INTRODUCTION

What is temperature Monitoring system??

Temperature Monitoring Systems use the latest technology to fully automate temperature monitoring and
recording 24/7 providing effective cold chain management of temperature sensitive products. Applicable to
many industries storing and/or transporting products, the systems are unique in design and possess a strong
record of reliable performance.

Standard mains powered wireless systems and Battery powered wireless systems complement the product
portfolio. The wireless and Ethernet logger units provide flexibility in layout from single to multiple
monitoring points across one or more sites. The systems accept a large range of other sensors for monitoring
humidity, light intensity, pressure, voltage, current and pH level, and including RTD and thermocouples. The
systems are scalable and easy to install.
 TEMPERATURE MONITORING USING 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

AIM:
The aim of the project is to control/maintain temperature of a plant within a desired limit.

PROJECT DESCRIPTION:
Industrial and control application/may require automation of the process such as temperature, pressure,
liquid flow, etc., in order to minimize manual intervention. To automate any application an intelligent
processor plays a major role. One such processor proposed for the project is 8085, an 8-bit microprocessor.
The temperature controller can be used to control the temperature of any plant. Typically it contains a
Processor unit, Temperature input unit and Control output unit. The 8085 based motherboard forms the
processing unit. The Analog-to-Digital unit together with temperature sensor forms the temperature input unit.
The relay driver forms the control output unit. Electric power to the heating element (coil) is supplied through
relay contacts. The switching ON/OFF of the relay controls the heat supplied to the plant.

Tem p C o n tro l
M PU P la n t
In p u t o u tp u t

S im p le s c h e m a tic o f te m p e ra tu re c o n tro lle r

Fig 1. Simple schematic of temperature controller

Operationally, the system requires two set points-upper and lower, to be entered by the user. Whenever
the temperature of the plant exceeds the upper limit or recede the lower limit relay is turned-off, so that a
temperature is maintained within limits. The software for the temperature controller is developed in 8085
assembly language programs.

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION:

The hardware consists of 8085 microprocessor motherboard, ADC interface board, and relay and driver
unit.
The motherboard consists of 8085 MPU, 8KB EPROM, 8KB RAM keyboard and display controller
8279, programmable peripheral interface 8255, 21 key hex-keypad and six numbers of seven segment LED’s.
Ports Expansion connector parallel port connectors are provided for external interfacing.
The temperature input board or ADC interface board consists of ADC 0809, which is an 8-bit converter
with eight channels of input. It is interfaced with the motherboard through 50-pin bus expansion connector.
The temperature sensor ADC590 is used to sense the temperature of the plant and its analog output is applied to
the channel-0 of ADC.
Relay is switched ON/OFF by driving the transistor to saturation/cut-off which is connected to port A of
8255.
 d r iv e r +V

2 6 p in c o n n e c to r
P a ra lle l p o r t
8255 8085 LATCH
PPI CPU
A D TEM PERATU RE
590 SEN SO R

5 0 p in E x p a n s io n c o n n e c to r
15
N C

A 8-A
D 0- D
A D C
P SY STEM BU S
IN T E R FA C E
BO A RD

EPRO M RA M 8279
8K B 8K B K EY BO A RD
D IS P L A Y
D IS P L A Y

C D E F in t

8 9 A B

4 5 6 7 N xt

0 1 2 3 Sub

K EY BO A RD

Fig 2. Block Diagram of 8085 Microprocessor based Temperature Monitoring

Temperature Data Acquisition System

Goals • Study ADC conversion, Nyquist Theorem, Valvano Postulate,

• Develop a temperature measurement system using a thermistor,

Review • Operation of the ADC system in the 9S12DP512 data sheet,

• Data sheets on the TLC2274 quad op amp IC, and INA122P instrumentation amp
• Valvano Chapters 11,12 on thermistors, analog amplifiers, analog low pass filters,
and ADC’s, data acquisition systems.

Starter files • OC, ADC, LCD, therm10.xls, therm10Vref2_5.xls, lpf.xls, www.ti.com FilterPro

Requirements
This experiment will use an ADC converter on the 9S12 to construct a digital thermometer. The
temperature range is 0 to 40 ˚C. The current temperature will be displayed as a fixed-point number on the
LCD, using a 0.01 fixed-point format. Your temperature measurement resolution should be 0.1 ˚C or better.
The average temperature accuracy should be 1 ˚C or better. The frequency components of the signal are 0 to 10
Hz.

Approach and Constraints

Figure 7.1 shows the data-flow graph of the temperature data acquisition system. The thermistor
converts temperature to resistance, the analog amp and filter convert resistance to 0 to +5V analog voltage, and
the ADC converts analog voltage to 10-bit integer. The periodic ISR creates the real time sampling, and data is
passed to the foreground using any appropriate data structure (shown as Data in Figure 7.1). The main program
converts integer to fixed-point data using a table lookup-interpolation scheme. The results are displayed on the
LCD.
 Data
Themistor Amp ADC ADC ISR

Table main

LCD LCD
display
Figure 7.1. Data-flow graph of the data acquisition system.

Figure 7.2 shows one possible call-graph. Each of the modules (LCD, ADC, Data) has separate header and
implementation files. Notice the main program does not directly access the ADC or LCD I/O port registers.
The module Data can employ any appropriate method to pass data from background to foreground.

main
Switches
LCD
Timer
ADC Data
LCD
ADC
Figure 7.2. One possible call-graph of the data acquisition system.

This data acquisition system includes a thermistor, which converts temperature into a resistance. One
possible way to convert resistance into voltage is to use a bridge. A second possibility is to use a constant
current source. In either case, an analog amplifier boosts the voltage so the full scale temperature range (0 to 40
˚C) maps into the full-scale range of the ADC (0 to 5V). A low-pass analog filter, with a cutoff frequency of
about ½ the sampling rate, removes high frequencies that might otherwise cause aliasing. A low-pass analog
filter must be implemented in this lab.

1. Temperature-Resistance Calibration of the Thermistor:

The thermistor resistance varies nonlinearly with its temperature. It is very important to use temperature
units of Kelvin in this equation and not ˚C.
R = Ro e+/T (where T is temperature in degrees Kelvin)
The thermistors in this lab have a resistance of about 30 k at 25 ˚C. When attaching wires to the thermistor
you will need to add water-proof insulation so the tip of the probe can be inserted into 5 mm of water. One
water-proof method is to lightly paint the bare wires with paint or epoxy. Do not use electrical tape.

2. Choose a sampling rate

In this lab, we will process temperature signals (0 to 10 Hz). According to the Nyquist Theorem, we
need a sampling rate greater than 20 Hz. Output compare interrupts will be used to sample the ADC in a
background thread. This high priority interrupt will establish the sampling rate. This selection of sampling
frequency will affect the design of analog and digital filters. So, when you change the sampling rate, you will
have to redesign the filters.

