Direct RF conversion:

From vision to reality

Tommy Neu
System Engineer
Texas Instruments
An emerging class of high-performance RF-sampling data
converters sets out to finally deliver on the promise of
true software-defined radio (SDR).
Receiver system designers are seeing a change from the widely adopted heterodyne
architecture to a direct RF-sampling approach. In the traditional receiver, the designer
selects the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) based on key specifications, such as signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR) and spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR). In a direct RF-sampling
receiver, designers focus instead on how the RF ADC impacts the receiver system noise
figure (NF). A key concern is its performance in a blocking environment for which the
heterodyne architecture has been optimized for many years.

This paper explains the differences between a traditional heterodyne receiver and
the modern RF-sampling data converter. It then compares some key design aspects,
particularly for the complete signal chain line-up.

In a direct RF-sampling architecture, the data Receiver chain components

converter digitizes a large chunk of frequency
In a heterodyne receiver, the input signal, which
spectrum directly at RF and hands it off to a signal
resides at an RF frequency, is down-converted to a
processor to dissect the available information. This
lower intermediate frequency (IF). It is then digitized
is a paradigm shift that takes what has traditionally
prior to digital filtering and demodulation. Depending
been handled by analog processing (mixers, local
on the application, the input signal can range from
oscillators and their attendant filters and amplifiers)
~700 MHz to several GHz, while IF typically ranges
into the digital domain.
from about zero to 500 MHz.
A new class of direct RF-sampling ADCs is being
Figure 1 shows a classic heterodyne receiver block
designed in advanced CMOS processes that allow
diagram. It consists of bandpass filters (BPFs), a low-
much higher conversion rates with lower power than
noise amplifier (LNA), mixer and local oscillator (LO),
some previous generations. Furthermore, this design
an IF amplifier, and ADC anti-aliasing filter (AAF). In
approach also enables more digital integration,
a direct-conversion receiver, the RF-sampling ADC
which is used for a low-power, multi-gigabit serial
replaces the signal chain from the mixer, which
interface and on-chip digital-down conversion
greatly simplifies the overall receiver design.
(DDC). Combined, they make for a very size- and
power-efficient digital interconnect between the data
converter and digital processor. Antenna
1 2 3 4 6 7 8
BPF LNA BPF Mixer IF Amplifier BPF ADC
Figure 1. Traditional heterodyne
architecture versus an RF-sampling ADC

FIN = 0.7-6GHz LO 5 FIN = 0-500MHz

RF ADC

Direct RF conversion: From Vision to Reality 2 May 2015

1. First bandpass filter the ADC’s capacitive load. In many cases, this stage has
The first RF BPF is typically a wideband, low-loss, pre- multiple gain steps that are digitally controlled to provide
select filter, providing most of the out-of-band rejection. an automated gain control loop, which enhances the
It prevents signals that are far from the actual passband system’s dynamic range.
from saturating the analog front end (AFE). 7. Anti-aliasing filter
2. Low-noise amplifier The AAF limits noise and distortion contribution from
This front-end RF amplifier increases the amplitude the IF amplifier. More importantly, however, it filters the
of weak signals. The lower its noise figure, the less it ADC’s alias bands. This filter may need a sharp rolloff. The
degrades the overall noise figure of the receiver based on implementation is more feasible at IF than RF because
the cascaded noise figure equation. the ratio of alias frequency to the desired signal is larger.
3. Second bandpass filter Thus, aliasing frequencies are further away from the filter
The second RF filter is a narrow-band filter prior to the mixer cut-off frequency.
– typically a surface acoustic wave (SAW) type. It suppresses 8. Analog-to-digital converter
nearby out-of-band interferers at the mixer image locations The ADC digitizes the input signal. It needs a fast sampling
(m*LO ±n*RF) that would fall into the IF passband. rate to allow room for filter rolloffs – typically at least
4. Mixer three to five times the signal bandwidth. Its SNR needs to
The mixer translates the RF signal to IF frequencies. The RF be good to ensure minimal impact on the receiver noise
and LO signals mix to produce a difference frequency known figure. SFDR also needs to be sufficient so that spurs
as IF frequency (fIF = |fRF – fLO|). Undesired spurs and images caused by in-band and out-of-band interferers do not
(for example, a half IF) need to be filtered out either before or dominate the noise budget.
after the mixer stage. It also can be used to convert the single-
ended input signal to a differential signal for the ADC. System design considerations
5. Local oscillator When evaluating a transition from an IF-sampling-
The LO is tuned to the desired frequency spacing above based to a direct-RF-sampling-based receiver
or below the RF signal and is injected into the mixer. In design, one must examine the overall impact to
a direct RF-sampling system, the LO essentially turns the receiver sensitivity, as well as performance in
into the ADC’s sampling clock. However, similar to the a blocking condition. Since the RF-sampling ADC
IF-sampling converter, the RF ADC clock also requires very
replaces the signal chain from the mixer onward,
good phase noise.
the comparisons provided are focused at the mixer
6. Intermediate frequency amplifier input, assuming the same analog front end for both
The IF amplifier adds gain to the input signal by reducing designs. The parameters also can be calculated
the ADC’s impact to the receiver noise figure.
for the antenna input for a given LNA in the same
Additionally, it compensates for the bandpass filter’s gain
fashion using the respective gains and losses of the
loss (attenuation). It can also be used as a buffer to drive
amplifier and filters.
NF/Sensitivity
Antenna SFDR with Blocker

