estimate the
in assessment”
steel strain, and hence the stress at failure. As an alternative a more rigorous non-linear analysis may be used.
6.3.3.3 Assessment formula. For structures containing only bonded prestressing, in the
6.3.3.2 Design charts. “Not applicable in assessment”
absence of an analysis based on the assumptions given in 6.3.3.1, the resistance moment of a
rectangular
6.3.3.3 beam, orformula.
Assessment of a flanged beam in which
For structures the neutral
containing axis lies
only bonded within theinflange,
prestressing, may be
the absence of an analysis
obtained
based from
on the Equationgiven
assumptions 27 in 6.3.3.1, the resistance moment of a rectangular beam, or of a flanged beam in
which the neutral axis lies within the flange, may be obtained from Equation 27:
Mu = fpb Aps (d - 0.5x) Equation 27
Mu = fpb Aps (d - 0.5x) Equation 27
where
where
Mu is the ultimate moment of resistance of the section;
Mfpb
u is the
is the tensile
ultimatestress
moment of resistance
in the tendons atoffailure;
the section;
fpb
x is the tensile stress in the
is the neutral axis depth; tendons at failure;
x d is the
is the effective
neutral axis depth;
depth to tension reinforcement;
d is the effective depth to tension reinforcement;
Aps is the area of the prestressing tendons in the tension zone.
Aps is the area of the prestressing tendons in the tension zone.
Thetensile
The tensilestress,
stress,
fpbf,pbmay
, may
be be calculated
calculated from:
from:
f pu f A ps
pu
f pb /[ ] = ( ) butnot
but notgreater
greaterthan
than
1.01.0
ms f cu bd
whereα �isis1.3
where 1.3forfor pre-tensioning,
pre-tensioning, andand 1.15
1.15 for for post-tensioning
post-tensioning withwith effective
effective bond;bond; and
and γms is �the
ms is the safety
partial
Appendix
factor for theA tendons given in 4.3.3.3.
partial safety factor for the tendons given in 4.3.3.3. Volume 3 Section 4
The neutral axis depth, x, may be calculated
The neutral axis depth, x, may be calculated from:from:
f A ps mc
pb
x =
0.6 f cu b
where γmc
�mcisisthethepartial
Chapter/Page
where safety
partial factor
safety forfor
factor concrete given
concrete in 4.3.3.3.
given in 4.3.3.3. Mmmm/yyyy
Prestressing tendons and additional reinforcement in the compression zone are ignored in strength calculations
Prestressing tendons and additional reinforcement in the compression zone are ignored in
when using this method.
strength calculations when using this method.
6.3.3.3A Assessment formula

A/74
The tabulated values of fpb and x given in Table 27 of BS 5400-4 have been replaced by two August 2015
equations which give the same numerical values as Table 27 when the BS 5400-4 design
values of �mc and �ms are adopted.
where�mc
where �mcisisthe
thepartial
partialsafety
safetyfactor
factorfor
forconcrete
concretegiven
giveninin4.3.3.3.
4.3.3.3.
Prestressingtendons
Prestressing tendonsand
andadditional
additionalreinforcement
reinforcementininthe
thecompression
compressionzone
zoneare
areignored
ignoredinin
strength
strength
Part calculations
calculations
14 BD 44/15 whenusing
when usingthis
thismethod.
method. Amendments to BS 5400-4
6.3.3.3A
6.3.3.3A Assessmentformula
Assessment formula
The
The tabulated
tabulated
6.3.3.3A valuesof fpbpband x xgiven
of
valuesformula
Assessment f and givenininTable
Table2727ofofBS
BS5400-4
5400-4have
havebeen
beenreplaced
replacedbybytwo
two
equationswhich
equations whichgivegivethethesame
samenumerical
numericalvalues
valuesasasTable
Table2727when
whenthe
theBS
BS5400-4
5400-4design
design
values
values of � and
of �mcmcand
The tabulated values �
�msof
are
ms are adopted.
fpb adopted.
and x given in Table 27 of BS 5400-4 have been replaced by two equations which give
the same numerical values as Table 27 when the BS 5400-4 design values of γmc and γms are adopted.
6.3.3.4
6.3.3.4 Non-rectangularsections
Non-rectangular sections . Non-rectangularbeams
. Non-rectangular beamsmust
mustbebeanalysed
analysedusing
usingthe
the
assumptions
6.3.3.4 giveninin6.3.3.1.
6.3.3.1.
Non-rectangular
assumptions given sections. Non-rectangular beams must be analysed using the assumptions given in
6.3.3.1.
6.3.4 Shear
6.3.4 Shearresistance
resistanceofofbeams
beams
6.3.4.1
6.3.4.1 General
General . Calculationsfor
. Calculations forshear
shearare
areonly
onlyrequired
requiredforforthe
theultimate
ultimatelimit
limitstate.
state.AtAt
6.3.4.1 General.
anysection
sectionthe Calculations
theultimate
ultimateshear for shear
shearresistance are only
resistanceisisthe required
thesum
sumofofthe for the ultimate
theresistances limit
resistancesofofthe state.
theconcrete At any
concretealone
alone section the ultimate
any VVc
shear resistance is the sum of the resistances of the concrete alone Vc (see 6.3.4.2 and 6.3.4.3) andc of the shear
(see6.3.4.2
(see 6.3.4.2and
and6.3.4.3)
6.3.4.3)and
andofofthe
theshear
shearreinforcement
reinforcementVV s (see
s (see 6.3.4.4).
6.3.4.4).
reinforcement Vs (see 6.3.4.4).
InInstructures
In structurescontaining
structures containing
containing only
only
only bonded
bonded
bonded prestressing,
prestressing,
prestressing, forvertical
forfor vertical
vertical links
links
links totoeffective
to be bebeeffective
effective thetensile
the
the tensiletensile
capacity of the
capacity
capacity ofof the
the longitudinal
longitudinal steel
steel atat
a a section
section
longitudinal steel at a section must be greater than must
must bebe greater
greater than
than
MM (V(V svscvbcwbdw d) )

zz 22
where
whereM
where MMand
and V
andVV are
are the
are co-existent
the
the co-existent
co-existent bending moment
bending
bending moment
moment andand
shear
and force
shear
shear duedue
force
force to
dueultimate loads
totoultimate
ultimate at theatat
loads
loads section
the under
the
consideration,
sectionunder
section z consideration,
is the lever arm
underconsideration, z ziswhich
isthe may
thelever bearm
leverarm taken
which
which as may
0.9d,
maybeand ξs, vcas
betaken
taken , as
b0.9d,
and and
w 0.9d, dand
are�sas
�, sv,defined
cv, cb
in d5.3.3.2.
, wbwand
and d The
tensile
are capacity
areasasdefined of the longitudinal
definedinin5.3.3.2.
5.3.3.2.The
Thetensilesteel is:
tensilecapacity
capacityofofthe
thelongitudinal
longitudinalsteel
steelis:is:
AA ff pu(t)
s(t)s(t) pu(t) ++ AA fyL(u) / / ms
s(u)fyL(u)
s(u) ms
whereAA
where
where ,, ff,pu(t)
s(t)s(t)
s(t) fpu(t)
pu(t) , s(u)
,,AA A and
and
s(u)
s(u) and fyL(u)
fyL(u) are
fyL(u) are
are asdefined
defined
asasdefined in inin6.3.4.3
6.3.4.3
6.3.4.3 γand
andand �ms
ms�is
ms isisthe
the thepartial
partial
partial safetysafety
factor
safety factor
for the
factor for
for the given
tendons
the
intendons
4.3.3.3.
tendons given
givenHowever inin4.3.3.3.
4.3.3.3. However
withinHowever
an individualwithin
within ananindividual
sagging individual
or hogging sagging
region,oror
sagging suchhogging region,
longitudinal
hogging region, suchmust not be taken as
force
such
more than
longitudinal
longitudinal maxM /z
forcewheremust M not is
be the maximum
taken as more
force must notmaxbe taken as more than Mmax ultimate
than M moment
/z within
where
/z where Mmax
max M thatisregion.
the maximum ultimate
is the maximum ultimate
max
momentwithin
moment withinthat thatregion.
region.
In structures containing unbonded prestressing, compliance with the requirements of 6.3.3.1(g) will ensure that
vertical links atcontaining
In structures the sectionunbonded
under consideration are effective.
prestressing, compliance with the requirements of 6.3.3.1(g)
In structures containing unbonded prestressing, compliance with the requirements of 6.3.3.1(g)
willensure
will ensurethat
thatvertical
verticallinks
linksatatthe
thesection
sectionunder
underconsideration
considerationare
areeffective.
effective.
At a section at which the applied moment, M, does not exceed the cracking moment, Mcr, calculated in accordance
with 6.3.4.2, Vc may be taken as equal to the uncracked value, Vco, (see 6.3.4.2). In all other cases Vc must be taken
Ata asection
At sectionatatwhich
whichthe
theapplied
appliedmoment,
moment, M,does does notexceed
exceedthe
thecracking
cracking moment,MM cr,cr,
as the lesser of the uncracked value, Vco, (seeM,
6.3.4.2) not
and the cracked value, Vcrmoment,
, (see 6.3.4.3).
calculatedininaccordance
calculated accordancewith with6.3.4.2,
6.3.4.2,VV c may
c may bebetaken
takenasasequal
equaltotothe
theuncracked
uncrackedvalue,
value,VV , (see
, (see
coco
6.3.4.2).
6.3.4.2). In all other
In allsection
For a cracked cases
other cases V
Vc must
the conditions
c must
bebe taken as the
taken as the
of maximum lesser
lesser
shear of the uncracked
ofco-existent
with the uncracked value,
value,
bending V
Vcoco
moment , (see
, (see 6.3.4.2)
and 6.3.4.2)
maximum bending
and
and the
the cracked
cracked value,
value, V V
moment with co-existent shear
cr, , (see
(see
cr 6.3.4.3).
6.3.4.3).
must both be considered.
Fora acracked
For
Within cracked sectionthe
section
the transmission the conditions
conditions
length ofofmaximum
maximum
of pre-tensioned shear
shear
members with
with
(see co-existent
co-existent
6.7.4), bending
bending
the shear moment
moment
resistance and must be taken
and
of a section
maximum
maximum bending
bending
as the greater moment
of the moment with co-existent
with co-existent
values calculated shear must both be considered.
from: shear must both be considered.
(a) 5.3.3 except that in determining the area As, the area of tendons must be ignored unless the tendons are
rigid bars; and
Mmmm/yyyy
Chapter/Page
(b) 6.3.4.2 to 6.3.4.4, using the appropriate value of prestress at the section considered, assuming a linear
variation of prestress over the transmission length.
August 2015 A/75