Nyquist Theorem: If fmax is the largest frequency component of the analog signal, then you must sample
more than twice fmax in order to faithfully represent the signal in the digital samples. For example, if the analog
signal is
 A + B sin(2ft + )and the sampling rate is greater than 2f, you will be able to determine A, B, f, and 
from the digital samples.

Valvano Postulate: If fmax is the largest frequency component of the analog signal, then you must sample
more than ten times fmax in order for the reconstructed digital samples to look like the original signal when
plotted on a voltage versus time graph.

3. Hardware Interface

Figure 7.3 shows one possibility for the analog electronics of the digital thermometer. You will add an
analog filter in this lab. Choose the cutoff frequency of the LPF to be about ½ the sampling rate. The amplifier
should convert the entire temperature range into the 0 to +5 V ADC range. Because you are using rail-to-rail
op amps, the entire system can be powered by a single +5 V supply. PLEASE DO NOT USE +12 OR –12 V
SUPPLIES IN THIS LAB. If you have received free samples from Analog Devices, TI and Maxim, you should
design your system using state of the art components. The gain of the INA122P amplifier is determined by the
resistor RG. If you are using an AD623, connect the reference pin to 2.5V and select R2 to be the resistance of
the mid-point temperature (see Therm10Vref2_5.xls). Go to TI.com and download their design tool called
FilterPro.
+5V
+2.50V Rs

R1 R1 V2 +5V R1a
LM4041CILPR
Vout 2-pole R2a
9S12DP512
INA122P Butterworth ADC
RG LPF
RT
R2
V1
Figure 7.3. Possible thermistor interface (easy to construct, but more expensive).

We need an instrumentation amp (premade or built) because of its high input impedance and good CMRR. This
semester, TI has an INA122P instrumentation amplifier that can be obtained as a free sample. If you did not
order an INA122P, then you will need to build your own instrumentation amplifier using 3 op-amps, as shown
in Figure 7.4. The gain of the 3-op-amp instrumentation amplifier is a function of the resistors R 3 R4 R5 and R6.
The TLC2274 operates rail-to-rail, which means its output can swing all the way from 0 to +5 V. Any of the
rail-to-rail op amps mentioned in class can be used in this lab: AD8032, TLC2274, or OPA2350. These op
amps can operate on a single +5V supply. In fact, if you connect the TLC2274 up to the usual +12 –12 V
supplies, you will damage the device and damage your 9S12.

+5V
R5 R6
V2
R1 R1
R4 Vout 2-pole 9S12C32
R3 TLC2274
Butterworth ADC
R4 LPF
RT R5 R6
R2 V1

Figure 7.4. A good thermistor interface (harder to construct, but cheaper to build).

The advantage of using an instrumentation amp (with its high Zin) is you can analyze the transfer function from
RT to V1 considering only the bridge input (+2.50 or +5V), R 1 and RT. Normally, the R1 resistor in the bridge is
chosen large enough to prevent self-heating the thermistor. Assume the dissipation constant to be about 1
mW/˚C. Limit the thermistor power to 0.1 mW so that the self-heating error is below 0.1 ˚C. The R 2 resistor in
the bridge establishes one of the extreme values of the temperature range. For example, when the thermistor
resistance, RT, equals R2, then the bridge output voltage is 0. The gain of the differential amplifier, along with
the ADC range (0 to +5 V in our case) will determine the temperature range of the system.

4. Software Conversion:

Using the calibration data, the nonlinear thermistor equation, the characteristics of your analog circuit
and the response of the 9S12’s ADC, determine the ADC output sample for each temperature for about 5 to 10
temperature points within the 0 to 40 ˚C temperature range. There is an Excel spreadsheet to assist you called
Therm10.xls or Therm10Vref2_5.xls depending on whether your instrumentation reference pin is ground or
2.5V. Show both, a table of figures and a plot of this data. Include appropriate intermediate voltages in the table
(e.g., thermistor resistance, bridge output, and analog circuit output.) Design a software conversion routine that
calculates temperature from the ADC sample. You should consider various methods:
a) linear equation (don’t use because it has errors too large),
b) nonlinear equation,
c) large table lookup (one entry for each ADC value, i.e., 1024 entries),
d) small table lookup (≈16 entries) with linear interpolation in between.
The 9S12 has special table lookup and interpolation op codes, so you may wish to consider writing the
conversion in assembly language. See the TBL.RTF and ETBL.RTF examples on the TExaS simulator.

5. Real-time ADC sampling:

The program will continuously sample the ADC at a sampling frequency, fs, selected in part 2. The
ADC must be implemented using interrupts. There are two good approaches to implementing real-time ADC
sampling. The first approach is to implement a periodic interrupt using output compare at the desired sampling
rate. In the ISR you start the ADC conversion, wait for it to complete, read the ADC result, and pass the data
from the ISR to the main program using a FIFO queue.
The second approach is to create a digital squarewave with a frequency matching the desired sampling
rate using a PWM channel. The output of the PWM is connected to an input at PAD7. The ADC is configured
to start a conversion on a transition of PAD7. The ADC is also armed to generate an interrupt on completion. In
this second approach, the ADC ISR does not need to start the conversion. In fact, the ADC completion flag
triggers the interrupt. This ISR simply reads the data, acknowledges the interrupt and passes the data to the
foreground using a FIFO queue.
The main or foreground thread will get data from the FIFO, calculate temperature from the ADC
sample, and then display the measured temperature on the LCD display. The LCD may be too slow to be able to
erase and redraw each measurement. Rather, it will be faster to move the LCD cursor and redraw only the new
temperature measurement.

