Ospguide 1999 PDF

United States Office of Emergency EPA 540-K-99-007
Environmental Protection And Remedial OSWER 9200.5-104A

Agency Response PB2000-963401
December 1999
Oil Program Center
Understanding Oil Spills

And Oil Spill Response
Understanding Oil Spills

In Freshwater Environments
Introduction
OIL SPILLS endanger public health, imperil drinking water, devastate natural resources, and
disrupt the economy. In an increasingly technological era, the United States has become more
dependent upon oil-based products to help us maintain our high standard of living. Products
derived from petroleum, such as heating oil and gasoline, provide fuel for our automobiles, heat
for our homes, and energy for the machinery used in our industries. Other products derived
from petroleum, including plastics and pharmaceuticals, provide us with convenience and help
to make our lives more comfortable.
Additionally, non-petroleum oils, such as vegetable oils and animal fats, are increasingly being
consumed in the United States. These oils can contain toxic components and can produce
physical effects that are similar to petroleum oils. Because they have toxic properties and
produce harmful physical effects, spills of non-petroleum oils also pose threats to public health
and the environment.
Because we use vast quantities of oils, they are usually stored and transported in large volumes.
During storage or transport, and occasionally as the result of exploration activities, oils and other
oil-based products are sometimes spilled onto land or into waterways. When this occurs, human
health and environmental quality are put at risk. Every effort must be made to prevent oil spills
and to clean them up promptly once they occur.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Oil Spill Program plays an important role in
protecting the environment through prevention of, preparation for, and response to oil spills.
Several U.S. EPA offices and other organizations deserve special recognition for their
contributions to the revision of this booklet. They are EPA Regions III and V, the EPA
Environmental Response Team, the EPA Office of Research and Development, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, the State of Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, the State of
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, the University of California Wildlife Health Center,
and BP Amoco Corporation.
The purpose of this booklet is to provide information about oil spills. It contains chapters that
outline and explain oil spills, their potential effects on the environment, how they are cleaned
up, and how various agencies prepare for spills before they happen. Details about five oil spills
are provided to show different types of spills and the complexities and issues involved in
responding to them. This oil spill discussion includes the Exxon Valdez spill of March 1989; the
Ashland oil spill of January 1988; the Wisconsin fire and butter spill in May 1991; the Colonial
Pipeline spill of March 1993; and the Lake Lanier soybean oil spill in Atlanta in 1994.
EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 1

2 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
Table Of Contents
Title Page
1. The Behavior and Effects of Oil Spills in Aquatic Environments .................................................... 5
2. Mechanical Containment and Recovery of Oil Following a Spill ................................................... 9
3. Alternative Countermeasures for Oil Spills ...................................................................................... 13
4. Shoreline Cleanup of Oil Spills ........................................................................................................... 17
5. Wildlife and Oil Spills ........................................................................................................................... 21
6. Preparing for Oil Spills: Contingency Planning ............................................................................... 27
7. Responding to Oil Spills: The National Response System .............................................................. 31
8. Response to Oil Spills ........................................................................................................................... 37
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................... 45
For Further Information ............................................................................................................................... 47