In a haunched beam, the component of the flange forces perpendicular to the longitudinal
Appendix
centroidalA axis of the beam calculated from an elastic section analysis under the relevant load
Volume 3 Section 4
case may be subtracted algebraically from the applied shear force. Part 14 BD 44/15
6.3.4.1A General
InThe
a haunched beam,for
design rules theshear
component of the
in beams flange
given in forces perpendicular
BS 5400-4 to the longitudinal
are empirical and based oncentroidal axis of the
test results
beam calculated from an elastic section
on bonded tendons. Research has shown analysis
(58)under the relevant load case may be subtracted algebraically from
that they can also be safely be used to calculate
the applied shear force.
the shear strength of prestressed concrete beams with unbonded or external tendons.
6.3.4.1A General
The design for shear is based on a 45 degrees truss analogy and thus implies a greater force in
thedesign
The tension chord
rules for than
shear would
in beamsbegiven
expected
in BSby simple
5400-4 arebending theory.
empirical Theon
and based limit
teston the shear
results on bonded tendons.
resistance for bonded
Research has shown (58) prestressing is related to the area of longitudinal reinforcement in
that they can also be safely be used to calculate the shear strength of prestressed concrete
excesswith
beams of that required
unbonded to resisttendons.
or external bending. However, in the case of unbonded prestressing it is
necessary to ensure that the tendon force rather then tendon strength is available, and this is
guaranteed
The design forby checking
shear is basedthat
on the
a 45tendons
degrees extend sufficiently
truss analogy beyond
and thus impliesthe sectionforce
a greater at which
in the they
tension chord
are required.
than would be expected by simple bending theory. The limit on the shear resistance for bonded prestressing is
related to the area of longitudinal reinforcement in excess of that required to resist bending. However, in the case
ofThe assessment
unbonded sub-clause
prestressing states that
it is necessary to V c maythat
ensure be the
taken as Vforce
tendon co when thethen
rather applied
tendonmoment
strengthdoes
is available, and
notisexceed
this guaranteed
Mcr.by checking
This that the
is because thetendons
sectionextend sufficiently
will not beyond
be flexurally the section
cracked and,athence,
whichthe
theyVare
cr required.
calculation is not appropriate.
The assessment sub-clause states that Vc may be taken as Vco when the applied moment does not exceed Mcr. This
isWhen
because the section
using will not be
the provisions in flexurally cracked
5.3.3 within and, hence, thezone,
the transmission Vcr calculation
the area ofis bar
not tendons
appropriate.
may
be included in As, because their rigidity enables them to contribute to the shear resistance
When using the provisions in 5.3.3 within the transmission zone, the area of bar tendons may be included in As,
component due to dowel action.
because their rigidity enables them to contribute to the shear resistance component due to dowel action.
Thesub-clauses
The sub-clauses in BS
in BS 5400-4
5400-4 are written
are written for prismatic
for prismatic beamsbeams
and areand are generally
generally conservative
conservative for haunched
for haunched
ones. ones. allows
This sub-clause This sub-clause allows
advantage to advantage
be taken to be taken
of the vertical of theofvertical
component component
flange forces in these.ofIf three
dimensional finite element models are used for box beams, the web shears from the computer modelthe
flange forces in these. If three dimensional finite element models are used for box beams, will already
web shears from the computer
have the flange forces subtracted. model will already have the flange forces subtracted.
6.3.4.2 SectionsSections
6.3.4.2 uncracked
uncracked inAflexure
in flexure. section. A section
may may betoassumed
be assumed to beinuncracked
be uncracked in applied
flexure if the
flexure does
moment if thenot
applied
exceedmoment does moment,
the cracking not exceed
Mcrthe
: cracking moment, Mcr:
Appendix MA A
cr = (0.49 f cu / mc + f pt )I/y Volume 33 Section
Section 44
Appendix Volume
Amendments to BS
Amendments to BS 5400-4 5400-4 Appendix APart 14 BD
Part 14 BD 44/XX44/XX
where f is the stress due to prestress only at the tensile fibre distance
whereptfpt is the stress due to prestress only at the tensile fibre distance y from the
Amendments centroid of the of the section
to BS 5400-4
y from the centroid concrete
which has a second moment of area I; the value of fpt must be derived from the prestressing force after all losses
concrete section which has a second moment of area I; the value of fpt must be derived from the
have occurred, multiplied by the appropriate value of γfL (see 4.2.3). Values of the partial safety factor γmc are given
prestressing
It4.3.3.3.
may be force after
be assumed
assumed that all
thelosses have
ultimate occurred,
shear multiplied
resistance by theuncracked
of aa section
section appropriate value ofV
in flexure,
flexure, �fL (see
inIt may
4.2.3). Values that the ultimate shear resistance of uncracked in V co,,
toofthethe partial safety of aa factor �mc are given intensile
4.3.3.3. co
corresponds
corresponds to the occurrence
occurrence of maximum
maximum principal
principal stressItof
tensile stress ofmay
section equal to
be assumed
section equal tothat
fftt =
= the ultimate shear resistanc
It0.32
may bef assumed mc that the ultimate shear resistance of a section corresponds to cothe occurrencetoofthe
uncracked in flexure, V , corresponds a maximum princ
0.32 f cu cu //
mc
occurrence of a maximum principal tensile stress of section equal to ft = 0.32 f cu / mc
The value
value of V
Chapter/Page
The Vco atat the height
height of the the cross
cross section
section where
where fft is is maximum
maximum is is given by:by: Mmmm/yyyy
The value ofofVco at thethe
co height of of the cross section where ft is maximum
t is givengivenby:
The value of Vco at the height of the cross section w
Ib
V co = Ib ff 2t2 +
= + cpb ff t Equation 28
Equation 28
V co
S t cpb t Equation 28
Ib
S V co =
2
f t + cpb f t
S
where
where
where
where
ft fft is 0.32 ff cu // mc ,,taken
is 0.32
is takenasaspositive;
positive;
t cu mc taken as positive;
cpb is is the
the total
total direct
direct stress
stress at at the
the location
location of of the
the section
section being ft
being checked,
checked, is
due0.32 f cu / mc
to bending
bending and, taken as positive;
cpb due to and
axial load
axial load effects
effects after
after allall losses
losses havehave occurred,
occurred, takentaken as as positive
positive
cpb in in compression
compression
is the total direct and stress at the location of the
and
multiplied by the appropriate value
multiplied by the appropriate value of �fL (see 4.2.3);of �fL (see 4.2.3); axial load effects after all losses have occur
b b is the breadth of the member at the location of the
is the breadth of the member at the location of the section being checked, section being checked, allowing
multiplied by the
allowing for the
forappropriate
the value of �fL (s
presence of the ducts (where the position of a duct coincides
presence of the ducts (where the position of a duct coincides with the position of b with the
is position
the breadthof of the member at the location
A/76 August 2015
maximum principal tensile stress, e.g. at or near
maximum principal tensile stress, e.g. at or near the junction of flange the junction of flange and
presence web
and web near
of near a
the ducts
a (where the position of
support, the value of b must be reduced by the full diameter
support, the value of b must be reduced by the full diameter of the duct if ungrouted andof the duct if
maximum ungrouted
principal andtensile stress, e.g. at or
by half of the diameter if grouted); support, the value of b must be reduced by
scpb is the total direct stress at the location of the section being checked, due to bending and axial load effects
after all losses have occurred, taken as positive in compression and multiplied by the appropriate value of
γfL (see 4.2.3);
b is the breadth of the member at the location of the section being checked, allowing for the presence of the
ducts (where the position of a duct coincides with the position of maximum principal tensile stress, e.g. at
or near the junction of flange and web near a support, the value of b must be reduced by the full diameter
of the duct if ungrouted and by half of the diameter if grouted);
I is the second moment of area;
S is the first moment of area of the part of the section excluding any area below the location being checked,
calculated about the centroidal axis of the whole section.
In many cases the maximum principal stress occurs at the level of the centroidal axis. However, when this is not the
case (i.e. cross sections where the width varies over the height) the minimum value of the shear resistance Vco must
be found by calculating it at various axis positions in the cross section.
For a section uncracked in flexure with inclined tendons, the component of prestressing force (multiplied by the
appropriate value of γfL) normal to the longitudinal axis of the member must be algebraically added to Vco. This
component must be taken as positive where the shear resistance of the section is increased.
6.3.4.2A Sections uncracked in flexure
The equation for the cracking moment has been included in 6.3.4.2. The terms 0.49√(fcu/γmc) and 0.32√(fcu/γmc)
replace the BS 5400-4 terms 0.37√fcu and 0.24√fcu, respectively. The latter values include a partial safety factor of
1.5 applied to fcu, which has been replaced in the assessment code by the general value, γmc. The BS 5400-4 values
also include an additional safety factor of 1.25 to allow for strength reductions caused by shrinkage cracking,
repeated loading and variations in concrete quality (59). This factor has been reduced to 1.15 in the assessment code
because variations in concrete quality are allowed for in γmc.
Appendix
Appendix A A Volume
Volume 33 Section
Section 44
Amendments
Amendments to BS
to BS 5400-4
5400-4 Part 14
Part 14 BD
BD 44/XX
44/XX
6.3.4.3 Sections cracked in flexure. The ultimate shear resistance of a section cracked in flexure, Vcr, must be
calculated using Equation 29 when the factored effective prestress, fpe, exceeds 0.6 fpu. When fpe is less than 0.6 fpu,
the shear strength must be calculated using Equation 29 or Equation 30, whichever is greater.
V crcr =
= 0.045bd ff cu // mc +
0.045bd + M cr /(M/V
/(M/V d/2)
d/2)
V M cr Equation
Equation2929
cu mc
Equation 29
but 0.12 bd f /
but 0.12 bd f cu / mc
cu mc
= (1 0.55 ff pe // ff pu )) vc bd s ++ M o /(M/V
/(M/V /2)
V crcr
V = (1 0.55 dd ss /2)
pu v c bd s Mo
pe
Equation
Equation3030
Equation 30
but
but 0.12
0.12 bd ff cu // mc
bd s s
cu mc
where
where
where
d is the distance from the extreme compression fibre to the
the centroid of the
the tendons at
at the
d d is
is the distancefrom
the distance fromthetheextreme
extreme compression
compression fibrefibre
to thetocentroidcentroid
of theof tendons tendons the considered;
at the section
γmc
section
section considered;
considered;
is the partial safety factor for concrete given in 4.3.3.3;
M��cr
mc
mc
is
is the
is the partial
partial
cracking safety
safety
momentfactor
factor for
for concrete
defined concrete given
given in
in 6.3.4.2; in 4.3.3.3;
4.3.3.3;
M
V,MM cr is
arethe
the cracking
shear moment
force and defined
is the cracking moment defined in 6.3.4.2;
bending in
moment6.3.4.2;
(both taken as positive) at the section considered due to ultimate
cr
V, M
V, M are are the
the shear force and bending moment (both taken as
loads; shear force and bending moment (both taken as positive)
positive) at at the
the section
section considered
considered
Mo due
is theto ultimate
moment
due to ultimate loads; loads;
necessary to produce zero stress in the concrete at the depth d, which is equal to Mo = fpt I/y
M
Mo o is
butthe
notmoment
greater
is the moment necessary necessary
than M cr, in to produce
which
to producefpt is zero
zero stress in the concrete at the depth d, which is
the stress
stress in
due the
to concrete
prestress at
only the
at depth
the d,
depth which
d, distance
is y from the
equal
centroid
equal to M
to M =
of oothe f I/y
= fconcretebut not
pt I/y butsection greater than
whichthan
not greater hasMM in
a second which
moment
cr, in which f
fpt is the stress due to prestress
of area I; the value of fpt must be derived
pt cr, pt is the stress due to prestress
only
only at the depth d, distance y from the centroid of the concrete section
from at
thethe depth
prestressing d, distance
forces y
afterfrom
all the
losses centroid
have of
occurred,the concrete
multiplied which
which has
by the appropriate
section aa of γfL
hasvalue
second moment
(see 4.2.3): of area I;
second moment of area I; the value of fpt the value of f must be derived from the prestressing forces
pt must be derived from the prestressing forces
after
after all
all losses
losses have have occurred,
occurred, multiplied
multiplied by by thethe appropriate
appropriate value value of of ��fL (see 4.2.3):
fL (see 4.2.3):
ffpe is
is the factored effective prestress which is equal to the effective prestress after all
the factored effective prestress which is equal to the effective prestress after all losses
losses
pe
have
have occurred,
August 2015 occurred, multiplied
multiplied by by the
the appropriate
appropriate value value ofof ��fL (see 4.2.3); A/77
fL (see 4.2.3);
vvc is obtained from 5.3.3.2; it may be adjusted to allow for short
is obtained from 5.3.3.2; it may be adjusted to allow for short shear span enhancement in shear span enhancement in
c
accordance
accordance with with 5.3.3.3.
5.3.3.3.
Mo is the moment necessary to produce zero stress in the concrete at the depth d, which is
equal to Mo = fpt I/y but not greater than Mcr, in which fpt is the stress due to prestress
Appendixonly
A at the depth d, distance y from the centroid of the concrete section which has Volume
a 3 Section 4
Amendments
second moment of area I; the value of fpt must be derived from the prestressing forces 14 BD 44/15
to BS 5400-4 Part
after all losses have occurred, multiplied by the appropriate value of �fL (see 4.2.3):
fpe is the factored effective prestress which is equal to the effective prestress after all losses
fpe is theoccurred,
have factored effective prestress
multiplied by thewhich is equalvalue
appropriate to theofeffective
�fL (see prestress
4.2.3); after all losses have occurred,
vc multiplied by the appropriate value of γ
is obtained from 5.3.3.2; it may be adjustedfL (see 4.2.3);
to allow for short shear span enhancement in
vc is obtained from
accordance with5.3.3.2;
5.3.3.3.it may be adjusted to allow for short shear span enhancement in accordance with
As 5.3.3.3. to obtain v ) must be taken as the actual area of steel in the tension zone,
(required c
As (required to obtain vc) must be taken as the actual area of steel in the tension zone, irrespective of its
irrespective of its characteristic strength;
characteristic strength;
ds is the distance from the compression face to the centroid of the steel area, As.
ds is the distance from the compression face to the centroid of the steel area, As.
Forcases
For caseswhere
where both
both tensioned
tensioned andand untensioned
untensioned steelsteel are contained
are contained in Asin
, fpeA/fspu
, fpe/fpube
may may be taken
taken as: as:
Pf
As(t) f pu(t) + As(u) f yL(u)
where
where
PPf
f is
is the effectiveprestressing
the effective prestressing force
force after
after all losses;
all losses;
AA s(t)
s(t)
is
is the areaofoftensioned
the area tensionedsteel;
steel;
A
As(u) s(u) is the area of untensioned steel;
is the area of untensioned steel;
fpu(t)
fpu(t) is
is the characteristicstrength
the characteristic strength
or or
thethe worst
worst credible
credible strength
strength of theoftensioned
the tensioned
steel; steel;
fyL(u)
fyL(u) is
is the characteristic strength or the worst credible strength of the untensioned steel. steel.
the characteristic strength or the worst credible strength of the untensioned
Forsections
For sectionscracked
cracked in in flexure
flexure andand
withwith inclined
inclined tendons,
tendons, the component
the component of prestressing
of prestressing force to the
force normal
longitudinal axis of the member must be ignored. However, in a haunched section
normal to the longitudinal axis of the member must be ignored. However, in a haunched section the component of prestressing
force (multiplied of
the component by prestressing
the appropriate value
force of γfL) normal
(multiplied to appropriate
by the the (inclined)value
longitudinal centroidal
of �fL) normal axis of the member
to the
may be considered. This component should not be taken as greater than it would be
(inclined) longitudinal centroidal axis of the member may be considered. This component should if the tendons were parallel to
the flange which is the tension flange ignoring the effect of prestress.
not be taken as greater than it would be if the tendons were parallel to the flange which is the
tension flange ignoring the effect of prestress.
BS 5400-4 gives different design equations for classes 1 and 2 (Equation 29) and class 3 (Equation 30). However, it
is actually the fpe/fpu ratio which determines which equation should be used (60).
The BS 5400-4 Equation 29 and the lower limiting values for Vcr contain a partial safety factor of 1.5 applied to fcu.
Chapter/Page
The equivalent terms in the assessment code have been modified and fcu replaced by fcu/γmcMmmm/yyyy
. This has led to some
anomalies in assessment since simplifications made in the equations result in there being a step change between
the values given by the two equations and the value of fpe is not accurately known. Since there is no reason why
Equation 29 should be unsafe for lower fpe/fpu ratios, the use of either equation is allowed.
Equations 29 and 30 have been further modified by including the d/2 term. This term was conservatively omitted
from the BS 5400-4 equations (60). M0 (used in Equation 30) is the moment for zero stress at tendon level whereas
Mcr (used in Equation 29) is the moment for cracking at the tension face allowing for some tensile strength of
concrete. In the derivation (60) it was assumed d was not much less than h. For sections with the tendon remote from
the tension face, M0 can be very large leading to unsafe results. A maximum of Mcr is imposed to avoid this.
Equation 30 was originally based on an interpolation between a modified Equation 29 and the expressions used for
reinforced concrete. The short shear span enhancement is now allowed for the latter.
Although it may seem illogical to ignore the vertical component of inclined tendons in cracked sections, the rules
are empirical. They were derived for sections with horizontal tendons and tests suggest they could be unsafe if the
vertical component of prestress is included when they are applied to sections with inclined tendons. However, it is
safe to include the component of prestress perpendicular to the longitudinal centroidal axis when this results form
haunching rather than from draped cables.
A/78 August 2015

included when they are applied to sections with inclined tendons. However, it is safe to
include the component of prestress perpendicular to the longitudinal centroidal axis when this
results3form
Volume haunching
Section 4 rather than from draped cables. Appendix A
6.3.4.4 Shear reinforcement. Types of shear reinforcement and the criterion for the
amount of shear reinforcement required to be considered effective are defined in 6.3.4.1 and
6.3.4.4 Shear reinforcement. Types of shear reinforcement and the criterion for the amount of shear
5.3.3.2.
reinforcement required to be considered effective are defined in 6.3.4.1 and 5.3.3.2.
Vertical prestress may be treated as prestrained reinforcement, with a design force not greater
Vertical prestress may be treated as prestrained reinforcement, with a design force not greater than that
than that corresponding to a total strain of:
corresponding to a total strain of:

0.0041 + (estimated prestrain after all losses)/1.15
0.0041 + (estimated prestrain after all losses)/1.15
Linksmust
Links mustbebeconsidered
consideredas as effective
effective only
only if their
if their spacing
spacing bothboth
alongalong a beam
a beam and laterally
and laterally does
does not exceed dt, nor
not exceed d , nor four times the web thickness for flanged beams,
four times the tweb thickness for flanged beams, where dt is defined below. where d t is defined below.
Whenthe
When theabove
above criteria
criteria areare met,
met, thethe shear
shear resistance
resistance of vertical
of vertical linkslinks
is: is:
Vs = Asv ( f yv / ms ) d t / s v
where
where
dt is the depth from the extreme compression fibre either to the centroid of the tendons or to the longitudinal
bars, tendons, or groups of tendons in the tension zone around which the links are anchored in accordance
with 5.8.6.5, whichever is greater.
fyv Is the yield strength of the shear reinforcement. This must be taken as not greater than 500N/mm2 unless
it is prestressed in which case the stress in the steel may be taken as the appropriate value from Figure
3 at a concrete strain of 0.0045, that is a steel strain of 0.0045 greater than the prestrain
Mmmm/yyyy after all losses
Chapter/Page
including allowance for gfp of 0.87.
All other terms in the equation for Vs are defined in 5.3.3.2.
In general, sections within a distance d from the support need not be assessed for shear provided the shear
reinforcement calculated for the section at a distance d is continued up to the support.
Inclined links or bent-up bars must be assumed to form the tension members of lattice girders as described in
5.3.3.2.
6.3.4.4A Shear reinforcement
Most of the comments on 5.3.3.2 are also applicable to 6.3.4.4.
BS 5400-4 does not give rules for vertical prestress. It has largely gone out of favour but bridges with vertical
prestress exist. Vertical prestress can be considered either as controlling the maximum principal tensile stress or as
acting as prestrained reinforcement. The former approach can only be used in the uncracked in flexure check whist
the latter generally gives a greater strength. Hence, only the latter approach is given here. The rule limits the strain
in addition to the prestrain to that corresponding to the strain required according to the code to reach yield in the
highest grade unstressed reinforcement it allows.
The BS 5400-4 requires the link spacing to be reduced when the shear force is large. This requirement has been
omitted from the assessment code because there is no logical reason to justify its inclusion. It is understood that the
requirement to limit the link spacing to four times the web thickness is related to web buckling. If the web cannot
buckle (because, for example, it is surrounded by in-situ infill concrete) then this spacing requirement may be
relaxed.
The expression for Vs is not valid for a link spacing in excess of dt. In such cases an analysis would need to be
performed which considers various possible shear failure planes. The requirement to limit spacing to four times the
August 2015 A/79

web thickness is considered to be related to web stability of flanged beams. Where greater link spacings occur, it is
advisable to ignore the Vs term, or carry out non-linear analysis of the web.
The requirement to relate shear capacity to the area of longitudinal reinforcement or prestressing steel has been
moved to 6.3.4.1.
6.3.4.5 Maximum shear force. The shear force, V, due to ultimate loads, must not exceed the stress 0.36
(0.7 - fcu/250)fcu/γmc, multiplied by bds, where b is as defined in 6.3.4.2, ds is as defined in 6.3.4.3 and γmc is the
partial safety factor
appropriate valueforof concrete given
� ) normal tointhe
4.3.3.3.
longitudinal axis of the member increases the shear
fL
resistance of the section due to the presence of inclined tendons, it may be subtracted from the
Where the section is uncracked in flexure according to 6.3.4.2, ds may be taken as equal to dt as defined in
applied shear force V.
6.3.4.4 and, where the component of the prestressing force (multiplied by the appropriate value of γfL) normal to
the longitudinal axis of the member increases the shear resistance of the section due to the presence of inclined
In haunched beams the component of flange force perpendicular to the longitudinal centroidal
tendons, it may be subtracted from the applied shear force V.
axis may be subtracted from the flange force.
In haunched beams the component of flange force perpendicular to the longitudinal centroidal axis may be
6.3.4.5A from the
subtracted Maximum shear force
flange force.
The upper limit to shear stress in BS 5400-4 is known to be conservative and the increased
(5)
limit here
6.3.4.5A is based shear
Maximum force theory , which is the basis of the varying angle truss
on plasticity
approach of BS EN 1992-1-1 given as an alternative method given in 5.3.3.5/6.3.4.7.
The upper limit
However, the to shear stress
maximum in BS
shear 5400-4
limit of 0is.36
known to be
( 0 .7 f cu conservative
/ 250) f cu / and the increased limit here is based
mc is more conservative
on plasticity theory (5), which is the basis of the varying angle truss approach of BS EN 1992-1-1 given as an
than that in 6.3.4.7, so sections which do not satisfy this maximum to 6.3.4.5 may still have
alternative method given in 5.3.3.5/6.3.4.7. However, the maximum shear limit of 0.36 (0.7 – f cu / 250) f cu / γ mc
adequate strength to 6.3.4.7 if they have sufficient transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.
is more conservative than that in 6.3.4.7, so sections which do not satisfy this maximum to 6.3.4.5 may still have
adequate strength to 6.3.4.7 if they have sufficient transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.
The definition of d used has been changed from BS 5400-4 because this is over-conservative
fordefinition
The sections with the tendons
of d used has been remote
changedfrom
fromthe
BS tension face. this is over-conservative for sections with the
5400-4 because
tendons remote from the tension face.
The rule is known to be conservative for some cases and higher forces may be allowed by use
of 6.3.4.7.
The rule is known to be conservative for some cases and higher forces may be allowed by use of 6.3.4.7.
6.3.4.6 Segmental
6.3.4.6 construction.
Segmental The shear. checks
construction for post-tensioned
The shear segmental structures
checks for post-tensioned are generally
segmental
performed in the same way as for non-segmental structures except that, at joints with
structures are generally performed in the same way as for non-segmental structures except cast in situ concrete, dry-pack
mortar orjoints
that, at grout joint
withfiller
cast the shear
in situ force duedry-pack
concrete, to ultimate loads or
mortar must not joint
grout be greater
fillerthan:
the shear force
due to ultimate loads must not be greater than:
0.7 fL P h tan 2
where
where
γfL is the partial safety factor for the prestressing force, to be taken as 0.87;
P�h fL is
is the partial safety
the horizontal factor for
component of the
the prestressing force,after
prestressing force to bealltaken
losses;as 0.87;
α2 Ph is
is the horizontal
the angle component
of friction of theThe
at the joint. prestressing force
value for tan afterbeall
α2 can losses;
taken as 0.7 for a smooth interface and 1.4
�2 is the angle of friction at the joint. The value for tan �
for a roughened or castellated interface. If there is any doubt
2 can be taken the
regarding as 0.7
typefor
ofainterface,
smooth tan α2 must
interface
be taken asand 1.4 for a roughened or castellated interface. If there is any doubt regarding
0.7.
the type of interface, tan �2 must be taken as 0.7.
In the case of segmental construction with precast elements and unbonded prestressing only, the shear resistance
s of
VIn thecase
the vertical links within
of segmental a distance hwith
construction red from bothelements
precast edges of the
andjoint (but notprestressing
unbonded greater thanonly,
the segment
the length)
must be calculated with the formula for V in 6.3.4.4 by either using d or h , whichever the lesser,
shear resistance Vs of the vertical linkss within a distance hred fromt bothrededges of the joint (but not where hred may
begreater
taken as thethe
than depth of concrete
segment in must
length) compression under the
be calculated ultimate
with loads, for
the formula but V
not less than 0.5h, with h being the
s in 6.3.4.4 by either
overall section depth.
using dt or hred, whichever the lesser, where hred may be taken as the depth of concrete in
compression under the ultimate loads, but not less than 0.5h, with h being the overall section
The method of assessment of match cast joints with shear keys must be agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
depth.
The method of assessment of match cast joints with shear keys must be agreed with the
A/80 August 2015

For segmental construction with no bonded prestressing, in accordance with 6.2.3 of BS EN 1992-2 it is assumed
that, as the applied load increases, the joint opens and the force in the tension chord remains unchanged, so the
depth of concrete section available for the flow of the web compression field is reduced to a value of hred, which can
be taken as the depth of concrete in compression under the ultimate loads, in accordance with PD 6687-2.
6.3.4.7 Alternative method. As an alternative to the method given in 6.3.4.1 to 6.3.4.5, beams may be assessed
using the varying angle truss approach described in 5.3.3.5. In this case the vertical component of prestress may be
deducted algebraically from the applied shear force and acw may be taken equal to:
1 + 2 scp/fcu for 0 < scp < 0.125 fcu

1.25 for 0.125 fcu < scp < 0.25 fcu
2.5 (1 - 2 scp/fcu) for scp > 0.25 fcu
where scp is the mean compressive stress in the concrete due to the prestressing and axial loading, obtained
by averaging it over the concrete section taking account of the reinforcement. The value of scp need not to be
calculated at a distance less than 0.5dcotq from the edge of the support. In the case of straight tendons, a high level
of prestress (scp/fcu > 0.25) and thin webs, if the tension and the compression chords are able to carry the whole
prestressing force and blocks are provided at the extremity of beams to disperse the prestressing force, it may be
assumed that the prestressing force is distributed between the chords. In these circumstances, the compression field
due to shear only should be considered in the web (acw=1).
In the case of segmental construction with precast elements and unbonded prestressing only, the shear resistance
from the varying angle truss approach in 5.3.3.5 within a distance hred cotq from both edges of the joint (but not
greater than the segment length) must be evaluated by assuming a value of the angle q derived from the residual
depth hred, in accordance with the provisions of 6.2.3 of BS EN 1992-2, where hred is taken as the depth of concrete
in compression under the ultimate loads, but not less than 0.5h, with h being the overall section depth.
As the BD 44 approach to link design in prestressed sections is relatively economic, the varying angle truss
approach is less likely to be advantageous in terms of assessing the adequacy of links. However, it can be
advantageous when the link area is relatively large. It can also give significant increases in web crushing strength
compared with the normal BD 44 limit in 6.3.4.5.
6.3.4.8 Other approaches. With the approval of the Overseeing Organisation, methods employing plasticity
theory may be used for the assessment of the shear capacity of concrete beams.
The ultimate shear capacity of prestressed concrete structures can be assessed by analytical methods based on the
lower bound and upper bound models of plasticity theory, which may prove very useful in situations not explicitly
covered by codes. However, these methods should be applied with care and under the supervision of the Overseeing
Organisation. See also 5.3.3.7A. An upper bound model for assessing the shear capacity of prestressed concrete
bridge beams post-tensioned transversely together to form a deck is presented in references (7) and (8).
August 2015 A/81

6.3.5.1 General. In some members, the maximum torsional moment does not occur under the same loading as
the maximum flexural moment. In such circumstances reinforcement and prestress in excess of that required for
flexure and shear may be used in torsion.
6.3.5.2 Stresses and reinforcement. Calculations of torsion are only required for the ultimate limit state and the
torsional shear stresses must be calculated assuming a plastic shear stress distribution.
Calculations for torsion must be in accordance with 5.3.4 with the following modifications. When prestressing steel
is used as transverse torsional steel, or as longitudinal torsional steel, the stress assumed in assessment must be the
lesser of (fpe+ 460/γms) or fpu/γms, where γms is the partial safety factor for steel given in 4.3.3.3.
The compressive stress in the concrete due to prestress must be taken into account separately in accordance with
5.3.4.5.
In calculating (v + vt) for comparison with vtu (see 5.3.4.3), v must be calculated from Equation 8 of 5.3.3.1
regardless of whether 6.3.4.2 or 6.3.4.3 is critical in shear.
The BS 5400-4 increase in vtu for concrete grades above 40 is already allowed for in the expression for vtu
(see 5.3.4.3A).
6.3.5.3 Segmental construction. “Not applicable to assessment”
6.3.5.4 Other assessment methods. Alternative methods of assessing members subjected to combined bending,
shear and torsion may be used provided that it can be shown that they satisfy the ultimate limit state requirements.
Box sections may be assessed by checking webs and flanges in accordance with 6.3.4 for the sum of shear forces
calculated for direct shear and torsion.
6.3.5.4A Other assessment methods
This sub-clause permits the consideration of strength at various points rather than the consideration of cross-
sectional strength. Possible methods for box girders are presented in references (61) and (62).
6.3.6 Longitudinal shear. For flanged beams, the longitudinal shear resistance across vertical sections of the
flange which may be critical must be checked in accordance with 7.4.2.3.
6.3.7 Deflection of beam. If required by the Overseeing Organisation, deflections may be calculated in
accordance with 4.2.4 and 4.6 taking appropriately into account the level of prestress.
6.3.7A Deflection of beam
The deflection of a beam which is uncracked under the assessment service load may be determined using an elastic
analysis based on the concrete section properties and a modulus of elasticity which allows for creep, if appropriate.
Beams with low levels of prestress may be cracked under the assessment service load, and the deflections of such
beams may be determined using moment curvature relationships (63).
6.4 Slabs. The analysis of prestressed slabs must be in accordance with 5.4.1 provided that due allowance is
made for moments due to prestress. The assessment must generally be in accordance with 6.3.
A/82 August 2015

6.4 Slabs. The analysis of prestressed slabs must be in accordance
Volume 3 Section 4 due allowance is made for moments due to prestress. The assessment
Appendix A m
Part 14 BD 44/15 accordance with 6.3. Amendments to BS 5400-4
The assessment of shear must be in accordance with 6.3.4. In the treatm

The assessment of shear must be in accordance withunder6.3.4. concentrated
In the treatment of shear
loads, stresses under
the ultimate shear concentrated
resistance of a section unc
loads, the ultimate shear resistance of a section uncracked in flexure, V ,
be taken as corresponding
co may be taken as corresponding to the
to the occurrence of a maximum principal te
occurrence of a maximum principal tensile stress of f t = 0.32 f cu / mc at
atthe
thecentroidal
centroidalaxis
axisaround
aroundthethe critical section w
critical
section which is assumed as a perimeter h/2 from theperimeter
loaded area. The shear resistance of any shear reinforcement,
h/2 from the loaded area. The shear resistance of any shear r
Vs, must be assessed in accordance with 6.3.4.4.
assessed in accordance with 6.3.4.4.
6.4A Slabs
6.4A Slabs
See
See 6.3.4.2A for the explanation of the expression for f . 6.3.4.2A for the explanation of the expression for ft.
t
6.5 Columns 6.5 Columns

Prestressed concrete columns, where the mean stress in the concrete se
Prestressed concrete columns, where the mean stresstendons is less than
in the concrete 2.5imposed
section N/mm², bymaythebetendons
assessed as reinforced
is less than column
2.5 N/mm², may be assessed as reinforced columns inotherwise thewith
accordance full 5.5,
effects of the prestress
otherwise must of
the full effects bethe
considered.
prestress
must be considered.
6.6 Tension members
6.6 Tension members The tensile strength of tension members must be based on the assessm
prestressing tendons and the strength developed by any additional rein
The tensile strength of tension members must be based on the assessment strength (fpu/γms) of the prestressing
reinforcement may usually be assumed to be acting at its assessment st
tendons and the strength developed by any additional reinforcement. The additional reinforcement may usually be
cases it may be necessary to check the stress in the reinforcement usin
assumed to be acting at its assessment stress (fy/γms); in special cases it may be necessary to check the stress in the
reinforcement using strain compatibility.
6.7.1 Maximum initial prestress. The initial prestress must be assess
6.7.1 Maximum initial prestress. The initial prestress mustavailable
drawings, sitefrom
be assessed data contract
or original design
record calculations. In the abs
drawings,
available site data or original design calculations. Inthe
the likely nominal
absence of suchvalue of the initial
information, prestress
the likely must
nominal be assessed
value of from t
timecurrent
the initial prestress must be assessed from the standards of the at
design.
the time of the design.