BPF LNA BPF Mixer IF Amplifier AAF/BPF ADC

LO
Front End
RF ADC

Figure 2. Performance comparison between heterodyne and direct RF-sampling receivers

Direct RF conversion: From Vision to Reality 3 May 2015

 F
F NF= =1010
= 10 10 log( F )
G [dB ]
G [dB ]
G = 10 10
G = 10 10

NFADC = PFULLSCAE [dBm] kTB NSDADC =

Receiver sensitivity The noise figure (dB) then calculates to
NF =[dBm
PFULLSCAE + 174F
10 ]log( ) FS
Receiver sensitivity is a measure of how well it NF = 10 log( F )dBm3 SNRADC 10 log 2
can recover and process very small input signals.
Calculating the ADC’s noise figure is a little more
Weak input signals cannot be demodulated if the
involved:
receiver noise within the demodulated bandwidth is
NFADC = PFULLSCAE [dBm] kTB NSDADC =
larger than the received signal itself. Oftentimes the
NFADC = PFULLSCAE [dBm] kTB NSDADC =
FS
transmitter and receiver are completely independent. PFULLSCAE [dBm] + 174dBm SNRADC 10 log
FS2
Thus, raising the desired signal amplitude above the PFULLSCAE [dBm] + 174dBm SNRADC 102 log 2
PFULLSCAE [dBm] = 10 log 1000
(Vpp) 4
noise floor is not always possible (for example, a 8 Z IN
radar receiver). The only option to improve receiver
Using these formulas, the equivalent noise figure can
sensitivity is to reduce its noise floor or, in other
be calculated for modern day IF-sampling and
words, improve its noise figure.
RF-sampling ADCs. Examples include the ADS4149
and ADC12J4000, respectively.
(Vpp)2
PFULLSCAE [dBm] = 10 log 1000
Receiver Noise
Floor PFULLSCAE [dBm] = 10 log 1000
(Vpp
8 Z )2IN
IF-sampling ADC RF-sampling ADC
Wanted Signal
Parameter 8 Z IN
ADS4149 ADC12J4000
Sampling rate (FS) 250 MSPS 4 GSPS
Input fullscale (Vpp) 2 Vpp 0.8 Vpp
Signal-to-noise ratio 71.9 dB 55 dB
Input impedance (ZIN) 200 Ω (external) 100 Ω (internal)
Calculated noise figure 25.1 dB 25 dB
Figure 3. Small wanted signal in sensitivity case