The Behavior and Effects
Of Oil Spills In
Aquatic Environments 1
INTRODUCTION
WHEN WE THINK of oil spills, we usually think of oil horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface, called a
tankers spilling their cargo in oceans or seas. However, oil slick, on top of the water. Factors which affect the ability of
spilled on land often reaches lakes, rivers, and wetlands, an oil spill to spread include surface tension, specific gravity,
where it can also cause damage. Oceans and other and viscosity.
saltwater bodies are referred to as marine environments.
• Surface tension is the measure of attraction between the
Lakes, rivers, and other inland bodies of water are called
surface molecules of a liquid. The higher the oil’s
freshwater environments. The term aquatic refers to both
surface tension, the more likely a spill will remain in
marine and freshwater environments.
place. If the surface tension of the oil is low, the oil will
When oil is spilled into an aquatic environment, it can spread even without help from wind and water
harm organisms that live on or around the water surface currents. Because increased temperatures can reduce a
and those that live under water. Spilled oil can also liquid’s surface tension, oil is more likely to spread in
damage parts of the food chain, including human food warmer waters than in very cold waters.
resources. • Specific gravity is the density of a substance compared to
The severity of the impact of an oil spill depends on a the density of water. Since most oils are lighter than
variety of factors, including characteristics of the oil itself. water, they float on top of it. However, the specific
Natural conditions, such as water temperature and gravity of an oil spill can increase if the lighter
weather, also influence the behavior of oil in aquatic substances within the oil evaporate. Heavier oils,
environments. Various types of habitats have differing vegetable oils, and animal fats may sink and form tar
sensitivities to oil spills as well. balls or may interact with rocks or sediments on the
bottom of the water body.
• Viscosity is the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OIL The higher the viscosity of the oil, the greater the
tendency for it to stay in one place. (Honey is an
THE TERM OIL describes a broad range of hydrocarbon-
example of a highly viscous liquid.)
based substances. Hydrocarbons are chemical compounds
composed of the elements hydrogen and carbon. This
includes substances that are commonly thought of as oils,
such as crude oil and refined petroleum products, but it
THE FATE OF SPILLED OIL
also includes animal fats, vegetable oils, and other non- NATURAL ACTIONS are always at work in aquatic
petroleum oils. Each type of oil has distinct physical and environments. These can reduce the severity of an oil spill
chemical properties. These properties affect the way oil and accelerate the recovery of an affected area. Some
will spread and break down, the hazard it may pose to natural actions include weathering, evaporation, oxidation,
aquatic and human life, and the likelihood that it will pose biodegradation, and emulsification.
a threat to natural and man-made resources. • Weathering is a series of chemical and physical changes
The rate at which an oil spill spreads will determine its that cause spilled oil to break down and become heavier
effect on the environment. Most oils tend to spread than water. Wave action may result in natural dispersion,

breaking a slick into droplets which are then distributed nitrogen and phosphorus are sometimes added to the
vertically throughout the water column. These droplets water to encourage the microorganisms to grow and
can also form a secondary slick or thin film on the reproduce. Biodegradation tends to work best in warm-
surface of the water. water environments.
• Evaporation occurs when the lighter or more volatile • Emulsification is the process that forms emulsions, which
substances within the oil mixture become vapors and are mixtures of small droplets of oil and water.
leave the surface of the water. This process leaves Emulsions are formed by wave action, and they greatly
behind the heavier components of the oil, which may hamper weathering and cleanup processes. Two types of
undergo further weathering or may sink to the bottom emulsions exist: water-in-oil and oil-in-water. Water-in-
of the ocean floor. Spills of lighter refined products, such oil emulsions are frequently called “chocolate mousse,”
as kerosene and gasoline, contain a high proportion of and they are formed when strong wave action causes
flammable components known as light ends. These may water to become trapped inside viscous oil. Chocolate
evaporate within a few hours, causing minimal harm to mousse emulsions may linger in the environment for
the aquatic environment. Heavier oils, vegetable oils, months or even years. Oil and water emulsions cause oil
and animal fats leave a thicker, more viscous residue. to sink and disappear from the surface, giving the visual
These types of oils are less likely to evaporate. illusion that it is gone and the threat to the environment
• Oxidation occurs when oil contacts the water and has ended.
oxygen combines with the oil hydrocarbons to produce These natural actions occur differently in freshwater
water-soluble compounds. This process affects oil slicks versus marine environments. Freshwater environmental
mostly around their edges. Thick slicks may only impacts can be more severe because water movement is
partially oxidize, forming tar balls. These dense, sticky minimized in these habitats. In standing water bodies, oil
black spheres may linger in the environment, washing tends to pool and can remain in the environment for long
up on shorelines long after a spill. periods of time. In flowing streams and rivers, oil tends to
• Biodegradation occurs when microorganisms, such as collect on plants and grasses growing on the banks. Oil can
bacteria, feed on oil hydrocarbons. A wide range of also interact with the sediment at the bottom of the
microorganisms is required for a significant reduction of freshwater bodies, affecting organisms that live in or feed
the oil. To sustain biodegradation, nutrients such as off of sediments.
Fate of
spilled
oil.