6.7.2.1 General. Allowance must be made when calculating
6.7.2.1 the forces in tendons
General for themust
. Allowance appropriate
be madelosses
whenof calculating th
prestress resulting from: appropriate losses of prestress resulting from:
(a) relaxation of the steel comprising the tendons;
(a) relaxation of the steel comprising the tendons;
(b) (b) the creep
the elastic deformation and subsequent shrinkage and elastic
ofdeformation
the concrete; and subsequent shrinkage and creep
(c) slip or movement of tendons at anchorages during anchoring
(c) slip or movement of tendons at anchorages during other
(d) causes in special circumstances, eg. when steam curing
anchoring;
tensioning.
(d) other causes in special circumstances, eg. when steam curing has been used with pre-tensioning.
If experimental evidence on performance is not available, account mus
of the account
If experimental evidence on performance is not available, steel and of the
must concrete
be taken when
of the calculating
properties of thethe losses
steel and of prestress
of the concrete when calculating the losses of prestress from these causes. For a wide range of structures, the simple
requirements given in this sub-clause must be used; it should be recognised, however, that these requirements are
necessarily general and approximate.
6.7.2.2 Loss of prestress due to relaxation of steel. The loss of force in the tendon allowed for in the assessment
Chapter/Page
must be the maximum relaxation after 1000h duration, for a jacking force equal to that which is estimated was
imposed at transfer, as given by the appropriate standard current at the time of design or manufacturer’s data.
August 2015 A/83

In special cases, such as tendons at high temperature or subjected to large lateral loads (eg. deflected tendons),
greater relaxation losses will occur and specialist literature must be consulted.
6.7.2.3 Loss of prestress due to elastic deformation of the concrete. Calculation of the immediate loss of force
in the tendons due to elastic deformation of the concrete at transfer may be based on the values for the modulus of
elasticity of the concrete given in 4.3.2.1. The modulus of elasticity of the tendons may be obtained from 4.3.2.2.
For pre-tensioning, the loss of prestress in the tendons at transfer must be calculated on a modular ratio basis using
the stress in the adjacent concrete.
For members with post-tensioning tendons that were not stressed simultaneously, there would have been a
progressive loss of prestress during transfer due to the gradual application of the prestressing force. The resulting
loss of prestress in the tendons may be calculated on the basis of half the product of the modular ratio and the
stress in the concrete adjacent to the tendons, averaged along their length; alternatively, the loss of prestress may be
computed exactly based on the sequence of tensioning when it is known.
In making these calculations, it may usually be assumed that the tendons are located at their centroid.
6.7.2.4 Loss of prestress due to shrinkage of the concrete. The loss of prestress in the tendons due to shrinkage
of the concrete may be calculated from the modulus of elasticity for the tendons given in 4.3.2.2, assuming the
values for shrinkage per unit length given in Table 29. For other ages of concrete at transfer, for other conditions of
exposure, or for massive structures, some adjustment to these figures will be necessary, in which case reference can
be made to Appendix C of BS 5400-4 or specialist literature.
System Shrinkage per unit length

Humid exposure (90% r.h.) Normal exposure (70% r.h.)
Pre-tensioning: transfer at between 3 days and 100 x 10-6 300 x 10-6
5 days after concreting
Post-tensioning: transfer at between 7 days and 70 x 10-6 200 x 10-6

14 days after concreting
Table 29 Shrinkage of concrete
6.7.2.4A Loss of prestress due to shrinkage of the concrete
The age factors of BS5400-4 are not considered relevant to assessment.
6.7.2.5 Loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete. The loss of prestress in the bonded tendons due to creep
of the concrete must be calculated on the assumption that creep is proportional to stress in the concrete for stress of
up to one-third of the cube strength at transfer. The loss of prestress in unbonded tendons must be calculated from
the creep movement between anchors or other fixed points in the tendons. The loss of prestress is obtained from
the product of the modulus of elasticity of the tendons (see 4.3.2.2) and the creep of the concrete adjacent to the
tendons. Usually it is sufficient to assume, in calculating this loss, that the tendons are located at their centroid.
For pre-tensioning at between 3 days and 5 days after concreting and for humid or dry conditions of exposure
where the cube strength at transfer was greater than 40 N/mm², the creep of the concrete per unit length must be
taken as 48 x 10-6 per N/mm². For lower values of cube strength at transfer the creep per unit length must be taken
as 48 x 10-6 x40/fci per N/mm², where fci is the concrete strength at transfer, see 6.7.4.
A/84 August 2015

For post-tensioning at between 7 days and 14 days after concreting and for humid or dry conditions of exposure
where the cube strength at transfer was greater than 40N/mm², the creep of the concrete per unit length must be
taken as 36 x 10-6 per N/mm². For lower values of cube strength at transfer the creep per unit length must be taken
as 36 x 10-6 x 40/fci per N/mm²; where fci is the concrete strength at transfer, see 6.7.4.
Where the maximum stress anywhere in the section at transfer exceeded one-third of the cube strength of the
concrete at transfer, the value of the creep per unit length used in calculations must be increased. When the
maximum stress at transfer was half the cube strength at transfer, the values for creep are 1.25 times those given in
the preceding paragraphs; at intermediate stresses, the values must be interpolated linearly.
In applying these requirements, which are necessarily general, reference must be made to Appendix C of BS 5400:
Part 4 or specialist literature for more detailed information on the factors affecting creep.
6.7.2.5A Loss of prestress due to creep of the concrete
The age factors of BS 5400-4 are not considered relevant to assessment. In unbonded tendons, although the lack of
bond will not alter the average loss due to creep, as the creep losses are constant over the length of a beam, losses
at critical sections are likely to be smaller than with bonded construction. This may be significant in shorter spans
where the permanent compressive stresses for live load are high.
6.7.2.6 Loss of prestress during anchorage. In post-tensioning systems allowance must be made for any
movement of the tendon at the anchorage which would have occurred when the prestressing force was transferred
from the tensioning equipment to the anchorage.
6.7.2.7 Losses of prestress due to steam curing. Where steam curing was employed in the manufacture of
prestressed concrete units, changes in the behaviour of the material at higher than normal temperatures will need to
be considered. In addition, where the ‘long-line’ method of pre-tensioning was used there may be additional losses
as a result of bond developed between the tendon and the concrete when the tendon was hot and relaxed. Since the
actual losses of prestress due to steam curing are a function of the techniques used by the various manufacturers,
specialist advice must be sought.
6.7.3 Loss of prestress due to friction
6.7.3.1 General. In post-tensioning systems there will have been movement of the greater part of the tendon
relative to the surrounding duct during the tensioning operation, and if the tendon were in contact with either the
duct or any spacers provided, friction would have caused a reduction in the prestressing force as the distance from
the jack increased. In addition, a certain amount of friction would have developed in the jack itself and in the
anchorage through which the tendon passed.
In the absence of site data, the stress variation likely to be expected along the tendon profile must be assessed in
accordance with 6.7.3.2 to 6.7.3.5 in order to obtain the prestressing force at the critical sections considered in
assessment.
6.7.3.2 Friction in the jack and anchorage. Jacks are generally calibrated to give a specified force at the duct
side of the anchorage. Hence, the friction loss in the jack and anchorage should not be of concern in assessment.
6.7.3.3 Friction in the duct due to unintentional variation from the specified profile. Whether the desired
duct profile was straight or curved or a combination of both, there will have been slight variations in the actual line
of the duct, which may have caused additional points of contact between the tendon and the sides of the duct, and
so produced friction, resulting in wobble losses. The prestressing force, Px, at any distance x from the jack may be
calculated from:
August 2015 A/85

Px = Po e-Kx Equation 31
and where Kx ≤ 0.2, e-Kx may be taken as 1-Kx
where
Po is the prestressing force in the tendon at the jacking end;

e is the base of Napierian logarithms (2.718);
K is the constant depending on the type of duct, or sheath employed, the nature of its inside surface, the
method of forming it and the degree of vibration employed in placing the concrete.
The value of K per metre length in Equation 31 must generally be taken as not less than 33 x 10-4, but where strong
rigid sheaths or duct formers were used closely supported so that they would not have been displaced during the
concreting operation, the value of K may be taken as 17 x 10-4. Other values may be used provided they have been
established by tests to the satisfaction of the assessor.
The effect
Appendix
Amendments A to may
BS be ignored in sections of unbonded tendon which are free to move
5400-4 Part laterally
Volume
14 at the time
33 Section
BD 44/XX 44 they are
Appendix A Volume Section
stressed.
Amendments
Amendments to to BS
BS 5400-4
5400-4 Part
Part 14
14 BD
BD 44/XX
44/XX
6.7.3.3A unbonded
With external Friction inprestressing
the duct duewobble to unintentional
losses arevariation
eliminated. from the specified profile
With external unbonded prestressing
With external unbonded prestressing wobble losses are eliminated. wobble losses are eliminated.
6.7.3.4With external Frictionunbonded prestressing wobble losses are eliminated.
in the duct due to curvature of the tendon. When a tendon is curved,
the6.7.3.4
loss of tensionFriction
6.7.3.4 Friction in
due to frictioninthe the duct
is
duct due
dependent
due totocurvature
on the angle
curvature of the
thetendon
turned
oftendon. through
tendon ..When
When aatendon
and the isiscurved,
coefficient
tendon of
curved,
the 6.7.3.4
loss of Friction
tension due into the duct
friction due
is to curvature
dependent on of
the the
angle turned When
through a tendon
and is
the curved, the loss
coefficient of of tension due
friction,
the to between
loss of tension
friction is
the tendon
dependent
andthe
due to friction
on
itsangle
supports.
is dependent
turned on theand
through anglethe turned through
coefficient of and thebetween
friction, coefficient
the of
tendon and its
friction,
friction, between
betweenthe thetendon
tendonand andits itssupports.
supports.
supports.
The prestressing force, Px, at any distance x along the curve from the tangent point may be
The
calculated
TheThe prestressing
from: force,
prestressing force, PPxx,P,atat any
anydistance
distancexxalong alongthe thecurve
curvefromfromthe thetangent
tangentpoint pointmay
maybe be
prestressing force, x, at any distance x along the curve from the tangent point may be calculated from:
calculated
calculated from: from:
P x = P0 e - r x/ps Equation
- x/
Equation 32 32
=
PPxx = P00 ee P - x/r ps
r ps Equation
Equation32 32
wherewhere
Powhere
whereis the prestressing force in the tendon at the tangent point near the jacking end;
rpsPPoo Po is isthe is the
isthe radius
the
prestressingforce
prestressing
of curvature
prestressing
force in the
forcein
the tendon atatthe
in thetendon
tendon atthe
tangent point
thetangent
tangentpoint
near thethe
pointnear
jacking end;end;
near thejacking
jacking end;
r is
rrpsps ps isisthe the radius of curvature
theradius
radiusof ofcurvature
curvature
In the In above equation:
the above equation:
In the above
In thewhereaboveμx/r equation:
equation: - x/ r ps
ps 0.2, e may be taken as 1 - μx/rps.
- x/ r ps

where
where μx/r
whereμx/r ps 0.2,
µx/rpsps≤0.2,
0.2, e e - x/ r ps may be taken as 1 - μx/rps.
maybebetaken
may takenasas 1 -1µx/r
- μx/r .
ps. ps
-(Kx + x/ r ps )
where (Kx + μx/rps) 0.2, e may be taken as 1 - (Kx + μx/rps).
-(Kx + x/ r ps )
where where (Kx (Kx + +μx/r
µx/r
where (Kx + μx/rpsps) 0.2, e ps ) ) ≤ 0.2,
0.2, e may
maybebe
-(Kx + x/ r ps )may taken
betaken
takenasas1 -11(Kx
as --(Kx ++μx/r
+ µx/r
(Kx ps). ps
μx/r ).
ps).
Values of μ for internal tendons may be taken as:
Values
Values
Values ofμof
of μforµ for
for internal
internal
internal tendonsmay
tendons
tendons maybe
may betaken
be taken as:
taken as:
0.55 for steel moving on concrete;
0.55 0.55 forsteel
steelmoving
movingon on concrete;
concrete;
0.300.55forfor steel
for moving
steel moving onon steel;
concrete;
0.30 0.30 forfor steel
steel moving
moving on
on steel;
steel;
0.25
0.25 0.30for
0.25
steel
for
forsteel
moving
steel moving
steelmoving
movingon
on onlead;steel;
on lead;
lead;
for
0.05 0.25forfor
0.05 greased
forsteel
greased coated
moving coated monostrands
onmonostrands
lead; moving
movingon onplastic
plastic sheats
sheats
0.05
0.05for forgreased
greasedcoated coatedmonostrandsmonostrandsmoving movingon onplastic
plasticsheats
sheats
For external tendons, in the absence of more exact data, the values of μ may be taken from the
For
Forexternal
following Ttable:
external tendons,
tendons,in inthetheabsence
absenceof ofmore
moreexact exactdata,
data,thethevalues
valuesof ofμμmaymaybe betaken
takenfrom
fromthethe
following
following Ttable:Ttable:
COEFFICIENT STEEL HDPE
COEFFICIENT
OFCOEFFICIENT
FRICTION μ DUCTSTEEL
STEEL DUCT HDPE
HDPE
A/86 Lubricated OF FRICTION
strand
OF FRICTION μ μ 0.18DUCT
DUCT DUCT
0.12DUCT August 2015
Lubricated
Lubricated
Lubricated wirestrand
strand 0.200.18
0.18 0.12
0.140.12
Lubricated
Lubricatedwire
Non-lubricated strand
wire 0.250.20
0.20 0.14
0.150.14
For external tendons, in the absence of more exact data, the values of µ may be taken from the following table:
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION µ STEEL DUCT HDPE DUCT

