Ball Mills Training Manual: Dirección Técnica

BALL MILLS
DIRECCIÓN TÉCNICA TRAINING MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
Grinding means the reducing of materials to dust (powder). The object of

grinding is to increase the specific are of said materials, always according to the
established granulometric distribution. This concept extends to obtaining an
adequate reactivity for the following stage of the cement production process, or an
appropriate reactivity in the finished product (cement).
Usually, grinding is carried out in ball mils, which is the

equipment most often used in the grinding processes of the cement
industry, such as: raw meal and cement grinding; but they are also
commonly applied to grinding carbon or coke, which can later be
used a6.2.1.1 WET PROCESS GRINDING
There are two types of processes in plants that still use the wet grinding
process.
6.2.1.1.1 OPEN CIRCUIT

In order to maintain the fineness specifications of the product, there is often
over-grinding of the material in open circuit mills. This consumes more energy and
causes greater wear on the mill linings and the grinding bodies.
Because of these disadvantages, it should only be used when closed circuit

grinding is impossible.
6.2.1.1.2 CLOSED CIRCUIT

Installing sieves (DSM, curved, etc.) at the mill discharge helps prevent over-
grinding in open circuits and improve performance. The material that does not meet
the fineness requirements is returned to the mill. Closed circuit grinding has
achieved the following:
x 20 to 30% increase in grinding capacity with the same size mill.

x Lower specific consumption of the main motor.
x Less wear on the grinding bodies, measured in gr/ton product.
x Improved product quality control.
In order to diminish wear, some mills are being equipped with a rubber lining
in the second compartment.
6.2.1.2 DRY PROCESS GRINDING
Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Version: 1.0 Revised by: EDP 1/102
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Since the cost of energy used in cement production has risen, alternatives
have been sought to lower production costs.
At present, the new production lines have dry-process kilns and closed circuit
mills when grinding cement with a fineness over 3,200-3,300 Blaine. In special
cases, fast-hardening cements can be produced with up to 5,000 Blaine. In raw
meals the requirements are 85-95% through 90 microns. Open circuits are scarcely
used in cement grinding, except when the fineness requirements range from 2,600
to 3,200 Blaine.
6.2.1.2.1 OPEN CIRCUIT

As mentioned above, this type of circuit is used to produce cements with low
resistance and fineness. When raw meal is produced, the length of an open circuit
mill is generally longer than in a closed circuit because in the latter, around half of
the material leaving the mill has the required fineness and the remaining portion is
returned by the separator to the mill for re-grinding. An open circuit mill has greater
length in order to finish grinding the material to the desired fineness. Generally, the
wear in gr/ton for open circuit mills is greater due to the longer mill length and
heavier ball loads.
As to the product, the particle distribution of the cement and raw meals
produced in open circuits has a wider distribution range that those produced in
closed circuits. When producing fine cements (over 3,200 Blaine), the open circuit
mills often generate a larger quantity of fine particles (less than 3 microns) that do
not contribute to cement resistance, but they do have a negative effect on production
by adding particles and covering the ball.
Often, the cement that is ground in open circuit mills must reach a higher
specific surface than the cement ground in a closed circuit mill for the same final
resistance.
The following figure shows both types of grinding circuits.

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Fresh End
Feed Product
Mill
OPEN CIRCUIT
Separator End
Rejects Product
Fresh
Feed
Mill
CLOSED CIRCUIT
Figure 6.9 Open circuit and closed circuit grinding systems.
6.2.1.2.2 CLOSED CIRCUIT

In a long open circuit mill, a large part of the material reaches the desired
fineness after a few meters inside the mill. The material continues to be exposed to
the grinding body action in the remainder of the mill. This hinders grinding efficiency
because of material agglomeration, damping due to covered balls and grinding
damping caused by the fine material.
Because the mill is shorter in a closed circuit, the material passes through it
more rapidly. This reduces the risk of the problems described above and the
probability of gypsum dehydration.
When the cement produced has values below 3,200 Blaine, the closed circuit
mills have the same and even higher energy consumption. The specific energy
consumption in an open circuit (which only includes the motor) is equal to or less
than the power consumed by the main motor, the bucket elevator and the mill
separator in a closed circuit.
Closed circuit grinding can be more easily controlled. The separator quickly
can change the particle fineness and distribution of the product. This is why closed
circuit grinding can produce cements with different features such as: resistance,
manageability and consistency, among others. Raw meal can be ground with the

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same retention in the control mesh, but the product will have a lower retention at 145
microns.
6.2.2 NUMBER OF CHAMBERS

6.2.2.1 SINGLE CHAMBER MILLS
In raw meal production, a large part of the raw materials have moisture
contents ranging from 3% to 8%, and in some cases even higher. It is necessary to
use hot gases to dry the material before and during the grinding process so it can be
truly effective. Single chamber mills usually maintain a low pressure drop even in
cases in which large flows of gases or air are handled. To insure a proper ball
distribution within the mill, the chamber section used for fine grinding is equipped
with classifying plating once the intermediate diaphragm has been eliminated.
Figure 6.10 illustrates a single-chamber mill.
Figure 6.10 Single-chamber mill with classifying plating.
Single chamber mills are used little in cement grinding. The Barrientos plant
has a KVS single-chamber mill in operation for cement grinding.
Operating these mills has its disadvantages. Precautions must be taken

when there is increased moisture in the feeding or when there is an insufficient
supply of hot air if they are used for raw meal grinding because an excess of
humidity causes reduced coarse material grinding. These coarse materials cannot
be ground when they pass to the fine ball section, and when this happens, the mill is
forced to work a long time with little or no production until the material is broken
down. Furthermore, there is a risk of reversible segregation of the ball, in other
words, the large ball is found at the mill outlet and the fine ball in the initial part.
6.2.2.2 TWO-CHAMBER MILLS

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Subdividing mills into two compartments by means of a diaphragm allows for

harder, coarser material feeding than single chamber mills. Material reduction by
impact is carried out mainly in the first chamber. Lift plating and large balls (50 to 90
mm) are found in this compartment. It is here that the material is commonly reduced
to a maximum size of 5% of the retained material by 15-20 mm to a new size of 2
mm. This chamber diaphragm has a great influence in retention time and in
granulometry that passes to the second chamber. In the second chamber the
material reduction by attrition is mainly performed using small balls (40-15 mm) . In
this chamber, classifying shielding is used, and in other cases, lift shielding,
depending on the maximum ball size used. Figure 6.11 shows a two-chamber mill.
Figure 6.11 Two-chamber mill.
The advantages of two-chamber mills include dividing the ball sizes into two
different chambers, little restriction to the flow of gases, and water can be injected
into either of the two chambers. It is used for raw meal grinding when the feed
granulometry is very coarse or inconsistent, the diaphragm does not allow the larger
pieces to pass into the fine grinding section. This type of mill is the most used for
cement grinding because of the advantages it offers.
6.2.2.2 THREE-CHAMBER MILLS

To improve grinding efficiency, mills with 3 or more chambers are used. This
insures optimal ball size in accordance with the granulometry of the material inside
each chamber. The disadvantage is present in the system’s pressure drop. Each
diaphragm restricts gas from passing through the mill thereby causing greater
energy consumption in the sweep fan.

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This type of mill is generally used with an open system producing very fine
cements. Figure 6.12 shows a three-chamber mill. They are not used for raw meal
grinding because of the strong pressure drop.
Figure 6.12 Three-chamber mill.
6.2.3 PRODUCT DISCHARGE POSITION

6.2.3.1 CENTRAL DISCHARGE
The majority of the raw materials used in cement production have a moisture
content ranging from 2% to 8%, and in some cases up to 15%. It is necessary to dry
this material before grinding. This requires a large amount of hot gases for drying
and a small pressure drop in the system. The reduced pressure drop found in
single chamber systems and the highly efficient grinding attained in two-chamber
mills can be found in mills with central discharge.
In cement grinding, the fresh material is introduced into the coarse grinding
compartment. For raw material grinding, the material is fed directly into a drying
chamber before passing into the coarse grinding compartment. After this grinding,
the material is discharged through holes found in the shell periphery and is fed into
the separator by means of an airslide and an elevator. The particles rejected by the
separator are fed into the fine grinding chamber and the fine material is captured by
cyclones or dust collectors. The material discharged from the fine grinding chamber
is also fed into the separator. The ball loads in each compartment are the same as
those in a mill with end discharge. Figure 6.13 shows a central discharge mill.

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Figure 6.13 Central discharge mill.
Vent air can be adjusted according to the requirements of each chamber. In

cases in which there are problems with drying additives, such as puzzolan or slag, a
larger flow may be adjusted in the coarse grinding chamber. Gypsum can be fed
into the fine grinding chamber where there is a smaller flow of gases, thus
preventing the risk of dehydration.
6.2.3.1 END DISCHARGE

As the name indicates, the material is discharged at the end opposite the
feeding one. The majority of the mills built today have this type of discharge due to
the ease of mechanical construction. The separator, elevator and slider used have
lower capacity than those used in a central discharge system.
6.2.4 PRODUCT DISCHARGE METHOD

The first mills used were low capacity systems (between 5 and 10 tph) and
they produced relatively coarse cements and raw meals. The material was fed,
ground and discharged after a period of time. This type of process was known as
batchwise or discontinuous grinding. As the capacities increased, the need for
continuous grinding became imperative. The mills were equipped with feeding
devices and they discharged the material at the ends, thus making the process a
continuous one.
6.2.4.1 OVERFLOW DISCHARGE

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This type of mills are used to grind raw meals with low moisture percentages
and the majority of the cements, taking advantage of the material’s slow passage.
Material discharge in these mills is carried out solely be mechanical means. The
ground material flows because of the pressure exerted by the fresh feed. The final
end of the mill is equipped with plates that let the material through, holding back only
the grinding bodies. Additionally, the majority have plates radially located to help the
material flow.
A given amount of air is forced in this type of mills for several purposes:
x Dedusting the mill inside, thus removing the fine material.
x Cooling the material and helping to remove the steam generated by the
cooling water or raw material evaporation.
The normal air flow operation speed within the mil are around 0.8 to 1.2
m/sec, handling 10% of the material in the air flow.
6.2.4.2 SEMI-SWEPT BY AIR

These mills are often used to dry wet materials. These mills feature using hot
gases inside the mill to remove the humidity given off by the material. Because
gypsum is easily dehydrated, these mills are not used in cement grinding.
Furthermore, the speeds used do not favor the material standing time needed to
create the specific surfaces which determine cement’s early resistance.
The normal air flow operation speeds in the mill are around 1.8 to 2.5 m/sec,
handling 40% of the material by the mill draft. These mills have an outlet diaphragm
and classifying plating.
6.2.4.3 AIR SWEPT

Unlike the types of mills previously mentioned, these do not have an elevator
to convey the material. That is, 100% of the material is pneumatically conveyed out
of the mill. The typical operation speeds inside the mill are 3 to 4 m/sec. See figure
6.14.
This type of mill is used when a high percentage of humidity must be dried
and the materials to grind are not very abrasive (coal and low-silica raw meal). They
usually have lift plating in the first section and classifying plating in the second.
There are no diaphragms or elevators within which causes only the material on the
surface to be dragged through the draft.

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Figure 6.14 Air-swept mill.
6.3 MILL ARRANGEMENTS

There are innumerable different arrangements in grinding systems, all of
which have different purposes for the process. The advantages and disadvantages
of the most important arrangements will be presented in this section.
6.3.1 RAW MEAL MILLS

The different types of arrangements found in raw meal mills are used for
material drying. Details are provided in section 4.2 of the chapter on Drying
Systems.
6.3.2 CEMENT MILLS

The arrangements used in cement grinding have two purposes: to obtain the
system’s lowest electrical energy consumption and to optimize particle distribution
for maximum cement resistance.
6.3.2.1 MATERIAL FLOW

x Fresh feeding to the mill.
The majority of the existing arrangements feed the fresh material to the mill by
means of a conveyor belt. The material is deposited on the belt as follows: first, the
gypsum, then puzzolan and over that, clinker. This is done so as not to damage the
belt when handling very hot clinker.
x Fresh feed to the separator.

In this arrangement, one or all the “fresh” or new material components are fed
into the separator by means of the elevator that conveys the material discharged by
the mill or directly by means of a belt. This type of arrangement is widely used when
one of the components, such as puzzolan, contains a considerable amount of
material with the desired product fineness.

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x Static separator discharge.

In air-swept or semi-swept mills, an adjustable static separator is used to
relieve the dust load to the collector. When the material dragged by the air flow has
the desired fineness, it can be sent as a finished product. In those cases in which
the material in the air flow has coarse particles, the static separator is adjusted so
that most of the material that leaves with the air current contains the required
fineness. The material captured by the static separator is fed into the dynamic
separator to separate the fine particles that may have been captured.
Figure 6.15 Possible arrangement of a grinding system in terms of the material

captured by the collectors.
x Discharge of the mil sep collector.

Normally, the mill arrangements have two separate collectors, one of which is
used to capture the dust dragged through the mill draft. The material that travels in
the air flow contains different degrees of fineness depending on the speed of the
gases. These conditions are decisive for deciding if the material caught by the
collector is to be sent to the final product or to the dynamic separator to be
classified. The speed parameter in the mill depends greatly on the amount of
humidity to be removed and the passing speed of the material sought.
Figure 6.15 shows the possible arrangement, depending on the fineness of
the collector products.
x Separator discharge.
In the majority of the mills, the material that is rejected by the dynamic
separator is introduced into the first mill chamber along with the fresh feed. When
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using a central discharge mill, it is possible to send this product to either the first of
the second chamber. Under normal operation conditions, 10% of the rejected
product is sent to the first chamber. In case the feed has a high humidity
percentage, a larger portion of the material is conveyed to the first chamber to
eliminate as much humidity as possible. This situation is shown in figure 6.16.
Figure 6.16 Grinding system with central discharge mill showing the possibilities to
handle separator rejects of material.
6.3.2.2 AIR FLOW

x Gas recirculation to a twin-collector separator.
This arrangement enables return temperature adjustment between 80°C and
105°C, depending on the humidity content of the materials being fed. A return
temperature in the higher range reduces the risk of pre-hydration of the clinker
minerals in the first mill compartment.
Materials with little humidity make it possible to work with low return
temperatures. These returns reduce the temperature rise in the mill (caused by
grinding), thus diminishing water injection.
By letting cold air into the separator, the final cement temperature can be
controlled and kept between 80°C and 85°C. The disadvantage this arrangement
poses is a complex control of air flow because it is necessary to maintain a constant

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air mass through the separator so as not to alter the quality of the product. The
system is shown in Figure 6.17.
Figure 6.17 Grinding system with gas recirculation to separator and independent
mill venting.
x Gas recirculation to a single-collector separator.

Unlike the previous arrangement, the cold air gate is eliminated in this one
(figure 6.18) thus reducing the air to the collector. The return material temperature
can be adjusted by the proportion of fresh air and recirculated air through the
separator; the temperature of the mill rejects can be varied in a range between 70°C
and 120°C. This temperature should be adjusted according to feed moisture and
temperature.
Figure 6.18 Grinding system with gas recirculation to separator and a single
collector.

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This type of arrangement is adequate when wet additives are used and the
material temperature is not very constant. The disadvantage to this arrangement is
the need to use a cement cooler when working with the maximum return
temperature.
x Mill collector and air-sweeping fan.
In the last two arrangements, the mill is dedusted directly into a collector.
Another alternative to this array could be venting the mill through the separator, as
shown in figure 6.20. Following is a comparison of the two mill venting alternatives.
This comparison is interesting when the product’s minimum temperature is
controlled so as to avoid using the cement cooler. Figure 6.20 shows a ventilation
system through the separator, and figure 6.21 shows a setup where ventilation is
carried out directly to a collector.
To compare both systems, specific consumptions have been calculated,
based on typical parameters of pressure, temperatures and gas flows. Figure 6.19
shows the ratio of system 6.20/6.21 en fan consumption, the gas flow through the
separator and the total volume of gases to dedust as a function of the temperature of
the cement in the separator-ventilation system, maintaining at 75oC the final
temperature of the cement in the collector-ventilation arrangement.
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
Total air volum e
1.2
Separator air flow
1.1
Energy consum ption
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89
°C
Temperature of fine part. and rejects
Figure 6.19 Comparison of mill dedusting arrangements.
Figure 6.19 shows that, in the case of mill venting through the separator, by
keeping cement at a temperature of 70oC, the fan’s energy consumption is 70%
greater than the consumption of the two fans used in the independent mill venting
arrangement. At the same cement temperature (75oC), a larger volume separator is
needed because of the 30% increase in air handling in the latter setup. The total
dedusting volume is practically the same in both arrangements. The greater need
for air is because the amount of air handled through the mill that passes through the
separator does not contribute to cement cooling.

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Figure 6.20 Grinding system with mill venting through the separator.
Consequently, it is necessary to increase the demand for cold air to cool the
material discharged from the mill. The cold air must be introduced into the separator
by means of a gate which generate a pressure drop equivalent to the mill’s pressure
drop. This fall in pressure, and to a lesser degree, the greater volume of air being
handled through the separator are the cause for the higher energy consumption that
characterizes this arrangement.
Figure 6.21 Cement grinding with independent draft through the mill and through
the separator.
It can also be concluded that for the same size of separator used in both
arrangements (that is, the same air flow through the separator), the separator-
ventilation setup operates at temperature 5ºC to 10ºC higher in the rejects and in
cement that the alternate arrangement.

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Concluding, the advantages of the independent venting arrangement are:

1. Lower ventilation consumption and a smaller separator.
2. Venting from the mill directly to the collector facilitates product control.
Assuming that the clinker fed into the mill has marked temperature variations,
the mill venting air will vary in amount, temperature and dew point. These variations
can affect cement quality if the venting is through the separator, unless the fan, the
collector and the separator have been dimensioned to operate at more critical
temperature conditions.
It is worth pointing out that equipment dimensioning for extreme situations is
more costly and operation is less efficient. For instance, suppose that clinker
temperature rises, this causes an increase in the air injected into the mill and the
dew point temperature. This also increases the mass in the separator and,
consequently, fan consumption. In the alternate setup, the filter and the fan used for
dedusting the mill are smaller than those used for dedusting the separator. Here the
first pieces of equipment are designed to handle feed temperature variations without
greatly affecting investment costs. Furthermore, the separator operates under
stable conditions and only with fresh air. This insures constant product fineness and
temperature without having to design the separator and its venting arrangement for
extreme conditions.
6.3.3. COAL MILLS

Coal grinding has developed jointly with the burning systems, so the
distinction between the different types will be based on these systems. For starters,
a difference between the direct, semi-direct, and indirect injection systems can be
established.
6.3.3.1 DIRECT SYSTEMS

In these systems, coal is ground and injected directly into the kiln without an
intermediate hopper (figure 6.22).
Satellite
Kiln
Figure 6.22 Direct coal grinding system setup.