EFFECTS OF OIL ON PLANTS
AND ANIMALS
SOME TOXIC SUBSTANCES in an oil spill may
evaporate quickly. Therefore, plant, animal, and human
exposure to the most toxic substances are reduced with
time, and are usually limited to the initial spill area.
Although some organisms may be seriously injured or
killed very soon after contact with the oil in a spill, non-
lethal toxic effects can be more subtle and often longer
lasting. For example, aquatic life on reefs and shorelines is
at risk of being smothered by oil that washes ashore. It can
also be poisoned slowly by long-term exposure to oil
trapped in shallow water or on beaches.
Crews work to keep oil from entering a marsh.
Both petroleum and non-petroleum oil can affect the
environment surrounding an oil spill. All types of oil share
chemical and physical properties that produce similar
effects on the environment. In some cases, non-petroleum • Sheltered beaches have very little wave action to
oil spills can produce more harmful effects than petroleum encourage natural dispersion. If timely cleanup efforts
oil spills. are not begun, oil may remain stranded on these
beaches for years.
Chapter five discusses in greater detail how oil spills
impact wildlife . • Tidal flats are broad, low-tide zones, usually containing
rich plant, animal, and bird communities. Deposited oil
may seep into the muddy bottoms of these flats, creating
Sensitivity of Aquatic Habitats
potentially harmful effects on the ecology of the area.
Aquatic environments are made up of complex • Salt marshes are found in sheltered waters in cold and
interrelations between plant and animal species temperate areas. They host a variety of plant, bird, and
and their physical environment. Harm to the mammal life. Marsh vegetation, especially root systems,
physical environment will often lead to harm for is easily damaged by fresh light oils.
one or more species in a food chain, which may
• Mangrove forests are located in tropical regions and are
lead to damage for other species further up the
home to a diversity of plant and animal life. Mangrove
chain. Where an organism spends most of its
trees have long roots, called prop roots, that stick out well
time—in open water, near coastal areas, or on the
above the water level and help to hold the mangrove
shoreline—will determine the effects an oil spill is
tree in place. A coating of oil on these prop roots can be
likely to have on that organism.
fatal to the mangrove tree, and because they grow so
In open water, fish and whales have the ability to swim slowly, replacing a mangrove tree can take decades.
away from a spill by going deeper in the water or further • Marshes and swamps with little water movement are
out to sea, reducing the likelihood that they will be harmed likely to incur more severe impacts than flowing water.
by even a major spill. Aquatic animals that generally live In calm water conditions, the affected habitat may take
closer to shore, such as turtles, seals, and dolphins, risk years to restore.
contamination by oil that washes onto beaches or by
• Other standing water bodies, such as inland lakes and
consuming oil-contaminated prey. In shallow waters, oil
ponds, are home to a variety of birds, mammals, and
may harm sea grasses and kelp beds, which are used for
fish. The human food chain can be affected by spills in
food, shelter, and nesting sites by many different species.
these environments.
Spilled oil and cleanup operations can threaten different • River habitats may be less severely affected by spills than
types of aquatic habitats, with different results. standing water bodies because of water movement.
• Coral reefs are important nurseries for shrimp, fish, and However, spills in these water bodies can affect plants,
other animals as well as recreational attractions for grasses, and mosses that grow in the environment.
divers. Coral reefs and the aquatic organisms that live When rivers are used as drinking water sources, oil
within and around them are at risk from exposure to the spills on rivers can pose direct threats to human health.
toxic substances within oil as well as smothering.
• Exposed sandy, gravel, or cobble beaches are usually
cleaned by manual techniques. Although oil can soak
into sand and gravel, few organisms live full-time in
this habitat, so the risk to animal life or the food chain is
less than in other habitats, such as tidal flats.