6. Temperature Resolution (skip this section Spring 2010):

To measure temperature resolution, we use the student’s t-test to determine if the system is able to detect the
change. To use the student’s t test we need to make the following assumptions:
1) the errors in one data set are independent (not correlated to) the errors in the other data set;
2) the errors in each data sample are independent (not correlated to) the errors in other data within that
set;
3) the errors are normally distributed;
4) the variance is unknown;
5) the variances in the two sets are equal.
If a random variable, X, is normally distributed with a mean is  and a standard deviation of , then the
probability that it falls between ±1  is 68 %. I.e.,
 P(- < X < +) = 0.68
Similarly,
P(-1.96 < X < +1.96) = 0.95
P(-2 < X < +2) = 0.954
P(-2.58 < X < +2.58) = 0.99
P(-3 < X < +3) = 0.9997
The square of the standard deviation is called variance, 2. In most situations, we do not know the mean and
standard deviation, so we collect data and estimate them. In particular, we take multiple measurements
assuming the temperature is constant. Let Xi be repeated measurements under the same conditions, and N is the
number of measurements (e.g., N = 10).
X = 1 ∑ Xi 1
N i
S2 = ∑ ( X i − X )2
N−1 i
The N-1 term is used in the calculation of S because there are N-1 degrees of freedom. These expressions are
unbiased estimates of and , meaning as the sample size increases the estimates approach truth. Formally, we
say the expected value of X is , or E( X ) = . Similarly, the expected value of S2 is 2, or E(S2) =2.
For example, we collect two sets of data (e.g., 10 measurements in each set, N = 10), and we want to
know if the means of two sample sets are different. Consider the measurements in the two data sets as the sum
of the true value plus an error:
X01 = 0 + e0i
Xi1 = 1 + e1i
Assumption 1 states that e0i are not correlated to e1i. Assumption 2 states that e0i are not correlated to e0j and e1i
are not correlated to e1j. Thermal noise will satisfy these assumptions. We employ a test statistic to test the
hypothesis H0:0=1. First, we estimate the means and variances of the data (assuming equal sized samples)
X0 = 1 ∑ X0i 1
N
S 20 = ∑ ( X 0 i − X 0 )2
i N−1 i
1 1
X1 =
N∑
X 1i S 21 = ∑ ( X 1 i − X 1 )2
i N−1 i
From these, we calculate the test statistic t:
X 1− X 0
t=
√ S 20/ N + S21 / N
The two sets of data, together, have 2N-2 degrees of freedom. The student’s t table, shown as Table 7.1, has
two dimensions. In the vertical direction, we specify the degrees of freedom, df. For example, if there are 10
data points in each data set, then df equals 18. In the horizontal direction we select the probability of being
correct. For example, if we wish to be 99% sure of the test, then we select the 99% column. Selecting the row
and the column allows us to pick a number threshold. For example, the number in the df=18 row,
confidence=99% column is 2.878. This means if H0 is true, then
Probability of t < -2.878 = 0.005 and Probability of t > 2.878 = 0.005
Therefore
Probability of -2.878 < t < 2.878 = 0.99 (confidence interval of 99%)

If we collect data and calculate t such that the test statistic t is greater than 2.878 or less than -2.878, then we
claim “we reject the hypothesis H0”. If the test statistic t is between -2.878 and 2.878 we do not claim the
hypothesis to be true. In other words we have not proven the means to be equal. Rather, we say “we do not
reject the hypothesis H0”.

confidence 80% 90% 98% 99% 99.8 99.9%

%
df 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.005 0.001 0.0005
p=
8 1.397 1.860 2.896 3.355 4.501 5.041
9 1.383 1.833 2.821 3.250 4.297 4.781
 10 1.372 1.812 2.764 3.169 4.144 4.587
11 1.363 1.796 2.718 3.106 4.025 4.437
12 1.356 1.782 2.681 3.055 3.930 4.318
13 1.350 1.771 2.650 3.012 3.852 4.221
14 1.345 1.761 2.624 2.977 3.787 4.140
15 1.341 1.753 2.602 2.947 3.733 4.073
16 1.337 1.746 2.583 2.921 3.686 4.015
17 1.333 1.740 2.567 2.898 3.646 3.965
18 1.330 1.734 2.552 2.878 3.610 3.922
19 1.328 1.729 2.539 2.861 3.579 3.883
20 1.325 1.725 2.528 2.845 3.552 3.850
21 1.323 1.721 2.518 2.831 3.527 3.819
22 1.321 1.717 2.508 2.819 3.505 3.792
23 1.319 1.714 2.500 2.807 3.485 3.767
24 1.318 1.711 2.492 2.797 3.467 3.745
25 1.316 1.708 2.485 2.787 3.450 3.725
26 1.315 1.706 2.479 2.779 3.435 3.707
27 1.314 1.703 2.473 2.771 3.421 3.690
28 1.313 1.701 2.467 2.763 3.408 3.674
29 1.311 1.699 2.462 2.756 3.396 3.659
30 1.310 1.697 2.457 2.750 3.385 3.646
40 1.303 1.684 2.423 2.704 3.307 3.551
50 1.299 1.676 2.403 2.678 3.261 3.496
60 1.296 1.671 2.390 2.660 3.232 3.460
80 1.292 1.664 2.374 2.639 3.195 3.416
100 1.290 1.660 2.364 2.626 3.174 3.390
120 1.289 1.658 2.358 2.617 3.160 3.373
∞ 1.282 1.645 2.326 2.576 3.090 3.291

Table 7.1. Student’s t distribution table.

Preparation (do this before your lab period)

1. The thermistor resistance varies nonlinearly with its temperature. Perform a very crude temperature
calibration experiment with two points somewhere in your temperature range of 0 to 40 ˚C. One temperature
standard can be created with a mixture of crushed ice and water in an insulated vessel (e.g., a Styrofoam cup). If
you have access to the 2nd floor lab, you should use the temperature controller set at 37 ˚C for the second point.
To use the temperature controller, put tap water into the chamber to a depth of about 5 mm (¼ inch). Place your
thermistor into the water so it touches the aluminum plate and gently cover the top of the hole with an
insulating material. Keeping the insulation dry will yield better results. You can use paper towel to clean the
chamber after use. If you do not have access to the 2nd floor, you can use your skin temperature in the axilla
region (arm pit), which is about 36 ˚C, the room temperature as measured by the heating/AC system, or the
outside temperature as measured by the weather man. Use the Excel spreadsheet to determine R 0 and  from
the two calibration points. In particular, Therm10.xls or Therm10Vref2_5.xls depending on whether your
instrumentation reference pin is ground or 2.5V. This quick calibration will only be used to choose resistors in
the circuit. A real calibration will be performed as procedure 5.

2. Review the technical information on the ADC system of 9S12. List three ways you could use to initiate
the ADC conversion process. What are two ways of knowing that the conversion process has been completed?
Place the answers to these two questions in the beginning comment section of your main program. You may use
the example ADC programs, but it is your responsibility to understand the modes. In particular, you should
know 8/10-bit (ATD0CTL4 bit 7), right/left justified (DJM), signed/unsigned format (DSGN), multichannel
mode (MULT), and continuous mode (SCAN).
3. Choose one of the options as discussed in hardware section and design the appropriate thermistor
amplifier. Be prepared during checkout to discuss the reasons for your choice of design. You must add a two-
pole Butterworth low-pass anti-aliasing analog filter. Show name and number of all the pins involved including
power. Add bypass capacitors on all chips. Why is it is important to connect bypass capacitors across the power
pins for the analog IC components? Label all resistance and capacitance values and types. For example, 1k
5% carbon, or 0.01F 10% X7R ceramic. Include the interface to the LCD. Draw the circuit using the CAD
tool PCB Artist.