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The hot air needed for drying the coal in the mill can be taken from the
residual kiln gases, the clinker cooler, or from a hot gas generator. The fan suctions
gas from the mill and discharges it along with the pulverized coal, serving as primary
air to the burner. The disadvantage of this system is that false air is injected into the
kiln, resulting in high heat consumption. Additionally, from a process point of view,
mill production should vary according to the kiln’s fuel requirements. There is also a
great interdependence between kiln and mill production. Any disturbance in the
operation of the mill can result in kiln shutdown as it has no coal reserve.
6.3.3.2 SEMI-DIRECT SYSTEMS
This is a variation of the direct system. In this one, coal is ground with an air-
swept mill. The pulverized coal is separated in a classifier and the fine particles are
picked up by a cyclone. The system fan operates with clean gas, part of which is
sent to the primary air fan. Coal supplying is a more independent from mill
production. The separator cyclone supplies pulverized coal to the burner, and acts
as a damper for any production variation, thereby preventing any upset to the kiln.
There is a variant when high-moisture-content coal is ground and dried. Here

the excess humid gases are filtered and released into the atmosphere.
Satellite
Kiln
Figure 6.23 Semi-direct coal grinding system.
6.3.3.3 INDIRECT SYSTEMS
Also known as centralized systems, they are characterized by a single silo

with a specific storage capacity between the coal mil and the burner.

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Satellite
Kiln
Figure 6.24 Indirect coal grinding system arrangement.
The advantages of an indirect injection system are: mill and kiln production
are independent, its possible to feed various kiln systems at a time, primary air and
coal injection can be optimally regulated.
The disadvantages of these systems are: greater initial investment on
equipment, the need for a high performance filter, and inert gas equipment for fire
safety.
6.4 BALL MILL ELEMENTS

6.4.1 MILL TUBE
The ball mill is. This shape is given by the shell or hull, which hold the ball
load and the remaining parts for material grinding. The shell is identified in two
parts: the cylindrical section and the lids or ends.
The cylindrical section has several segments, which have been welded
together by the supplier. However, for very large mills, the welding works are
finished at the plant. Shell thickness varies directly with the mill dimensions and its
diameter ranges approximately from 1/100 to 1/175. Consequently, for mills over 4
meters in diameter, the shell thickness may be up to 60 or 70 mm. To define the
shell thickness, it is necessary to take into consideration that the drill used to place
the shielding plates reduces the mechanical resistance of the shell by approximately
11%. This is due to the fissures that may be started in these bores and in the
inspection holes, because of the “tension-compression” forces exerted by the ball
load and the weight of the shell itself. It should not be welded, except in case of
repairs, such as fissures, etc. If it is necessary to bore the shell, it is advisable to do
so with precision tools.
The mill ends are a solid cast iron piece. These ends are made of the conical
part and the axle joints (should it have this type of support) and the shell joints. The

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shell joints can be either flanged or welded. The conical part of the mill ends made
nowadays are completely smooth; the reinforcement nerves, used in the past, cause
considerable harm to radial tension resistance. The front sides of the mills are
submitted mainly to bending forces; traction and compression forces are minimal.
6.4.2 MILL SUPPORTS

Mills are supported at their ends, or near them. There are two types of
support: the axle/bearing support and the sliding shoe support. Both are explained
below.
6.4.2.1 AXLE/BEARING
In general, ball mills in the cement industry have smooth axle/bearing
supports. They consist of two smooth surfaces, one of them moveable (axle, moves
as the mill turns) and the other is stationary (bearing, to the foundation), made of
wear-resistant material covered with oil. Their functions: hold the mill; enable its
rotation and form a lubricating film that can cover the mill; and serve as an oil-lift
device. One support, on the transmission side, is stationary and acts as a guide
support, whereas the other has tolerance to axial movement to allow equipment
(mill) dilation. Figure 6.25 shows a diagram of the support.
Figure 6.25 Axle/bearing support
It is vitally important to pay attention to the support parts lubrication conditions

at start-up and during normal operation. When the lubrication is by means of rings,
these must be turned once by hand before starting up the mill after a long shutdown.
If lubrication is done by oil circulation by pumping, it is necessary to insure that the
s fuel.
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Over the years, different grinding systems have been developed with a
sustained tendency to improve the process, to make it more efficient. Selecting a
grinding system basically depends on the required quality, especially in cement
production.
The tube ball mills are steel rotary cylinders in which material breakdown is
carried out by the grinding bodies movement. Because of the cylinder’s rotation, the
unit formed by the grinding elements and the material is optimized for the grinding
action. Grinding is carried out by the collision and friction between the grinding
bodies and the shielded mill walls.
All the grinding systems must be operated in such a way as to obtain the
required production, as well as the necessary product quality, especially considering
the relevant production costs. Despite the numerous experiences in ball mill
operation, they are not often operated to maximum efficiency. The possible reasons
are not limited solely to inadequate composition of the ball load or to the wrong
position of the separator, but they also include a series of interrelated and globally
responsible factors of good system operation or its malfunction.
If the large number of possible combinations between variables is considered
in a grinding system, it is evidently hard to establish general instructions as to how to
operate and maintain it.
In the cement industry, close to 75% of the total electrical energy
consumption corresponds to the raw meal and clinker grinding system operations
and those for solid fuel grinding, when applicable.
Due to the diminishment of the available energy resources and the
uncontrolled rise of energy costs, it is important to pay more attention to reducing the
amount of energy used in grinding systems.
Material grinding inevitably generates substantial energy losses. The current
energy required for material reduction, given a certain particle size, greatly exceeds
the energy theoretically needed for its breakage until the corresponding increase in

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specific material surface is attained. According to the applied criteria, it is estimated

that only from 2 to 20% of the energy supplied to the grinding system (ball mill) is
applied to the creation of new surfaces. The remainder, between 98% and 80% of
energy that is lost largely as heat, noise and vibrations. Naturally, there are efforts
being made at present to improve the grinding systems and consequently obtain a
greater saving in energy usage.
The problem in a grinding facility is how to get maximum economy with the
equipment currently available. It is therefore necessary to have full knowledge of the
present system’s possibilities and limitations, and to have the proper information
about the ways and means to evaluate the performance of a given facility.
6.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

A long time has passed between the era in which the Romans carried out
grinding in vessels (see figure 6.1) and present day modern grinding systems with
capacities from 100 to 500 tph.
Figure 6.1 Grinding in vessels
At a very early stage in the history of mankind, certain instruments were used
for crushing food. Simple machines were developed to take the place of manual
labor. These machines were the ancestors of the blade mills driven by animals,
water or wind. Around the IX century, an increase in mineral deposit production led
to the wet process pounding mills, and in 1512 to the dry process impact mill was
developed.
Nevertheless, because of the limitation in the available driving power, there

was no substantial development for several centuries. The steam engine marked a
turning point which led to the first mill with grinding rollers in Cornwall, England, circa
1790. In 1858, Blake developed the jaw crusher in the United States which paved

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the way for hard mineral primary reduction for raw materials. The cone crusher
made it appearance in 1877.
Table 6.11 summarizes the most important stage in this development.
Table 6.1 Grinding technology development.
YEAR INVENTOR GRINDING MACHINE

“Capstan Mill”, was the forerunner of the blade
Around 500 B.C.
mill for grains, possibly for silver minerals as well
in Laurion, Greece.
Around 900 Pounding mill, wet process.
1512 Sigismund Vont Maltitz Pounding mill, dry process.
? Batchwise drum mill.
circa 1790 Roller mill (Cornwall, England).
1842 American Patent Impact mill.
Around 1850 Griffin, USA Pendulum centrifugal mill.
1858 Blake, USA Jaw crusher.
Gebr Sachsenberg,
1876 Ball mill with sieve at discharge point.
Germany
circa 1877 Gates, USA Cone crusher
Know & Davidson, French
1891 patent applied in Germany Continuous tube mill.
circa 1925 Loesche, Germany Roller mill with elastic loading system.
Harding, USA (patent
1935 Autogenous mill.
granted in 1908)
1969 Feige, Germany Fine grinding, carried out between two rollers.
1977 Schonert, Germany High pressure roller grinding.
In the XIX century, raw material grinding systems were developed on an

industrial scale. The tube mill was introduced between 1890 and 1900. Later large
mills with diameters of around 5.0 m and lengths of up to 20.0 m were
manufactured, like those currently used in cement factories.
Some time ago, there were drum mills with discontinuous or batchwise
operation available for fine grinding, in addition to the pounding mills and blade mills
and sometimes many of these were placed in mine shafts. Grinding cylinder were
made of ceramic materials or cast iron. Flint stones or ceramic balls were the main
grinding elements, and later cast iron balls were also used.
The dimensions of these first mills barely exceeded 1.0 m of diameter and 1.0
m in length. Therefore, they were all low-production equipment submitted to intense
work due to their cyclic method of operation.
But despite these disadvantages, the grinding process in drum mills was
really effective. Over the last quarter of the past century, great efforts have been
made to increase the industrial potential of continuous grinding.
BALL MILLS
The development of the tube mills (widely used at present for material fine
grinding) date back to over 100 years ago. The majority of the inventors started with
the assumption that proper sieves were needed for continuous grinding drum mills.
Therefore the coarse material obtained in sieving should then be returned to the mill.
In 1876, Gebruder Sachsenberg proposed a machine in which the sieving devices
were fastened to wooden frames surrounding the mill drum rotating with it. The
material that passed through the sieve made up the final product and was collected
on a deck which surrounded the machine. Whereas the material that was retained
in the sieve, was returned inside the mill through a special opening. This ball mill
discharged by sieves, still in use with practically the same design, can be operated
in wet or dry processes.
Its main disadvantage was that the size of the fine product depended on the
sieve mesh being used, which suffered frequent blocking and was subject to
extreme wear. These problems still occur today in operating ball mills with sieve
discharge.
Therefore, some considerations were made to place a certain number of drum

mills in sequence and to use buckets to convey the mill feed from one chamber to
the next. Variations of this development are shown in figure 6.2. Since there were
some opinions which contended that part of the material would be retained during its
conveyance through the mill, the mill drums were recommended to be constructed
with a conical hull toward the discharge.
For reasons of design, the whole drum was not formed as a single conical
drum, and it was divided into three conical chambers, as shown in figure 6.2 and
was proposed as the appropriate solution. However, these mills were not very
successful in practice because this arrangement of the mill tube also caused
considerable delays in material conveyance.
With the above in mind, the idea of speeding up mill feed conveyance by
means of a drop between the entry and exit ends of the mill was brought up. On
June 30, 1891, Konow and Davidson of Paris registered patent No. 62871 at the
imperial patent office of the German Reich under the title: “Ball mill with central
feeding and tangential discharge of the ground material.” This was to serve as the
basis of the modern ball mill.
The patent specification details are: “A ball mill is one which achieves a
continuous feeding operation process of the material to be ground through the
center of one end of the drum and discharging it in the perimeter of the other end of
the drum -this renders a constant difference in height between the entry and exit
points- producing a slow forward movement of the material being ground between
the balls in the longitudinal direction of the tubular drum which has sufficient length”.

BALL MILLS
v
v vv
Figure 6.2 First proposals for multi-chamber mills for continuous grinding.
Figure 6.3 shows an example of the design of this single chamber tube mill,
which could be supported on rollers or axles. The mill drum can also be conical in
order to increase the difference in height between inlet and outlet, as shown in figure
6.4. The object of the invention was related with the elimination of the deficiencies
associated with the operation of ball mills with discharge sieves normally used. This
means that the intention was to eliminate the main problem caused by the size of the
sieve that was operating and used to determine product fineness. Maintenance
costs were substantial and operation was hindered if low-density material was to be
finely ground. On the other hand, with the patented ball mill “the mill shell length was
selected so that the material to be ground would pass slowly along the entire length
of the mill at a progressive speed and be exposed for a long time to the grinding ball
effect”.

BALL MILLS
Figure 6.3 Cylindrical tubular mill, as described in patent No. 62871.
Figure 6.4 Conical tubular mill, as described in patent No. 62871.
In this patent, the material to be ground was fed into the mill by means of a
screw or a vibrating conveyor. The material left the drum on the other end through
the holes or slots in the drum or the end wall. A discharge chamber was also
possible and there was temporary protection for the mill shell lining.
Equally interesting is the following focus of the patent under consideration: “If
the mill feed consists of small pieces, then one compartment is enough. However if
larger material is to be ground, several compartments with different size balls should
be used. In the latter case, the mill feed is first introduced into the compartment with
the largest balls and then it is passed from one compartment to the next; each
compartment with smaller sized balls than the previous one. These compartments
should be placed one under the other or along side each other.”

BALL MILLS
The Konow and Davidson patent expired on June 30, 1905 leaving the way
clear for other companies to build and develop improved tube mill models
unrestrictedly.
The first tube mill built in this century measured a maximum of 1,200 mm
diameter and 6,000 mm length. It was generally loaded with flint stones, and rarely
with steel balls. A simple lining was commonly used to protect the mill cylinder. The
productions ranged some 3 tph for cement kiln clinker grinding. Despite this
relatively low production, the tube mills for raw meal and clinker grinding in the
cement industry quickly became serious competition for the centrifugal tube mills
built in the United States by the Bradley company, and in Germany by Humboldt-
Maschinenbau AG, which had been until then the main type of mill used.
As time passed, there was a rapid increase in the tube mill dimensions used
both for wet-process grinding as well as dry-process grinding. Steel balls were more
widely used as a grinding means and the internal elements of the grinding chamber
were better adapted for a wider variety of operation conditions. Multi-chamber mill
were built and the closed circuit was introduced with the classification equipment.
Already in the XIX century, clinker from vertical kilns and rotary kilns was
ground in single-chamber tube mills. The size reduction was observed to take place
mainly in a length equivalent to 20-30% of the total mill length, whereas the
subsequent particle size reduction in the remainder of the mill was very small.
Consequently, the two-stage grinding system was developed in order to combine
pre-grinding and final grinding in two separate mills. The mill dimensions, that is, the
proportion of length and diameter, were selected according to the respective
grinding steps. Coarse material grinding was carried out in short, large diameter
mills; fine material grinding was done in long, reduced diameter mills.
In order to avoid using two transmissions for the separate mills, as needed in
two-stage grinding, a composite mill was introduced; coarse and fine material
grinding was combined in individual compartments in a single common mill. These
mill had from three to four individual compartment to satisfy the demands of product
fineness.
The composite mill, also called the open circuit mill, was and is successfully
applied for normal Portland cement production with a fineness of 2,800 a 3,500
cm2/g (Blaine).
For the production of special cements, such as fast-hardening cement with a

fineness greater than 3,200 - 3,300 cm2/g, the composite mill efficiency decreased
considerably due to the formation of bindings and adherences in the grinding
elements and the mill lining.

BALL MILLS
The development of air separators enabled to increase the grinding fineness

degree. Partially ground material is removed from the mill and classified in the
separator. The coarse portion (rejects) is returned to the mill to be ground once
again. The introduction of closed circuit mills has made it possible to attain a
specific surface (Blaine) of up to 5,000 cm2/gm.
Currently, closed circuit mills generally have 1 or 2 compartments (or

chambers) with end discharge, figure 6.5; they can also have central discharge,
figure 6.6, However this mill is only used in special cases such as grinding and
drying of raw material or slag cement.
Figure 6.5 Two-chamber mill used in closed circuit grinding.
Figure 6.6 Central discharge mill.

BALL MILLS
There was a remarkable increase in mill dimensions between 1960 and 1970.
This had led today to the modern large tube mills with transmission mechanisms and
diameters over 6.0 meters for wet and dry process grinding. During this same
period, the autogenous (Aerofall) mill was installed in several plants for grinding wet
and binding materials.
Many other types of mills have been developed since 1980: roller vertical
mills, rollers presses, roller horizontal mills and others. However, the classic ball mill
is still one of the most important pieces of equipment in the cement industry, and
although its use is increasingly limited, it is still competitive at present.
6.1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL ELEMENTS OF THE TUBULAR

MILL GRINDING CHAMBERS.
Due a greater understanding of the grinding processes that take place inside
a ball mill, since the onset of the century the effectiveness of these processes was
recognized to depend critically on a la large number of parameters. Specifically:
x Mill length and diameter.

x Mill rotation speed.
x Shielding configuration.
x Type, shape, size and composition of the grinding medium.
x Arrangement and configuration of the intermediate and end diaphragms, and
of the retention rings.
x Grindability and particle size distribution of the feeding material.
x Specification of the ground product (particle size distribution, specific surface
areas, reactivity, etc.).
Obtaining good grinding results with a low specific consumption of energy will
be possible only if these variables are selected correctly. In particular, the plating
configuration, mill rotation speed and the size and composition of the grinding
elements must be adapted to insure an optimal ball load movement en relation as
related to the feed material composition and the required product fineness. In
addition to the ball load motion, it is also necessary to make sure that the material
being ground has the necessary axial conveying speed (material standing time in the
mill).
Since over 70 years ago, it has been known that the mill linings are not only
indispensable to protect against wear, but also have a decisive technological
significance. The first ball mills were operated without special linings and efforts
were rapidly made to provide replaceable elements to protect the shell. At first,
BALL MILLS
these were made wedge shaped quartz or flint stone blocks, around 15 cm thick, cut
in a given form and drowned in cement. Later, they were long bars or borders in
which the mill feeding could be made. They were installed in the cylindrical shell
and used especially for mineral grinding mills. Figure 6.7 shows this type of
shielding for wet-process mills that were installed in some places even in the 20’s.
a b
c d
e f
Figure 6.7 Types of mineral mill shielding.
a).- Screw-on smooth steel plates with wedged bars.

b).- Smooth blocks, installed for cement.
c).- Corrugated (rippled) steel plates.
d).- Stepped steel plates.
e).- Old rails wedged with flint stones.
f).- Osborne Gold Shielding – mineral wedged bars.

BALL MILLS
Because ball mills are exposed to many different kinds and conditions of
operations, and the multiple specifications of the required product, one single type of
plating was found to be incapable of rending optimal results for every kind of
condition. Consequently, several types of shielding are still used, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Using classifying shielding is one way to equal the forces on the feeding of a
single-chamber tube mill to the required fineness. These shielding produce an axial
motion of the grinding bodies due to the conical shape of the stepped plates. This
plating uses the centrifugal force, impact and slope effects to separate the large
balls toward the entry end of the mill and the smaller ball toward the outlet. The
starting point for the development of classifying shielding that began in the early
1920’s, was the Harding mill. In this mill, grinding body classification achieved by
the conical configuration of the drum. The relations is clearly illustrated in figure
6.8.
Section of a conical mill with overflow discharge

(Harding model).
c
Figure 6.8 Development of classifying shielding based on the Harding conical mill.
a).- Carman classifying shielding.
b).- Slegten-Magotteaux classifying shielding.
c).- F. L. Smidth classifying shielding.