Sensitivity of Birds and Mammals
An oil spill can harm birds and mammals in several ways:
direct physical contact, toxic contamination, destruction of food
sources and habitats, and reproductive problems.
• Physical contact – When fur or feathers come into contact
with oil, they get matted down. This matting causes fur
and feathers to lose their insulating properties, placing
animals at risk of freezing to death. For birds, the risk of
drowning increases, as the complex structure of their
feathers that allows them to float or to fly becomes
damaged.
• Toxic contamination – Some species are susceptible to the
toxic effects of inhaled oil vapors. Oil vapors can cause
damage to the animal’s central nervous system, liver,
and lungs. Animals are also at risk from ingesting oil,
which can reduce the animal’s ability to eat or digest its
food by damaging cells in the intestinal tract.
• Destruction of food resources and habitats – Even species
which are not directly in contact with oil can be harmed
by a spill. Predators that consume contaminated prey
can be exposed to oil through ingestion. Because oil
contamination gives fish and other animals unpleasant
tastes and smells, predators will sometimes refuse to eat
their prey and will begin to starve. Sometimes a local
population of prey organisms is destroyed, leaving no
food resources for predators. Depending on the
environmental conditions, the spilled oil may linger in
the environment for long periods of time, adding to the
detrimental effects. In calm water conditions, oil that
interacts with rocks or sediments can remain in the
environment indefinitely.
• Reproductive problems – Oil can be transferred from birds’
plumage to the eggs they are hatching. Oil can smother
eggs by sealing pores in the eggs and preventing gas
exchange. Scientists have also observed developmental
effects in bird embryos that were exposed to oil. Also,
the number of breeding animals and the of nesting
habitats can be reduced by the spill. Long-term
reproductive problems have also been shown in some
studies in animals that have been exposed to oil.
SUMMARY
SPILLED OIL immediately begins to move and weather,
breaking down and changing its physical and chemical
properties. As these processes occur, the oil threatens
surface resources and a wide range of subsurface aquatic
organisms linked in a complex food chain. Many different
types of aquatic habitats exist, with varied sensitivities to
the harmful effects of oil contamination and different
abilities to recuperate from oil spills. In some areas,
habitats and populations can recover quickly. In other
environments, however, recovery from persistent or
stranded oil may take years. These detrimental effects are
caused by both petroleum and non-petroleum oil.

Mechanical Containment
And Recovery of Oil
Following A Spill 2
INTRODUCTION
TWO MAJOR STEPS involved in controlling oil spills are • A “longitudinal support,” usually a chain or cable
containment and recovery. This chapter outlines some of running along the bottom of the skirt, that strengthens
the techniques and equipment that are used to conduct oil the boom against wind and wave action; may also serve
spill control efforts. as a weight or ballast to add stability and help keep the
boom upright
Booms can be divided into several basic types. Fence
CONTAINMENT booms have a high freeboard and a flat flotation device,
WHEN AN OIL SPILL occurs on water, it is critical to making them least effective in rough water, where wave
contain the spill as quickly as possible in order to minimize and wind action can cause the boom to twist. Round or
danger and potential damage to persons, property, and “curtain” booms have a more circular flotation device and
natural resources. Containment equipment is used to a continuous skirt. They perform well in rough water, but
restrict the spread of oil and to allow for its recovery, are more difficult to clean and store than fence booms.
removal, or dispersal. The most common type of Non-rigid inflatable booms come in many shapes. They are
equipment used to control the spread of oil is floating easy to clean and store, and they perform well in rough
barriers, called booms. seas. However, they tend to be expensive, more
complicated to use, and puncture and deflate easily. All
boom types are greatly affected by the conditions at sea;
Booms
the higher the waves swell, the less effective booms
Containment booms are used to control the spread of oil to become.
reduce the possibility of polluting shorelines and other
resources, as well as to concentrate oil in thicker surface Booms can be used to control the spread of oil.
layers, making recovery easier. In addition, booms may be
used to divert and channel oil slicks along desired paths,
making them easier to remove from the surface of the
water.
Although there is a great deal of variation in the design
and construction of booms, all generally share four basic
characteristics:
• An above-water “freeboard” to contain the oil and to
help prevent waves from splashing oil over the top of
the boom
• A flotation device
• A below-water skirt to contain the oil and help reduce
the amount of oil lost under the boom