On paper, the noise figures for both ADCs are

The cascaded noise figure at the input of the mixer
nearly identical. However, the IF-sampling-based
can be calculated, as shown in Figure 4 and
approach has additional gain from the mixer and
equations (1-2):
the IF amplifier (minus the loss of the BPF), which
substantially reduces the impact of the ADC noise
Mixer IF Amplifier AAF/BPF ADC
figure to the receiver sensitivity. Therefore, the
RF-sampling ADC requires additional front-end gain
(additional LNA) that is approximately equivalent to
NF MIX NF AMP NF BPF NF ADC
GMIX + GAMP + GBPF. This should achieve a total noise
G MIX G AMP G BPF G ADC
figure that is similar to the IF ADC-based option.
Figure 4. Cascaded signal chain line up
Blocker environment
Noise figure (linear)
FAMP 1 FBPF 1 FADC 1 In the sensitivity condition, the receiver operates at
F = FMIX + + +
F 1 FBPFG 1 G F G 1 G
+ AMP GMIX 1 GBPF
maximum gain. In the presence of a strong blocker/
F = FMIX + MIX + AMP ADC MIX AMP
GMIX GMIX GAMP GMIX GAMP GBPF interferer, the gain needs to be reduced in order
to avoid saturation of the input (desensitization).
Using
Therefore, the receiver noise figure will be much
NF [NF [ ]
dB ] dB
larger, which impacts the minimum signal that can
FF==
1010 10 10
2
G [dB
G] dB
[ ] be recovered in a blocking condition.
GG==
1010 10
10

Direct RF conversion: From Vision to Reality 4 May 2015

In addition to the impact on the noise figure, the • High-order harmonics set a spur floor that cannot be
interferer itself can generate several different noise planned around and needs to be taken into consideration.
impairments that can overlap with the wanted signal. • The phase noise of the sampling clock (jitter) also mixes
This interferer needs to be considered when doing with the interferer. It scales with 20*log(FS/FIN), so the
the noise budget analysis and designing the overall higher the input frequency range (IF) with a fixed ADC
filter profile (Figure 5). sampling rate, the larger its impact on the noise budget.
Interferer
ADC High Order • The RF-sampling ADC may achieve its fast clock rate using
Wanted Signal Harmonics

HD 3 of
Mixing Image HD 2 of
Interferer interleaving techniques. In this case, the interleaving spurs
Interferer LO and Clock
Phase Noise
need to be considered for the noise analysis with in-band
RX Chain
Noise Floor
blockers, but also for the filter design for out-of-band
interferers.

Filter design analysis

FS/2
IF sampling solution
Figure 5. Different noise impairments due to interferer (illustrated
with single-tone interferer)
As can be seen from the previous section, the out-
of-band blocker scenario requires well-thought-out
Mixer filtering. The following example further illustrates this:
The images from the mixer at m*LO ±n* RF can fall
A 250-MSPS ADC digitizes a 60-MHz wideband
into a band of interest that requires adequate filtering
filter located at 2.3 GHz. Next, a mixer with a
at RF. This ensures that an out-of-band blocker at
2112.5-MHz LO down converts the band to a high
the image locations does not generate a mixing
IF of 187.5 MHz.
product in-band. Furthermore, the phase noise of
the LO itself also gets mixed with the RF signal Input Signal
10
FSADC
IF Band Mixer Image
LO
RF Band Mixer ½ IF Spurs

(interferer). This increases the noise power with Mixer Image 9

ADC Alias Bands @ RF
ADC Alias
ADC Alias 8
in-band blockers, increasing the amount of
Bands

noise leaking from the blocker into the wanted 6

carrier bandwidth. 5 ADC non-HD 2,3

Spur Floor
Mixer 1/2 IF4
Amplifier ADC HD 2 3
ADC HD 2,3 @ RF

The IF gain amplifier generates HD2 and HD3 ADC HD 3 2

ADC non HD 2,31

products from the strong interferer, which can fall
0

in-band of the signal band of interest. Typically, 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Frequency (MHz )

these low-order harmonics are either frequency

Figure 6. Filter mask showing frequency band locations from
planned out by choosing an appropriate IF frequency, or different impairment sources – heterodyne receiver

attenuated by the following bandpass filter.

The actual amount of filter attenuation needed
Analog-to-digital converter
depends on out-of-band blocker power, as well as
Several impairments come from the data converter: the mixer’s spur level performance, IF amplifier and
• Similar to the IF amplifier, the ADC generates strong low- ADC. However, spur locations can be calculated
order harmonics (HD2 and HD3) from the blocker. The IF regardless of power levels.
frequency can be chosen so that these harmonics alias
out-of-band for an in-band blocker. For an out-of-band
blocker, adequate external filtering should be provided.
Direct RF conversion: From Vision to Reality 5 May 2015
The RF band centered at 2.3 GHz is down- 10
Input Signal
FS/2 FSADC