BALL MILLS
As to future developments to fine-grinding machines, tubular ball mills, which

have been in use for 100 year, are expected to continue to be in effect. This is true,
regardless of the fact the over the last years grinding units with a lower specific
energy consumptions have been in use, such as the vertical mills, for grinding soft
materials, like raw materials for cement production.
However, a significant change in their dimensions is not to be expected in the

near future. In addition to manufacturing and transport limitations, it is known that it
has only been possible to reach the current specific design values for large tube
mills after extensive adjustments (reduction of the large ball diameters and of the
ball load filling degree in the mill).
The efficiency of tube mills should be increased in the future based on

technological improvements. These improvements will be made by means of a
greater understanding of particle breakage mechanisms and axial conveyance
behavior in the mill. It will then be possible to better adapt the internal elements of
the grinding chamber, plating, filling degree and the grinding body load
compositions, and the outlet diaphragm configuration.
6.2 TYPES OF MILLS

This section offers a description of the different categories of tube mills that
have spherical grinding bodies, since these are the ones most used in the cement
industry. Those that do not have grinding bodies (or have a small amount of them,
such as the autogenous mills) are not included in this manual.
Tubular mills can be classified according to several criteria :
6.2.1 NATURE OF THE PROCESS

The grinding process can be classified according to the amount of water
contained in the materials. The circuits that have materials with moisture contents
over 25% can be considered as wet processes, which are more efficient that dry
processes. The advantages are:
x Capacity to grind material with high moisture contents.

x Lower specific energy consumption.
Some authors have tried to explain lower specific energy consumption in wet-
process grinding and have reached the conclusion that the particle has greater
mobility in an aqueous medium and can be ground more easily between the balls.
There is greater wear on the grinding bodies and the mill shielding or plating
in wet-process grinding and a high calorific energy consumption in the kiln. This is
the reason why this type of grinding is becoming less and less frequent.that the
BALL MILLS
recirculation pump supplies the oil at mill start-up. There must therefore be an
electrical interblocking system between the pump motor and that of the mill. When
the supports have high pressure pumps, they inject oil under pressure between the
smooth parts that are in contact immediately before start-up so that there will be a oil
film between them. The high pressure oil is supplied through a hole located in the
center of the bearing. The lubricant suspends the axle and thereby reduces friction
between the two metallic surfaces to a bearable degree. Once the mill is operating
normally, the high pressure pump is usually shut off. Lubricating oil should always be
kept a viscosity over 6° Engler.
Support temperature must be permanently monitored. Therefore, the sensor
should be in contact with the anti-friction metal. Measuring and controlling the oil
temperature is not considered appropriate because the lubricant’s poor thermal
conductivity leads to errors. For instance, it is possible that the metal has reached a
dangerously high temperature before the oil has gotten to it. For grinding with a
drying process, the supports are cooled by water. The minimum amount of water is
around 20-25 liters per minute for each support, at a maximum allowable pressure of
2 kg/cm2. However, this flow may not be enough if the temperature of the material
and/or gases passing through the support is too high, or if the water temperature is
high. The water flow should be started before starting up the mill, and should not be
shut off when the mill stops until the supports have cooled off completely.
Otherwise, the oil film between the contact parts will be squeezed before the axle
has completed its contraction, thereby causing the wear parts to scratch against
each other.
When bearings are manufactured, the contact surface is polished to a
roughness, “Ra'“ no greater than 0.8 microns. This roughness can be understood as
the arithmetical mean of the deviations of each point of the plate, “Yi”, with respect to
the average point of the same profile “Lm”. Figure 23 is a graphic representation of
the plate profile in the bearing, and roughness identification.
Surface
Height
Logitudinal Distance of the Plate
Figure 6.26 Roughness profile of the contact surface of a bearing bushing.

BALL MILLS
In order to obtain a lubricating film between the axle and the bearing, these
contact surfaces must have different diameters. So, when the mill has been
shutdown, a wedge of lubricating oil is formed on each side of the point of contact.
During operation, this space is also filled with oil. It is also important that the bearing
does not grab the axle tightening it. If this happens because of factory defects in the
plates, the bearing edges should be filed down before mounting them. Figure 6.27
present the pressure profile. Angle “E” formed by the load direction, “P”, and the line
that passes through the axle and bearing centers, marks off the sector in which the
oil film is the thinnest. Just before the film’s minimum point, pressure reaches its
maximum value. The maximum load is located longitudinally in the center. The
supports are designed so that the bearing can withstand a pressure of up to 15-20
kg/cm2 if it is made of babbit metal, or 25-28 kg/cm2 if it is made of bronze.
Figure 6.27 Pressure distribution on the Axle/Bearing support.
6.4.2.2 SLIDING SHOES

Another type of support used in mills are the sliding shoes, as shown in figure
6.28. This type of support consists of a sliding ring mounted on the mill shell, held
by two fixed supports at 30° vertical angles, which contain the shoes made of wear-
resistant material. sliding shoe support is done in such a way that it can be used in
either rotation direction. Should the mill rotation direction be changed, it is only
necessary to invert the oil scraper position and the circulation oil installation
arrangement.
Each one of the shoes rests, by means of a spherical seat (joint) and a
pressure block, on rollers that can be moved in the longitudinal direction of the mill.
This moveable support insures that the sliding shoes will follow the thermal dilation
of the mill body.

BALL MILLS
These supports are lubricated by a set of pumps, made up of two high

pressure pumps and one low pressure pump. The first two inject oil at high pressure
(between 10 and 20 bars) to form a film of oil between both shoes and the sliding
ring before starting up the mill, They are designed to form a film of oil between the
two shoes and the sliding ring. The oil is supplied through a hole in the center of the
shoe. The low-pressure pump acts like an oil recirculation pump, in other words, it
sucks oil from the support casing and pumps it to a reservoir located in front of one
of the shoes (before the ring-sliding shoe contact). Lubrication occurs when the mill
sliding ring is submerged into the oil in the reservoir.
Sliding shoes are water-cooled. The cooling water inlet is located at the
bottom point of the shoes.
Figure 6.28 Sliding shoe mill support.
The advantages of the shoe supports over the axle/bearing supports are:
x The bearings are eliminated, which in some cases have caused major damage.
x By eliminating the axles, the mill becomes shorter. Since the shoe construction
does not strangle the free section of the mill (as in the case of axle/bearing), there
is no obstruction for hot gas passage.
x Given the shorter distance between the supports, the mechanical requirements of
the shell are fewer and therefore the plating thickness can be reduced.

BALL MILLS
6.4.3 MILL TRANSMISSION

The difference between the motor speed and that required in the mill make it
necessary to use accurate speed reducers. Movement transmission and reduction
of the motor to the mill can be carried out in one of two different mechanical ways:
by lateral drive (ring gear/pinion) or by central drive. Both are explained below.
6.4.3.1 GEAR RING / PINION

Gear ring / pinion drive consists of a ring gear screwed to the mill shell and
driven by one or two pinions installed on either side of the mill.
Lateral drive makes it possible to use high speed motors. The high and low
speed reducer axis have elastic couplings. Single-pinion drives are limited to a
power of 2,500 kW, and those with two pinions to a power of5,000 kW.
Variations can be made to this type of drive as to the number of motors used
and reductions steps in movement transmission. Figures 6.29 and 6.30 show
diagrams of drives using one and two motors, respectively.
Mill
Ring Gear
Pinion
Drive
Figure 6.29 Single-motor pinion and ring gear drive.
The lubrication for these drives is carried out by means of oil injection, with
lubricant cooling in an oil-water exchanger. Lubrication is affected by the peripheral
speed of the ring gear, the pressure between the gear teeth and roughness between
the teeth flanks. The relative movements between the pinion and ring gear axis
also have a negative effect on the lubricant conditions, because these movements
cause overloads increasing the pressure between the teeth.

BALL MILLS
Pinion
Mill
Ring Gear
Pinion
Drive
Figure 6.30 Twin motor pinion and ring gear drive.
The lubrication for these drives is carried out by means of oil injection, with
lubricant cooling in an oil-water exchanger. Lubrication is affected by the peripheral
speed of the ring gear, the pressure between the gear teeth and roughness between
the teeth flanks. The relative movements between the pinion and ring gear axis
also have a negative effect on the lubricant conditions, because these movements
cause overloads increasing the pressure between the teeth.
6.4.3.2 CENTRAL DRIVE

Central drive consists of transmitting movement directly to the mill axis by
means of an precision speed reducer. Central drive is a little more expensive that
ring gear/pinion drive.
Central drives can present variations as to the number of stages in movement
reduction and the number of motors. Figures 6.31 and 6.32 illustrate these two
examples.
Figure 6.31 Single motor central two-stage, two-way drive.

BALL MILLS
Some of the reducers of this kind are:

a).- Two-stage, two-way reducer, with a single drive motor.
b).- Two-stage, two-way reducer, with two drive motors.
c).- Three-stage, two-way reducer, with twin motors.
d).- Three-stage, two-way reducer, with a single motor.
Mill
Drive / Reducer
Figure 6.32 Twin-motor two-stage, two-way drive.

An example of a precision central speed reducer is the Symetro (F.L.Smidth),
see figure 6.33.
Intermediate Compensating
Lubrication
wheel wheel
Intermediate Low Speed Compensating

Axis Axis Wheel Support
Figure 6.33 Symmetro Reducer (F.L.Smidth).
The low-speed axis of the reducer (twist axis) can be adapted directly to the
mill. The high-speed axis (coupled to the motor and/or clutch) has a pinion geared
BALL MILLS
to two intermediate wheels, placed on two intermediate axes, whose teeth gear to a
compensating wheel. The transmitted power is thus distributed among two
intermediate wheels and two intermediate axes, which enables the Symmetro
reducer’s compact construction. Additionally, due to the Symmetro reducer’s
symmetrical structure, the high speed axis and the twist axis are arranged so that
one is an extension of the other.
the low-speed axis of the reducer (twist axis) can be adapted directly to the
mill. The high-speed axis (coupled to the motor and/or clutch) has a pinion geared
to two intermediate wheels, placed on two intermediate axes, whose teeth gear to a
compensating wheel. The transmitted power is thus distributed among two
intermediate wheels and two intermediate axes, which enables the Symmetro
reducer’s compact construction. Additionally, due to the Symmetro reducer’s
symmetrical structure, the high speed axis and the twist axis are arranged so that
one is an extension of the other. The flexible suspension of the compensating wheel,
on membranes and disc springs, connected to the two guide rings, automatically
maintains equal force on the pressure of the teeth of the two gears of the
compensating wheel. This insures that each of the intermediate axes will transmit
half of the total power.
Another central drive is the satellite reducer type, (see figure 6.43). It is made
up of:
x Solar wheel and satellite pinions which are cemented, tempered and rectified,
which gear to the internal ring rear.
x Satellite holder held by bearing.
The three planet and solar pinion system, centered by means of the three
gears, without support, insure a secure and regular distribution of the spinning
momentum. The reducer temperature is automatically and optimally controlled by
an oil circulation system that serves the lubrication with respect to the outside
temperature.
The satellite reducer, made with hardened, polished and corrected dentate
both in the solar wheel and in the planets, has a performance of 98.9% at full load.
The axially coupled machine system, allows thermal dilation without hull
deformations or deterioration of the teeth flank contacts.
Motor
Drive/Reducer
Mill
Figure 6.34 Central drive with two-step satellite reducer.

BALL MILLS
6.4.4 MILL DIAPHRAGMS

When the mills have of two or more chambers, there are diaphragms
separating them. At the end of the last chamber a diaphragm is placed to prevent
the balls from leaving. Intermediate diaphragms prevent oversized particles from
passing into the next chamber while holding back the ball load as well. Therefore
the open slots in the diaphragm allow passage of material with a given size. The
slot construction and size influence the ground product fineness, as well as the mill
flow. See figure 6.35.
Slotted plates
Lifting pallets
Inlet wall
(with slotted plates)
Central Material outlet

grating
Outlet wall
(plating)
Figure 6.35 Mill diaphragm and its parts
Diaphragms are made up of several parts depending on their use: a fastening

structure or skeleton that acts as support and onto which the other parts are
fastened; the inlet wall made up of slotted plates which hold back the ball load in the
chamber behind de diaphragm; the central grate, which allows free air passage
throughout the mill; the lifting vanes or pallets, that lift the material and facilitate its
conveyance to the next chamber; and the outlet wall.
The slots on the common inlet plates (pre-set opening slots) are placed so
that the free space is as large as possible without endangering the plate’s rigidity.
The mill’s conveyance capacity is closely related to this free space, up to 5
ton/dm2hr, for dry-process grinding. The Combidan diaphragms (F.L. Smidth) have a
different inlet wall, made up of a grate preceded by protective plates (without slots)
that retain the grinding bodies in the previous chamber. Since the grate is protected
from the ball impacts, wear is reduced and the width of the holes is maintained
longer. The passage area of this diaphragm is more than double that of a
BALL MILLS
conventional diaphragm. Other manufacturers present other options, making the

central plates interchangeable, or plates that don’t come into contact with the ball, or
plates with a larger free space.
As mentioned previously, the vanes or pallets lift the material and ease its
conveyance to the next chamber which influences the material level in the previous
chamber. These pallets can be either radial or spiral. The longer the pallets, the
larger the amount of material can be lifted and conveyed. Consequently, the material
level in the previous chamber will be lower than in the case of shorter pallets leaving
ground material unlifted and unconveyed. When there are no lifting pallets, the
material level is at its highest in the previous chamber, and conveyance to the
following chamber is achieved by overflowing at the outlet wall. At mill start-up, the
pallet length is adjusted to the material level needed to obtain the best grinding
results for a certain product type and quality. Some modern diaphragms (Christian
Pfeiffer) regulate material passage by means of the outlet opening to the following
chamber. This prevents having to work on the pallet position which can pose a
problem as to its location and access.
When a diaphragm with long, axially full pallets (from anterior wall to posterior
wall) is used, the conveyance capacity is so high that the material level drops and
mill efficiency diminishes. In another place, a diaphragm without lifting pallets
(Sonex by F.L. Smidth) was introduced which led to a high material level because
the material has to pass over a high retention ring (outlet wall). These diaphragms
feature good grinding economy and low noise levels. However, due to the high
material level in the mill, energy consumption is low. Consequently, larger mills
have to be manufactured in order to obtain the same power consumption. A midpoint
between these two types is the short-pallet diaphragm (Stanex by F.L. Smidth),
which enables to keep an almost constant material level in the chambers and high
enough to insure proper mill efficiency without a reduction in energy consumption.
6.4.5 MILL SHIELDING
Shielding is the internal lining of the mill, made up of steel plates which
protect the shell from ball impact. Below are some of the other grinding functions
that shielding features:
x Lifts the balls as the mill turns for the impact or attrition grinding effect on the
material, depending on the degree or level of lifting; or
x Classifies the balls inside the mill, keeping a proper ball distribution (by size) for
material grinding along the mill.
These plates can be fastened to the shell in several ways.

BALL MILLS
6.4.5.1 TYPES OF SHIELDING

Lifting shields are intended to lift the balls to a point in which they fall freely as
the mill turns. The profiles differ depending on the ball sizes. For large balls,
stepped, rippled or double-rippled shields are common, all of which are
circumferentially oriented. Shields for smaller balls have a corrugated profile
(Dragpeb by F.L. Smidth). Figure 6.36 shows some of these shields.
Classifying
D ragpeb
Stepped
R ippled
Figure 6.36 Classifying and lifting shielding.
Classifying shields are used to distribute the ball load in the mill, keeping the
large ball toward the inlet and the small ones toward the outlet. When used in a
single chamber, there is wide granulometry in the ball load. Along the mill, there is a
gradual lessening of the ball unitary weight, so that a two-chamber effect is attained
in a single chamber. Consequently, grinding efficiency is better than if the load were
a mixture of large and small balls. Additionally, the small balls will not be damaged
by impact with the larger ones, which would cause excessive wear. Classifying
shields are steps, axially oriented, mounted with the inclination facing the mill inlet.
When the ball strikes this shield, it tends to move toward the back (against the
material flow). Therefore, the larger the ball, the greater the impact and it will tend to
be thrown toward the inlet. See figure 6.37.
Material Flow
Classifying Shield
Figure 6.37 Shield classifying effect.

BALL MILLS
6.4.5.2 SHIELD FASTENING

Shields can be installed in the mill shell in a number of different ways: screw-
on, wedged or mounted. Figure 6.38 shows the more usual ways of shield
fastening.
Mounted Shielding
Screw-on Shielding
Wedged Shielding
Figure 6.38 Different shield fastening methods.
In the first case, each shield plate is separately screwed onto the shell. There
is a hole in the center of the plate for the fastening screw. Wedged shields consist
of rows of plates screwed onto the shell (as the previous ones) not consecutively.
The intermediate row(s) is(are) wedged between the ones that were screwed on.
Mount shields have lateral grooves or canals to fasten onto edges welded or
screwed onto the shell (similar to the installation of refractory brick in the kiln).
6.4.6 MILL BALL LOAD

The balls or grinding bodies are responsible for submitting the material to
grinding by the mill’s movement and their geometry. Therefore excellent ball load
definition and maintenance are important to obtain grinding at optimal and constant
levels.
Ball loads are ruled generally by three important aspects:
x the largest size ball (maximum ball size)
x grinding body compositions (average unitary weight, specific surface and
composition of the load)
x the overall ball load weight in the mill
6.4.6.1 MAXIMUM BALL SIZE

There are several proposals for calculating maximum ball size, which
consider the grinding system’s features and the material to be ground. The most
widely used equation is by Bond:

BALL MILLS
S WiBond
B k Fk80 3
Cs D
where:
k= Constant (36 for steel balls).
Fk80 = Size of material fed, expressed as the opening of a sieve that retains 20%,
en mm.
S= Actual density of material to be ground, en g/cm3.
WiBond = Bond grindability index; in other words, the specific energy needed to
grind the feed to a fineness of 80%, passing through a sieve of 100
microns. The index is expressed in kWh/t.
Cs = Mill speed, as a percentage of critical speed.
D= Effective diameter of the mill, m.
For the first chamber, the Fk80 of the freshly fed material granulometry (without
the returns) is considered. Normally, for the second chamber, the fact that the
material enter with a 20% residue of particles larger than 0.5 mm is taken into
account.
Another formula to determine the maximum ball size is the Papadakis
formula. Based on the result obtained in a test mill, the corresponding result is
scaled for a larger mill. It assumes that the ratio between kinetic energy of the ball
and maximum ground material size, is constant. Kinetic energy is determined from
weight (~B3) and the height of the fall (~D).
B 31 D 1 B 32 D 2
2 2
F1k100 F2k100
Using this as a basis, the maximum ball diameter for the larger mill is
calculated as follows:
2
F2k100 D
B2 3
2 1 B 31
F1k100 D 2
The minimum ball size is practically ruled by the size of the slots of the
intermediate diaphragm or outlet, depending on the load of the chamber in question.
However, Kassatkin calculate the minimum size with the following formula:
V2
Bmín Fk100
1.28 E Ubola D
where:
Bmín = Minimum ball size, cm.
Fk100 = Maximum feed size, cm.
V= Compression resistance of the ground material, kg/cm2.
E = Elasticity module of the ground material, kg/cm2.
Ubola = Actual ball density, g/cm3.
D = Effective mill diameter, cm.
BALL MILLS
6.4.6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A BALANCED BALL LOAD

Ball load compositions feature two aspects: the average weight of the balls
(g/pc) and the specific surface of the load (m2/ton). These two ball load parameters
should remain constant thus compensating for wear with the proper amount of the
right sized balls. This idea of ball load is known as balance load.
In order to replace the balls keeping the load constant, it can be assumed that
ball wear is constant in a radial sense, regardless of its size. To illustrate the balance
load to constant wear, a simplified procedure is used, considering a 100-ball load
with consecutive sizes from 1 to 100 mm. After a certain operation time, during
which there has been a 0.5 mm wear to each ball, the result will be that the largest
ball now has a diameter of 99 mm (originally 100 mm); and that the smallest ball in
the original load (1 mm diameter) has disappeared. Thus, in order to have the
original ball load distribution again, it is enough to add another 100 mm ball.
The calculations to obtain the unitary weight (i) and specific surface (o), are
made for the largest fraction of the ball sample, taken as indicated in section 1.3 Ball
Sampling Techniques. It is in this fraction that the balls have a diameter that is larger
than half the nominal maximum diameter obtained by the Bond formula for maximum
ball size; that is, below this size, the ball’s effect on efficient grinding is null.
The weight of one ball (in grams) can be calculated in function to its
dimensions (diameter in cm) and its density (in g/cm3):
i 4.084 d3
However, the ball samples are weighed and counted in actual situations, The
resulting unitary weight is a quotient of the total ball weight divided by the total
number of balls.
The specific surface of one ball is calculated developing the following formula:
Surface S d2
o
Weight S 3
d U
6
6
o
d U