Booms can be fixed to a structure, such as a pier or a buoy, RECOVERY OF OIL
or towed behind or alongside one or more vessels. When
stationary or moored, the boom is anchored below the ONCE AN OIL SPILL has been contained, efforts to
water surface. remove the oil from the water can begin. Three different
types of equipment—booms, skimmers, and sorbents—are
It is necessary for stationary booms to be monitored or commonly used to recover oil from the surface.
tended due to changes produced by shifting tides, tidal
currents, winds, or other factors that influence water depth Booms
and direction and force of motion. People must tend
booms around the clock to monitor and adjust the When used in recovering oil, booms are often supported
equipment. by a horizontal arm extending directly off one or both
sides of a vessel. Sailing through the heaviest sections of
The forces exerted by currents, waves, and wind may the spill at low speeds, a vessel scoops the oil and traps it
impair the ability of a boom to hold oil. Loss of oil between the angle of the boom and the vessel’s hull. ln
occurring when friction between the water and oil causes another variation, a boom is moored at the end points of a
droplets of oil to separate from the slick and be pulled rigid arm extended from the vessel, forming a ”U”- or “J”-
under the boom is called entrainment. Currents or tow shaped pocket in which oil can collect. In either case, the
speeds greater than three-quarters of a knot may cause trapped oil can then be pumped out to holding tanks and
entrainment. Wind and waves can force oil over the top of returned to shore for proper disposal or recycling.
the boom’s freeboard or even flatten the boom into the
water, causing it to release the contained oil. Mechanical Skimmers
problems and improper mooring can also cause a boom to
fail. A skimmer is a device for recovery of spilled oil from the
water’s surface. Skimmers may be self-propelled and may
While most booms perform well in gentle seas with be used from shore or operated from vessels. The efficiency
smooth, long waves, rough and choppy water is likely to of skimmers depends on weather conditions. In
contribute to boom failure. ln some circumstances, moderately rough or choppy water, skimmers tend to
lengthening a boom’s skirt or freeboard can help to contain
the oil. Because they have more resistance to natural forces
such as wind, waves, and currents, oversized booms are
more prone to failure or leakage than smaller ones.
Generally, booms will not operate properly when waves
are higher than one meter or currents are moving faster
than one knot per hour. However, new technologies, such
as submergence plane booms and entrainment inhibitors,
Photo courtesy of RO-CLEAN DESMI

are being developed that will allow booms to operate at
higher speeds while retaining more oil.
Other Barriers: Improvised Booms

When a spill occurs and no containment equipment is
available, barriers can be improvised from whatever
materials are at hand. Although they are most often used
as temporary measures to hold or divert oil until more Oleophilic skimmer.
sophisticated equipment arrives, improvised booms can be
an effective way to deal with oil spills, particularly in calm
water such as streams, slow-moving rivers, or sheltered
bays and inlets.
Improvised booms are made from such common materials
as wood, plastic pipe, inflated fire hoses, automobile tires,
Photo courtesy of RO-CLEAN DESMI
and empty oil drums. They can be as simple as a board

placed across the surface of a slow-moving stream, or a
berm built by bulldozers pushing a wall of sand out from
the beach to divert oil from a sensitive section of shoreline.
Suction skimmer.

recover more water than oil. Three types of skimmers—
weir, oleophilic, and suction—are described below. Each type
offers advantages and drawbacks, depending on the type
of oil being cleaned up, the conditions of the sea during
cleanup efforts, and the presence of ice or debris in the
water.
Photo courtesy of US Coast Guard