Lubricated strand 0.18 0.12
Lubricated wire 0.20 0.14
Non-lubricated strand 0.25 0.15
Non-lubricated wire 0.27 0.17
Appendix
The value ofAµ may be reduced where special precautions have been taken and where Volume
results 3are
Section 4 to justify
available
Amendments
the to BS
value assumed. For5400-4 Part 14
example, a value of µ = 0.10 has been observed for strand moving on BD
rigid44/XX
steel spacers
coated with molybdenum disulphide. Such reduced values must be agreed with the Overseeing Organisation.
6.7.3.5 FrictionFriction
6.7.3.4A in circular
in the duct construction
due to curvature . Where
of the tendoncircumferential tendons have been
tensioned by means of jacks the losses due to friction may be calculated from the formula in
6.7.3.4,
The use ofbut the value
unducted of μ may
systems be taken
or ducts as:
with greased or waxed strands means that prestressing systems used in
external and unbonded prestressing have lower coefficients of friction than bonded systems.
0.45 for steel moving in smooth concrete;
6.7.3.5 0.25
Friction in circular
for steel movingconstruction. Where
on steel bearers circumferential
fixed tendons have been tensioned by means of jacks
to the concrete;
the losses0.10
due to
forfriction may be on
steel moving calculated from the formula in 6.7.3.4, but the value of µ may be taken as:
steel rollers.
6.7.3.6 0.45 forLubricants
steel moving. Where
in smooth concrete;
lubricants were specified and lower values of μ than those
6.7.3.4 and 6.7.3.5 were obtained by trialstoand
given in0.25 for steel moving on steel bearers fixed the agreed
concrete;
with Overseeing Organisations,
0.10 for steel moving on steel rollers.
the lower values may be used for assessment.
6.7.3.6 Lubricants. Where lubricants were specified and lower values of µ than those given in 6.7.3.4 and 6.7.3.5
6.7.4obtained
were Transmission length
by trials and inwith
agreed pre-tensioned
Overseeing members . Thethe
Organisations, transmission
lower valueslength is defined
may be used for as
assessment.
the length over which a tendon is bonded to concrete to transmit the initial prestressing force in a
tendon to
6.7.4 the concrete.length in pre-tensioned members. The transmission length is defined as the length over
Transmission
which a tendon is bonded to concrete to transmit the initial prestressing force in a tendon to the concrete.
Where the initial prestressing force was not greater than 75% of the characteristic strength of the
tendontheand
Where where
initial the concrete
prestressing forcestrength
was notatgreater
transfer was
than notofless
75% thethan 30 N/mm²,
characteristic the transmission
strength of the tendon and where
length,
the lt, may
concrete be taken
strength as follows:
at transfer was not less than 30 N/mm², the transmission length, lt, may be taken as follows:
lt = kt / f ci
where
where
fci is the concrete strength at transfer (in N/mm²) which must be assessed from contract record drawings,
fci is the concrete strength at transfer (in N/mm²) which must be assessed from contract
available site data or original design calculations. In the absence of such information, the likely nominal
record drawings,
value mustavailable sitefrom
be assessed datathe
orstandards
original current
design at
calculations. In the
the time of the absence of such
design:
information,
lt the likely nominal value
is the transmission length (in mm); must be assessed from the standards current at the time
f of the design:
is the nominal diameter of the tendon (in mm);
kt is a coefficient dependent on the type of tendon, to be taken as:
lt is
600thefortransmission length
plain, indented (in mm);wire with a total wave height less than 0.15 f;
and crimped
400 for crimped wire with a total wave height greater than or equal to 0.15 f;
is
240thefornominal diameterand
7-wire standard of super
the tendon
strand;(in mm);
360 for 7-wire drawn or compacted strand.
kt is a coefficient dependent on the type of tendon, to be taken as:
600 for plain, indented and crimped wire with a total wave height less than 0.15;
400 for crimped wire with a total wave height greater than or equal to 0.15;
240 for 7-wire standard and super strand;
August 2015 for 7-wire drawn or compacted strand.
360 A/87
The development of stress from the end of the unit to the point of maximum stress must be
The development of stress from the end of the unit to the point of maximum stress must be assumed to be linear
over the transmission length.
If the tendons have been prevented from bonding to the concrete near the ends of the unit by the use of sleeves or
tape, the transmission lengths must be taken from the ends of the de-bonded portions.
6.7.4A Transmission length in pre-tensioned members
The transmission length depends on a number of variables, the most important being:
(a) the degree of compaction of the concrete;
(b) the strength of the concrete;
(c) the size and type of tendon;
(d) the deformation (eg. crimp) of the tendon;
(e) the stress in the tendon; and
(f) the surface condition of the tendon.
The transmission lengths of the tendons towards the top of a unit may be greater than those at the bottom.
The sudden release of tendons may also cause a considerable increase in the transmission lengths.
It is emphasised that data are not available on transmission lengths in weak concretes less than 28 N/mm2. Hence,
caution is advised if the concrete has deteriorated below 28 N/mm2, even if the strength at transfer was in excess of
this value.
6.7.5 End blocks and deviators. The end block (also known as the anchor block or end zone) is defined as
the highly stressed zone of concrete around the termination points of a pre or post-tensioned prestressing tendon.
It extends from the point of application of prestress (i.e. the end of the bonded part of the tendon in pre-tensioned
construction or the anchorage in post-tensioned construction) to that section of the member at which linear
distribution of stress is assumed to occur over the whole cross-section.
For unbonded construction, end blocks, anchors and deviators must be assessed at the ultimate limit state for a load
equal to the characteristic strength of the tendon. If serviceability checks are required, as for flexural cracking in
deviator beams, the design load in the tendons must be taken as the tendon load before long term losses.
For bonded construction, the critical condition for end blocks normally arises during construction. Hence, if there
are no signs of distress, it will not normally be necessary to assess the end blocks.
When it is necessary to consider the strength of end blocks, the following aspects must be considered:
(a) bursting forces around individual anchorages;
(b) overall equilibrium of the end block;
(c) spalling of the concrete from the loaded face around anchorages.
A/88 August 2015

In considering each of these aspects, particular attention must be given to factors such as the following:
(1) shape, dimensions and position of anchor plates relative to the cross-section of the end block;
(2) the magnitude of the prestressing forces and the sequence of prestressing;
(3) shape of the end block relative to the general shape of the member;
(4) layout of anchorages including asymmetry, group effects and edge distances;
(5) influence of the support reaction;
(6) forces due to curved or divergent tendons.
The following requirements are appropriate to a circular, square or rectangular anchor plate, symmetrically
positioned on the end face of a square or rectangular post-tensioned member; these requirements are followed by
some guidance on other aspects.
The bursting tensile forces in the end blocks, or end regions of bonded post-tensioned members must be assessed
on the basis of the load in the tendon at the ultimate limit state.
The bursting tensile force, Fbst, existing in an individual square end block loaded by a symmetrically placed square
anchorage or bearing plate, may be derived from:
Fbst = Pk (0.32 - 0.3ypo/yo)
where
Pk is the load in the tendon;

yo is half the side of end block;
ypo is half the side of loaded area.
The force, Fbst, is distributed in a region extending from 0.2yo to 2yo from the loaded face of the end block.
Reinforcement present may be assumed to sustain the bursting tensile force with a stress of fy/γms.
In rectangular end blocks, the bursting tensile forces in the two principal directions must be assessed from the
above expression for Fbst.
When circular anchorage or bearing plates are present, the side of the equivalent square area must be derived.
Where groups of anchorages or bearing plates occur, the end blocks must be divided into a series of symmetrically
loaded prisms and each prism treated in the preceding manner. When assessing the end block as a whole, it is
necessary to check that the groups of anchorages are appropriately tied together by reinforcement.
Special attention must be paid to end blocks having a cross-section different in shape from that of the general cross-
section of the beam; reference must be made to the specialist literature.
Compliance with the preceding requirements will generally ensure that bursting tensile forces along the load axis
can be sustained. Alternative methods of assessment which use higher values of Fbst/Pk and allow for the tensile
strength of concrete may be more appropriate in some cases, particularly where large concentrated tendon forces
are involved.
August 2015 A/89

Consideration must also be given to the spalling tensile stresses that occur in end blocks where the anchorage or
bearing plates are highly eccentric; these reach a maximum at the loaded face.
6.7.5A End blocks and deviators
The strength of structures with unbonded prestressing is dependent on the anchors and, where they are used, the
deviators. This is particularly significant as the failure mode of anchors and deviators may be brittle. Although
members with unbonded prestressing are conservatively designed on the basis of a lower bound estimate of tendon
force, anchors and deviators should be conservatively be assessed for the unfactored tendon strength.
Tendon jacking loads which have to be considered in end block design are not relevant to assessment.
The equation for Fbst gives the same values as Table 30 of BS 5400-4.
The restriction on the stress in anti-bursting reinforcement to that corresponding to a strain of 0.001 in BS 5400-4 is
a serviceability criterion which has been omitted.
Detailed information on end block strength is given in (64), whilst (65) deals with end blocks in which the concrete is
assumed to resist tension.
6.8.1 General. The considerations in 6.8.2 to 6.8.6 are intended to supplement those for reinforced concrete
given in 5.8.
6.8.2 Cover to prestressing tendons
6.8.2.1 General. The requirements given in 6.8.2.2 and 6.8.2.3 concerning cover to reinforcement, other than those
for curved ducts, are those which are currently considered to be necessary for the safe transmission of bond forces.
6.8.2.1A General
Adequate cover to reinforcement should ideally be present in all concrete structures designed to standards
containing appropriate provisions for durability, and the cover generally varies with the concrete grade and with
the particular condition of exposure. When the cover is less than the values resulting from the requirements in 6.8.2.2
and 6.8.2.3, bond strength could be reduced and reinforcement corrosion is most likely to occur. Guidance on the
assessment of concrete structures affected by steel corrosion and with low cover is given in BA 51 (DMRB 3.4.13).
Reference may also be made to the provisions in 4.4.1.2 of BS EN 1992-1-1 for the minimum cover required for bond.
6.8.2.2 Pre-tensioned tendons. The requirements of 5.8.2 concerning cover to reinforcement may be taken to be
applicable, except that the nominal cover should not be less than one and a half the size of the tendon or maximum
aggregate size, plus 5mm. The ends of individual pre-tensioned tendons do not normally require concrete cover.
6.8.2.3 Tendons in ducts. The cover to any duct should be not less than 50mm. Requirements for the cover to
curved tendons in ducts are given in Appendix D of BS 5400-4.
6.8.3 Spacing of prestressing tendons
6.8.3.1 General. “Not applicable to assessment”
6.8.3.2 Pre-tensioned tendons. “Not applicable to assessment”
A/90 August 2015

6.8.3.3 Tendons in ducts. Requirements for the spacing of curved tendons in ducts are given in Appendix D of
BS 5400-4.
6.8.4 Longitudinal reinforcement in prestressed concrete beams
Reinforcement in prestressed concrete members may be considered to enhance the strength of the sections.
6.8.5 Links in prestressed concrete beams. Links present in a beam may be considered as shear reinforcement
(see 6.3.4) or to resist bursting tensile stresses in the end zones of post-tensioned members (see 6.3.4 and 6.7.4).
6.8.6 Shock loading. “Not applicable to assessment”
6.8.7 Deflected tendons. “Not applicable to assessment”
6.8.8 External tendons. To avoid second order effects due to beam deflections between points where tendons
are fixed, it must be checked that external tendons are restrained transversely relative to the concrete section at
centres not exceeding 12 times the minimum depth of the beam between the fixing points. If the spacing between
points where the tendons are held in position laterally exceeds 12 metres, check must be made to ensure that the
first natural frequency of the tendons vibrating between fixing points is not in the range 0.8 to 1.2 times that of the
bridge.
6.8.8A External tendons
If external tendons are not adequately restrained within the concrete section, the deformation of the concrete
between deviators can have a significant effect on the moment applied by the tendon to the concrete section. In
addition, inadequately restrained tendons may vibrate excessively and be susceptible to fatigue failure. Compliance
with the requirements of 6.8.8 ensures that tendons are adequately restrained and no second order effect need to be
accounted for.
7. ASSESSMENT: PRECAST, COMPOSITE AND PLAIN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
7.1 General
7.1.1 Introduction. This clause is concerned with the additional considerations that arise in assessment when
precast members or precast components are incorporated into a structure or when a structure in its entirety is of
precast concrete construction. It also covers the assessment of plain concrete walls and abutments.
Criteria for assessment of bridges containing shear key decks or Freyssinet hinges must be agreed with the
7.1.1A Introduction
Guidance on shear key decks and Freyssinet concrete hinges in bridges is given in BE 23 (DMRB 1.3) and BE 5
(DMRB 1.3), respectively.
7.1.2 Limit state assessment
7.1.2.1 Basis of assessment. The limit state philosophy set out in clause 4 applies equally to precast and in-situ
construction and therefore, in general, the relevant methods of assessment for reinforced concrete given in clause 5
and those for prestressed concrete given in clause 6 apply also to precast and composite construction. Sub-clauses
in clause 5 or 6 which do not apply are either specifically worded for in-situ construction or are modified by this
clause.
August 2015 A/91

7.1.2.2 Handling stresses. “Not applicable to assessment”
7.1.2.3 Connections and joints. The strength of connections is of fundamental importance in precast
construction and must be carefully considered in assessment.
In the assessment of beam and slab ends on corbels and nibs, particular attention must be given to the detailing
of overlaps and anchorages and all reinforcement adjacent to the contact faces. The detailing must be assessed in
7.1.2.3A Connections and joints
No reference is made to movement joints in the assessment code. However, it should be remembered that the lack
of adequate joints can lead to concentrated cracking.
7.2 Precast concrete construction
7.2.1 Framed structures and continuous beams. When the continuity of reinforcement or tendons through
the connections and/or the interaction between members is such that the structure behaves as a frame, or other
rigidly interconnected system, the analysis, re-distribution of moments and the assessment of individual members,
may all be in accordance with clause 5 or 6, as appropriate.
7.2.2 Other precast members. All other precast concrete members must be assessed in accordance with the
appropriate requirements of clauses 5, 6 or 7.5 and connections must be assessed in accordance with 7.3.
7.2.3 Supports for precast members
7.2.3.1 Concrete corbels. A corbel is a short cantilever beam in which the principal load is applied such that
the distance av between the line of action of the load and the face of the supporting member does not exceed the
effective depth and the depth at the outer edge of the bearing is not less than one-half of the depth at the face of the
supporting member.
The adequacy of the main tension reinforcement in a corbel must be assessed on the assumption that the corbel
behaves as a simple strut and tie system; with due allowance made for horizontal forces. The tensile force which
the main reinforcement can develop may be limited by any one of the following: the yield of the reinforcement; the
anchorage of the reinforcement in the supporting member and the anchorage at the front face of the corbel. It should
be noted that wide cracks are likely to occur if the main steel percentage r is less than 0.4%.
Any part of the area of the bearing which projects beyond the straight portion of the bars forming the main tension
reinforcement must be ignored when proportioning the strut and tie system, and when checking bearing stresses in
accordance with 7.2.3.3.
7.2.3.1A Concrete corbels
Specialist literature (21, 66) should be consulted when the depth at the outer edge of the bearing is less than one-half
of the depth at the face of the supporting member.
The limiting value of av/d for a corbel has been extended from the value of 0.6 in BS 5400-4 to 1.0 in the
assessment code. The latter value is within the range of applicability of the assessment method according to
reference (21).
When assessing corbels using strut and tie systems, further guidance on sizing of struts, ties and nodes can be found
in BS EN 1992-1-1.
A/92 August 2015

When assessing corbels using strut and tie systems, further guidance on sizing of struts, ties and
nodes can be found in BS EN 1992-1-1.
The14BSBD
Part 5400-4
44/15 minimum main steel percentage has been omitted since it(66)
is a serviceability
requirement to prevent the rapid opening of cracks after initial cracking .
TheBSBS
The 5400-4
5400-4 requirement
minimum for minimum
main steel percentagehorizontal links issince
has been omitted to ensure a ductile failure
it is a serviceability and to to prevent
requirement
control
the the widths
rapid opening of diagonal
of cracks cracks.
after initial These(66)criteria
cracking . are not considered relevant to assessment
and, thus, the minimum requirement has been omitted in the assessment code. However, the
assessor
The should
BS 5400-4 be awarefor
requirement thatminimum
the absence of horizontal
horizontal links is tolinks could
ensure resultfailure
a ductile in wide
andcracks
to control the widths of
and/or a brittle failure.
diagonal cracks. These criteria are not considered relevant to assessment and, thus, the minimum requirement has
been omitted in the assessment code. However, the assessor should be aware that the absence of horizontal links
The result
could BS 5400-4
in widerequirement fora brittle
cracks and/or a serviceability
failure. check is not considered relevant to
assessment, unless specifically requested by the Overseeing Organisation.
The BS 5400-4 requirement for a serviceability check is not considered relevant to assessment, unless specifically
requested
7.2.3.2 by the Overseeing Organisation.
Width of supports for precast units. The width of supports for precast units
must be sufficient to ensure proper anchorage of tension reinforcement in accordance with 5.8.7.
7.2.3.2 Width of supports for precast units. The width of supports for precast units must be sufficient to ensure
proper anchorage of tension reinforcement in accordance with 5.8.7.
7.2.3.3 Bearing stresses. The compressive stress in the contact area must not exceed 0.6
fcu/�mc under the ultimate loads. When the members are made of concretes of different strengths,
7.2.3.3 Bearing stresses. The compressive stress in the contact area must not exceed 0.6 fcu/γmc under the
the lower
ultimate concrete
loads. When strength is applicable.
the members are made of concretes of different strengths, the lower concrete strength is
applicable.
Where suitable measures have been taken to prevent splitting or spalling of the concrete, such as
the provision
Where of well-defined
suitable measures bearing
have been takenareas and additional
to prevent splitting orbinding
spallingreinforcement in such
of the concrete, the ends ofprovision of
as the
the members, higher bearing stresses may be acceptable, and bearing stresses due to ultimate
well-defined bearing areas and additional binding reinforcement in the ends of the members, higher bearing stresses
loads
may be must then beand
acceptable, limited to:stresses due to ultimate loads must then be limited to:
bearing
3( f cu / mc )
but not more than (1.5 f cu / mc )
1 + 2 Acon / Asup
where
where
Acon is the contact area;
A is the contact area;
Asupcon is the supporting area.
Asup is the supporting area.
For rectangular bearings (see Figure 6a):
For rectangular bearings (see Figure 6a):
Asup = (bx + 2x)(by + 2y) and x ≤ bx , y ≤ by
Asup = (bx + 2x)(by + 2y) and x � bx , y � by
where
where
bxb,xb, yb y are the dimensions
dimensionsofofthe
thebearing
bearingininthe
thex,x,
y directions respectively;
y directions respectively;
x, y are the dimensions from the boundary of the contact area to the boundary of the support area.
For lightweight aggregate concrete the bearing stresses due to ultimate loads must be limited to two-thirds of those
for normal weight aggregate concrete given by the above formula.
Higher bearing stresses due to ultimate loads must be used only where justified by tests, e.g. concrete hinges.
August 2015 A/93