BALL MILLS
to obtain the specific surface with respect to unitary size (i), considering the density
of the iron at 7.8 g/cm3, the following is obtained:
1.23
o 3
i
The calculation for surface is based on the average unitary weight of the
grinding bodies and it supposes that all the grinding bodies are spherical.
6.4.6.3 COMPOSITION OF A BALANCED BALL LOAD

x Ball distribution by size.
To discover the ball size distribution in a balanced load, it is assumed that wear is
being continuously compensated. So, the behavior is expressed by the equation:
a dx
A (dx)
2s
where:
A = Number of balls, sizes between x and x+'x.
a = Replacement rate with diameter D balls, expressed in ball/sec.
s = Radial wear rate of the balls, expressed in cm/sec.
To find out the weight of these pieces, it is enough to multiply them times
each one’s unitary weight and density. The expression is:
Q ³ 6S x U 2a s dx
3
which, upon developing the expression of a fraction of the load, that is for balls
smaller than size d:
d
S U a 3
Q0
d
12 s 0
³
x dx
d S U a d4
Q0
12 s 4
Likewise, for the full load, that is for all the balls with sizes from 0 to D:
D S U a D4
Q0
12 s 4

BALL MILLS
The quotient of these 2 expression is the fraction of the balls smaller than a
certain size (d) with respect to the overall load:
d
Q0 d4
D
Q0 D4
If, in this equation, a complete range of ratios is substituted, that is from 0 to

1.0, the following ball size distribution is obtained for the load:
Ball smaller than 10% of the maximum size (0.1D) = 0.01%
Given the above, the weight of the balls that are smaller than half the
maximum size (0.5D) is only 6%.
When the balls that are smaller than a certain size (m) are separated from the
load, their distribution would be the result of integrating the previous expression from
m to D, and not from 0 to D.
D S U a D4 m 4
Qm
12 s 4
x Unit weight.
To calculate the average unit weight of the ball in a balanced load, the total
load weight is divided by the number of balls in the total load. Therefore, using the
previous expressions, the calculation will be as follows:
D
A0
D
³ 2a s dx
0
a
2s
D
D S U a D4
Q0 48 s
i D
A0 a D
2s

BALL MILLS
S U D3
i
24
in other words, one fourth of the weight of the balls used to compensate for wear.
If the balls smaller than size m are separated, unit weight is calculated as
follows:
D S U a (D 4 m4 )
Qm 48 s
i D
Am a (D - m)
2s
S U (D 4 m4 )
i
24 (D m)
x Specific surface.
Specific surface is also calculated from the same expressions mentioned above. In
these cases, we start with the calculation for the ball load surface (from 0 to D):
D
a S a D3
S0
D
³
0
S x2
2s
dx
2s 3

Specific surface is obtained by dividing this surface by the weight:
D S a D3
S0 6s
o D
Q0 S U a D4
48 s
8
o
UD
In the case of separating the balls smaller than m, the specific surface is
calculated with the following formulas:
D S a (D 3 m3 )
Sm 6s
o D 4 4
Qm S U a (D m )
48 s
8 D 3 m3
o
U D 4 m4

BALL MILLS
6.4.6.4 BALL LOAD AMOUNT

The amount of ball load and some of the mill’s geometric characteristics are
intimately related to energy consumption which, in turn, is translated into grinding
capacity. Therefore, the amount of the ball load represents the potential grinding
capacity.
The formulas and considerations for calculated energy in the mill are in
chapter 2.1 Ball Load Related Calculations.
6.4.6.5 EXAMPLES OF BALANCE LOADS

Tables 6.2 and 6.3 show the suggested distributions of some balanced ball
loads as a percentage of weight to be used in mills. They also show ball sizes that
compensate wear, the unitary weight and the specific surface of the load. The ball
loads have been divided between these two tables: one for large balls, typical for the
first chamber; and the other for small balls, characteristic of the second chamber.
Table 6.2 Balance loads for large balls.
Wear compensation with 90 mm 90 mm 90 mm 80 mm 80 mm 70 mm 70 mm

ball sizes 80 mm 70mm 70 mm 60 mm
90 mm 23% 12% 12%
80 mm 32% 29% 16% 26% 13%
70 mm 21% 28% 25% 36% 32% 29% 15%
60 mm 14% 18% 25% 22% 31% 37% 36%
50 mm 8% 10% 15% 13% 17% 21% 30%
40 mm 2% 3% 7% 3% 7% 11% 16%
30 mm 2% 3%
Unit weight I (g/pc) 1400 1150 890 980 790 660 510
Specific Surf. o (m2/ton) 11.3 12.0 12.9 12.7 13.6 14.5 15.7
Table 6.3 Balance loads for small balls.
Wear compensation with 25 mm 25 mm 20 mm 20 mm 15 mm

ball sizes 20 mm 15 mm
25 mm 40% 20%
20 mm 41% 46% 51% 26%
15 mm 17% 30% 43% 53% 62%
10 mm 2% 4% 6% 21% 36%
5 mm 2%
Unit weight I (g/pc) 30 20 15 10 6
Specific Surf. o (m2/ton) 41.0 46.0 51.0 59.0 68.0

BALL MILLS
6.4.7 OTHER INTERNAL MILL ELEMENTS

6.4.7.1 RETAINERS
These are material retaining devices. They began to be used when
F.L.Smidth opted for reducing the ball size in the second grinding chamber was
adopted, and when the specific gravity of the grinding bodies was diminished by
using cylpebs and minipebs. By using retainers, production was increased by 2% to
3%.
In a long second chamber, up to 4 or 5 retainers can be used, separated by a
distance of 80 to 90 cms. Retainers can be open or closed. When using retainer,
an approximate 3% increase in energy consumption (in chamber 2) is observed.
This represents 2% of the total kW of the mill. Consequently, there is greater
grinding in this chamber.
The disadvantages to these arrangements were: both the retaining rings as
well as the cylpebs and minipebs were very expensive; no significant economy was
achieved in grinding to a given Blaine because the fineness in the control mesh had
to be increased (these setups increased the RRSB curve slope).
The following figure shows an open retainer.
Figure 6.39 Retainer in the fine grinding chamber.
6.4.7.2 RETENTION RINGS.

Retention rings are designed to insure a constant level of material along the
entire length of the grinding chamber. They are especially adequate for materials
with conglomerates because they are retained in the mill for a longer period of time.
It is sometimes possible to adjust the retention ring height. It is made of an abrasion
resistance material (such as Ducrodan).

BALL MILLS
6.4.8 MATERIALS
The life span of mill parts (shields, plates and balls) depends on mechanical
and operation factors, but also to a great degree, on the construction material.
Technological developments in metallurgy have broadened the range of materials
used in making mill parts, improving their mechanical properties.
The following tables show some of the features of the materials used in
manufacturing balls for mills.
Table 6.4 Materials used for manufacturing shields and balls.

Wear (gr/kWh)
Material Hardness Use Ball Size Raw meal Cement
HB mill mill
Raw meal,
soft, non- Large ball 15 - 30 20 - 40
Normal 350 - 425 abrasive &
materials
Wrought small ball 3 - 10 5 - 15
Raw meal,
soft,
Tempered 600 - 700 slightly Large ball 10 - 20 10 - 20
Wrought abrasive &
materials small ball 2-8 2 - 10
Raw meal,
Babbit 400 cement, Small ball 2-6 5 - 15
abrasive
steel materials
Raw meal, Large ball 2-5 2-5
Alloyed steel 600 - 700 cement, &
abrasive small ball
materials
1-3 1-3
Table 6.5 Materials used in white-cement-mill balls.

BALL MILLS
Iron-free materials used in manufacturing

grinding bodies for the white cement industry
Basic Materials Weight of a 40 mm ball Wear from abrasion
Dense 74 grams Very great
Porcelain
Steel core 95 grams Great
Teflon
Sintered 120 grams Little

corundum
Tungsten
carbide 500 grams Insignificant
The materials used mainly for manufacturing mill parts are:

1.- Cast steel in either of 2 forms: normal and tempered.
2.- Babbit steel.
3.- Alloyed steel.
Manganese steel is thermally treated to a hardness of 225 HB. While using
plates made of this material, the ball impact increases surface hardness to 400 HB,
whereas underneath is remains ductile.
White casting has greater hardness, 360 to 450 HB. It does not have good
impact resistance, but it is abrasion resistant.
Babbit casting with chrome and nickel is highly resistant to wear but impact
sensitive. It features a hardness of 550 HB, and a martensite and austenite
structure in very hard carbides.
Once chrome or molybdenum steel is hardened and tempered, it has a
structure of fine grains of carbides, martensite and bainite. If the thermal treatment
is altered within certain limits, different degrees of hardness and rigidity can be
reached thus attaining good impact and wear resistance. This material is often used
in diaphragms when very large, hard balls are used.
The steel chrome alloy (Ducrodan by F.L. Smidth) have a structure of
extremely hard carbides in a austenite and martensite core. It has good impact and
wear resistance. If the chrome content is high, hardness is over 500 HB before
thermal treatment. Afterward, it can be improved by normalizing, hardening and
tempering.
6.5 DESIGN AND DIMENSIONING

Design and dimensioning of a ball mill are based on three fundamental initial
aspects:
x Raw material characteristics; that is, grindability, moisture, granulometric
distribution, abrasiveness, etc.
x Quality of the desired product; mainly, the granulometric distribution of the
product.
x Production capacity.
BALL MILLS
The third, production capacity, with respect the first two aspects and the
available technology, determine energy consumption and the dimensioning aspects
of the mill (and peripheral equipment). Energy consumption is a function of the
amount of material ground, its grinding ease, feed granulometry and the desired
granulometry in the product:
Energy = f(Capacity, Grindability, Granulinicial Æ Granul.final)
The market has demanded finer products over the years; that is why energy
consumption has increased.

BALL MILLS
Design influences energy consumption in such aspects as: type of grinding

circuit (open or closed), type of separator, usage of grinding additives, distribution of
the ball load, type of shielding, product quality; etc.
6.5.1 MAIN MOTOR POWER

To calculate the power required in the main motor, which is normally the initial
calculation for mill dimensioning, it is necessary to know the expected energy
consumption for the material and the capacity at which to dimension the mill.
Energy consumption can be obtained in laboratory tests (see 3.2 Grindability) and
the values are then scaled to an industrial level, with indexes obtained in practice for
such aspects as: type of separator, type of grinding (wet or dry process), type of
grinding circuit (open or closed), etc. Each supplier has his own considerations as
the result of his vast experience in the field.
The power needed in the motor for grinding will therefore be the product of
the specific energy consumption times the mill capacity, including a dimensioning
safety factor:
(Specific energy consumption) (Capacity)

kW motor =
Safety Factor
6.5.2 MILL DIMENSIONS

Given the motor capacity, a standard mill is selected from the supplier’s
tables. Table 6.6 offers an example of standard mills by F.L.S., for cement mills.
These have been calculated from standard clinker grindability and for a specific
product and system.
Table 6.6 Standard Mills by F.L.Smidth
Capacity* Mill Motor Maximum Mill

Size** kW RPM Ball Load Weight***
t/h ton ton
59 34X11.5 1650 17.8 132 153
81 34X16 2270 17.7 178 197
77 38X11.5 2160 16.8 159 174
107 38X16 3000 16.8 219 224
101 42X12 3830 15.8 196 205
140 42X16.5 3930 15.9 270 259
137 46X13 3830 15.5 241 247
189 46X17.5 5300 15.3 344 321
184 50X14 5150 14.9 310 315
253 50X19.5 7100 14.7 431 421
* Based on normal clinker. 3000 cm2/g Blaine. Sepax
** Mills with equal diameter, longitude varied by 0.5 m
*** Does not include ball load nor reducer.

BALL MILLS
Similarly, there are standard mills for raw meal and coal. There are several
combinations of motor size, diameter and length. However, experience has shown
that the proportion of length/diameter adheres to the following quantities, in a closed
circuit:
Cement mills L/D = 2.6 to 3.8
Air-swept raw meal mills L/D = 1.5 to 2.0
2-chamber raw meal mills L/D = 2.0 to 2.5
3-chamber raw meal mills L/D = 1.7 to 2.2
Raw meal mills with central discharge L/D = 2.1 to 2.7
Open circuit mills have a L/D ratio of 3.0 to 6.0. When the L/D ratio
diminishes, the circulating load increases.
The intermediate diaphragm location is found by evaluating the specific
energy consumption and filling degrees, per chamber. Finally, the one closest to the
product parameters in chamber 1 is selected. These parameters are: 15% retention
in 0.5 mm, 7% retention in 1.0 mm, and 2% retention in 2.0 mm; and a 10 kWh/ton
consumption in the same chamber, approximately, for “normal” filling degree values.
6.5.3 PERIPHERAL EQUIPMENT

Peripheral equipment is determined based on the circulating load it works
with. This will depend on the amount of product, type of separator and production
capacity. The considerations are:
x Feed and product conveyance.
It is dimensioned 20% over the mill’s warranty production capacity (tph*1.2).
x Returns conveyance.
It is dimensioned 25% over the expected circulating load of the mill’s warranty
production capacity (tph*(FC-1)*1.25).
x Mill-to-separator conveyance.
It is dimensioned 25% over the mill discharge (tph*FC*1.25).
6.5.4 BALL LOAD

The main parameters for designing a ball load are:
1. Feed granulometry.
2. Feed grindability.
3. Mill diameter.
4. Mill rotation speed.
5. Diaphragm slot dimensions.
Initially, the maximum ball size for chamber 1 is calculated, as seen in section
6.4.7.1 Maximum Ball Size, with the fresh feed; for chamber 2, all the material
coming from chamber 1 is considered.
On the other hand, the maximum ball size for chamber 2 depends on the
outlet diaphragm slot width.
The minim size should be less than the balance load obtained by maximum
ball size already calculated and/or, at least, twice the width of the aforementioned
slots.
BALL MILLS
Sometimes, especially when the mill feed granulometry covers a wide range,
2 or more different balance loads in diverse proportions can be combined: for
example, a load with a maximum ball size of 90 mm with another of 80 mm in
proportions of 50%-50%, 30%-70%, etc. This adjustment is usually made by a
specialist during the mill start-up test and during optimization.
Single chamber mills feature two (or more) “combined” balance loads which
are separated by the classifying shielding (they have no intermediate diaphragm). In
this case, each ball load is calculated from “imaginary longitudes” of each “chamber”
(imaginary location of an intermediate diaphragm) with the same filling degree. The
longitude ratios turn out to be from 40/60 to 45/55, approximately. Energy
consumptions for raw meal are: 5-6 kWh/ton in “chamber 1” (large ball) and 6-7
kWh/ton in “chamber 2” (small ball). The commonly used ball loads are:
x For coal grinding, 50 mm to 25 mm (or 15 mm).
x For raw meal grinding, 90 mm to 25 mm.
x For cement grinding (with pre-grinding), 50 mm to 15 mm.
6.6 GRINDING PROCESS

The physics of cracking has been developed mainly in the area of fracture
prevention to structures. It wasn’t until relatively recently that it has been applied to
grinding. In any case, its use has meant a considerable improvement to the
understanding of breakage mechanisms.
The methods of force application to a particle affect the breakage pattern.
There are four known basic forms of applying such forces:
x Impact: particle breakage by means of a single rigid force.

x Compression: particle disintegration between two rigid forces.
x Shearing: particle tearing by means of rigid forces or the vortex of a fluid.
x Attrition: wear due to friction between two surfaces: a particle against a rigid
surface, or against another particle
In actual conditions, it is difficult to define, for a given type of grinding, the
prevailing force application method. However, theoretically, it is important to
distinguish between these force application methods.
Material hardness is defined as its resistance to deformation, and is usually
determined by penetration testing with very hard materials. On the other hand,
material toughness is defined as the resistance to fracture. The quotient between
hardness and toughness is called the rigidity index.
Materials with a high rigidity index are easier to grind than those with a low
rigidity index because of their high toughness.
6.6.1 PROPAGATION OF CRACKS IN SOLIDS

BALL MILLS
Most solids have certain parts that are weaker than other due to such defects
as: dislocations, microcracks, borders between crystals and impurities. By applying
and external force, stress concentrates on the deformation points, thereby starting
cracks in the material.
By means of a balance of forces in the mobile end of the crack, it has been
proven that stress must reach a critical value to initiate breakage. Once breakage
has started, of the deformation force is not quickly relieved, the system becomes
unstable and cracking is accelerated to up to 40% of the speed of sound within the
solid.
In this process, energy liberated exceeds the required value, so that
remaining energy can concentrate on other cracks and spread. Once the crack
starts to spread, fractures can result.
In materials with a high rigidity index, the energy applied by an external force
is released as the propagation of deforming cracks, making the material easier to
break.
6.6.2 STRESS PATTERNS IN PARTICLES

The main factors that affect the stress patterns in a particles are:
x Number and direction of the forces.
x Velocity of application.
x Shape and size of the particle.
When a rigid particle is submitted to a single force, a conical stress
concentration area develops under the contact point, at which particle degradation is
intense in comparison to the external part of that area. Therefore, fine particles are
derived mainly from this area and the coarse material is derived from the rest of the
particle.
In a particle subject to several forces, the cracks spread each toward
the others, as shown in figure 6.40.
Figure 6.40 Cracks developing under multiple forces.
On the other hand, the probability of breakage of a particle increases with the
number of forces applied, up to a number in the order of ten. If more of these are

BALL MILLS
applied, the probability of breakage decreases and the probability increases that the
cracks will only run near the periphery of the solid.
This is of special interest in the case of mills that work with a bed of material,
where it is very important to eliminate the fine particles because otherwise the
probability of larger particle breakage is reduced by the increase in contacts due to
the small particles.
The force application speed is more important for viscoelastic materials than
for rigid ones. Viscoelastic materials are fractured more easily at high speeds. This
is why plastic materials are better ground by impact than by slow compression.
As to particle size, small particles have a different internal stress pattern from
the large particles, mainly because of imperfections, stored elastic energy and
plastic deformation. In general, this is what makes them harder to break. The
smaller the particles, the fewer the imperfections. Therefore, stress levels have to
be increased accordingly.
The second reason why small particles are harder to break is that the elastic
energy stored at the moment of starting the crack decreases proportionally to
volume, while the energy needed to spread the crack decreases proportionally to the
transversal area. Therefore, when reducing the size of the particle, it may be that
energy stored and released at the moment of initiating the crack might be insufficient
for propagation, and so the crack stops spreading.
The effect of plastic deformation becomes more important as the particle size
decreases. For example, with average limestone, size reduction of up to 5 microns
increases the number of radial cracks. Under 5 microns, plastic deformation
increases so that there is no increase in radial cracks. Finally, at 1 micron the
particle only deforms without generating cracks, in this case, shows a totally plastic
behavior. Studies with cement clinker have established that the transition from a
rigid behavior to a plastic one appears at between 10 and 20 microns.
Lastly, it must be pointed out that grinding additives have no effect on the
stress patterns in the particle, nor do they help to the propagation of cracks or
particle fracture. Their positive effect for industrial grinding resides mainly in the fact
that they confer a greater motility to the particles, increasing the probability they will
be reached by the impact of one of the balls .
Clearly, actual grinding includes the application of forces to the greatest
possible amount of particles. Since many of the forces applied to particles do not
reach the required value for the development of cracks and fractures, much of the
energy will be lost as heat. Therefore, it is to be expected that industrial grinding
systems are highly inefficient.
6.6.3 FACTORS THAT AFFECT PARTICLE DISTRIBUTION.