ADC Alias RF Band

converted to a high IF of 187.5 MHz (centered 9

ADC non-HD 2,3
ADC HD 2
Spur Floor Interleaving
ADC Alias8
in the middle of the ADC Nyquist zone).
Spurs
ADC HD 3
7

It is important to design the combined IF+RF 6

ADC Interleaving
5
filter response to provide sufficient attenuation Spurs

4
at the mixer image and alias locations. This ADCH HD 2 3

is because any out-of-band blocker at these ADCH HD 3 2

frequencies directly falls into the IF band 1

ADC non HD 2,3

0
location. It is difficult to design a RF filter with 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Frequency (MHz )

very sharp rolloff for very close-in images and

alias band locations. Therefore, the filter attenuation Figure 7. Filter mask shows frequency band location from different
impairment sources, such as a direct RF-sampling receiver
can be split between the RF and IF bandpass filter.

Additionally, the out-of-band blocker (after down- When designing the filter mask for the direct RF-
conversion) also generates an HD2 and HD3 sampling receiver, the following components should
component that can fall in-band. These interferer be considered.
HD2,3 alias locations also require filter attenuation,
ADC alias
commonly at IF, as they are fairly close to the IF band
of interest. Every ADC has alias frequency bands in the adjacent
Nyquist zones. The interferer in the alias band folds
Since the mixer image and ADC alias are down-
directly into the band of interest during the sampling
converted without any attenuation by the mixer
instant. The ADC sampling rate should be chosen
and ADC, the external filters need to provide all
to ensure there is enough space at the edge of the
the attenuation to meet the SFDR requirement.
On the other hand, the ADC and mixer also create Nyquist zone to allow for filter rolloff (similar to IF-

harmonics and spurs with some attenuation, thus, sampling ADCs).

requiring less external filter attenuation. This is Interleaving spurs

illustrated in Figure 6. The mixer image and ADC
Most RF-sampling ADCs are interleaved to achieve a
alias bars are larger (requiring larger attenuation),
fast sampling rate – the ADC12J4000 is interleaved
while the bars of the ADC and mixer spurs are
four times, producing three interleaving spurs (FS/2 -
smaller (requiring less attenuation).
FIN, FS/4 ± FIN). The interleaving spur performance of
Direct RF-sampling solution modern RF-sampling ADCs meets the requirements
Overall filter mask requirements change with direct- of many applications already, and no special filtering
RF-sampling. Since no mixer is involved, there are may be required.
no mixing images to worry about, nor LO spurs. As the RF bands are increasing in bandwidth,
Furthermore, the RF ADC typically operates at a the interleaving spur bands increase by the same
much faster sampling rate than the IF-sampling amount as well. This quickly closes the gap in
ADC. Thus, the ADC alias frequency bands can between. Hence, frequency planning around the
be spaced much further away from the RF band interleaving spurs for a specific input frequency
of interest with proper sampling frequency choice. range may require more flexibility on the sampling
However, flexibility in RF-ADC clock frequency may
clock frequency.
not always be available.

Direct RF conversion: From Vision to Reality 6 May 2015

ADC HD2,3 clock frequency is necessary when the RF band
Out-of-band blockers get sampled by the ADC and approaches the edge of the Nyquist zone or the
create HD2 and HD3 spurs during the sampling interleaving spur locations.
instant. These spurs can then fall into the wanted Alternatively, the heterodyne receiver requires more
RF band or one of its aliases, thus, requiring filtering. stop-band attenuation close to the band of interest.
The HD2 and HD3 markers in Figure 7 indicate the Now the attenuation can be weighted towards the
frequency location of such an out-of-band blocker anti-alias bandpass filter for the IF frequencies.
whose HD2 and HD3 alias into the wanted RF band.