For lightweight aggregate concrete the bearing stresses due to ultimate loads must be limited to
two-thirds of those for normal weight aggregate concrete given by the above formula.
Amendments
Higher bearing stresses due to ultimate loads must be used only where justified by tests, Part
to BS 5400-4 e.g. 14 BD 44/15
concrete hinges.
Figure 6a Bearing areas

Figure 6a Bearing areas
The allowable
The allowable bearingbearing
stressesstresses arethan
are higher higher than
the BS the BS
5400-4 5400-4
values. values.theHowever
However the bearing
bearing stress expression is that
(67)
stress expression
given in BS 8110-1 .
(67) is that given in BS 8110-1 .
7.2.3.4 Horizontal Horizontal

7.2.3.4 forces or rotations at bearings.
forces or rotationsThe
at bearings
presence. of
Thesignificant
presencehorizontal forces at bearing
of significant
can reduce the load-carrying capacity of the supporting and supported members considerably
horizontal forces at bearing can reduce the load-carrying capacity of the supporting and by causing
supported
premature splitting
members or shearing.
considerably byThese forces
causing may be splitting
premature due to creep, shrinkage
or shearing. and temperature
These forces mayeffects
be dueortoresult from
misalignment, lack of plumb
creep, shrinkage or other causes.
and temperature When
effects these from
or result forcesmisalignment,
are likely to belack
significant,
of plumbit is
ornecessary
other to check
that either:
causes. When these forces are likely to be significant, it is necessary to check that either:
(a) sliding bearings are present; or
(a) sliding bearings are present; or
(b)
(b) suitable
suitable lateral reinforcement is present in the top of the supporting member; and
lateral reinforcement is present in the top of the supporting member; and
(c) continuity reinforcement is present to tie together the ends of the supported members.
(c) continuity reinforcement is present to tie together the ends of the supported members.
Where, owing to large spans or other reasons, large rotations are likely to occur at the end
supports
Where, owing of flexural
to large members,
spans or other suitable
reasons, bearings capable
large rotations areof accommodating
likely to occur at thethese rotationsofshould
end supports flexural
be present. In the absence of such bearings, bearing stresses could be increased due to
members, suitable bearings capable of accommodating these rotations should be present. In the absence of such
concentration
bearings, of thecould
bearing stresses reaction towards one
be increased due edge of a bearingofand/or
to concentration flexure
the reaction of the one
towards supported
edge of a bearing
member
and/or flexure could
of the result, depending
supported memberon the result,
could type ofdepending
bearing actually present.
on the type of bearing actually present.
7.2.4 7.2.4Joints between

Joints precast
between members
precast members
7.2.4.1 General.
7.2.4.1 The critical. sections
General of members
The critical sectionsclose to joints close
of members must be assessed
to joints under
must the worst under
be assessed combinations
of shear, axial force and bending effects caused by the co-existing ultimate vertical and horizontal forces. The
the worst combinations of shear, axial force and bending effects caused by the co-existing
evaluation of the effects must take due account of any fixities imposed by the joints.
7.2.4.2 Half joint. For the type of joint shown in Figure 7(a), the maximum vertical ultimate load, Fv, must not
exceed vubdo where
vu is 0.36 (0.7 - fcu/250)fcu/γmc,
b is the breadth of the beam, and
do is the depth to the horizontal reinforcement in the half joint.
A/94 August 2015

The capacity of an half joint may be determined by considering the two following strut and tie systems and
summing the capacities of the two systems.
The first system, shown in Figure 7(b), involves the inclined reinforcement which intersects the line of action of
Fv. The inclined reinforcement may take the form of bent-up bars or links. In the case of bent-up bars the bearing
stresses inside the bends (see 5.8.6.9) must be checked to determine whether the stress in the bars should be limited
to less than fy/γms.
In the case of links, their anchorage in the compression face of the beam must be in accordance with 5.8.6.5, whilst
in the tension face the horizontal component, Fh, of the link force is transferred to the main reinforcement. The links
may be considered to be fully anchored in the tension face if the anchorage bond stress of the main reinforcement
due to the force Fh does not exceed twice the anchorage bond stresses given in 5.8.6.3.
The second strut and tie system shown in Figure 7(c) involves the vertical reinforcement in the full depth section
adjacent to the half joint, and the horizontal reinforcement in the half joint in excess of that required to resist the
horizontal ultimate load.
7.2.4.2A Half joint
The assessment sub-clause dealing with half joints is more general than the BS 5400-4 sub-clause in that it permits
two strut and tie systems to be assessed and the load capacities of the two systems added. This approach has been
shown to predict adequately failure loads (68).
The BS 5400-4 requirement to limit the shear stress to 4vc, with vc calculated for the full beam section, was
intended to prevent over-reinforcement of the joint and, hence, to ensure a ductile failure. It is more logical, in
terms of shear capacity, to adopt the maximum allowable shear stress given in 5.3.3.1.
BA 39 (DMRB 3.4.6) gives additional guidance on the assessment of half joints at both the ultimate and
serviceability limit states. Further guidance on sizing of struts, ties and nodes can be found in BS EN 1992-1-1.
Other feasible strut and tie systems may also be appropriate, particularly where there are reinforcement detailing
shortfalls, and assessors may consider other reference sources and specialist literature. Reference should be made to
the Overseeing Organisation for the latest advice on assessing structures containing half joints.
August 2015 A/95

Figure 7 Half joint

Figure 7 Half joint
7.3 Structural connections between units
7.3.1 General Figure 7 Half joint
7.3.1.1 Structural requirements of connections. When assessing the connections across joints between precast
members the overall stability of the structure must be considered.
7.3.1.2 Assessment method. Connections must, where possible, be assessed in accordance with the generally
accepted methods applicable to reinforced concrete (see clause 5), prestressed concrete (see clause 6) or structural
steel. Where, by the nature of the construction or material used, such methods are not applicable, the efficiency of
the connection must be proved by appropriate tests.
7.3.1.3 Considerations affecting design details. “Not applicable to assessment”
A/96 Chapter/Page Mmmm/yyyy

August 2015
7.3.1.4 Factors affecting design and construction. “Not applicable to assessment”
7.3.2 Continuity of reinforcement
7.3.2.1 General. The assumptions made in analysing the structure and assessing critical sections must reflect
the degree of continuity of reinforcement through a connection. The following methods are capable of achieving
continuity of reinforcement:
(a) lapping bars;
(b) butt welding;
(c) sleeving;
(d) parallel threading of bars and tapered threads.
The strength of the joints in (c) and (d) and any other method not listed must be assessed on the basis of test
evidence, including behaviour under fatigue conditions where relevant. For methods (c) and (d), in tests on an
assembly consisting of the size, grade and profile of the reinforcing bar used and the type of connection used, the
permanent elongation after loading to 60% of the characteristic yield strength of the reinforcement must not exceed
0.1mm, and the ultimate tensile strength of the joined bar must exceed its characteristic yield strength by at least the
percentage specified in the British Standard the bar was specified to. Where supported by satisfactory test evidence,
the strength of the joint may be based on the specified characteristic yield strength of the joined bars divided in
each case by the appropriate γms factor.
7.3.2.2 Sleeving. The following three principal types of sleeve jointing were acceptable under BS 5400-4 and are
considered adequate for assessment purposes, provided that appropriate test data are available:
(a) grout or resin filled sleeves;
(b) sleeves that mechanically align the square-sawn ends of two bars to allow the transmission of
compressive forces only;
(c) sleeves that are mechanically swaged to the bars.
7.3.2.2A Sleeving
This sub-clause has been abbreviated from BS 5400-4 sub-clause, because it is envisaged that test data appropriate
to the actual condition of use would be obtained.
7.3.2.3 Threading. The following methods for joining threaded bars were acceptable under BS 5400-4 and are
considered adequate for assessment purposes:
(a) Parallel threaded ends of bars are joined by a coupler having left and right-hand threads.
(b) One set of bars is welded to a steel plate that is drilled to receive the threaded ends of the second set of
bars, which are fixed to the plate by means of nuts.
(c) Threaded anchors cast into a precast unit to receive the threaded ends of reinforcement.
(d) Taper threaded bars joined by the use of internally taper threaded couplers.
August 2015 A/97

7.3.2.3A Threading
See 7.3.2.2A.
7.3.2.4 Welding of bars. “Not applicable to assessment”
7.3.2.4A Welding of bars
The BS 5400-4 sub-clause is assumed to refer to the locations of welded connections and is, thus, not relevant to
assessment.
7.3.3 Other types of connection. The load carrying capacity of any other type of connection at the ultimate
limit state must be justified by test evidence.
Under service loads, no tensile stresses are permitted for resin adhesive joints and resin mortar joints; for cement
mortar joints, the stresses in the joint must be compressive throughout the joint and not less than 1.5 N/mm2.
7.3.3A Other types of connection
For resisting shear and flexure, suitable connections are generally only those types which are made by prestressing
across the joint.
7.4 Composite concrete construction
7.4.1 General. The requirements of 7.4 apply to flexural members consisting of precast concrete units acting in
conjunction with added concrete where the contact surface is capable of transmitting longitudinal shear. The precast
units may be of either reinforced or prestressed concrete.
In general, the analysis and assessment of composite concrete structures and members must be in accordance with
clause 5 or 6, modified where appropriate by 7.4.2 and 7.4.3. Particular attention must be given in the assessment to
the effect of the method of construction and whether or not props were used. The relative stiffness of members must
be based on the concrete, gross transformed or net transformed section properties as described in 4.4.2.1; if the
concrete strengths in the two components of the composite member differ by more than 10 N/mm², allowance for
this must be made in assessing stiffness and stresses.
Differential shrinkage of the added concrete and precast concrete members requires consideration in analysing
composite members for the serviceability limit states (see 7.4.3); it need not be considered for the ultimate limit
state.
When precast prestressed units, having pre-tensioned tendons, are assessed as continuous members with continuity
obtained with reinforced concrete cast in-situ over the supports, the compressive stresses due to prestress in the
ends of the units may be assumed to vary linearly over the transmission length for the tendons in assessing the
strength of sections.
7.4.2.1 General. Where the cross-section of composite members and the applied loading have increased by
stages (e.g. a precast prestressed unit initially supporting self-weight and the weight of added concrete and
subsequently acting compositely for live loading), the entire load may be assumed to act on the final cross-section.
A/98 August 2015

7.4.2.2 Vertical shear. The assessment of the resistance of composite sections to vertical shear must be in
accordance with 5.3.3 for reinforced concrete (except that in determining the area As, the area of tendons within the
transmission length must be ignored) and 6.3.4 for prestressed concrete, modified where appropriate as follows.
(a) For I, M, T, U and box beam precast prestressed concrete units with an in situ reinforced concrete top
slab cast over the precast units (including pseudo box construction), the shear resistance may be based on
either of the following:
(1) the precast unit acting alone assessed in accordance with 6.3.4;
(2) the composite section assessed in accordance with 6.3.4. In this case, section properties must be based on
those of the composite section, with due allowance for the different grades of concrete where appropriate.
(b) For inverted T beam precast prestressed concrete units with transverse reinforcement placed through holes
in the bottom of the webs of the units, completely infilled with concrete placed between and over the units
to form a solid deck slab, the shear resistance may be taken as the sum of Vi and Vp where:
Vi is the shear capacity of the infill concrete assessed in accordance with 5.3.3 with the breadth taken as the
distance between adjacent precast webs and the depth as the mean depth of infill concrete, or the mean
effective depth to the longitudinal reinforcement where this is provided in the infill section. Where there
is no longitudinal reinforcement in the infill, d may be taken as 0.9 times the average depth of the infill. Vi
should not be taken as greater than half of the concrete component of the shear capacity of the prestressed
beam (i.e. not greater than 0.5Vco nor 0.5Vcr of the precast prestressed section, whichever is applicable);
Vp is the shear capacity of the precast prestressed section assessed in accordance with 6.3.4 with the breadth
taken as the web thickness and the depth as the depth of the precast unit.
7.4.2.2A Vertical shear
The BS 5400-4 rules for shear in infill concrete decks are conservative as they do not allow for redistribution of
shear between the in situ and precast sections. Tests (69) have shown that the shear capacity of an infill concrete deck
can be taken as the sum of the infill concrete section, Vi, and the precast concrete section, Vp.
7.4.2.3 Longitudinal shear. The longitudinal shear force, V1, per unit length of a composite member, whether
simply-supported or continuous, must be calculated at the interface of the precast unit and the in-situ concrete and
at any vertical planes which may be critical in longitudinal shear (e.g. planes 2-2 or 2’-2’ in Figure 8) by an elastic
method using properties of the composite concrete section (see 4.4.2.1) with due allowance for different grades of
concrete where appropriate.
August 2015 A/99

of the precast unit and the in-situ concrete and at any vertical planes which may be critical in
longitudinal shear (e.g. planes 2-2 or 2'-2' in Figure 8) by an elastic method using properties of
Appendix A
the composite concrete section (see 4.4.2.1) with due allowance for different grades ofVolume
concrete3 Section 4
where appropriate. Part 14 BD 44/15
Figure 88 Potential
Figure Potentialshear
shearplanes.
planes.
V1 must not exceed the lesser of the following:

V1 must not exceed the lesser of the following:
(a) (k1fcu/γmc)Ls
(a) (k f /� + )L
(b) (v1/γ1mvcu)Lsmc s
(0.8 Aefs/γms), where
k1 (b) (v
is a constant depending on theAconcrete
1/�mv )Ls + (0.8 efs/�ms), bond
whereacross the shear plane under consideration and must be
k1 takenis as
a constant depending construction
0.24 for monolithic on the concrete bond across
or surface type 1 the shear
or 0.14 forplane under
surface typeconsideration
2. These values must
and must be taken as 0.24 for monolithic construction
be reduced by 25% for lightweight aggregate concrete construction; or surface type 1 or 0.14 for surface
fcu type
is the 2. These values
characteristic, must
or worst be reduced
credible, by 25%
strength of thefor lightweight
weaker aggregate
of the two concrete
concretes each side of the shear
construction;
plane; but must not be taken as >45 N/mm²
γmc fcu is partial
is the the characteristic,
safety factoror forworst credible,
concrete given strength of the weaker of the two concretes each
in 4.3.3.3;
Ls side
is the of theofshear
breadth plane;
the shear but under
plane must not be taken as >45 N/mm²
consideration;
v1 �mc is longitudinal
is the the partial safety
shear factor forthe
stress in concrete
concretegiven in plane
for the 4.3.3.3;
under consideration, and must be taken as:
Ls is the breadth of the shear plane under consideration;
(1) v1 For is
monolithic construction:
the longitudinal stressfcuinbut
shear 0.05 thenot less than
concrete for1.13
theN/mm² and not
plane under greater than 1.56
consideration, and N/mm²;
must
be taken as:
(2) For surface type 1: 0.04 fcu but not less than 0.8 N/mm² and not greater than 1.28N/mm²;
(1) For monolithic construction: 0.05 fcu but not less than 1.13 N/mm² and not greater than
(3) For surface type 2: 0.019 fcu but not less than 0.38 N/mm² and not greater than 0.63N/mm².
1.56 N/mm²;
(2) must
All values For
besurface
reducedtype
by 25%1: 0.04 fcu but not aggregate
for lightweight less than 0.8 N/mm² and not greater than 1.28N/mm²;
concrete;
(3) For surface type 2: 0.019 fcu but not less than 0.38 N/mm² and not greater than
γmv 0.63N/mm².
is the material partial safety factor for shear given in 4.3.3.3;
Ae All values must
is the area ofbe reduced by per
reinforcement 25%unitforlength
lightweight aggregate
crossing the shearconcrete;
plane under consideration; reinforcement
assumed to resist co-existent bending and vertical shear (see 7.4.2.2) may be included;
fs is the stress at the ultimate limit state in the steel reinforcement of area Ae. The stress may be assumed to
be the characteristic, or worst credible, strength, fy, if the reinforcement Ae is fully anchored (see 5.8.6);
otherwise fs must be taken as a fraction of fy in proportion to the ratio of the anchorage
Chapter/Page available to that
Mmmm/yyyy
required by 5.8.6; the value of fs should be such that Aefs/b is not greater than 10 N/mm², where b is the
width of the interface under consideration.
γms is the partial safety factor for steel given in 4.3.3.
For composite beam and slab construction, reinforcement crossing the shear plane must be considered as effective
only if its spacing does not exceed the lesser of the following:
(a) six times the minimum thickness of the in-situ concrete flange;
(b) 900 mm.
A/100 August 2015

The types of surface are defined as follows:
Type 1: The contact surface of the concrete in the precast members was prepared as described in either (1) or (2) as
appropriate.
(1) When the concrete had set but not hardened the surface was sprayed with a fine spray of water or brushed
with a stiff brush, just sufficient to remove the outer mortar skin and expose the larger aggregate without
disturbing it.
(2) The surface skin and laitance were removed by sand blasting or the use of a needle gun, but not by
hacking.
Type 2: The contact surface of the concrete in the precast member was jetted with air and/or water to remove
laitance and all loose material. (This type of surface is known as ‘rough as cast’.)
The type of surface must be assessed from contract record drawings, available site data or original design
calculations. In the absence of such information, surface type 2 must be assumed.
For inverted T beams defined in 7.4.2.2(b) no longitudinal shear strength check is required.
7.4.2.3A Longitudinal shear
The BS 5400-4 design values of k1 implicitly allow for a partial safety factor of 1.6. Hence, the assessment
characteristic values are 1.6 times the BS 5400-4 design values, and the partial safety factor, γms, is included in
expression (a).
Test data (70) have shown that the BS 5400-4 design values of v1 implicitly allow for partial safety factors of 1.25,
1.6 and 2.0 for type 2, type 1 and monolithic surfaces, respectively. Furthermore, the values for monolithic concrete
have been shown to be less dependent on concrete strength than implied by BS 5400-4. Hence, the assessment
characteristic values have been obtained as follows.
Monolithic
Design values suggested in reference (70) were incorporated in a slightly amended form in BS 5400-4. These values
incorporate a partial safety factor of 1.25 and have thus been multiplied by 1.25 to give the characteristic values for
assessment.
Surface type 1
BS 5400-4 values multiplied by 1.6.
Surface type 2
BS 5400-4 values multiplied by 1.25.
The partial safety factor for shear γmv is applied to the characteristic v1 values (70).
The steel stress definition has been modified to permit partially anchored reinforcement to contribute to the
longitudinal shear capacity.
The factor 0.8 in expression (b) reduces to the BS 5400-4 value of 0.7 when the BS 5400-4 value of γms of 1.15 is
applied.
August 2015 A/101

The BS 5400-4 minimum steel requirement of 0.15% has not been included because its origin is unclear. However,
one should be aware that brittle longitudinal shear failures can occur with small amounts of reinforcement
(70). Furthermore, in reference (70) it is observed that the stirrups act as ties across the interface. If the form of
construction consists of a slab cast on to the top of beams with no reinforcement crossing the interface, then there
will be nothing to provide a tie if the tensile resistance of the concrete across the interface is destroyed by the
effects of repeated loading. In such a case, it would be prudent not to treat the member as acting compositely.
However, if the in-situ slab encases the top flange of the beam then mechanical interlock between the precast and
in-situ concretes may provide adequate tie action and the interface shear strength could be based on the concrete
interface shear resistance above.
The reason for the maximum steel spacing requirement in BS 5400-4 is also unclear. Hence, the assessor should
apply engineering judgement when considering this requirement and not automatically ignore reinforcement spaced
at centres greater than the specified maximum.
7.4.3 Serviceability Limit State. When a serviceability limit state assessment for composite concrete
structures is required by the Overseeing Organisation, it must be based on 7.4.3 of BS 5400-4, with the following
amendments:
a. Any reference, in 7.4.3.1 to 7.4.3.5 of BS 5400-4, to clauses and sub-clauses of BS 5400-4 is to be

intended as a reference to the corresponding clauses and sub-clauses in this Standard.
b. The maximum compressive stress limit referred to in 7.4.3.2 of BS 5400-4 can be taken as equal to
0.625 (fcu/γmc).
c. The allowable flexural tensile stresses in Table 32 of BS 5400-4 may be increased by multiplying by a factor
not exceeding 2.5. However in such circumstances, the 50% increase permitted in 7.4.3.3 of BS 5400-4
should not be applied.
d. The flexural and hypothetical tensile stress limits referred to in the last paragraph of 7.4.3.3 of BS 5400-4
are to be taken, respectively, as the class 2 tensile stress limit and the class 3 hypotethical tensile stress
limit in 6.3.2.
There appears to be no test data to quantify the permissible enhancement in allowable compressive stress in 7.4.3.2
of BS 5400-4. However, for the case of a fully restrained flange, an enhancement of up to 50% (67) was permitted in
BS 8110-1.
The allowable flexural tensile stresses in Table 32 of BS 5400-4 are very conservative and include a partial safety
factor of about 2.5 on the lower bound to the experimental evidence (4).
7.5 Plain concrete walls and abutments
7.5.1 General. A plain concrete wall or abutment is a vertical load bearing concrete member whose greatest
lateral dimension is more than four times its least lateral dimension and which is assumed to be without
reinforcement when considering strength.
The requirements given in 7.5.2 to 7.5.10 refer to the assessment of a plain concrete wall that has a height not
exceeding five times its average thickness.
A/102 August 2015

7.5.1A General
BS 5400-4 restricts its application to braced plain concrete walls with a slenderness ratio not exceeding 5, since
it is considered that this ratio reflects current practice. When assessing an unbraced and/or a more slender wall,
the assessor may consult 3.9.4 of BS 8110-1 which deals with unbraced and slender walls. In applying the latter
sub-clause for assessment purposes, the constant 0.3 in Equations 43 to 46 of BS 8110-1 should be replaced with
(0.675/γmcw), with γmcw as given in 4.3.3.3.
7.5.2 Moments and forces in walls and abutments. Moments, shear forces and axial forces in a wall must be
determined in accordance with 4.4.
The axial force may be calculated on the assumption that the beams and slabs transmitting forces into it are simply
supported.
The resultant axial force in a member may act eccentrically due to vertical loads not being applied at the centre of
the member or due to the action of horizontal forces. Such eccentricities must be treated as indicated in 7.5.3 and
7.5.4.
The minimumAppendix
moment inA a direction at right-angles to the wall must be taken as not less than that
Volume 3 Section
produced by 4
considering the ultimate axial load per unit length acting at an eccentricity of 0.05 times the thickness of the wall.
7.5.3 Eccentricity in the plane of the wall or abutment. In the case of a single member this eccentricity can
be calculated of thestatics
from lengthalone.
of theWhere
member. Where aforce
a horizontal shearisconnection
resisted by between vertical edges
several members, of adjacent
the amount allocated
members can withstand the calculated forces, an appropriate elastic analysis may be used.
to each member must be in proportion to its relative stiffness provided the resultant eccentricity in any individual
member is not greater than one third of the length of the member. Where a shear connection between vertical edges
7.5.4 can withstand
of adjacent members Eccentricity at right-angles
the calculated to walls or elastic
forces, an appropriate abutments . The
analysis load
may transmitted to a
be used.
wall by a concrete deck may be assumed to act at one-third the depth of the bearing area from the
7.5.4 loaded face.
Eccentricity Where theretoiswalls
at right-angles an in or
situabutments.
concrete deck on either
The load side oftothe
transmitted member
a wall the common
by a concrete deck
may be assumed to act at one-third the depth of the bearing area from the
bearing area may be assumed to be shared equally by each deck. loaded face. Where there is an in situ
concrete deck on either side of the member the common bearing area may be assumed to be shared equally by each
deck. The resultant eccentricity of the total load on a member unrestrained in position at any level must
be calculated making full allowance for the eccentricity of all vertical loads and the overturning
The resultant moments
eccentricity of the total
produced loadlateral
by any on a member
forces unrestrained in position at any level must be calculated
above that level.
making full allowance for the eccentricity of all vertical loads and the overturning moments produced by any lateral
forces above that level.
The resultant eccentricity of the total load on a member restrained in position at any level may be
The resultant calculated
eccentricityonofthe
theassumption
total load onthat immediately
a member above
restrained a lateralatsupport
in position themay
any level resultant eccentricity
be calculated on theof
all immediately
assumption that the vertical loads
aboveabove thatsupport
a lateral level is
thezero.
resultant eccentricity of all the vertical loads above that
level is zero.
7.5.5 Analysis of section. Loads of a purely local nature (as at bearings or column
7.5.5 Analysis of section. Loads oftoa be
bases) may be assumed immediately
purely dispersed
local nature provided
(as at bearings or the localbases)
column stressmayunder
be the load does
assumed to
be immediatelynotdispersed
exceed that giventhe
provided in 7.5.7. Where
local stress the resultant
under of allnot
the load does theexceed
axial loads act eccentrically
that given in 7.5.7. Where in the
the
resultant of allplane of the
the axial member,
loads the ultimate
act eccentrically in axial loadofper
the plane theunit lengththe
member, of ultimate
wall, nw,axial
mustload
be assessed on theof
per unit length
wall, nw, mustbasis of an elastic analysis assuming a linear distribution of load along the length of the member,
be assessed on the basis of an elastic analysis assuming a linear distribution of load along the length
f cu
of the member,assuming
assuming a tensile
a tensileresistance
resistanceofofconcrete of 0.12
concrete of .. Consider
Considerfirst
firstthe
theaxial
axialforce
forceand
and bending
bending in
mc
in the
the plane of the wallplane of the wall
to determine to determineofthe
the distribution distribution
tension of tensionalong
and compression and compression along themoment
the wall. The bending wall.
at right anglesThe bending
to the moment
wall must at right
then be anglesand
considered to the
the wall must
section then be
assessed forconsidered
this moment and
andthethesection assessed
compression
or tension perfor
unitthis
length at various
moment positions
and the along the
compression or wall. Where
tension the eccentricity
per unit of loadpositions
length at various in the plane of the
along the
member is zero, a uniform
wall. Where thedistribution of nwofmay
eccentricity loadbeinassumed.
the plane of the member is zero, a uniform distribution of
nw may be assumed.
For members restrained in position, the axial load per unit length of member, nw, due to ultimate
August 2015loads must be such that: A/103
nw (0.675 fcu/�mcw)(h - 2ex) Equation 36

For members restrained in position, the axial load per unit length of member, nw, due to ultimate loads must be such
that:
nw ≤ (0.675 fcu/γmcw)(h - 2ex) Equation 36
where
nw is the maximum axial load per unit length of member due to ultimate loads;
h is the overall thickness of the section;
ex is the resultant eccentricity of load at right-angles to the plane of the member (see 7.5.2) (minimum value
0.05h);
fcu is the characteristic, or worst credible, concrete strength;
γmcw is a material partial safety factor which is taken as 2.25 if the characteristic concrete strength is used, and
1.80 if the worst credible strength is used.
7.5.5A Analysis of section
The factor γw in BS 5400-4 and CP 110 has been replaced with a constant value of 0.3 in BS 8110-1. The latter
value includes (67) an allowance for a partial safety factor of 2.25. Hence, in the assessment code, the factor 0.3 is
replaced with (0.3 x 2.25/γmcw) where γmcw is either 2.25 (for use with the characteristic strength) or 2.25 x 1.2/1.5 =
1.80 (for use with the worst credible strength).
7.5.6 Shear. The resistance to shear forces in the plane of the member may be assumed to be adequate provided
the horizontal shear force due to ultimate loads is less than either one quarter of the vertical load, or the force to
produce an average shear stress of 0.45 N/mm² over the whole cross-section of the member in the case of fcu of at
least 25 N/mm²; where fcu is less than 25 N/mm², a figure of 0.3 N/mm² must be used.
7.5.6A Shear
The background to this sub-clause, which originated in CP 110, is unclear. In particular the value of the inherent
partial safety factor is not known. Hence, the shear stresses should be considered as assessment values and no
partial safety factor applied to them.
7.5.7 Bearing. Bearing stresses due to ultimate loads of a purely local nature, as at girder bearings, must be
limited in accordance with 7.2.3.3.
7.5.8 Deflection of plain concrete walls or abutments. “Not applicable to assessment”
7.5.9 Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement. “Not applicable to assessment”
7.5.10 Stress limitations for Serviceability Limit State. “Not applicable to assessment”
A/104 August 2015

ANNEX A: REFERENCES
A.1 NORMATIVE REFERENCES
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB): HMSO
BD 9 Implementation of BS 5400-10: 1980 – Code of Practice for Fatigue

(DMRB 1.3)
BD 37 Loads for Highway Bridges

(DMRB 1.3)
BD 21 The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures

(DMRB 3.4.3)
BD 48 The Assessment and Strengthening of Highway Bridge Supports

(DMRB 3.4.7)
BD 86 The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures for the Effects of Special Types General Order
(STGO) and Special Order (SO) Vehicles
(DMRB 3.4.19)
BS 5400-1:1988. Steel, concrete and composite bridges. General statement
BS 5400-10:1980. Steel, concrete and composite bridges. Code of practice for fatigue
A.2 INFORMATIVE REFERENCES
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB): HMSO
BA 40 Tack Welding of Reinforcing Bars

(DMRB 1.3.4)
BE 23 Shear key decks

(DMRB 1.3)
BE 5 Rules for the Design and Use of Freyssinet Concrete Hinges in Highway Structures
(DMRB 1.3)
DMRB Volume 3: Section 1: Inspection
BA 93 Structural Assessment of Bridges with Deck Hinges

(DMRB 3.1.5)
August 2015 A/105

BA 38 Assessment of Fatigue Life of Corroded or Damaged Reinforcing Bars

(DMRB 3.4.5).
BA 39 Assessment of Reinforced Concrete Half Joints

(DMRB 3.4.6)
BA 51 The Assessment of Concrete Structures Affected by Steel Corrosion