The distribution of particles that results from a grinding process depends on
certain factors, we will now look at the most important.
BALL MILLS
6.6.3.1 EFFECT OF FEED SIZE AND GRINDING TIME

Figure 6.41 shows an example for silica, ground for different periods starting
from two different initial granulometries . For short grinding times, a finer feed results
in a finer product, as is to be expected. However, for longer times, over one hour,
the resulting granulometric distributions are practically the same. Studies have been
carried out showing the same effect for cement clinker. Everything seems to indicate
that with prolonged grinding times, the resulting particle distributions for a given
material tend to be the same, regardless of initial size.
100.00%
64 64
32
32 8
8 4
50.00%
1
4
1 Feed Size
32-42 mesh
60-80 mesh
0.00%
0 100 200 300 400 500
Figure 6.41 Accumulated distribution with 1, 4, 8, 32 y 64 minutes of grinding
6.6.3.2 EFFECT OF GRINDING METED
Different experiments have proven that the grinding system used has no
bearing on the distribution that results from initial breakage (bimodal distributions
occur in every case). As grinding time elapses, the distribution starts to turn into
monomodal, and the modal value of the smallest particle prevails.
For impact grinding, an increase in impact speed has the same effect on
particles distribution as increased grinding time in a ball mill. Therefore, all the
grinding methods render particle distributions which go through the same cycle of
changes as grinding progresses.
6.6.3.3 EFFECT OF ENERGY VS. IMPACT SPEED

Lab tests have proven that in single-impact particle breakage, using different
impact speeds and the same total energy, the particles differ slightly as to the
resulting granulometric distribution. Consequently, it is total energy and not impact
speed the prevailing factor in particle distribution. Research carried out in 1973

BALL MILLS
indicate that it is the energy accumulated in the particle at the moment of fracture,
more than the magnitude of the external energy applied, what really decides the
resulting particle distribution. Therefore, external energy in needed to start breakage
but not all of it is used in the fracture itself.
6.6.3.4 EFFECT OF A SINGLE VS. REPEATED FRACTURE

Based on research done on impact grinding, applying the same total energy
but in a single strong impact or small repeated impacts, the conclusion reached is
that more fine particles are obtained by repeated impacts.
6.6.4 REASON FOR CHANGES IN PARTICLE DISTRIBUTION

6.6.4.1 MULTIMODAL DISTRIBUTION IN INITIAL BREAKAGE
As stated earlier, when a particle is submitted to a force a high-stress cone is
created under the contact area of the applied force. The highest energy density is
found in this cone, so it is to be expected that maximum particle degradation will also
be found in the cone. In the areas between the different stress cones associated
with external forces, particle degradation occurs due to compression of very fine
particles but coarser than those in the cones. The rest of the particle, in which
tension is the cause of rupture, generates relatively coarse particles. This has been
experimentally proven and is illustrated in figure 6.42.

BALL MILLS
Figure 6.42 Typical particle distribution resulting from impact breakage.

The previous statements therefore point to a multimodal distribution, and the
number of modes will depend on the number of external applied forces.
6.6.4.2 MONOMODAL DISTRIBUTION FOR CONTINUOUS BREAKAGE

As breakage progresses beyond its initial stage, the larger particles will
preferably be ground. There are two reasons for this: first, smaller particles are
stronger than the larger and, second, the smaller particles tend to take cover in the
spaces between the larger ones. Therefore, continuous grinding will eliminate the
peaks corresponding to the large particles in the granulometric density distribution,
and the peak associated with the small particles will increase leading finally to a
monomodal distribution.
6.6.4.3 SIMILAR PRODUCT DISTRIBUTIONS FROM DIFFERENT FEED

SIZES.
Likewise, for two material feed distributions –one coarser than the other-
submitted to grinding, the larger particles will break more easily than the small
particles. Therefore, both particles size distribution tend to the same final product
distribution in continuous grinding.
6.6.4.4 FINE PARTICLES OBTAIN BY REPEATED FRACTURE VS A

SINGLE IMPACT
If the same number of equally sized particles –separated into two groups- are
submitted to the same amount of externally applied energy, and the first group is
subject to a single impact, and repeated fracture is applied to the second group, then
the expected outcome is that there will be a larger amount of fine particles resulting
from the second group. This conclusion is based on the fact that for each particle,
the stress cone formed under the contact area produces fine particles, while the rest
of the particle produces coarser pieces. In other words, the greater the number of
contacts, the greater the amount of fine particles produced by a given amount of
externally applied energy.
This fact has also been proven experimentally.

BALL MILLS
6.6.5 EFFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH VERY FINE GRINDING

The effect are different in very fine grinding from those of coarse grinding
because, among other things, such phenomena as aggregating and massing, the
influence of the gas surrounding the particle (associated with material fluidity), and
plastic deformation (associated with grinding limit) play an important part.
6.6.5.1 AGGREGATION AND MASSING

Aggregation is defined as the reversible and weak adhesion of particles in a
disperse system, due to electrostatic and cohesion forces. It normally takes place in
earlier stages of grinding before massing, mainly in soft and easy to grind materials
such as gypsum, lime and certain calcareous rocks.
Massing on the other hand, is the compact and irreversible adherence of
particles, due mainly to chemical forces, which can even cause fundamental
changes in the ground product. It is a characteristic of hard to grind materials, such
as quartz and cement clinker, in which changes in the crystalline structure have
been detected.
In both cases, these adherences represent an increase in the coarse fraction
when they are determined by the dry method. However, when determined by the wet
process, aggregation is reverted, without affecting the resulting distribution. On the
other hand, massing will continue, and it cannot be detected by particle
measurement methods, only by chemical analysis and by observation in the electron
microscope.
6.6.5.2 EFFECTS OF GAS SURROUNDING THE PARTICLE

The role of interstitial gas in the context of grinding in ball mills has been
demonstrated by means of research for ranges of 100 to 10 microns. For example, a
general increase was found in the specific frequency of breakage when the pressure
of the surrounding gas increases, due to the fact that the dust load remains at the
bottom of the mill and receives the action of the falling balls. With low gas pressure,
the material tends to rise in the mill tube along with the balls, and does not receive
the full impact of the falling balls, thus making grinding inefficient.
6.6.5.3 GRINDING LIMIT AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOR

Investigations carried out reach the conclusion that, for a given material and
grinding system, there is a limit below which further grinding is impossible. In a ball
mill there seems to exist a point of dynamic balance in which fine particles form
larger particles at the same speed at which grinding create fine particles. Moreover,
two states of dynamic balance have been defined: the first, temporary, associated
with aggregation and the second, permanent, associated with massing.

BALL MILLS
On the other hand, materials undergo a transition from a rigid to plastic state
when reduced below certain particle sizes. In cement this transition occurs at some
point between 10 and 20 microns. Any point at which this transition happens, could
be expected to be related with the grinding limit, since any further grinding action
would only change its shape, but not its size.
6.6.6 RATIOS THAT CHARACTERIZE THE GRINDING

PROCESS
In the search for a way to mathematically represent the process of industrial
grinding, in such a way that it can be simulated and optimized, certain mathematical
functions have been developed so that together they characterize the process. It is
not the object of this document to enter into detail of mathematical simulation, but
knowledge of these functions and how they vary with the different characteristics of
the specific process will allow understanding of some concepts that will be important
in the evaluation and optimization stage.
6.6.6.1 SPECIFIC BREAKAGE FREQUENCY (S)

Specific frequency of breakage “S” can be defined as the number of breaks
per unit of time, for a given particle size. It somehow gives an indication of the
efficiency with which the process is capable of breaking each particle size. It can be
said that a greater “S” represents a greater breakage efficiency for that size particle.
Reasonable theories have been postulated, from the probabilistic point of

view, that establish that the speed of breakage for particles of a certain size, due to
grinding, is proportional to the amount of material of that size present for grinding.
Therefore, behavior is basically linear, at least, in a certain range. When linearity is
not maintained, it is mainly due to the effects of harder particles in heterogeneous
material, effects of fine particles taking cover between or cushioning coarse
particles, or to changes in the efficiency of the grinding setup (ball size for example)
as it progresses.
6.6.6.1.1 VARIATION OF “S” WITH PARTICLE SIZE.

Studies carried out with a laboratory mill in 1982 show that the specific
breakage frequency behaves linearly, increasing as particle size increases up to a
certain value, above which, it begins to drop drastically. This is due to two factors:
first, the balls cannot trap the larger particles (the mill becomes inefficient) and,
second, large particles tend to become cushioned by the smaller ones. This effect is
illustrated in figure 6.43.

BALL MILLS
S ( m in - 1 )
11.0
0 .5
0 .2
0 .1
0 .0 5
0
0 50 100 200 500 1000 1
m ic r a s
Figure 6.43 Variation of function S in terms of particle.

In actual conditions, attempts should be made to suit mill characteristics to the
particle size being ground at each point. Moreover, it is important to keep the
returns free from fine particles so that they don’t obstruct coarser particle grinding in
chamber 1.
6.6.6.1.2 VARIATIONS OF “S” WITH MILL SPEED

Three types of movements can be differentiated in the ball load inside the mill.
These are shown in figure 6.44.
Cataract
Cascade
Minimal
grinding zone
Figure 6.44 Ball movement inside the mill.

BALL MILLS
1. The balls rise with the shielding tend to “lock” together, depending on the degree
of sliding produced by the shielding. Therefore their grinding work is greatly
diminished. In this zone, the minimal grinding work that takes place is carried out
basically by attrition and cutting.
2. The balls that emerge from the inclined surface of the ball bed roll on the surface,
provoking many impacts in the material load. This movement is known as
cascade and is very effective for the fine grinding of small particles, depending
on ball size. In this movement the grinding work is carried out mainly by attrition,
cutting and compression.
3. At greater mill speeds, with a given load of balls and materials, part of the balls
are thrown up and away from the bed of balls and fall to the bottom of the mill.
This movement is called cataract and is very effective for the grinding of larger
lumps of material, such as in autogenous mills. In this zone, grinding work is
carried out mainly by impact.
The fraction of critical speed at which movement passes from cascade to
cataract varies with the degree of filling with balls and material. In actual conditions,
a speed must be found that approaches the desired optimal effect, both in chamber
1 (where cataract is mainly desired) as well as in chamber 2 (where cascade is
mainly sought). This speed will surely be close to the value where transition from
one to another is carried out (around 75% of critical speed for typical filling degrees).
6.6.6.1.3 VARIATION OF “S” WITH MILL GEOMETRY

There are three main factors in the geometry of the mill:
x Mill Diameter.
Studies have demonstrated that the function of frequency of breakage varies
approximately with the square root of the diameter of the mill, for mills with less than
3.8 meters diameter, for mills with a greater diameter, it varies approximately to the
0.3 power of diameter.
x Mill Length.
Mill length has no bearing on the function of breakage frequency, as established by
studies carried out in 1980.
x Type of Shielding.
Shielding geometry has a definite effect on the function of breakage frequency.
However, scaling laboratory tests to commercial grinding is not reliable. It can only
be pointed out that rippled shielding show a greater “S” for smaller particles than for
larger ones (more cascade than cataract), while lift and spiral shielding show the
opposite effect.
6.6.6.1.4 VARIATION OF “S” WITH THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

THE BALLS
There are two ball features to consider:

BALL MILLS
x Ball Size.
Laboratory tests have found that for particle sizes below 1 mm, there is a reduction
in the function of breakage frequency when ball size is increased from 3/4” to 2”.
However, an increase in ball size also displaces the value of particle size at which
the greatest “S” occurs to larger values. These relationships can be seen in figure
6.45.
x Ball Density.
A proportional relationship has been found between the function of breakage
frequency and ball density; so the greater the ball density, the greater the breakage
frequency.
S
-1
(min)
1.0
2.0 in
1.5 in
1.25 in
1.0 in
0.75 in Ball Size
0.1
Particle Size
1.0 10 mm
Figure 6.45 Typical variation of “S” with the ball and particle sizes.
6.6.6.1.5 VARIATION OF “S” WITH BALL AND MATERIAL

LOAD
If q is defined as the fraction of the volume occupied by the ball load and U as
the fraction of interstitial ball space occupied by material, then the fraction of mill
volume occupied by material can be expressed as:
fc = 0.4 q U

BALL MILLS
where material porosity is considered in this case as 0.4, although it can be

calculated in each case from physical measurements. When U = 1.0, the load is said
to be saturated.
The product of “S” and “fc” is known as “relative absolute breakage
frequency”, an important concept because it is proportional to mill capacity. On the
other hand, the graph of the absolute breakage frequency (“S” times mass “W” of
material in the mill), figure 6.46 shows that it remains practically invariable in the
range 0.5<U<1.0; but for U>1.0 it falls drastically, corresponding to mill overfilling.
Since power consumed does not decrease in the same proportion when raising mill
filling with material, this overfilling translates into inefficiency.
SW
Overfilling
0.6
begins
0.5
Constant S range
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Interstitial filling U
Figure 6.46
6.6.6.2 BREAKAGE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION (B)

When a particle breaks, it generates a series of minor particles. The resulting
distribution, before another breakage occurs, is known as the breakage distribution
function and is known as the (B) function.
So, the process of industrial grinding is actually a succession of primary
breakage events, represented by each one of its (B) functions. The sum of all these
events is the description of the entire process.
Between 1969 and 1980, several studies were carried out to find out the
effect that operating parameters and mill characteristics have over the “B” function.
These studies have demonstrated that the effects mill diameter, ball density, the ball
load (within normal limits) and load material on the “B” function are inconsequential.
However, ball size does have a striking effect, sensibly increasing the
generation of fine particles when ball size is increased.

BALL MILLS
Generally, the breakage distribution function “B” is less affected by mill

variables than breakage frequency “S”.
6.6.6.3 RETENTION TIME DISTRIBUTION (RTD)

Continuous grinding implies, unlike batchwise grinding, the transportation
within the mill at the same time that grinding is being carried out. The mathematical
function that relates the amount of mass fed along with its retention time is known as
the “C” function or curve (figure 6.47). From this, the “RTD” (Retention Time
Distribution) is defined as:
C(t)
I(t) = f
³ C(t) dt
0
c(t)
t Time starting with entrance

t+dt
Figure 6.47 C curve -concentration at mill exit.
Function I(t) has the same shape as curve C, but in terms of percentages.
Also, from I(t) the average retention time can be calculated as:
f
W = ³ tI(t) dt
0
Of all the parameters and mill geometry, when considering industrial mills,
there are basically two that have importance in the RTD function: mill speed and ball
size.
Considerable changes have been found in the shape of the RTD function and
in the average time of retention when changes in the velocity of the mill cause a
modification in the movements of the balls from cascade to cataract. However, a

BALL MILLS
greater increase in speed within the cataract range does not have a considerable
effect.
On the other hand, when reducing ball size and reducing interstitial space
between the balls, the material passage area is reduced, increasing retention time
as long as U<1.0. For values of U>1.0 the difference in retention times begins to
decrease.
6.7 OPERATION PARAMETERS

To attain optimal and stable operation in the process, it is necessary to
monitor and control the ball mill operation process conditions. Some of the
parameters are the same for raw meal, cement and coal grinding. However, for
each of these types of grinding there are peculiarities that distinguish each from the
rest. This section provides a general guide on the operation parameters for each
one of the grinding processes. The fact that different arrangements can require
different forms of operation is something to keep in mind.
6.7.1 RAW MEAL MILLS

Figures 6.48 y 6.49 show two typical setups for raw meal grinding in ball mills
with a drying chamber. One of these arrangements incorporates a flash dryer. The
figures show the parameters that are usually measured in these setups, and it is
considered that they cover practically every case. Moreover, tables 6.7 and 6.8
show the effects of the parameters than can be modified directly over the rest of the
parameters. The relations shown refer to the primary effects, before any control
action –manual or automatic- is taken.
Kw
Kw
%
%
Gases from
Preheater %
Tghor Fresh Feed

°C tph % H2O
% To silo
tph Psal
Tsalg
Kw
%
Tgcal Pent Tsal
Tent Noise
Figure 6.48 Raw meal grinding setup with first generation separator.
Table 6.7 Main Control Parameters of a Typical Raw Meal Mill and their Influence on
the Rest of the Parameters.

BALL MILLS
Suction at Mill
Suction at Mill
Outgoing gas
temperature
temperature
Noise Level
Main Motor
VTI Motor
Indication
Outgoing
Entrance
moisture
fineness
Elevator
material
Returns
Product
Product
Power
Power
Power
Outlet
By raising:
Feed Ï Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð
Moisture Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ð Ï Ð
Inlet Temp. Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï ÏÐ Ð Ï
Open Static Sep. Ð Ï Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð ÏÐ Ï
Open Dynamic Sep. Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð ÏÐ Ð
VTI Blind Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð
Kw % %
%
tss
Kw
% Kw
Kw, rpm
Kiln
Gases
Feed: tph % H2O
% °C Fineness
Cold Air % H2O
% tsal
Returns
Psal
tph
Kw
tgg Pent tent Noise tsalmat
Figure 6.49 Raw meal mill arrangement with a third generation separator.
Table 6 8 Main Control Parameters of a Raw Meal Mill, and their Corresponding
Influence on the Rest of the Parameters.
Outgoing material
Product moisture
Separator Power
VTI Motor Power
Product fineness
Separator Outlet
Temperature at
Elevator Power
Separator Fan
Suction at Mill
Suction at Mill
Outgoing gas
temperature
temperature
Noise Level
Main Motor
Indication
Entrance
Returns
Power
Power
Outlet
By raising:
Feed Ï Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï

BALL MILLS
Moisture Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ï Ð Ï
Inlet Temp. Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ð
Separator Speed Ï Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ð Ð
Separator Blind Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð
Recirculation Blind Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ð Ï
VTI Blind Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ð Ï Ð
6.7.1.1 NOISE LEVEL

Usually, only the noise level in chamber 1 is monitored, although in some
cases the chamber II sound level can also be used. The signal is graphed as a % in
the control room.
When the mill is shutdown, the noise level graph is adjusted to 100%, and to
0% when operating without feed. When the mill is working normally, the graph
should be as close as possible to 50%.
More material (less noise) gives off a higher signal on the graph (a fuller mill)
and less material (more noise) gives off a lower signal in the graph (a less full mill).
The material level in the mill is controlled by the fresh feed.
Although the amount of returns, gas flow and temperature, feed moisture,
hardness and granulometry, and the conditions of the mill’s internal elements may
influence noise level, none of these conditions can be controlled with such a rapid
effect as the fresh feed, which is why it is precisely this last parameter that is the
primary control of the mill’s level.
6.7.1.2 MAIN MOTOR POWER

Energy consumption can be monitored by the main motor as instant values or
as a graphed register, in amps or kw. The accumulated kwh value can be used as
additional information.
The monitored energy consumption depends on the ball load and has a
variation parallel to the noise level. A full mill renders lower kWs, and an empty mill
renders higher kWh, although the variations are relatively small.
It is worth pointing out that the dependence of power consumption on the mill
material level is really notable in the empty mill range, until the material saturates the
load porosity. For a greater material filling degree, the mill motor power will display
minor reductions.
Power is influenced by the same parameters as noise level within the level
ranges that cause notable variations in power.
6.7.1.3 BUCKET ELEVATOR POWER

Usually energy consumption of the bucket elevator(s) is registered as an
instant value in amps or kW, although it can also be registered in a continuous graph
in kW or in %kW.
This parameter also varies with noise level, but it can be considered more as
a circulation factor indicator, whereas noise level indicates greater amount, hardness
and granulometry of the fresh feed.