4. This program is not used to measure temperature. Rather it is used to study the Nyquist Theorem as
described in Procedure 1). Create a real-time data acquisition system that takes 100 samples at 1000 Hz, then
prints out the data. Download the SCI0_DP512.zip starter file. You can either add your ADC and real-time
sampling to this SCI0 project, or add the SCI0.c SCI0.h files to your project. You do not have to do it exactly
like the following code, but you should first collect the data, next print it out, then stop.

unsigned short DataBuffer[100];

unsigned short Count=0;
void back(void){ unsigned short data;
if(Count<100){
data = ADC0_In(0x85); // your program that samples channel 5
DataBuffer[Count++] = data;
}
}
void main(void){unsigned short i;
PLL_Init(); // 24 MHz
ADC0_Init(); // your module
SCI0_Init(115200); // SCI output to PC
OC_Start(1,&back); // your module sampling at 1000 Hz
while(Count<100){}; // copy ADC to buffer in background
for(i=0; i<100; i++){
SCI0_OutUDec(DataBuffer[i]); SCI0_OutChar(10);SCI0_OutChar(13);
}
for(;;){};
}

5. Write the software system that samples the ADC at a rate at or above 20 Hz. Pass the data from
background into the foreground using a fifo queue. In the main program convert the ADC data to fixed point
temperature and display it on the LCD. A “syntax-error-free” hardcopy listing for the software is required as
preparation. The TA will check off your listing at the beginning of the lab period. You are required to do your
editing before lab. The debugging will be done during lab. Document clearly the operation of the routines.

Procedure (do this during your lab period)

1. Basic understanding: The purpose of this section is to verify the Nyquist Theorem and the Valvano
Postulate. Generate a continuous waveform (1 to +4V) with an adjustable frequency from 10 Hz to 10 kHz.
Use a function generator but make sure the output is 1 to +4V. Please connect the analog waveform to a scope
and verify the voltage range is between 0 and +5V before connecting to the 9S12. VOLTAGES OUTSIDE
THIS RANGE WILL DAMAGE THE 9S12. Next connect the signal to an analog input, e.g., PAD5. In this
part, we will not be using the thermistor or analog amplifier. Use the software system from Preparation 4) to
capture 100 data points at 1 kHz sampling. Collect data for frequencies about 100 Hz (Valvano Postulate), 500
Hz (Nyquist), and 2 kHz (aliased). Use the SCI output to transfer data to the PC. Plot the results by connecting
the data points with a straight line. Describe the concepts of Nyquist Theorem, Valvano Postulate, and aliasing
using this specific data. Be prepared to explain your results during checkout.
2. Static analog circuit test: Perform these tests before connecting the circuit to the 9S12. Construct and
evaluate the thermistor circuit. One by one replace the thermistor with 4 regular resistors that have resistances
within the typical range of your thermistor. One test resistor should have a resistance equal to the resistance of
the thermistor near the maximum temperature, and another test resistor should have a resistance equal to the
resistance of the thermistor near the minimum temperature. Record the voltage values at strategic places in your
analog circuit. What voltage output do you get when the thermistor is disconnected? What voltage output do
you get when the thermistor wires are shorted? You should modify your temperature measurement software to
output specific error conditions if the thermistor is shorted or disconnected.

3. Dynamic analog circuit test: Again, perform these tests before connecting the circuit to the 9S12. Disconnect
the thermistor, and connect a sine-wave signal generator in its place. Make sure the voltage level of the signal
generator is within range, so that the inputs and outputs of your analog circuit are not saturated. Record the
sine-wave amplitudes of the input and output voltages. Start at about 1 Hz and collect measurements at ten
different frequencies. Make sure you choose frequencies large enough to see the gain roll off. Calculate the gain
at each frequency. Plot the gain versus frequency response of your circuit. In systems where the shape of the
signal is important, such as audio or video, the phase versus frequency response is important. You do not have
to measure the phase response of your analog circuit.

4. Analog-to-Digital Conversion: Modify your real-time system so it displays ADC sample on the LCD as a
decimal number from 0 to 1023. Connect the output of your thermistor amplifier to the input of the 9S12 ADC
system. Use your four fixed resistors and collect digital samples. Add the ADC sample to the data collected in
part 2.

5. Calibration. In this section your software will output the ADC sample as a decimal number. We define the
temperature as measured by the Fluke 87V multimeter as reference truth. There is a K-type thermocouple that
plugs into the Fluke allowing it to measure temperature. Its range is -40 to 260 °C (-40 to 500 °F), and its
accuracy is 2.2 °C or 2 %. There are two of these meters on the 4 th floor lab, so record with which Fluke meter
you calibrated. You are allowed to use another temperature reference, as long as it is as good as this Fluke.
Place your thermistor and the reference thermometer into an insulated cup with crushed ice and water. Wait for
both your ADC measurement and the reference thermometer to stabilize. Record both
the true temperature and the ADC sample as measured by your system. Next, place your
thermistor and the reference thermometer in the chamber of the temperature controller set
at 37 ˚C (see preparation 1 for now to use the controller). Record both the true temperature
and the ADC sample as measured by your system. Incorporate this calibration data into a
header file called calib.h. In particular, if you change thermistors or recalibrate,
only changes to this header file will be required. You can use or not use the spreadsheets
Therm10.xls or Therm10Vref2_5.xls as long as you incorporate the nonlinearity
of the thermistors in an appropriate manner. You could take a third calibration point at
room temperature in air. One possible solution is to use the 0 and 37 ˚C to create a 53-
point table from Therm10.xls. Then, use the third calibration point as a temperature
offset to adjust the therm10.xls. I.e., sample the ADC, use the therm10.xls lookup tables to convert ADC into
temperature, then add a temperature correction as determined by the one air temperature calibration. In order to
reduce the time for all EE345L students to finish this lab, please leave the temperature controller set at 37 ˚C. It
takes at least 30 minutes for the controller to stabilize. This way, multiple groups can collect data
simultaneously.

Figure 7.5. The Fluke 87V can measure temperature.

6. Accuracy. Accuracy is defined as the absolute difference between the true temperature and the value
measured by your device. Accuracy is dependent on the same parameters as resolution, but in addition it is also
dependent on the stability of the transducer and the quality of the calibration procedure. Wait at least one hour
between calibration and accuracy measurements, but please use the same Fluke meter. In this section your
software will output the temperature as a fixed-point number with a 0.01 ˚C format. Collect measures in
crushed ice/water, room air, and in the temperature controller set at 37 ˚C, creating a table showing the true
temperature (xti as determined by the temperature controller), and measured temperature (x mi using your
device). Calculate average accuracy by calculating the average difference between truth and measurement,
n
1
∫ |x −x mi|
n i=1 ti
Average accuracy (with units in ˚C) =

7. Reproducibility: Place the thermistor in either crushed ice/water or in the chamber of the temperature
controller set the temperature to 37 ˚C, and record 10 independent temperature measurements. Calculate the
standard deviation of these data and report S (estimation of ) as reproducibility.