Weir skimmers use a dam or enclosure positioned at the
oil/water interface. Oil floating on top of the water will
spill over the dam and be trapped in a well inside,
bringing with it as little water as possible, The trapped oil
and water mixture can then be pumped out through a pipe
or hose to a storage tank for recycling or disposal. These
skimmers are prone to becoming jammed and clogged by
floating debris. Application of sorbents.
Oleophilic (oil-attracting) skimmers use belts, disks, or
continuous mop chains of oleophilic materials to blot the
oil from the water surface. The oil is then squeezed out or particles, such as sawdust, and are difficult to collect after
scraped off into a recovery tank. Oleophilic skimmers have they are spread on the water. Adding flotation devices,
the advantage of flexibility, allowing them to be used such as empty drums attached to sorbent bales of hay, can
effectively on spills of any thickness. Some types, such as help to overcome the sinking problem, and wrapping loose
chain or “rope-mop” skimmers, work well on water that is particles in mesh will aid in collection.
choked with debris or rough ice.
Natural inorganic sorbents include clay, perlite,
A suction skimmer operates like a household vacuum vermiculite, glass, wool, sand, and volcanic ash. They can
cleaner. Oil is sucked up through wide floating heads and absorb from 4 to 20 times their weight in oil. Inorganic
pumped into storage tanks. Although suction skimmers substances, like organic substances, are inexpensive and
are generally very efficient, they are vulnerable to readily available in large quantities.
becoming clogged by debris and require constant skilled
Synthetic sorbents include man-made materials that are
observation. Suction skimmers operate best on smooth
similar to plastics, such as polyurethane, polyethylene, and
water where oil has collected against a boom or barrier.
nylon fibers. Most synthetic sorbents can absorb as much
as 70 times their weight in oil, and some types can be
Sorbents cleaned and reused several times. Synthetic sorbents that
Sorbents are materials that soak up liquids. They can be cannot be cleaned after they are used can present
used to recover oil through the mechanisms of absorption, difficulties because they must be stored temporarily until
adsorption, or both. Absorbents allow oil to penetrate into they can be disposed of properly.
pore spaces in the material they are made of, while The following characteristics must be considered when
adsorbents attract oil to their surfaces but do not allow it to choosing sorbents for cleaning up spills:
penetrate into the material. To be useful in combating oil
• Rate of absorption—The rate of absorption varies with
spills, sorbents need to be both oleophilic and hydrophobic
the thickness of the oil. Light oils are soaked up more
(water-repellant). Although they may be used as the sole
quickly than heavy ones.
cleanup method in small spills, sorbents are most often
used to remove final traces of oil, or in areas that cannot be • Oil retention—The weight of recovered oil can cause a
reached by skimmers. Once sorbents have been used to sorbent structure to sag and deform. When it is lifted
recover oil, they must be removed from the water and out of the water, it can release oil that is trapped in its
properly disposed of on land or cleaned for re-use. Any oil pores. During recovery of absorbent materials, lighter,
that is removed from sorbent materials must also be less viscous oil is lost through the pores more easily
properly disposed of or recycled. than heavier, more viscous oil.
• Ease of application—Sorbents may be applied to spills
Sorbents can be divided into three basic categories: natural
manually or mechanically, using blowers or fans. Many
organic, natural inorganic, and synthetic. Natural organic
natural organic sorbents that exist as loose materials,
sorbents include peat moss, straw, hay, sawdust, ground
such as clay and vermiculite, are dusty, difficult to apply
corncobs, feathers, and other carbon-based products. They
in windy conditions, and potentially hazardous if
are relatively inexpensive and usually readily available.
inhaled.
Organic sorbents can soak up from 3 to 15 times their
weight in oil, but they do present some disadvantages.
Some organic sorbents tend to soak up water as well as oil,
causing them to sink. Many organic sorbents are loose