BALL MILLS
Fresh feed also controls bucket elevator power.
6.7.1.4 GAS GENERATOR OUTLET TEMPERATURE

The heat generator outlet temperature is expressed as an instant value in ºC.
It is normally kept at a maximum value, depending on the gas generator itself
(typically 1000-1200ºC) and is adjusted by means of fuel and diluting (cold) air
valves.
6.7.1.5 MILL INLET TEMPERATURE

The mill inlet temperature is registered as an instant value and as a
continuous graph; expressed in ºC.
The normal value depends on conductor construction, that is, whether they
are lined or not or whether the incoming gases are from a heat generator or from a
kiln as residual gases. This temperature is normally adjusted along with the
generator temperature or, given the case of kiln gases, with the gate located
between the kiln and the mill.

BALL MILLS
If there is false air, it will have a great impact on the gas temperature at the
mill inlet.
6.7.1.6 TEMPERATURE MILL OUTLET

The outlet temperature should be registered as an instant value and recorded
in ºC on a graph.
This parameter depends on feed moisture, as web as on temperature and
flow of drying gases. The amount of false air entering the system also influences
this parameter.
For a given system with a relatively invariable heat transfer efficiency, there is
a correlation between the gas outlet temperature and the product’s residual
moisture. The higher the outgoing gas temperature, the drier the product will be,
and vice versa.
This parameter serves as a basis to control the amount and temperature of
the drying gases. In other words, the position of the fuel and fresh air valves and/or
the kiln gas gates will be determined by the temperature of the mill outlet gases.
6.7.1.7 SEPARATOR INLET AND OUTLET TEMPERATURE

If there is drying in the separator(s), the inlet and outlet temperatures are
controlled the same way as the mill temperatures when drying is carried out inside
the mill.
6.7.1.8 MILL INLET PRESSURE

The pressure at the mill inlet is registered as an instant value and in a
continuous graph, expressed in mm CA or mbar. The pressure at the mill inlet is
controlled to keep it always slightly negative, ranging from -10 to -20 mm CA.
The sweeping fan gate is used for this purpose.
6.7.1.9 TOTAL FRESH FEED

Total feed is usually registered as an instant value and in a graph, expressed
in tph, as web as the accumulated value expressed in tons.
Total feed controls the mill noise level, main motor and elevator power, and
outlet temperature. It also influences all the other grinding parameters indirectly.
6.7.1.10 FUEL/PRIMARY AIR VALVE

It is registered only as a current position, expressed in %. It is adjusted to
modify the contribution of kilocalories supplied to the mill, so it has a direct influence
on mill inlet and outlet temperatures, on the inlet and outlet pressures, and an
indirect effect on noise level.
6.7.1.11 DILUTING AIR GATE POSITION

It is registered only as a current position, expressed in %. Adjustments to this
gate bring about changed in the temperature and flow of the generator gases (but in
a practical manner, not in supplied kilocalories). It has a direct influence on inlet
temperature and inlet/outlet pressures.

BALL MILLS
6.7.1.12 KILN GAS GATE POSITION

It is registered as a current position, expressed in %. Its influence is identical
to that of the fuel valve position. It supplies more or fewer kilocalories to the mill by
opening or closing it, respectively.
6.7.1.13 SEPARATOR ADJUSTMENTS

The adjustments to the first generation separators are made manually and
have no constant register in the control room. For more modern separators, the
instant values are registered in % of the blind, rotor speed in rpm or flow in m3/min.
Changes in the separator bring about a change in product fineness and in the
amount and fineness of the returns to the mill, which in turn, causes changes in the
noise level, the elevator(s) kW and in outlet pressure.
6.7.1.14 OTHER PARAMETERS

x Returns
They are registered as an instant value and as a continuous graph, expressed
in tph. They indicate the amount of material returned to the mill from the separator.
Along with noise and elevator(s) kWs, this parameter is a very good guide for mill
level control.
x Filter inlet temperature
It is registered as an instant value, in ºC. This parameter is used during start-
ups to prevent hazards from possible condensation in the system, especially in the
filter.
x Mill outlet pressure

Mill outlet pressure is registered as an instant value and as a continuous
graph, expressed in mmCA or in mbar. Along with noise level, this pressure is a
good indication of the amount of material inside the mill, and the degree of stoppage
in the partition walls or diaphragms.
x Main fan and separator amperage

Electrical motors are monitored as a safety routine. However, they also
supply information on the process. The main fan motor amperage indicates how
close we are to maximum capacity and allows to keep a set flow constant. The
relative amount of material in the circuit can be obtained by the separator amperage,
the returns and the elevator power.

BALL MILLS
6.7.2 CEMENT MILLS

Figures 6.50 and 6.51 show two typical arrangements for cement grinding in
ball mills. One of these setups considers a first generation separator (Sturtevant
type), fed from above, and the other contemplates a third generation separator
(Sepax type) fed from below. The figures indicate the parameters that are usually
measured in these arrangements, and considers that they cover practically every
case. Moreover, tables 6.9 and 6.10 show the effects of those parameters that can
be modified directly on the rest of the parameters. The relations shown refer to the
primary effect, before any control action –manual or automatic- is taken.
K
% K
Pcollector
%
%
Fresh Feed
°
tp To silo
% tp Ps
tsal
lts/ Pe tsa lts/

% Noise tdi %
Figure 6.50 Cement grinding with a first generation separator.
Table 6.9 Control Parameters for a Cement Mill equipped with a First Generation
Separator.

BALL MILLS
Outgoing material
Separator Power
VTI Motor Power
Product fineness
Elevator Power
Product Blaine
Suction at Mill
Suction at Mill
Outgoing gas
temperature
temperature
Noise Level
Main Motor
Indication
Entrance
Returns
Power
Outlet
By raising:
Feed Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð
Moisture Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ï Ð Ï Ð Ð
Inlet Temp. Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï
Static Separator Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð Ð
Dynamic Separator Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ï Ð Ï Ï Ï
Water Injection Ï Ï Ð Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð
% tss %
Kw
%
P collector
P collector
Kw
Kw
Kw, rpm
Fineness
Blaine
Returns
Feed: tph tph tsal
°C Psal
% H2O
Kw
%
Pent
lts/hr Noise tsalmat lts/hr
% tdiaf %
Figure 6.51 Cement grinding with a third generation separator.
Table 6.10 Main control parameters for a Cement Mill equipped with a Third
Generation Separator, and how they influence the rest of the parameters.

BALL MILLS
Outgoing material
Separator Power
VTI Motor Power
Product fineness
Elevator Power
Product Blaine
Suction at Mill
Suction at Mill
Outgoing gas
temperature
temperature
Noise Level
Main Motor
Indication
Entrance
Returns
Power
Outlet
By raising:
Feed Ï Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ï Ð Ï Ð Ð
Moisture Ï Ð Ï Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ï Ð Ð
Inlet Temp. Ð Ï Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï
Water Injection Ï Ï Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ð Ð
Air flow to separator Ð Ï Ð ÏÐ ÏÐ Ð Ð Ï Ï Ð Ð Ð
Separator rotor speed Ï Ï Ï ÏÐ ÏÐ Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï Ï
Mill draft Ð Ï Ð Ð Ð Ï Ï ÏÐ Ï Ð Ð Ð
6.7.2.1 NOISE LEVEL

the control room.
The material level in the mill is controlled by the fresh feed. Although the
amount of returns, gas flow and temperature, feed moisture, hardness and
granulometry, and the conditions of the mill’s internal elements may influence noise
level, none of these conditions can be controlled with such a rapid effect as the fresh
feed, which is why it is precisely this last parameter that is the primary control of the
mill’s level.

The monitored energy consumption depends on the ball load and has a
variation parallel to the noise level. A full mill renders lower kWs, and an empty mill
renders higher kWh, although the variations are relatively small.
It is worth pointing out that the dependence of power consumption on the mill
material level is really notable in the empty mill range, until the material saturates the
load porosity. For a greater material filling degree, the mill motor power will display
minor reductions.

BALL MILLS
6.7.2.3 BUCKET ELEVATOR POWER

Usually energy consumption of the bucket elevator(s) is registered as an
instant value in amps or kW, although it can also be registered in a continuous graph
in kW or in %kW.
This parameter also varies with noise level, but it can be considered more as
a circulation factor indicator, whereas noise level indicates greater amount, hardness
and granulometry of the fresh feed. Fresh feed also controls bucket elevator power.
6.7.2.4 INTERNAL DIAPHRAGM TEMPERATURE

Diaphragm temperature should be registered as an instant value and as a
continuous graph, expressed in ºC.
The desired value depends partly on feed moisture/temperature. If there is
moisture, the diaphragm temperature is low. Temperatures below 90ºC to 100ºC
indicate problems with material sticking to the grinding balls. In that case,
temperature is adjusted through the feed, rendering less overall moisture in order to
raise the temperature. If there is dry, hot feed, the temperature should be adjusted
between 105ºC and 110ºC, with water injection to chamber I.
6.7.2.5 MILL OUTLET MATERIAL TEMPERATURE

Material temperature at the mill outlet is registered as an instant value and as
a continuous graph, both expressed in ºC.
This parameter should be set between 105ºC and 130ºC, and it is controlled
by water injection to chamber II.


6.7.2.8 WATER INJECTED TO CHAMBER I

The water injected into chamber I is registered as an instant value, expressed
in lph or m3/hr.
Adjustments to water flow directly affect the intermediate diaphragm’s
temperature. Indirectly, they influence noise level, inlet and outlet pressures, and
the air flow.
6.7.2.9 WATER INJECTED TO CHAMBER II

BALL MILLS
The water injected into chamber II is registered as an instant value,

expressed in lph or m3/hr.
Adjustments to water flow directly influence outgoing air and material
temperatures. Indirectly, they influence material flow, inlet and outlet pressures, air
flow, and mill fan kWs.
6.7.2.10 WATER VALVES AND MAIN FAN GATE POSITIONS

They are registered as a current position, expressed in %. The valves control
water flow with the effects explained above. The main fan gate increases or
decreases the air flow to the mill.
Changes in the flow of sweeping air directly influence inlet and outlet
pressures; and indirectly influence noise level and kW consumption of the elevators,
the separator and the fan.
6.7.2.11 SEPARATOR ADJUSTMENTS

The adjustments to the first generation separators are made manually and
have no constant register in the control room. For more modern separators, the
instant values are registered in % of the blind, rotor speed in rpm or flow in m3/min.
Changes in the separator bring about a change in product fineness and in the
amount and fineness of the returns to the mill, which in turn, causes changes in the
noise level, the elevator(s) kW and in outlet pressure.

x Returns
They are registered as an instant value and as a continuous graph,
expressed in tph.
They indicate the amount of material returned to the mill from the separator.
Along with noise and elevator(s) kWs, this parameter is a very good guide for mill
level control.
It is registered as an instant value, in ºC.
This parameter is used during start-ups to prevent hazards from possible
condensation in the system, especially in the filter.
graph, expressed in mmCA or in mbar.
Along with noise level, this pressure is a good indication of the amount of
material inside the mill, and the degree of stoppage in the partition walls or
diaphragms.
supply information on the process.
The main fan motor amperage indicates how close we are to maximum
capacity and allows to keep a set flow constant.

BALL MILLS
The relative amount of material in the circuit can be obtained by the separator
amperage, the returns and the elevator power.
6.7.3 COAL MILLS

Figure 6.52 shows a typical arrangement for a coal grinding in a ball mill. It
also indicates the parameters usually measured in these systems. These
parameters cover all cases.
Coal mills are generally 100% air-swept and equipped with a static separator.
Kw Kw
%
%
tsal
Psal
O2
tph
% H20
% Satellite
% % Kiln
% Kw
Noise
tent
Pent
O2
Figure 6.52 Coal mill setup.

BALL MILLS
6.7.3.1 NOISE LEVEL

the control room.
The material level in the mill is controlled by the fresh feed. Although the
amount of returns, gas flow and temperature, feed moisture, hardness and
granulometry, and the conditions of the mill’s internal elements may influence noise
level, none of these conditions can be controlled with such a rapid effect as the fresh
feed, which is why it is precisely this last parameter that is the primary control of the
mill’s level.

The monitored energy consumption depends on the ball load and has a variation
parallel to the noise level. A full mill renders lower kWs, and an empty mill renders
higher kWh, although the variations are relatively small.
It is worth pointing out that the dependence of power consumption on
the mill material level is really notable in the empty mill range, until the material
saturates the load porosity. For a greater material filling degree, the mill motor
power will display minor reductions.
6.7.3.3 GAS GENERATOR OUTLET TEMPERATURE

The heat generator outlet temperature is expressed as an instant value in ºC.
It is normally kept at a maximum value, depending on the gas generator itself
(typically 1000-1200ºC) and is adjusted by means of fuel and diluting (cold) air
valves.
6.7.3.4 MILL INLET TEMPERATURE

The mill inlet temperature is registered as an instant value and as a
continuous graph; expressed in ºC.
The normal value depends on conductor construction, that is, whether they are lined
or not or whether the incoming gases are from a heat generator or from a kiln as
residual gases. This temperature is normally adjusted along with the generator
temperature or, given the case of kiln gases, with the gate located between the kiln
and the mill.

BALL MILLS
If there is false air, it will have a great impact on the gas temperature at the
mill inlet.
6.7.3.5 TEMPERATURE MILL OUTLET

The outlet temperature should be registered as an instant value and recorded
in ºC on a graph.
This parameter depends on feed moisture, as web as on temperature and flow of
drying gases. The amount of false air entering the system also influences this
parameter.
For a given system with a relatively invariable heat transfer efficiency,
there is a correlation between the gas outlet temperature and the product’s residual
moisture. The higher the outgoing gas temperature, the drier the product will be,
and vice versa.
This parameter serves as a basis to control the amount and temperature of the
drying gases. In other words, the position of the fuel and fresh air valves and/or the
kiln gas gates will be determined by the temperature of the mill outlet gases.
6.7.3.6 OXYGEN AT THE FILTER OUTLET

Oxygen at the filter outlet is registered as an instant value and as a
continuous graph, expressed in % of O2.
To reduce the risk of explosion to a minimum, this parameter is usually kept
far below the inertia level (14% O2) to a value between 8% and 10%. It is controlled
by means of the proportion of kiln gases and recirculated air. The presence of false
air will greatly influence this parameter.


6.7.3.9 INJECTED WATER

Injected water is registered as an instant value in lph or in m3/hr. Moreover, it
is registered as an instant value of the water value position, expressed as % of
opening. Adjustments in water flow directly influence outlet air and material
temperatures, and air flow. It is used only in inert mills.
6.7.3.10 FUEL/PRIMARY AIR VALVE

BALL MILLS
It is registered only as a current position, expressed in %. It is adjusted to

modify the contribution of kilocalories supplied to the mill, so it has a direct influence
on mill inlet and outlet temperatures, on the inlet and outlet pressures, and an
indirect effect on noise level.
6.7.3.11 DILUTING AIR GATE POSITION

It is registered only as a current position, expressed in %. Adjustments to this
gate bring about changed in the temperature and flow of the generator gases (but in
a practical manner, not in supplied kilocalories). It has a direct influence on inlet
temperature and inlet/outlet pressures.
6.7.3.12 KILN GAS GATE POSITION

It is registered as a current position, expressed in %. Its influence is identical
to that of the fuel valve position. It supplies more or fewer kilocalories to the mill by
opening or closing it, respectively.
6.7.3.13 COLD AIR GATE POSITION

It is registered as a current value, expressed as % of opening. Its function is
identical to that of injected water but in non-inert mills.
6.7.3.14 MAIN FAN GATE POSITION

It is registered as a current value, expressed as % of opening.
The adjustments to this gate indicate a greater flow of hot gases through the
mill, if there is a kiln or gas generator. Changes in its position directly influence
inlet/outlet pressures and outlet temperature.
6.7.3.15 STATIC SEPARATOR ADJUSTMENTS

The changes in the static separator blinds are not usually registered as they
are made manually on site.
Changes in the separator blinds bring about a change in product fineness and
in the amount and fineness of the returns to the mill, which in turn, causes changes
in the noise level, the elevator(s) kW and in outlet pressure.

x Temperature inside the filter
It is registered as an instant value, expressed in °C.
Temperature is usually taken at 4 or 6 points in the filter hopper to watch out for
fire. It is used solely for safety purposes.
It is registered as an instant value, in ºC. This parameter is used during start-
ups to prevent hazards from possible condensation in the system, especially in the
filter.

graph, expressed in mmCA or in mbar. Along with noise level, this pressure is a
BALL MILLS
good indication of the amount of material inside the mill, and the degree of stoppage
in the partition walls or diaphragms.

supply information on the process. The main fan motor amperage indicates how
close we are to maximum capacity and allows to keep a set flow constant.
x Temperature in the ground coal silo.

It is registered as an instant value, expressed in °C. Like the filter
temperature, it is used to watch out for fires inside the silo. It is used solely for
safety purposes.
x CO at the filter outlet and in the ground coal silo

CO is registered as an instant value and as a graph, expressed in ppm. It’s
part of the safety system; to watch out for either slow fires as well as for explosions
in the system.
x Pressure at the static separator outlet

This pressure is registered as a current value and, sometimes as a
continuous graph, both expressed in CA or mbar. It gives a good indication of the air
and material load –the circulating load- passing through the separator.
x Pressure at the filter inlet

It is registered as an instant value, expressed in mm CA or mbar. It gives a
good indication of the total air flow passing through the system.
6.8 OPERATION AND CONTROL

For cost-efficient operation and quality products in a ball mill, it is necessary
to watch and control certain variables of the process. This section covers the
surveillance and control parameter, start-up and stopping procedures, and how to
respond to external disturbances that may arise.

BALL MILLS
6.8.1 BALL MILL OPERATION

As to mill operation, it is worth clarifying that each system and each facility
has its own characteristics that sets it apart from the rest. That’s why the cases
shown here should be considered as specific examples and, under no
circumstances, as general rules.
6.8.1.1 RAW MEAL MILLS

Raw meal mills have two main functions:
x Drying
This process evaporate most of the feed moisture before it is fed into the
grinding chamber(s).
The source of heat can be kiln gases or heat generator gases. The only
difference between the two is the gas temperature.
Drying can be carried out in a drying chamber directly connected to the mill, in
a separator, or separately with no connection to the mill.
However, in all cases the objective is the same: to reduce the moisture
percentage in the feed to a level that the grinding chamber can grind the material
with no problems of sticking to the balls or the lining.
In other words, drying control implies keeping the adequate moisture level -
usually between 1% and 1.5%- in the material that enters the grinding chamber.
Sampling between the drying and grinding process is only possible when the
drying process is carried out in separators or flash. That’s why a ratio between the
remaining moisture and temperature in the material at the outlet (of the separator,
flash or mill) is usually made.
Keeping temperature constant and, consequently, product moisture is done

by adjusting the amount of heat supplied to the drying place, even though there may
be variations in moisture and amount of feed. The amount of heat can be varied in
two ways:
1. Changing the temperature of the hot gases.

2. Changing the amount of gases in m3/hr.

BALL MILLS
In general, it is necessary to work with the highest possible temperature,

considering the maximum limits that the conveyors, fans, crankpins or shoes and
other equipment in contact with the gases can withstand.
The normal maximums are:
With kiln gases = 400 °C.