10 measurements with
Tin = T1
10 measurements with
T Tin = T1+T
pdf

A D C D igital Output

Figure 7.6. Resolution means if the temperature increases by T, the system will probably notice.

Deliverables (exact components of the lab report)

A) Objectives (1/2 page maximum)

B) Hardware Design
Circuit diagram of the thermistor and LCD interfaces

C) Software Design (a hardcopy software printout is due at the time of demonstration)

1) Calibration data (procedure 5 and the calib.h file)
2) Low level ADC interface (ADC.c and ADC.h files)
3) Main program used to measure temperature

D) Measurement Data
1) Sketch three waveforms (procedure 1)
2) Static circuit performance (procedure 2,4)
3) Dynamic circuit performance (procedure 3)
4) Accuracy (procedure 6)
5) Reproducibility (procedure 7)

E) Analysis and Discussion (1 page maximum)

Checkout (show this to the TA)

You should be able to demonstrate the proper operation of digital thermometer. We expect your accuracy to
be at least 1 ˚C and your reproducibility to be less than 0.1 ˚C. (However, since the entire class is using the
same calibration process, the TAs can adjust these expectations based on experimental conditions)

Hints

1) This is a long lab with many parts, so start early.

2) Don’t try to complete the experiment in one full swoop. Run the hardware test program given above before
testing your software. Debug the system in an analytical, step-wise manner.

3) Please do not use regular op amps that require ±12 V supplies. An advantage of the single supply op amp
with rail-to-rail outputs is that the output of your analog amplifier will remain within the 0 to +5V ADC range.

4) Circuits built with either the INA122P are very easy to implement and have much improved performance
over instrumentation amps built with three op amps.

5) The temperature controller is should be set to 37 ˚C, so all students can share, and no one has to wait.

6) I built the Therm10.xls spread sheet to handle up to 13-bit ADCs. In order to use the etbl instruction, there
is a place in the software where B=(256*(xL-x1))/(x2-x1), containing the 8-bit binary fraction of how far
between the points is the sample. The closer the points are together, the more accurate the conversion. Notice
that 53*256 > 8192. See the etbl.rtf example file created while TExaS is installed, or. I posted etbl.rtf on the lab
manual site. http://users.ece.utexas.edu/~valvano/EE345L/Labs/Fall2009/etbl.rtf. I duplicated entries at the
beginning and the end, so the search phase of the conversion always gives a solution.

7) The underlined sections identify components that must be performed and included in the lab report.
 WHAT ARE THERMISTORS ??

Thermistor, a word formed by combining thermal with resistor, refers to a device whose electrical resistance,
or ability to conduct electricity, is controlled by temperature. Thermistors come in two varieties; NTC, negative
thermal coefficient, and PTC, positive thermal coefficient, sometimes called posisitors.

The resistance of NTC thermistors decreases proportionally with increases in temperature. They are most
commonly made from the oxides of metals such as manganese, cobalt, nickel and copper. The metals are
oxidized through a chemical reaction, ground to a fine powder, then compressed and subject to very high heat.
Some NTC thermistors are crystallized from semiconducting material such as silicon and germanium.

Electrical circuitry is colder at startup than after running for a length of time. NTC thermistors are used to take
advantage of this to protect the circuitry from the surge in electrical flow that accompanies startup. Because the
resistance of NTC thermistors varies gradually with temperature, they are also used as temperature measuring
devices.

PTC thermistors have increasing resistance with increasing temperature. They are generally made by
introducing small quantities of semiconducting material into a polycrystalline ceramic. When temperature
reaches a critical point, the semiconducting material forms a barrier to the flow of electricity and resistance
climbs very quickly. Unlike the gradual changes in NTC thermistors, PTCs act more like on-off switches. The
temperature at which this occurs can be varied by adjusting the composition of the thermistor.

Another type of PTC thermistor consists of a slice of plastic with carbon grains embedded in it. When the
plastic is cool, the carbon grains are close enough to each other to form a conductive path. Plastic expands
when as it warms; at a certain temperature, it will have expanded enough to push the carbon grains apart and
break the conductive path.
 USE OF THERMISTORS IN A TEMPERATURE MONITORING SYSTEM

After time, temperature is the variable most frequently measured. The three most common types of contact
electronic temperature sensors in use today are thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), and
thermistors. This article will examine the negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor.

Photo 1. NTC thermistors are

manufactured in a variety of
sizes and configurations. The
chips in the center of the
photo can be used as surface
mount devices or attached to
different types of insulated or
uninsulated wire leads. The
thermistor element is usually
coated with a phenolic or
epoxy material that provides
protection from environmental
conditions. For applications
requiring sensing tip
dimensions with part-to-part
uniformity and/or smaller
  size, the devices can be
encapsulated in PVC cups or
polyimide tubes.

General Properties and Features

NTC thermistors offer many desirable features for temperature measurement and control within their
operating temperature range. Although the word thermistor is derived from THERMally sensitive resISTOR,
the NTC thermistor can be more accurately classified as a ceramic semiconductor. The most prevalent types of
thermistors are glass bead, disc, and chip configurations (see Photo 1), and the following discussion focuses
primarily on those technologies.

Temperature ranges and Resistance Values. NTC thermistors exhibit a decrease in electrical resistance with
increasing temperature. Depending on the materials and methods of fabrication, they are generally used in
the temperature range of -50°C to 150°C, and up to 300°C for some glass-encapsulated units. The resistance
value of a thermistor is typically referenced at 25°C (abbreviated as R25). For most applications, the R25
values are between 100 and 100 k . Other R25 values as low as 10 and as high as 40 M can be produced,
and resistance values at temperature points other than 25°C can be specified.
 Accurate and repeatable R/T Characteristic. The resistance vs. temperature (R/T) characteristic (also known
as R/T curve) of the NTC thermistor forms the "scale" that allows its use as a temperature sensor. Although this
characteristic is a nonlinear, negative exponential function, several interpolation equations are available that

very accurately describe the R/T curve [1,2,3]. The most well known is the Steinhart-Hart equation: 1/T = A +
B(lnR) + C(lnR) 3

where: T = kelvin temperature R = resistance at temperature T

Coefficients A, B, and C are derived by calibrating at three temperature points and then solving the three
simultaneous equations. The uncertainty associated with the use of the Steinhart-Hart equation is less than
±0.005°C for 50°C temperature spans within the 0°C-260°C range, so using the appropriate interpolation
equation or lookup table in conjunction with a microprocessor can eliminate the potential nonlinearity problem.

Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature. The NTC thermistor's relatively large change in resistance vs.
temperature, typically on the order of -3%/°C to -6%/°C, provides an order of magnitude greater sensitivity
or signal response than other temperature sensors such as thermocouples and RTDs. On the other hand, the less
sensitive thermocouples and RTDs are a good choice for applications requiring temperature spans >260°C
and/or operating temperatures beyond the limits for thermistors.

 
Figure 1. Over the range of -50°C to 150°C, NTC thermistors offer
a distinct advantage in sensitivity to temperature changes compared
to other temperature sensors. This graph illustrates the R/T
characteristics of some typical NTC thermistors and a platinum
 RTD.

INTERCHANGEABILITY

Another important feature of the NTC thermistor is the degree of interchangeability that can be offered at a
relatively low cost, particularly for disc and chip devices. Interchangeability describes the degree of
accuracy or tolerance to which a thermistor is specified and produced, and is normally expressed as a
temperature tolerance over a temperature range. For example, disc and chip thermistors are commonly specified
to tolerances of ±0.1°C and ±0.2°C over the temperature ranges of 0°C to 70°C and 0°C to 100°C.
Interchangeability helps the systems manufacturer or thermistor user reduce labor costs by not having to
calibrate each instrument/system with each thermistor during fabrication or while being used in the field. A
health care professional, for instance, can use a thermistor temperature probe on one patient, discard it, and
connect a new probe of the same specifications for use on another patient--without recalibration. The same
holds true for other applications requiring reusable probes.

Small Size.

The small dimensions of most bead, disc, and chip thermistors used for resistance thermometry make for a
very rapid response to temperature changes. This feature is particularly useful for temperature monitoring
and control systems requiring quick feedback.

Remote Temperature Sensing Capability.

Thermistors are well suited for sensing temperature at remote locations via long, two-wire cable because the
resistance of the long wires is insignificant compared to the relatively high resistance of the thermistor.

Ruggedness, Stability, and Reliability

As a result of improvements in technology, NTC bead, disc, and chip thermistor configurations are typically
more rugged and better able to handle mechanical and thermal shock and vibration than other temperature
sensors.

Materials and Configurations

Most NTC thermistors are made from various compositions of the metal oxides of manganese, nickel,
cobalt, copper, and/or iron. A thermistor's R/T characteristic and R25 value are determined by the particular
formulation of oxides. Over the past 10 years, better raw materials and advances in ceramics processing
technology have contributed to overall improvements in the reliability, interchangeability, and
cost-effectiveness of thermistors.
 Of the thermistors shown in Figure 2, beads, discs, and chips are the most widely used for precise
temperature measurements. Although each configuration is produced by a unique method, some general
ceramics processing techniques apply to most thermistors: formulation and preparation of the metal oxide
powders; milling and blending with a binder; forming into a "green" body; heat-treating to produce a ceramic
material; addition of electrical contacts (for discs and chips); and, for discrete components, assembly into a
usable device with wire leads and a protective coating.

Figure 2. A variety of manufacturing processes are used to make

NTC thermistors configured as beads (A), chips (B), discs (C), rods
(D), and washers (E).

Historical Note on the Thermistor

Michael Faraday (1791-1867), the British chemist and physicist,

is best known for his work in electromagnetic induction and
electrochemistry. Less familiar is his 1833 report on the
semiconducting behavior of Ag S (silver sulfide), which can be
2

considered the first recorded NTC thermistor [9].

Because the early thermistors were difficult to produce and

applications for the technology were limited, commercial
manufacture and use of thermistors did not begin until 100 years
later. During the early 1940s, Bell Telephone Laboratories
developed techniques to improve the consistency and repeatability
of the manufacturing process [10]. Some of the first commercial
thermistors were the disc type, and by today's standards, their
tolerances were quite broad. These devices were used primarily for
regulation, protection, and temperature compensation of electronic
circuits.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the expanding aerospace industry's

requirement for more accurate and stable devices led to several
improvements in the materials used to manufacture glass bead and
disc thermistors. During the 1960s and 1970s, the demand for tight-
tolerance devices in high volumes at a lower cost led to the
development of the chip thermistor [11].

As the reliability of these devices improved during the 1980s,

the use of electronic thermometers in the health care industry
increased. The rising costs of sterilization and concerns about cross-
infection among patients led to the demand for low-cost disposable
temperature probes, for which chip thermistors were well suited.
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the use of NTC thermistors has
continued to grow in the automotive, food processing, medical,
HVAC, and telecommunications markets.

Bead thermistors, which have lead wires that are embedded in the ceramic material, are made by combining
the metal oxide powders with a suitable binder to form a slurry. A small amount of slurry is applied to a pair
of platinum alloy wires held parallel in a fixture. Several beads can be spaced evenly along the wires,
depending on wire length. After the beads have been dried, the strand is fired in a furnace at 1100°C-1400°C to
initiate sintering. During sintering, the ceramic body becomes denser as the metal oxide particles bond together
and shrink down around the platinum alloy leads to form an intimate physical and electrical bond. After
sintering, the wires are cut to create individual devices. A glass coating is applied to provide strain relief to the
lead-ceramic interface and to give the device a protective hermetic seal for long-term stability. Typical glass
bead thermistors range from 0.01 in. to 0.06 in. (0.25 mm to 1.5 mm) in dia.

Disc thermistors are made by preparing the various metal oxide powders, blending them with a suitable
binder, and then compressing small amounts of the mixture in a die under several tons of pressure. The discs
are then fired at high temperatures to form solid ceramic bodies. A thick film electrode material, typically
silver, is applied to the opposite sides of the disc to provide the contacts for the attachment of lead wires. A
coating of epoxy, phenolic, or glass is applied to each device to provide protection from mechanical and
environmental stresses. Typical uncoated disc sizes range from 0.05 in. to 0.10 in. (1.3 mm to 2.5 mm) in dia.;
coated disc thermistors generally measure 0.10 in. to 0.15 in. (2.5 mm to 3.8 mm) in dia.

Chip thermistors are manufactured by tape casting, a more recent technique borrowed from the ceramic chip
capacitor and ceramic substrate industries. An oxide-binder slurry similar to that used in making bead
thermistors is poured into a fixture that allows a very tightly controlled thickness of material to be cast onto a
belt or movable carrier. The cast material is allowed to dry into a flexible ceramic tape, which is cut into
smaller sections and sintered at high temperatures into wafers 0.01 in. to 0.03 in. (0.25 mm to 0.80 mm) thick.
After a thick film electrode material is applied, the wafers are diced into chips. The chips can be used as surface
mount devices or made into discrete units by attaching leads and applying a protective coating of epoxy,
phenolic, or glass. Typical chip sizes range from 0.04 in. by 0.04 in. (1 mm by 1 mm) to 0.10 in. by 0.10 in.
(2.5 mm by 2.5 mm) in square or rectangular shapes. Coated chip thermistors commonly measure from 0.08 in.
to 0.10 in. (2.0 mm to 2.5 mm) in diameter. Very small coated chip thermistors 0.02 in. to 0.06 in. (0.5 mm to

1.5 mm) in dia. are available for applications requiring small size, fast response, tight tolerance, and
interchangeability.