(DMRB 3.4.13)
BD 81 Use of Compressive Membrane Action in Bridge Decks

(DMRB 3.4.20)
BS 4757:1971. Specification for nineteen-wire steel strand for prestressed concrete
BS 4486:1980. Specification for hot rolled and hot rolled and processed high tensile alloy steel bars for the prestressing
of concrete
BS 5896:1980. Specification for high tensile steel wire and strand for the prestressing of concrete
BS 6089:2010. Assessment to in situ compressive strength in structures and precast concrete components –
Complementary guidance to that given in BS EN 13791
BS 8110-1:1997. Structural use of concrete. Part 1. Code of practice for design and construction (incorporating
amendments 1 to 4, 2007)
BS 8110-2:1985. Structural use of concrete. Part 2. Code of practice for special circumstances (incorporating
amendments 1 to 3, 2005)
BS EN 1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
(incorporating amendments 1 and 2, 2011)
BS EN 1992-2:2005. Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures – Part 2: Concrete bridges – design and detailing rules
(incorporating amendment 1, 2010)
CP110. Parts 2 and 3:1972. British Standards code of practice - Use of concrete
PD 6687-2:2008. Recommendations for the design of structures to BS EN 1992-2:2005
Other Documents
1. INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS. Appraisal of existing structures. October 2010.
2. THE CONCRETE SOCIETY. Concrete core testing for strength. Technical Report No. 11, 1987.
3. CLARK, L. A. Elastic analysis of concrete bridges and the ultimate limit state. The Highway Engineer,
October 1977, pp. 22-24.
A/106 August 2015

4. CLARK, L. A. Concrete bridge design to BS 5400. Construction Press, 1983, pp. 186. (Including supplement
incorporating 1984 revisions, 1985, pp. 31).
5. NIELSEN, M. P. and HOANG, L. C. Limit analysis and concrete plasticity. Prentice-Hall, 2011, 816 pp.
6 IBELL, T. J., MORLEY, C. T. and MIDDLETON, C. R. Shear assessment of concrete beam-and-slab

bridges. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Structures and Buildings 128 (3), 1998,
pp. 386‑391.
7. VALERIO, P., IBELL, T. J. and DARBY, A. P. Shear assessment of prestressed concrete bridges. Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Bridge Engineering 164 (4), 2011, pp. 195-210.
8. VALERIO, P. Realistic shear assessment and novel strengthening of existing concrete bridges. PhD thesis,
University of Bath, 2009, 235 pp.
9. COPE, R. J. and RAO, P. V. A two-stage procedure for the non-linear analysis of slab bridges. Proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 75, Part 2, December 1983, pp. 671-688.
10. COPE, R. J. and CLARK, L. A. Concrete slabs: analysis and design. Elsevier Applied Science, 1984, 507 pp.
11. SIVIERO, E. Rotation capacity of monodimensional members in structural concrete. Istituto Universitario di
Architettura di Venezia, Instituto di Scienza delle Construzioni, 1973, pp. 17.
12. MARSHALL, W. T. A survey of the problems of lateral instability in reinforced concrete beams. Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 43, July 1969, pp. 397-406.
13. KENT, D. C. and PARK, R. Flexural members with confined concrete. Proceedings of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 97, No. ST7, July 1971, pp. 1969-1990.
14. CHAN, W. W. L. The ultimate strength and deformation of plastic hinges in reinforced concrete frameworks.
Magazine on Concrete Research, Vol. 7, No. 21, November 1955, pp. 121-132.
15. PEDERSON, C. Shear in beams with bent-up bars. Final Report of the International Association for Bridge
and Structural Engineering Colloquium on Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete, Copenhagen, 1979, pp. 79-86.
16. SHEAR STUDY GROUP. The shear strength of reinforced concrete beams. Institution of Structural
Engineers, London, 1969, pp. 170.
17. CORGI, J. L. Shear capacity of high strength concrete beams. Concrete, Vol. 21, No. 3, March 1987,
pp. 24‑26.
18. BURTON, K. T. and HOGNESTAD, E. Fatigue tests of reinforcing bars – tack welding of stirrups.
Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 64, No. 5, May 1967, pp. 244-252.
19. BAKER, A. L. L., YU. C. W. and REGAN, P. E. Explanatory note on the proposed Unified Code Clause
on shear in reinforced concrete beams with special reference to the Report of the Shear Study Group. The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 47, No. 7 July 1969, pp. 285-293.
20. CONCRETE BRIDGE DEVELOPMENT GROUP. Testing of high strength concrete beams with limestone
aggregate. Technical Paper no 7, 2003.
August 2015 A/107

21. SOMERVILLE, G. The behaviour and design of reinforced concrete corbels. Cement and Concrete
Association, Technical Report 42.472, August 1972, pp. 12.
22. SHAVE, J. D., IBELL, T. J. and DENTON, S. R. Shear assessment of reinforced concrete bridges with short
anchorage lengths. The Structural Engineer, Vol. 85, No. 5, March 2007, pp. 30-36.
23. JACKSON, P. and SALIM, S. Web crushing in EN 1992. The Structural Engineer, Vol. 84, No. 23,
December 2006, pp. 50-57.
24. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE COMMITTEE 438. Tentative recommendations for the design of
reinforced concrete members to resist torsion. Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute, Vol. 66, No.
1, January 1969, pp. 1-8.
25. LAMPERT, P. Torsion and bending in reinforced and prestressed concrete members. Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 50, December 1971, pp. 487-505.
26. KENNEDY, G. and GOODCHILD, C. Practical yield line design. British Cement Association, 2003, 171 pp.
27. REGAN, P. E. Behaviour of reinforced concrete flat slabs. CIRIA Report 89, London 1981, pp. 89.
28. CULLINGTON, D. W. and HILL, M. E. Assessment of reinforced concrete slab bridge decks with circular
voids. Bridge Management 4, Thomas Telford Publishing, 2000.
29. CLARK, L. A. and THOROGOOD, P. Flexural and punching shear strengths of concrete beams and slabs.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Contractor Report 60, 1987, pp. 33.
30. LEE, D. J. The theory and practice of bearings and expansion joints for bridges. Cement and Concrete
Association, Publication 12.036, 1971, pp. 65.
31. TIMOSHENKO, S. P. Theory of elastic stability. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York and London, 1936,
pp. 518.
32. JACKSON, P. A. Slender bridge piers and the effective height provisions of BS 5400: Part 4. Cement and
Concrete Association, Technical Report 42.461, June 1985, pp. 18.
33. CRANSTON, W. B. Analysis and design of reinforced concrete columns. Cement and Concrete Association,
Research Report 41.020, 1972, pp. 54.
34. CRANSTON, W. B. A computer method for the analysis of restrained columns. Cement and Concrete
Association, Technical Report 42.402, April 1967, pp. 20.
35. MENEGOTTO, M. and PINTO, P. E. Slender RC compressed members in biaxial bending. Proceedings of
the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 103, No. ST3, March 1977, pp. 587-605.
36. CRANSTON, W. B. Computer analysis of columns. Instability and plastic collapse of steel structures,
Proceedings of The Michael R. Horne Conference. Editor: L. J. Morris. St. Albans, Granada Publishing Ltd.,
1983, pp, 243-252.
37. AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE. Building code requirements for reinforced concrete (ACI 318-83),
1983, pp. 111.
A/108 August 2015

38. REGAN, P. E. and BRAESTRUP, M. W. Punching shear in reinforced concrete. CEB Bulletin No. 168,
January 1985, pp. 232.
39. INSPECTION MANUAL FOR HIGHWAY STRUCTURES. The Stationery Office, 2007.
40. REYNOLDS, G. C. Bond strength of deformed bars in tension. Cement and Concrete Association, Technical
Report 42.548, May 1982, pp. 23.
41. ODUYEMI, T. O. S. and CLARK, L. A. Prediction of crack widths in circular-voided reinforced concrete
slabs subjects to transverse bending. Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 39, No. 140, September 1987,
pp. 124-132.
42. SNOWDON, L. C. Classifying reinforcing bars for bond strength. Building Research Station Current Paper
36/70, November 1970.
43. NAVARATNARAJAH, V, and SPEARE, P. R. S. An experimental study of the effects of lateral pressure on
the transfer bond of reinforcing bars with variable cover. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 81, Part 2, December 1986, pp. 697-715.
44. MORITA, S. and FUJI, S. Bond capacity of deformed bars due to splitting of surrounding concrete. Bond in
Concrete, Applied Science Publishers, 1982, pp. 331-341.
45. ROBINS, P. J. and STANDISH, I. G. Effect of lateral pressure on bond of reinforcing bars in concrete. Bond
in Concrete, Applied Science Publishers, 1982, pp. 262-272.
46. ROBINS, P J and STANDISH, I G. The influence of lateral pressure upon anchorage bond. Magazine of
Concrete Research, Vol. 36, No. 129, December 1984, pp. 195-202.
47. JIRSA, J, O’BREEN, J E, LUKE, J J and HAMAD, B S. Effect of casting position on bond. In: Bond in
Concrete, Applied Science Publishers, 1982, pp. 300-307.
48. CAIRNS, J. An analysis of the ultimate strength of lapped joints of compression reinforcement. Magazine of
Concrete Research, Vol. 31, No. 106, March 1979, pp. 1927.
49. SOROUSHIAN, P., OBASEKI, K and ROJAS, M. Bearing Strength and Stiffness of Concrete Under
Reinforcing Bars. ACI Materials Journal, May-June 1987.
50. CLARK, L. A. Longitudinal shear reinforcement in beams. Concrete, Vol. 18, No.2, February 1984,
pp. 22-23.
51. REGAN, P. E. Concrete Society Current Practice Sheet No. 105, Shear, Concrete, Vol. 19, No. 11, November
1985, pp.25.
52. ODUYEMI, T. O. S. and CLARK, L. A. Tension stiffening in transverse sections of circular-voided concrete
slabs. Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 39. No. 138, March 1987, pp. 35.41.
53. ODUYEMI. T. O. S. Stiffnesses and cracking of voided slab bridges. PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham,
September 1986.
54. CLARKE J. L. Shear strength of lightweight aggregate concrete. Concrete, Vol. 21, No. 4, April 1987,
pp. 12-13.
August 2015 A/109

55. ANDREW, A. E. Unbonded tendons in post-tensioned construction. Thomas Telford. 1987.
56. VIRLOGEUX, M. External prestressing of concrete. FIP Notes, 1987/2, pp. 16-20.
57. SWAMY, R. N. Prestressed lightweight concrete. Developments in prestressed Concrete – 1, Sawko, F. (Ed.)
Applied Science Publishers, 1978, pp. 149-191.
58. CLARK, L. A. and TOMS, S. Shear Strength of Beam with Unbonded or External Tendons. Proceedings of
FIP Symposium, London, 1996.
59. HAWKINS, N. M. The shear provision of AS CA35-SAA Code for prestressed concrete. Civil Engineering
Transactions, Institute of Engineers, Australia, Vol. CE6, September 1964, pp. 103-116.
60. REYNOLDS, G. C., CLARKE, J. L. and TAYLOR, H. P. J. Shear provisions for prestressed concrete in the
Unified Code, CP 110:1972. Cement and Concrete Association, Technical Report 42.500, October 1974,
pp. 16.
61. SWAN, R. A. and WILLIAMS, A. Combined loading tests on model prestressed concrete box beams with
steel mesh. Cement and Concrete Association, Technical Report 42.485, October 1973, pp. 43.
62. MAISEL, B. I. and SWAN, R. A. The design of concrete box spine-beam bridges. CIRIA Report 52,
November 1974, pp. 52.
63. BEEBY, A. W., KEYDER, E. and TAYLOR, H. P. J. Cracking and deformations of partially prestressed
concrete beams. Cement and Concrete Association, Technical Report 42.465. January 1972, pp. 26.
64. CLARK, J. L. A guide to the design of anchor blocks for post-tensioned prestressed concrete members.
CIRIA Guide 1, June 1976, pp. 34.
65. ZIELINSKI, J. and ROWE, R. E. An investigation of the stress distribution in the anchorage zones of post-
tensioned concrete members. Cement and Concrete Association, Research report 9, September 1960, pp. 32.
66. KRIZ, L. B. and RATHS, C. H. Connections in precast concrete structures: strength of corbel brackets.
Journal of the Prestressed Concrete Institute. Vol. 10, No. 1, February 1965, pp. 16-61.
67. ROWE, R. E. et al. Handbook to British Standard BS 8110: 1985. The Structural Use of Concrete. Viewpoint
Publication, 1987, pp. 206.
68. CLARK, L. A. and THOROGOOD, P. Serviceability behaviour of reinforced concrete half-joints. Transport
and Road Research Laboratory, Contractor Report 70, 1988.
69. CULLINGTON, D. W., HILL, M. E. and SYKES, D. P. Shear capacity of pretensioned inverted T-beams
with infill concrete. Transport Research Laboratory, Project Report PR/CE/130/95, 1995.
70. HUGHES G. Longitudinal shear in composite concrete bridge beams. Part 2: Experimental investigation and
recommendations. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Contractor Report 52, 1987, pp. 97.
A/110 August 2015

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DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES

VOLUME 3 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

THE ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE HIGHWAY

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE

THE DEPARTMENT FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The Assessment of Concrete

VOLUME 3 HIGHWAY STRUCTURES:

THE ASSESSMENT OF CONCRETE

August 2015 1/1

1/2 August 2015

Worst Credible Strength

2.6 Worst credible strengths should be used in the following circumstances:

August 2015 2/1

2/2 August 2015

Partial Safety Factor for Materials

Application of Reliability Techniques

Deterioration and Condition Factors in BD 21 (DMRB 3.4.3)

August 2015 2/3

2/4 August 2015

Ultimate Limit State (ULS)

Serviceability Limit State (SLS)

August 2015 3/1

3/2 August 2015

4 USE OF APPENDIX A AND BS 5400-4:1990

August 2015 4/1

4/2 August 2015

Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)

DMRB Volume 1: Section 3: General design

BD 37 Loads for Highway Bridges

DMRB Volume 3: Section 4: Assessment

BD 21 The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures

British Standards (BS): BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION

5.2 Informative References

DMRB Volume 3: Section 4: Assessment

BA 38 Assessment of Fatigue Life of Corroded or Damaged Reinforcing Bars

BA 51 The Assessment of Concrete Structures Affected by Steel Corrosion

BA 52 The Assessment of Concrete Structures Affected by Alkali Silica Reaction

BD 79 The Management of Sub-standard Highway Structures

MCHW Volume 1 – Specification for Highway Works

British Standards (BS): BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION

August 2015 5/1

5/2 August 2015

Welsh Government SHEENA HAGUE

The Department for Regional Development

All technical enquiries or comments on this Standard should be sent to

August 2015 6/1

6/2 August 2015

APPENDIX A AMENDMENTS TO BS 5400-4

2. DEFINITION AND SYMBOLS

3. LIMIT STATE PHILOSOPHY

4.1 Limit state requirements

August 2015 A/1

5. ASSESSMENT: REINFORCED CONCRETE

A/2 August 2015

5.3.4.3 Stresses and reinforcement

August 2015 A/3

5.5.6 Shear resistance of columns

A/4 August 2015

5.8.5 Maximum areas of reinforcement in members

SA* = γf3 (effects of QA) = γf3 (effects of γfL Qk)