With generator gases = 800 °C.
The higher the temperature, the faster the materials will dry, and the lower the
volume of gases needed, rendering lower air speeds and fewer pressure drops.
The limit of the amount of gas is actually the maximum air speed. That is, if
large amounts of gas are required, the equipment would increase in physical size so
as not to surpass the maximum air speed limit. In actual conditions, the air speed in
a mill or a separator will be higher when it’s necessary to change the mill air more
often to eliminate the moisture that has evaporated, or when conveyance inside the
mill has to be increased.
x Grinding.
Grinding is carried out in the grinding chamber(s) (usually 1 or 2). Then the
separator separates the mill product into fine and coarse particles. To control this
process and make it as cost-efficient as possible, the relations between the different
factors in the process have to be taken into consideration.
Theories indicate that, once the machine sizes are given, the composition and
amount of the ball loads, a certain amount of material with respect to the ball level
will off the most efficient grinding. These theories also indicate that a certain final
product fineness corresponds to an optimal circulation factor. In other words, in
order to obtain maximum production at the desired fineness, the proportion between
feed and returns to the separator has to be kept.
The available data for this control are usually::

1. Existing feed, expressed in tph.
2. Noise level in the first chamber.
3. Main motor kW consumption.
4. Elevator kW or amps consumption.
5. Pressure drop in the mill.
6. Returns to the separator, expressed in tph.
7. Final product fineness.
Most of these data are registered continually in the control panel. Only
fineness is the result of laboratory analysis every 1 or 2 hours.
The factors which control the value mentioned above are:

BALL MILLS
Amount of feed.
Separator adjustments (pallets, blades, blinds, rotor speed or air flow).
Mill air flow adjustment.
Normally, the separator is adjusted first to get the desired product, then the
feed is adjusted to obtain the optimal recirculation factor. Later, it’s necessary to
maintain this balance, along with the normal variations of feed, such as:
granulometry, composition, hardness and density.
To do this, the noise level and the elevator energy consumption are the most
useful values. By keeping these two parameters constant, minor adjustments to the
feed are enough to obtain optimal conditions in the mill. Separator adjustments are
made only on the basis of the fineness results obtained.
6.8.1.2 COAL MILLS

Coal has variable amount of volatile substances. Moreover, all the kinds of
coal contain hygroscopic water, that is, inherent water, as well as variable amounts
of impurities that become ashes in the combustion process.
The degree of grinding required depends on the type of coal being used.
Nevertheless, it should always be ground to the exact fineness that will insure proper
combustion in the kiln.
Coal with a low volatile content requires a high temperature and fine grinding.
Conversely, coal with a high volatile content should not be finely ground, otherwise
the gas will be expelled too quickly to mix correctly with the combustion air.
Table 6.11 shows the typical content values for volatile substances, moisture
and coal grinding fineness.
Table 6.11 Content of volatile substances, moisture and fineness for different types
of coal.
Type of (%) (%) (%) Hygroscopic Required
Coal Volatile Subst. Ashes Water Fineness
Anthracite 5 5 2 5-7% + 90 P
Anthraciferous soft coal 5-15 3-5 2-6
Semi-oily coal 15-20 5-8 2-6
Bituminous coal 20-30 8-10 2-6
Oily coal 30-40 10-20 2-6
Lignite 40-50 15-30 10-25 30% + 90 P
Coal mills have two main functions:

x Drying.
Drying is the process that evaporate most of the moisture in the feed, before it
enters the grinding chamber(s).
The source of heat can be kiln gases or those from a heat generator.
The only difference between the two is the gas temperature.
Drying can be carried out in a drying chamber directly connected to the
mill, in a separator, or separately with no connection to the mill. However, in all
BALL MILLS
cases the objective is the same: to reduce the moisture percentage in the feed to a
level that the grinding chamber can grind the material with no problems of sticking to
the balls or the lining.
The best way to control drying is by keeping a constant amount of material
entering the chamber. Outlet humidity will depend on the type of coal to grind. A
relation between the remaining humidity and material temperature at the mill outlet is
generally used.
This is achieved by keeping the temperature constant, varying the amount of

heat supplied to the drying chamber. This can be done in one of two ways:
1. Varying the hot gas temperature.
2. Varying the amount of gases in m3/hr.
Work should generally be carried out with the highest possible temperature,
considering the maximum temperatures the ducts, fans, axles or shoes and the
other equipment in contact with the gases can withstand.
The normal maximums are:
With kiln gases = 400°C
With generator gases = 800°C
The higher the temperature, the faster the materials will dry. Additionally, a
lower volume of gases will be needed, thereby rendering lower gas velocities and
pressure drops.
The actual limit to the amount of gases is the maximum air speed. In other
words, if large amounts of gases are required, the equipment will increase in size so
as not to go beyond the maximum air speed limits. In everyday practice, the mill or
separator gas velocity will be higher when it is necessary to change mill gases more
often to eliminate the evaporated humidity, or when conveyance within the mill
should be increased.
x Grinding.
Coal grinding is normally carried out in an “inert” environment to prevent
ignition or the risk of explosions. The word “inert” refers to a low oxygen percentage
environment in which there is no possibility of fire or explosion; usually one with less
than 10% of O2.
Operating an inert system is somewhat more complicated since it is
necessary to control the mill temperature, oxygen percentage, and the dedusting
filter temperature.
As it is not possible to lower gas temperatures with cold air (increasing the O2
percentage), a water-injection system is needed.
On the whole, the hot gas flow is kept constant and water injection adjusts the
output temperature depending on feed moisture.
In some cases, recirculation is also possible so as to restrict water injection.
Grinding is carried out in the grinding chamber(s) (usually 1 or 2).
Then the separator separates the mill product into fine and coarse particles. To
BALL MILLS
control this process and make it as cost-efficient as possible, the relations between
the different factors in the process have to be taken into consideration.


1. Amount of feed.
2. Separator adjustments (pallets, blades, blinds, rotor speed or air flow).
3. Mill air flow adjustment.

BALL MILLS
6.8.1.3 CEMENT MILLS

The main function of a cement mill is grinding, but cement quality must also
be controlled, that is the product granulometric distribution and the proper gypsum
dehydration. This section mentions the operation aspects needed to grind a quality
product.
Grinding.
Grinding is carried out in the grinding chamber(s) (usually 1 or 2).
Then the separator separates the mill product into fine and coarse particles. To
control this process and make it as cost-efficient as possible, the relations between
the different factors in the process have to be taken into consideration.


1. Amount of feed.
2. Separator adjustments (pallets, blades, blinds, rotor speed or air flow).
3. Mill air flow adjustment.
Temperature and dew point control.
BALL MILLS
In order to prevent gypsum dehydration and clinker prehydration, the

temperatures inside the mill have to be kept below 115°C (depending on the type of
gypsum). Normally, this is done by injecting water into the mill. To insure
evaporation, injection should not begin until a temperature of 105ºC had been
reached in the chamber (in may the at the chamber 1 diaphragm or the material
leaving chamber 2).
Once the temperatures have been controlled, the dew point temperature must
also be taken care of to prevent condensation in the system. This is done by varying
the air current through the mill. Suction at the mill outlet is normally used as
reference.
Wet material
Grinding problems will arise when one or more of the feed components
has more than 1.5% of H2O with respect to the total feed at the mill inlet. Since
cement mills do not usually use hot gases, the only drying capacity available is
provided by the heat generated by the grinding itself.
Excess moisture causes the first chamber to fill up more easily. In severe
cases, the partition wall becomes obstructed by coarse, wet material.
If pre-drying the wet component is not possible, the only alternative is to
reduce the amount of feed until the grinding heat can dry the moisture entering the
system.
The intermediate diaphragm temperature is normally used as a guide. It
should be around at least 100°C, in order to prevent moisture trouble.
If the total moisture is less than 1%, operation is possible with lower
diaphragm temperatures.
In cases of moist materials, it is advisable to work with clinker temperatures
between 100 and 150°C.
6.8.2 BALL MILL CONTROL

Two types of basic controls can be distinguished: simple controls and
cascade controls.
Simple control.- This type of control acts according to a variable level
signal originating in the control room, such as the control of a regulating gate. This
control scheme is shown in figure 6.53. The outgoing signal in this type of command
varies depending on the difference between the value sought (set point or SP) and
the feedback value (process value or PV). The operator sets the on-site device set
point for this type of control. It is considered as manual control and will not react to
other process changes, unless the operator modifies the SP value.

BALL MILLS
SIMPLE CONTROL ON-SITE DEVICE
Process Value ( PV )
Set Point ( SP)

Operator
Outlet (O)
Figure 6.53 Simple control scheme.
Automatic Control.- The automatic controls or control loops are a relation

between two variables through electronic devices. The variations in one of the
variables will exert an effect on the other. So, it is possible to control one with
another. This type of control will react to changes in the controlled variable, moving
the SP control variable automatically without the operator’s intervention. The
scheme is shown in figure 6.54.
VARIABLE TO CONTROL ON-SITE

CONTROL VARIABLE DEVICE
Process Value ( PV) Process Value ( PV)
PROCESS
Set Point ( SP ) Set Point ( SP ) MEASURING
Operator INSTRUMENT
Outlet ( O) Outlet (O)
Figure 6.54 Automatic control scheme.
At present, very few parameters are controlled on site. The older

installations generally resort to this type of control in separator pallets (diaphragm
positions), fuel and air valves from a heat generator, fan gates, etc., still without
remote control from the control center.
Manual and automatic controls are basically identical in their performance
and functioning. The big difference is that automatic control acts more often, and if
the regulating system is well adjusted, finer (smaller steps), it allows for optimal
system control, thus making the operator’s job much easier.
The next lesson explains automatic control.

BALL MILLS
6.8.2.1 AUTOMATIC MILL CONTROL

For continuous controls, that is, controls that need corrective action
very often, an automatic controller is often the most suitable option. This controller
is programmed to continuously watch a part of the process and take the necessary
corrective measures in order to keep the variable at its established value.
In the cement industry, PID controller has been used for many years. The
PID uses certain mathematical models to control the process. In recent years,
computer development has introduced new sophisticated systems to the market.
These systems use indeterminate control, that is, empirical criteria alone or in
combination with mathematical models.
The parameters commonly controlled automatically and their control method
are mentioned below.
6.8.2.2 PARAMETERS USUALLY UNDER AUTOMATIC CONTROL
6.8.2.2.1 RAW MEAL MILLS

In typical raw meal mills, the following variables are usually controlled
automatically, but the control method can vary depending on each specific
arrangement.
1. The sound level and/or the elevator Kw are controlled by fresh feed.
2. The temperature at the mill or separator outlet is controlled by the drying gas flow
and temperature; that is, by means of the fan gate or the fuel valve, in case kiln or
furnace gases are used, respectively.
3. The heat generator outlet temperature is controlled by the secondary (diluting) air
flow, although in some arrangement it can be controlled by the fuel/air valve.
4. The mill inlet pressure is controlled by the mill’s main fan gate (sweeping),
although in some cases it can be done with the kiln gas gate or the secondary air
gate from the furnace.
5. Separation air flow is controlled by the separator recirculated air gate.
The control mechanisms can vary from one system to another, but their
purpose is always to control the mill level, outlet temperature (and consequently,
drying), the mill inlet or generator outlet temperature (for the facility’s safety) and the
mill inlet pressure ( and, consequently, the sweeping).
Whether or not all these regulators are being used depends on the complexity
of the installation, that is, kiln/heat generator gases, types of separators, etc.

BALL MILLS
6.8.2.2.2 COAL MILLS

In typical coal mills, the following variables are usually controlled
automatically, but the control method can vary depending on each specific
arrangement.
1. The sound level and/or the elevator Kw are controlled by fresh feed.
2. The temperature at the mill or separator outlet is controlled by the drying gas flow
and fresh air in non-inert mills, and by the water injected into the inert mills.
3. The heat generator outlet temperature is controlled by the fuel/air valve or by
secondary air.
4. The mill inlet pressure is controlled by the mill’s main fan gate or by the secondary
air from the generator.
5. Separation air flow is controlled by the main fan gate.
The control mechanisms can vary from one system to another, but their
purpose is always to control the mill level, outlet temperature (and consequently,
drying), the mill inlet or generator outlet temperature (for the facility’s safety) and the
mill inlet pressure ( and, consequently, the sweeping and the separation air).
Whether or not all these regulators are being used depends on the complexity
of the installation, that is, kiln/heat generator gases, inertia or not, types of
separators, etc.
6.8.2.2.3 CEMENT MILLS

In cement mills, the following variables are usually controlled automatically,
but the control method can vary depending on each specific arrangement.
1. The sound level and/or the elevator Kw are controlled by the feeding.
2. The intermediate diaphragm temperature is controlled by the water injected into
chamber 1.
3. The outlet mill temperature is controlled by the water injected into chamber 2.
4. The mill inlet pressure is controlled by the number of revolutions or the main fan
gate.
5. The separation air flow is controlled by the number of revolutions or the fan gate.
Whether all these regulators are being used or not, depends on the
complexity of the installation, that is, water injection in one or two chambers, open or
closed circuit mill.
Figure 6.55 shows the automatic control for a cement mill temperature; and
figures 6.56 and 6.57 show the automatic control of the Sepax separator flow and
the mill feed, respectively.

BALL MILLS
Figure 6.55 Automatic temperature control in a cement mill.
C o n tr o la d o r P I
Figure 6.56 Automatic flow control in a Sepax separator.
S U P ER V IS IÓ N
A M PL IFIC A D O R
O N / O FF
A L IM E N T A C IÓ N
TO TAL
M IC R Ó F O N O
S U P ER V IS IÓ N FOLÁFO NO
A M P L IF IC A D O R
A M PL IF IC A D O R A M PL IFIC A D O R
B
A A -B
ALARMAS
M M
A I
X N
I I
M M
O O
YE S O C L IN K E R
0 -10 % 0 -100 %
Figure 6.57 Automatic mill feed control.

BALL MILLS
6.8.2.3 AUTOMATIC CONTROL OPERATION

For automatic operation control it is very important to have stable
operating conditions, as close to the nominal values as possible, before switching
from manual to automatic control.
It is very important that the regulator values (amplification and integral time)
be adjusted correctly in order to obtain good automatic operation. Normally, this
adjustment is made at start-up by the joint cooperation of the mill and the
instrumentation specialists.
The benefits to automatic control are:
More uniform products.
Higher average production.
Reduced need of continuous observation.
This, however, does not mean that the mill operator has nothing to do. He is
still in charge of control, but the nature of his job changes with respect to a manual
system.
The functions of the operator are usually:
1. Mill start-ups and shutdowns.
2. Fineness adjustments.
3. Setting adjustments to attain optimal operation.
4. Keeping the feed hoppers full.
5. Registering operation data (if not done by computer).
6. In cases of major disturbances, set the mill to manual control and regain stable
conditions; then reset to automatic control.
In other words, automatic control is an aid and a tool for the operator, but not
a substitute.
6.8.2.4 INDETERMINATE CONTROL SYSTEMS

This type of “Fuzzy” control designed by the FLS Company, was first used for
kilns, although this kind of control has now been developed for mills. At present, the
first mills are already working according to this new philosophy.
The mill Fuzzy acts as a complicated regulator, using several parameters to
determine the existing operation conditions and regulating several variables,
according to empirical mathematical criteria.
Each Fuzzy is custom-made for a given mill, depending on the existing
situation. This is why it is not possible to offer a detailed explanation of its
functioning in general.
It is possible, however, to say that the Fuzzy works more like an operator than
the PI regulator because it takes several parameters into consideration and can
foretell the operation to a certain degree.
As in the case of automatic control, the Fuzzy is a tool that does not work
without the operator. This equipment enables a good operator to work even better.

BALL MILLS
6.8.2.5 MILL STARTUP AND SHUTDOWN

A general procedure for mill start-up and/or shutdown is given below,
stressing the specific steps in the different types of grinding (cement, raw meal and
coal).
The person in charge of operating the grinding systems of any plant must
master the following basic concepts fully.
1. Full knowledge of the interblocking diagram in detail of the mill in question is
necessary.
2. The correct location of measuring points for temperature, pressure, vibration,
oil levels -among others- should also be known.
3. It is advisable to have a list of all the instruments included in the mill (even
though they are not displayed on the screen), specifying whether they are on site
or in the COP, and what they are used for.
4. Under no circumstances should the signals be bridged or blocked.
Verifications prior to startup.

The following verifications must be made before mill startup:
1. Verify that there is enough raw material in the feed hoppers.
2. Verify that all gates and accesses are closed, and that there is no one inside
the mill and/or auxiliary equipment.
3. Verify that all switches are in and that all emergency stops are deactivated.
4. Verify that all the equipment has the start-up permit; if there is no indication
on the instrumentation, check on site.
5. Verify that there is enough space in the silo chosen to deposit the mill
product.
6. Verify the quality guidelines with the laboratory personnel and give notice as
to start-up.
6.8.2.5.1 STARTUP PROCEDURE

The logical start-up sequence for grinding system component equipment is
given below:
1. The safety set is started. The lubrication set is started up, thereby putting the high
and low pressure pumps, the reducer lubrication pump and the auxiliary
compressors into operation.
2. Operation of the conveyor-to-silo set is initiated. By the time this stage is
reached, the silo in which the product will be discharged has already been selected.
Depending on how the plant is equipped, the conveyor belts, compressor, pump,
elevator and the airslide fans begin to work.
3. The ventilation set, specifically the main fan and the collector, is set into
operation.
4. System warm-up for raw meal or coal mills. System warm-up should begin as
soon as the fan is started up. Kiln gases or hot generator gases are used for this
purpose. If this is not done when starting up the mill, a large part of the heat
supplied to heat the system will be used and consequently drying will be deficient
until the whole system has been heated. Furthermore, it is advisable to have the
BALL MILLS
surface temperature of the entire system above the dew point to prevent water
condensation. This is done with a small amount of draft, with an outlet temperature
between 100- 120°C and it is used only in raw meal or coal grinding. The fan blinds
should be slightly open (between 5 and 10%).
5. The circulating load group is started up. The equipment operating in this group
includes the separator, the separator feeding airslide fan(s), the elevator(s) and the
mill discharge airslide.
6. Coupling or mill start-up. At this time, the mill is set into operation. In some
systems, the feed belt also begins to operate.
7. The feeding system begins operation. The feeding belt and scales operate in this
set. The mill should not operate empty for over 10 minutes. This is very important
so as to prevent damage to the shielding plates.
8. The fan blinds should be opened to provide mill sweeping and air to the
separator. The fuel regulating valve should be opened if there is a gas generator.
75-80% of the maximum feed should be fed manually, for a period of 10 to 15
minutes.
9. The next step is to stabilize the mill operation. It is during this stage that a great
deal of attention should be paid to the mill operation parameters and variables,
observing tendencies such as: inlet and outlet pressure, temperatures of incoming
and outgoing gases and solids, mill noise level; amperage and/or kilowatts of the mill
discharge elevators, the main motor, the sweeping fan and the separator.
10. Based on the tendencies of the aforementioned parameters, the next step is to
recover the mill feed gradually, in approximately 5% increments of the total feed at
10 to 15 minute interval, until 95% is reached. Then, feed is switched to automatic
so that it can reach the maximum feed. The necessary adjustments should also be
made to pressures and temperatures, and feed is increased up to its maximum
production.
For cement mills, it is necessary to wait until the system has warmed up, in
other words, that the intermediate diaphragm temperature should be above 105ºC in
order to proceed to start up the water injections pumps (if applicable), trying to keep
the temperature within the preset values (normally 110ºC at the intermediate
diaphragm and fro 115ºC to 120ºC at the outlet diaphragm).
The first product sample should only be taken as a guide and not as reference
to make any corrective actions to fineness or Blaine, unless the data is too far off
range.
6.8.2.5.2 SHUTDOWN PROCEDURE

There can be two shutdown situations during mill operation: the scheduled
and the unexpected shutdowns.
Regardless of the type of shutdown, the most important thing will be to protect
the personnel’s safety and prevent any damage to the facilities and the equipment.
A scheduled shutdown is one for which the time and cause for stopping the
grinding system are either known or can be estimated. It is also possible to estimate
the startup time.
BALL MILLS
Shutdown procedure depends on the reason for the shutdown. .
Short Scheduled Shutdown:

This type of shutdown may be caused by lack of material in the hoppers or
some other similar situation. The following points should be considered:
1. Leave the system as normal as possible.
2. Stop the feeding system.
3. Empty all peripheral equipment, such as: airslides, elevators and the separator.
(This is perhaps the most important point for this type of shutdown).
4. It is also important not to let the mill empty out.
5. Close gates and/or blinds, leaving just enough draft to eliminate moisture and
condensation in the system. The mill outlet temperature should be kept close to
100°C.
6. Uncouple the mill.
Long Scheduled Shutdown:

Among the possible causes for this shutdown there are maintenance jobs,
ball load measuring, grate cleaning, etc. The points to consider are:
1. Stop the feeding system; and before stopping the mill, wait as long as needed to
empty the mill and the peripheral equipment. A good reference that the system is
empty are the kWs or amperes of the elevator(s), the noise level indication and that
of the returns.
2. The most important point in this type of shutdown is plating care or protection,
especially the plating in chamber 1.
3. Empty material and vapor from the system.
4. Uncouple the mill
5. Close the gate that connects the mill to the heat source, do not stop the sweeping
fan, and if possible, open a cold air gate so the system can cool off. For coal
grinding, no cold air gate should be opened due to the explosion hazard.
6. If the second chamber has not emptied out, the mill can be slowly turned with a
full draft.
Unexpected Shutdown:
An unexpected shutdown is one in which the operator does not intervene or if
he does, he has only enough time to uncouple; in other words, the time to stop the
mill is unknown. The shutdown may be due to process flow obstruction, equipment
failure that uncouples the mill, electrical energy supply failure, etc.
In a situation such as this, the following points should be considered:
1. Make sure that the heat source gas gate is closed, if there is drying. A cold air
gate should be opened if the temperature skyrocketed. Contrarily, in the case of a
coal mill, no gates or blinds should be opened so as to prevent oxygen from entering
the system. Cooling should be carried out by water injection.
2. If the system does not have interblocking to stop the water and additive injection
pumps, these should be manually stopped immediately.