Washer-shaped thermistors are essentially a variation of the disc type except for having a hole in the middle,
and are usually leadless for use as surface mount devices or as part of an assembly. Rod-shaped thermistors
are made by extruding a viscous oxide-binder mixture through a die, heat-treating it to form a ceramic material,
applying electrodes, and attaching leads. Rod thermistors are used primarily for applications requiring very high

resistance and/or high power dissipation.

Photo 2. NTC thermistors can

be attached to extension leads or
jacketed cable and assembled
into various types of housings.
The optimum materials,
dimensions, and configuration
for a probe assembly are
  determined by careful review of
the application requirements.

Comparison of Thermistor Configurations

One of the problems the thermistor industry has faced over the years is that some manufacturers have
claimed their particular style or configuration of thermistor is better than other configurations made by their
competitors, without regard to other, more pertinent factors. These thermistor "politics," more harmful than
beneficial to the industry, can confuse engineers and purchasing agents who are looking for reliable information
to help them choose the appropriate product for their application. Although some thermistor qualities or
capabilities, including interchangeability, repeatability, size, responsiveness, and stability, can either be
enhanced or limited by style or geometry, these characteristics are much more dependent on a manufacturer's
ability to understand the ceramics technology being used and to maintain control of the manufacturing process.

Glass-coated beads feature excellent long-term stability and reliability for operation at temperatures up to
300°C. Studies at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and other laboratories indicate
that some special bead-in-glass probes have measurement uncertainties and stabilities (better than ± 0.003°C for
temperatures between 0°C and 100°C) that approach those of some standard platinum resistance thermometers
[3,4,5]. The relatively small size of glass bead thermistors gives them a quick response to temperature changes,
but for some applications this small size can make the devices hard to handle during assembly and have the
effect of limiting their power dissipation. It is also more difficult and more expensive to produce glass beads
with close tolerances and interchangeability. Individual calibration and R/T characterization, resistor network
padding, or use of matched pairs are among the methods used to achieve interchangeability.
 Chip and disc thermistors are noted for their tight tolerances and interchangeability at a relatively low cost
compared to bead thermistors. These qualities are inherent in the manufacturing processes. The thermistors'
larger size permits power dissipation higher than that of beads, although at some expense of response times.
Larger size can be a disadvantage in some applications. Because of their geometry, disc thermistors normally
have larger coated diameters and higher power dissipation capabilities than chip thermistors. On the other hand,
chip thermistors typically can be produced to smaller coated diameters and are better suited for applications
requiring smaller size and faster response times. More recent designs of chip thermistors allow the production
of sizes and response times approaching those of glass beads. In some cases, chip and disc thermistors with
equivalent physical and electrical characteristics can be used in the same applications without any noticeable
difference in performance.

Thermistors, thermocouples, RTDs, and other sensors and electronic components exhibit a phenomenon
called drift, a gradual, predictable change in certain properties over time. For a thermistor, drift results in a
change in resistance from its initial value, typically after being continuously exposed to or cycled to an elevated
temperature. Thermistor drift is expressed as a percent change in resistance and/or as a change in temperature
that occurs at a given exposure temperature for a certain length of time. As the exposure temperature increases,
so do the drift and the drift rate [4,5,6].

Chip and disc thermistors with soldered leads and an epoxy or phenolic coating have potential limitations in
their maximum operating temperatures, typically 150° C for short-term exposures (1-24 hours) and 105°C
for long-term exposures (1-12 months). When subjected to environmental conditions above their recommended
maximum operating temperatures, epoxy- or phenolic-coated chips and discs can begin to exhibit an
undesirable, excessive amount of drift. When such thermistors are used at temperatures below the specified
maximum operating temperatures, drift is minimal, on the order of 0.02°C to 0.15°C after 12 months of
continuous exposure to temperatures between 25°C and 100°C, respectively. Recent advances in the techniques
used to manufacture chip and disc thermistors with a glass coating have produced devices that combine the
interchangeability advantage of chips and discs with the stability of glass beads [5,6]. For applications that
require operating temperatures up to 200°C, these new devices offer a lower cost alternative to the conventional
glass bead thermistors.

These comparisons can help determine whether a thermistor supplier is objectively evaluating an application
in terms of the appropriate thermistor, or simply promoting the configuration it manufactures. For an
example of the latter approach, see [7], where a manufacturer of disc thermistors stated that "Loose-tolerance
thermistors are usually mass-produced by tape casting," and that "These devices . . . are designed for
applications requiring neither interchangeability nor a high degree of accuracy," implying that all chip
thermistors are loose tolerance. On the contrary, millions of precision chip thermistors with superior long-term
stability are produced annually to an interchangeable tolerance of ±0.1°C, and they are available with an
interchangeability of ±0.05°C. In reality, broad-tolerance and tight-tolerance thermistors are available in each of
the three major thermistor configurations discussed above.

After determining the appropriate specifications, the engineer and purchasing agent need to evaluate which
configuration and supplier will best meet the requirements for process control, quality, on-time delivery, and
value at a reasonable price. An important part of the evaluation process is to perform some basic tests on the
design and quality of the thermistor and, wherever possible, include simulation of the actual environmental
conditions of the intended application. To achieve optimum performance, thermistors are usually mounted into
protective housings or probe assemblies (see Photo 2). For additional information on sensor assembly design,
see [8]. An informed decision can then be made as to which product and supplier will provide the best value for
the application requirement. Part II of this article will examine the ways to perform these tests.

REFERENCES

The full five-part article on Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistors can be found at the Sensors
Magazine web site..

1. J.S. Steinhart and S.R. Hart. 1968. "Calibration Curves for Thermistors," Deep Sea Research 15:497.

2. M. Sapoff et al. 1982. "The Exactness of Fit of Resistance-Temperature Data of Thermistors with Third-
Degree Polynomials," Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 5, James F.
Schooley, ed., American Institute of Physics, New York, NY:875.

3. W.R. Siwek et al. 1992. "A Precision Temperature Standard Based on the Exactness of Fit of Thermistor
Resistance-Temperature Data Using Third Degree Polynomials," Temperature, Its Measurement and Control in
Science and Industry, Vol. 6, James F. Schooley, ed., American Institute of Physics, New York, NY:491.