ADC non-HD2,3
In-band blocker

Based on the maximum out-of-band blocker power, The receiver performance in the presence of a
the high-order harmonic spurious performance of strong, in-band interferer is independent of the filter
the RF ADC determines the minimum broadband mask, but is primarily limited by the active receiver
filter mask. components (mixer, IF amplifier and ADC). With
some frequency planning, the low-order harmonics
Similar to the heterodyne receiver, the ADC alias
HD2, HD3, and even the interleaving spurs, may
bands require the full amount of filter rejection. This
be avoided. However, the spur floor from the higher
is because a blocker in that band directly falls on top
order harmonics will always be present.
of the wanted band during the sampling process.
Meanwhile, the remaining ADC spurious products Some systems – like multi-carrier (MC) GSM that
all have inherent attenuation, which require far less have very strong, narrowband blocker requirements

attenuation (Figure 7). and demand 16-bit, IF-sampling ADCs with typical

Filter comparison IF-sampling ADC RF-sampling ADC

Parameter
ADS4149 ADC12J4000
The filter masks for IF- and RF-sampling-based
Sampling
250 MSPS 4 GSPS
signal chains can be superimposed to observe the rate (FS)

differences. At first glance, the close-in filter design HD2 (typ) 84 dBc (@ FIN = 170 MHz) 79 dBc (@ FIN = 2400 MHz)
HD3 (typ) 82 dBc (@ FIN = 170 MHz) 76 dBc (@ FIN = 2400 MHz)
for the RF-sampling receiver appears more relaxed,
Interleaving
as there are fewer critical spur locations close by n/a 57 dBc (@ FIN = 2400 MHz)
spur (typ)
and fewer bands requiring the full filter rejection Non-HD2,
88 dBc (@ FIN = 170 MHz) 75 dBc (@ FIN = 2400 MHz)
3 (typ)
amount. However, a flexible RF-ADC-sampling
FSADC FS/2 LO FSADC
10
Input Signal
ADC Alias Mixer Image RF Band ADC Alias Bands
Mixer Image9
Interleaving
ADC Alias Bands8 Spurs

7
Mixer ½ IF Spurs
6

ADC Interleaving Spurs5

Mixer ½ IF Spurs
4

ADCH HD 2 3

ADCH HD 3 2

ADC non HD 2,3

1

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Frequency (MHz )

Figure 8. Filter mask comparison between heterodyne and direct RF-sampling receiver

Direct RF conversion: From Vision to Reality 7 May 2015

non-HD2,3 spur levels of 100 dB – are still out of Texas Instruments is continuing to push the limits of
reach for current-generation RF ADCs. However, technology with our next generation of RF-sampling
some wideband systems, such as LTE, are ADCs, which will deliver enhanced AC performance,
becoming feasible. among other advancements. These products will
enable the direct RF-sampling architecture to finally
Summary deliver on the promise of software-defined radio and
Most system designers are eager to examine the become the preferred approach of radio designers.
viability of RF sampling-based systems to meet the
ongoing demand for smaller radio form factors.
RF-sampling ADCs provide a higher level of References
integration, because they reduce both active signal
1. ADC12J4000 datasheet
chain components and supporting elements, such
www.ti.com/adc12j4000
as different power rails and control signals.
2. All high-speed data converters
As the communications industry moves towards
3. TI E2E™ high-speed data converter forum
multi-band radios, the direct RF-sampling
architecture is gaining even more support, because 4. Robert Keller, SIGNAL CHAIN BASICS #40:
it enables the transition from one heterodyne receiver Frequency planning with high-speed ADCs to
per band to one RF-sampling ADC per radio. improve in-band system SFDR, Planet Analog,
April 5, 2010
Furthermore, the power-efficient, on-chip decimation
filters of GSPS RF-sampling ADCs make the Robert Keller, Signal Chain Basics (Part 97)
digital output interface look more like that of the Faster is better: GSPS ADCs Enable wide
IF-sampling data converter – and are no longer a bandwidth RF digitizers, Planet Analog,
barrier for multi-channel receivers. Plus, the external January 28, 2015
filter requirement for RF-sampling ADCs doesn’t 5. Robert Keller, Signal Chain Basics #90:
appear to be tougher than those for IF-sampling- Calculating harmonic distortion frequencies in
based systems. high-speed data converters, Planet Analog,
Advanced CMOS direct-RF-sampling ADCs, like the July 3, 2014
ADC12J4000, are being adopted in a wide range 6. Tommy Neu, A new leap towards true
of designs and applications. This is because they software-defined radio, Antenna Systems and
reduce the overall receiver signal chain while the fast Technology, January 12, 2015
sampling rate gives plenty of space for frequency
planning. Additionally, the technology enables very
wide-bandwidth signals to be captured directly at RF.

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