BALL MILLS
3. If the shutdown is due to the sweeping fan, it should be restored as quickly as

possible and set into operation so as to remove the heat and moisture from the mill.
4. If there is drying in the separator, a cold air gate should be opened to prevent
damage to the interior (except for coal grinding).
5. If the shutdown was caused by conveyance system equipment stoppage, once
the equipment is ready, mill operation should restart in order to clean the system
while the material is still hot.
6.8.3. INTERLOCKING
Interlocking refers to the requirements that must be met in order to operate
the equipment. any deviation in this aspect will hinder startup or cause the facility to
shutdown.
As mentioned previously, the number and types of interlockings will depend
on the specific facility in question. However, they all have the same objective: to
protect personnel and the facilities.
The process interlocking for a specific cement mill are given below, and the
startup sequence so as to insure material flow.
x The dosing scales have a signal (light and sound) on the control panel, in case of
belt misalignment or lack of material.
x The additive pump has a light and sound signal, in case of additive flow failures.
x The lubrication pumps for the main bearings, main reducers and the mill crown
have a light and sound signal on the control panel which goes off in case of oil
flow failure. If the failure is not corrected in 5 minutes, the mill will shutdown.
x The air compressor of the crown lubrication pump emits a light and sound signal
in the control panel when there is air pressure failure. The mill will shutdown if it
is not restored within 5 minutes.
x The mill drive temperature measuring points set off a light and sound warning
signal when the temperature is 75°C. If the temperature is not controlled and
reaches 80°C, the mill will shutdown.
x The separator reducer lubrication pumps have a light and sound signal which
stops the separator when there is a flow failure.
x Both the mill bag filters as well as that of the separator set off a light and sound
signal when there is air pressure failure. The mill shuts down if the mill bag filter
fan stops.
x The aeropol has a light signal on the control board. In case of overfilling, the feed
to the mill is automatically stopped until the aeropol load goes back to normal.
x Electrical motors are protected against overloading. In case of an overload, the
equipment is triggered setting off the light and sound signal on the control panel.
x The mill outlet temperature is interlocked with the cooling water pump. If the
temperature is below 105°C, the pump stops. When it reaches 115°C, the water
pump begins to operate.
The startup sequence for a specific cement mill is given below:
1 Clinker and/or gypsum scales.
a) Scale master control.

BALL MILLS
b) Additive pump.
c) Cooling water pump.
d) Mill.
2. Mill.
a) Main reducer’s lubrication pump.
b) Main bearings lubrication pumps
c) Main bearing lifting pumps.
d) Mill gear wheel grease pump.
e) Air pressure failure.
f) Failure due to high temperatures at measuring points (T maximum = 80ºC).
g) Airslide.
h) Bucket elevator.
3. Bucket elevator:
a) Airslide.
4. Turboseparators.
5. Turboseparator dispersion plate:
a) Turboseparator motor fan.
b) Turboseparator lubrication pump.
c) Bag filter extractor.
6. Bag filter extractor:
a) Shaking program.
b) Shaking turbo fan.
c) Hopper worm gears.
d) Cyclone airlocks.
e) Cyclone worm gears.
f) Returns airslide.
g) Airslide fluidizer.
7. Fluidizer from airslide to aeropol.
8. Aeropol compressors.
9. Fluidizer from airslide to silo.
If the interlocking on a piece of equipment numbered from 1 to 9 breaks open,
all the rest of the equipment in descending order will also snap, except the
equipment with an independent connection and the mill lubrications pumps.
6.9 GRINDING SYSTEM EVALUATION AND OPTIMIZATION

Purpose of the evaluation:
Capacity
Economy. (kWh/ton, kcal/ton)

BALL MILLS
Quality
Bottle necks. (Evaluate peripheral equipment)
Mechanical evaluation. (Related to process)
Tools:
Updated historical data
Internal inspection of the mill
Ball load sampling
Axial sampling
Matter and heat balance
Separator analysis
6.9.1 FEED MATERIAL EVALUATION

In order to evaluate the feed material of a grinding system, the following
aspects should be taken into consideration:
Granulometry:
We must always observe the overall distribution of the feed material. K80 is
not enough because for the same K80, there can be different distributions as shown
in figure 6.58.
An advisable practice to carry out a visual inspection of the material size
being fed to compare it mentally with the granulometry result, especially when the
mills are fed by cranes where segregation takes place.
% Ret
80
Tamaño de Partícula
Figure 6.58 Particle size vs. Retention Percentage.
To calculate the maximum ball size, we’ll use K80 considering the overall
distribution. It is preferable to calculate the maximum size per component, or it
that’s not possible, the maximum size for overall feed.
There are two possible approached in calculating maximum ball size:
1. The ball size needed to grind the material.

BALL MILLS
2. The material size that can be ground by a given ball size.

Always take into consideration that crushing is cheaper than grinding, so size
reduction before entering the mill will be beneficial to grinding economy.
x Grindability:
Grindability influences three grinding factors:
1. System capacity.
2. Maximum ball size.
3. Wear.
When evaluating material grindability, pay close attention to the mill’s
behavior during sampling. The sample will not be representative when the mill is
above or below its normal production, most probably because the material
grindability changed at the moment.
x Moisture:
Moisture usually varies with time. It is advisable to study the annual moisture
statistics. If the high-moisture season is short, it’s sometimes better to accept lower
production instead of investing in expensive drying equipment which would have
little use.
In coal grinding, the product’s residual moisture will depend on the volatile
content in the coal. This content is used as an explosion-prevention aid.
In cases of extreme moisture, the returns should no be cooled very much,
instead cooling the cement later is the recommended practice.
Additionally, if the kiln has a grate cooler, it is advisable not to cool the clinker
too much, and convey it hotter to the mill.
When there are problems to dry the material in the mill, the draft should be
lowered taking care always not to approach the dew point.
Another factor that can help it to change de circulation factor, because if the
returns return to the mill cooler than when they left, they are drawing heat from the
system, and this reduced drying.
When there is excess moisture in one of the materials, contact for long
periods of time before entering the mill should be avoided because this may cause
premature clinker hydration.
x Temperature:
The easiest method for controlling temperature in the mill is by water
spraying; it is more efficient than air cooling. The quality of the cooling water is
important because if it has solid particles, it will cause excessive wear to the
spraying nozzle. It is also important to make sure the water has no organic matter
(such as river water) that could affect product resistances.
Care should be taken when putting gypsum in contact with hot clinker
for long transport distances, because it could cause dehydration. Some gypsums
are more sensitive than others.
x Chemical Composition:
Chemical composition has more to do with product quality than will the
grinding process.

BALL MILLS
In raw meal mills it has no influence on the operation. However,

special care is required in coal grinding, as there are types of coal which pose an
explosion hazard because of their volatile content. The higher the volatile content,
the greater the explosion hazard, but it will be easier to burn in the kiln, and
consequently, it can be ground to a coarse consistency. Figure 6.59 shows the coal
and/or coke grinding fineness, depending on volatile content.
16 16
14 14
% R +45 microns
12 12
10 10
% R +90 microns
8 Í KILN 8
6 6
4 CALCINING Î 4
2 ZONE 2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Volatile content %
Figure 6.59 Volatile Percentage vs. Fineness

BALL MILLS
The ash content in the coal at the moment of designing the raw mixture is
also something to watch carefully as the ash contain silica which could affect clinker
quality.
Some raw materials contain coal, so special care should be taken because
they start to burn in the first stages of the pre-calcining zones and may cause
scabbing.
IN cement grinding, the different clinker components vary greatly as to
grindability. The C2S is harder to grind than the C3S, so grinding is more difficult
when C2S increases.
If clinker is weathered, it’s harder to grind.
6.9.2 BALL LOAD AND DISTRIBUTION EVALUATION.

Ball load evaluation involves the following factors:
x Maximum size
x Average weight
x Surface
x Amount
x Distribution by Sizes
Each one of these factors can be evaluated separately.

There are two ways to determined the amount of balls, by the ball height and/
by motor consumption. As ball height measuring is prone to errors, the best thing to
do is to use both.
The ball amount influences grinding capacity and efficiency, so it must be
defined in terms of what to optimize in the mill:
1. Maximum Production (Maximum possible amount of balls)
2. Minimum specific consumption kWh/ton (Filling degree around 25 %)
To maintain the balance load, the first chamber of the mill should be reloaded
daily (when balls can be added with the feed) and, at least, every two weeks in the
second chamber.
To conserve good grinding efficiency, besides having the proper ball load, the
load must be kept in good conditions. Therefore it is advisable to lower the ball load,
classify it and remove the scrap when the percentage of scrap is over 5%, or when
problems due to crusting, or reduced conveyance capacity pose a threat to grinding
and/or production efficiency of the mil. There is no need to classify the ball load if
there are no problems with crusting, reduced conveyance or production loss.
The bottle necks due to a lack of balls are detected by the level of material in
the mill chambers. Ball shortages can also be detected in the axial curve when
there is no effect on grinding.
There should be a ball size to grind each particle size. There is a problem
with balls that are too small (<15 mm). It’s hard to keep them in the mill.
Additionally, there are fewer spaces where there should be material to grinding and
conveyance is affected.
When the feed is fine and there is a high circulating lead, the ball loads should
have a smaller percentage of large balls to grind the fresh material, simulating two
BALL MILLS
chambers in chamber 1 –one very short load with a coarse balance load and the
other longer with a balance load of maximum 60-70 mm.
To correctly assess ball performance by axial material sampling, the
circulation factor should always be considered. When the circulation factors are
high, the grinding effect is diminished because of the large amount of ground
material that goes back with the returns.
When axial sampling shows an increase in the retained material in a single
point, the circulation factor should not be considers, unless this happens in tow
consecutive samplings. If the phenomenon is accumulative, a single larger sized
particle that is detected will impact the result in the rest of the sieves.
6.9.3 EVALUATION OF THE SEPARATOR AND ITS RELATION

TO THE MILL
For good grinding system performance, the separator must be efficient, so
that it returns to the mill only the material that does not comply with the preset final
product fineness. Keep in mind always that the separator does NO grinding work
but it does prevent the energy waste of inefficient grinding.
One way to calculate the benefit obtained by the separator is the Vs, which is
a theoretical calculation of energy savings. The saving B is equal to the product of
Bmax times the Vs value of the separator. From this, the theoretical energy for
grinding can be calculated from one size to another in a grinding system:
Ro
E W Log 1 B má x Vs )
Rf
Graphing the granulometric distributions at different points of the system give
a clear idea of the work being done in the system (Figure 6.60).
The graph give a wide horizon to observe the work being done by the mill and
the separator, but it doesn’t show enough detail to evaluate the system. For
instance, the grinding work in chamber 1 is observed by comparing total feed line
(#7) at its thick end with the chamber 1 outlet line (#2).
The actual separator’s assistance can be determined by knowing the amount
of fine particles that return to the mill with coarse material.
If the mill product is close to the required final product, the separator’s
contribution is less.

BALL MILLS
6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1
1.0 %
10.0 %
50.0 %
90.0 %
95.0 %
97.0 %
99.0 %
1 mic 10 mic 100 mic 1 mm 10 mm 100 mm
1 Fresh Feed 3 Inlet C2 6 Fine particles to Separator

2 Outlet C1 4 Separator Returns 7 Overall Feed to Mill
5 Feed to Separator
Figure 6.60 Particle distributions throughout the grinding system.
It is sometimes hard to justify the use of a third generation separator just for
energy saving, as the following benefits should also be considered:
x Ease of changing the product.
x Increased cooling/drying capacity.
x Product quality stability.
x Elimination of scrap. (Not possible in all third generation separators.)
6.9.4 BALANCES IN MILL EVALUATIONS

x Material balance (solid, dry ) Kg/hr
x Water balance (liquid, vapor) Kg/hr
x Air balance (dry) Kg/hr
x Thermal balance Kcal/hr
Material balance is used to verify the scales, conveyance equipment
capacities, bottle necks.
Water balance helps to know drying capacity, problems with
prehydration, dehydration and/or condensation. It also helps to determine the
proper water injection.
Air balance is used to calculate the speed of the air going through the mill, to
estimate dust sweeping and dew point.
In cement mills, the normal dew point to prevent condensation or gypsum
dehydration, is 50 to 70ºC, and the dry bulb temperature should be, at least, 20ºC
higher than the dew point.

BALL MILLS
When the intermediate diaphragm temperature is below 90ºC in cement mill,

there are moisture problems in the mill which affect grinding efficiency.
Air balance along with thermal balance helps determine the entrance of false
air.
6.9.5 SYSTEM FLOWS AND PRESSURES

Unnecessary pressure drops should be avoided in the system because they
imply energy waste in the fan.
When there are problems with coarse particles swept to the mill outlet, the
outlet duct area can be increased so that the coarse particles precipitate, and to
reduce the pressure drop.
The mill strainers should get good cleaning maintenance because their
obstruction will increase the pressure drop, reduce the flow through the mill, or
increase the fan’s energy consumption.
To conclude, evaluating a grinding system is very complex and hard to
explain in writing as it involves innumerable inter-related parameters that make
isolated study impossible. As an important suggestion, whenever evaluating a mill,
look at the whole panorama and don’t get caught up in isolated data. All the data
and calculations must be compared because often time they are contradictory and
studying the whole set of data can help reach the right conclusions.

BALL MILLS
REFERENCES
x Blue Circle Industries PLC. Mill Design Principles, Milling Systems. Cement
Technology, Volume 2, 1979
x C. L. Prasher. The Physical of Breakage, Particle Shape, Size and Surface.
Crushing and Grinding Process Handbook., 1987
x F. L. Smidth. Grinding Mills. Compendium for Cement Production Seminar, 1987.
x F. L. Smidth. Grinding, Raw Meal Mill process Control. Production, Quality Control
and Process Course. 1987.
x F. L. Smidth. Symetro Reducer, type TSX, Maneuvers and Maintenance.
Instructions 33844-02.
x F. L. Smidth. Support with Sliding Shoes and Inclined-Base Plates. Instructions
27084-14.
x Holderbank. Cement Grinding. Cement Seminar, Process Technology 1, Quito,
Ecuador. 1986.
x Labahn/kohlhaas. Cement Grinding. Cement Handbook. 1985
x W.Schiebe, Freiberg. 100 Years of Tube Ball Mills. A Historical Review. Germany,
ZKG 3/1993, pp. 123-128
x Walter H. Duda. Grinding in Cement Production. Technological Manual on
Cement. 1977


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BALL MILLS

DIRECCIÓN TÉCNICA TRAINING MANUAL

Grinding means the reducing of materials to dust (powder). The object of

Usually, grinding is carried out in ball mils, which is the

6.2.1.1.1 OPEN CIRCUIT

Because of these disadvantages, it should only be used when closed circuit

6.2.1.1.2 CLOSED CIRCUIT

x 20 to 30% increase in grinding capacity with the same size mill.

6.2.1.2 DRY PROCESS GRINDING

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

6.2.1.2.1 OPEN CIRCUIT

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

6.2.1.2.2 CLOSED CIRCUIT

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

6.2.2 NUMBER OF CHAMBERS

Figure 6.10 Single-chamber mill with classifying plating.

Operating these mills has its disadvantages. Precautions must be taken

6.2.2.2 TWO-CHAMBER MILLS

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Subdividing mills into two compartments by means of a diaphragm allows for

Figure 6.11 Two-chamber mill.

6.2.2.2 THREE-CHAMBER MILLS

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Figure 6.12 Three-chamber mill.

6.2.3 PRODUCT DISCHARGE POSITION

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Figure 6.13 Central discharge mill.

Vent air can be adjusted according to the requirements of each chamber. In

6.2.3.1 END DISCHARGE

6.2.4 PRODUCT DISCHARGE METHOD

6.2.4.1 OVERFLOW DISCHARGE

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

6.2.4.2 SEMI-SWEPT BY AIR

6.2.4.3 AIR SWEPT

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Figure 6.14 Air-swept mill.

6.3 MILL ARRANGEMENTS

6.3.1 RAW MEAL MILLS

6.3.2 CEMENT MILLS

6.3.2.1 MATERIAL FLOW

x Fresh feed to the separator.

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

x Static separator discharge.

Figure 6.15 Possible arrangement of a grinding system in terms of the material

x Discharge of the mil sep collector.

6.3.2.2 AIR FLOW

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

x Gas recirculation to a single-collector separator.

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Figure 6.19 Comparison of mill dedusting arrangements.

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Chapter: 6 Written by: JEA, EMT 13/11/2002

Concluding, the advantages of the independent venting arrangement are:

6.3.3. COAL MILLS

6.3.3.1 DIRECT SYSTEMS

Figure 6.22 Direct coal grinding system setup.

6.3.3.2 SEMI-DIRECT SYSTEMS

There is a variant when high-moisture-content coal is ground and dried. Here

Figure 6.23 Semi-direct coal grinding system.