4. S.D. Wood et al. 1978. "An Investigation of the Stability of Thermistors," J Res of the Nat Bur of Stds:83,
247.

5. W.R. Siwek et al. 1992. "Stability of NTC Thermistors," Temperature, Its Measurements and Control in
Science and Industry, Vol. 6, James F. Schooley, ed., American Institute of Physics, New York, NY:497.

6. J.A. Wise. 1992. "Stability of Glass-Encapsulated Disc-Type Thermistors," Temperature, Its Measurement
and Control in Science and Industry, Vol. 6, James F. Schooley, ed., American Institute of Physics, New York,
NY:481.

7. C. Faller and F. Arment. Jun. 1996. "NTC Thermistor Update," Sensors:22.

8. D. McGillicuddy. Dec. 1993. "NTC Thermistor Basics and Principles of Operation," Sensors:42.

9. D. Hill and H. Tuller. 1991. "Ceramic Sensors: Theory and Practice," Ceramic Materials for Electronics, R.
Buchanan, ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, NY:272.
10. U.S. Patent No. 2,258,646, 14 Oct. 1941.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIRES

An operational amplifier with voltage gain, A, can be represented by the following symbol:

v  t  v  t 
The voltages to be amplified are and , which are the inverting (minus) and non-inverting (plus)
v  t
inputs, respectively. The amplified voltage output is out .
An ideal operational amplifier is one for which
v  t   A  v  t   v  t  
the output voltage is out
the currents at the “plus” and “minus” input terminals are absolutely zero
the voltage gain A  .
v  t
The operational amplifier is an example of a differential amplifier in that its output voltage, out , is
v  t v  t
proportional to the difference between its two input voltages,  and  . Practical operational amplifiers
approximate the behavior of ideal amplifiers fairly well over the audio frequency range.

As our first example application of operational amplifiers, consider the following circuit:

In this circuit, R and vin(t) represent the source of the input voltage to the amplifier, which might be, for
example, a microphone or some other sensor, or even another amplifier. Note that this circuit feeds the entire
output voltage back into the negative input terminal of the operational amplifier. This circuit therefore employs
maximum negative voltage feedback.
To analyze this circuit, recall that, for ideal operational amplifiers,
vout  t   A  v  t   v  t  

For our particular circuit, v is the same as vout :

v  vout
Because the ideal operational amplifier draws no current through its input terminals, (and hence develops no
voltage drop across the input resistor, R), then
v  vin
so that
vout  t   A  vin  t   vout  t  
or
 1  A  vout  t   Avin  t 
so that
A
vout  t   v  t
 A  1 in
As A  ,
vout  t   vin  t 
The fact that the output voltage follows the input voltage shows that our circuit is an example of a voltage
follower. The main desirable feature of such circuits is that they draw little current at their inputs, but can
supply hefty currents at their output terminals. If it weren’t for this advantage, we could accomplish just as
much with a piece of wire.
As a second example, consider the following circuit:

In comparison with the first circuit, not that only a fraction of the output voltage is fed back into the negative
input terminal of the operational amplifier in this circuit. Again, recall
vout  t   A  v  t   v  t  
Now, as above,
v  vin
Because the ideal operational amplifier draws no current at its input terminals, v-(t) is simply a voltage-divided
copy of vout(t):
R1
v  t   vout  t 
R1  R2
Thus,
 R1 
vout  t   A  vin  t   vout  t  
 R1  R2 
  R1 
vout  t   1  A vout  t    Avin  t 
 R1  R2 
A
vout  t   vin  t 
R1
1 A
R1  R2
1
vout  t   vin  t 
R1
R1  R2
 R 
vout  t   1  2  vin  t 
 R1 
Because the input and output voltages have the same sign (move up and down together), this amplifier is called
a non-inverting amplifier. The voltage gain, G, of this amplifier is:

R2
G 1 
R1

Note that we can use an operational amplifier to realize an amplifier of any gain we wish simply by adjusting
the ratio of a couple of resistors external to the IC operational amplifier chip. The significance of this result is
as an example of how an operational amplifier chip, which includes the overwhelming majority of the circuit
components (approaching, perhaps, 100) in the total circuit, can be mass produced at a very low cost and then
customized for a specific purpose (realizing an amplifier with a particular gain, in this case) by the addition of a
few external components. When the application of operational amplifiers was limited (in so-called analog
computers) mainly to synthesizing integrators, their cost was several hundred dollars, each. Now, because we
realize their versatility and employ them in many diverse applications, demand is large enough to drive the
price for some common types below one dollar.
Operational amplifiers are, indeed, wonderful devices. We should note, however, that available operational
amplifiers handle mainly low power, audio frequency, signals. At high frequencies and high powers, amplifiers
that use several individual transistors reign.
As our third example, consider the following circuit:

As A  , analysis shows that

R
vout   F vin
R  R1
Because the output and input voltages for this amplifier have opposite signs, this amplifier is called an inverting
amplifier. The gain, G, of the circuit is
 RF
G
R  R1
Once again, we can realize any reasonable gain by choosing suitable values for the resistors in the circuit.
As our fourth example, consider:

This circuit is an inverting amplifier with two input voltages. As A  , analysis shows

R R 
vout    F v1  F v2 
 R1 R2 

This configuration, therefore, is an inverting summing amplifier: its output is a linear combination of the two
inputs, v1 and v2. (Summing amplifiers are not easily made with the non-inverting amplifier configuration. The
“virtual ground” at the “minus” terminal of the inverting configuration turns out to be essential for the summing
process.) These results are easily generalized to include inverting amplifiers with three or more inputs. An
interesting application of such a multiple-input summing amplifier is in mixing audio signals from microphones
used by, for example, a mixed group of vocalists and instrumentalists. The individual voices or instruments can
be emphasized or de-emphasized by adjusting the individual resistors, R1 and R2, In practical audio mixers,
these resistors take the form of “pots” (potentiometers), resistors whose value can be varied by turning their
knobs. Once the individual resistors have been adjusted to give the appropriate audio mix, the resistor, RF,
serves as a master control to adjust the overall sound level.
As our final example, consider the following operational amplifier circuit:

vout  0   0
If the capacitor is initially discharged so that , then analysis shows that
 1 t
vout  t     v    d
 R  R1  C 0 in
For this circuit, the output voltage clearly is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. As a consequence,
this circuit is called an integrator. Such circuits formed the basis of analog computers. During the 1940’s and
1950’s, such computers were engineers’ main tools for solving the coupled sets of differential equations that
described complicated engineering systems. Ultimately, digital computers replaced analog computers because
digital computers offer much more accuracy and flexibility. During World War II, however, all of the newly
sophisticated control systems for guns, radar and aircraft were designed with analog computers.