SUMMARY
CLEANING UP AN OIL SPILL:
THE PRIMARY tools used to respond to oil spills are AN EXPERIMENT YOU CAN DO AT HOME
mechanical containment, recovery, and cleanup
equipment. Such equipment includes a variety of booms, THIS EXPERIMENT is designed to help you to
barriers, and skimmers, as well as natural and synthetic understand the difficulties with oil spill cleanups. You
sorbent materials. A key to effectively combating spilled oil will need the following equipment:
is careful selection and proper use of the equipment and • two aluminum pie pans, each half-filled with water
materials most suited to the type of oil and the conditions • a medicine dropper full of used motor oil
at the spill site. Most spill response equipment and
materials are greatly affected by such factors as conditions • cotton balls (use real cotton)
at sea, water currents, and wind. Damage to spill- • nylon string
contaminated shorelines and dangers to other threatened • paper towels
areas can be reduced by timely and proper use of • liquid detergent
containment and recovery equipment.
• feathers
Before you begin, make a list of predictions about the
action of oil and water. You might want to answer the
following questions in your list:
• What will happen to the oil when you drop it on the
water?
• Will it sink, float, or mix in?
• Which material will clean up the oil in the least
amount of time? Cotton, nylon, paper towel, or
string?
• How might wind and waves affect the combination
of oil and water?
Complete each of the following steps, and observe
what happens.
1. Put five drops of motor oil into one of the “oceans”
(your aluminum pie pans). Observe the action of
the oil, and record what happens. Was your
prediction correct?
2. One at a time, use the different materials (nylon,
cotton, string, and paper towels) to try to clean up
the oil from the water, keeping track of the amount
of oil each material was able to clean up and how
fast it worked. (These materials are what booms and
skimmers are made of.) Which cleaned up the oil
the fastest? The best?
3. Add five drops of oil to the second pan. Add five
drops of liquid detergent. (This represents the
chemical dispersants.) Observe what happens.
Where do you think the oil would go in the “real”
oceans?
4. Dip a feather directly into some oil. What happens
to it? How do you think this might affect a bird’s
behaviors, such as flying, preening, and feeding?
Used with permission from Jane O. Howard, “Slick Science,”
Science and Children, vol. 27, no. 2 (October 1989).

Alternative Countermeasures
For Oil Spills
3
INTRODUCTION
SEVERAL METHODS exist for containing and cleaning
up oil spills in aquatic environments. Chapter two
describes how mechanical equipment, such as booms and
skimmers, is used to block the spread of oil, concentrate it
into one area, and remove it from the water. Chemical and
biological treatment of oil can be used in place of
mechanical methods, especially in areas where untreated
oil may reach shorelines and sensitive habitats where a
cleanup becomes difficult and environmentally damaging.
This chapter describes some of the chemical and biological
methods that are used by response personnel to contain
and clean up oil spills in aquatic environments. Alternative
treatment typically involves adding chemical or biological Helicopters are often used to apply dispersants to large areas.
agents to spilled oil and also includes in-situ burning.
TYPES OF SUBSTANCES USED

TWO TYPES of substances commonly used in responding Environmental factors, including water salinity and
to an oil spill are (1) dispersing agents and (2) biological agents. temperature, and conditions at sea influence the
effectiveness of dispersants. Studies have shown that many
Dispersing Agents dispersants work best at salinity levels close to that of
normal seawater. While dispersants can work in cold
Dispersing agents, also called dispersants, are chemicals that
water, they work best in warm water.
contain surfactants, or compounds that act to break liquid
substances such as oil into small droplets. In an oil spill, Some countries rely almost exclusively on dispersants to
these droplets disperse into the water column, where they are combat oil spills because frequently rough or choppy
subjected to natural processes—such as wind, waves, and conditions at sea make mechanical containment and
currents—that help to break them down further. This helps cleanup difficult. However, dispersants have not been used
to clear oil from the water surface, making it less likely that extensively in the United States because of difficulties with
the oil slick will reach the shoreline. application, disagreement among scientists about their
The effectiveness of a dispersant is determined by the effectiveness, and concerns about the toxicity of the
composition of the oil it is being used to treat and the dispersed mixtures. Dispersants used today are much less
method and rate at which the dispersant is applied. Heavy toxic than those used in the past, but few long-term
crude oils do not disperse as well as light- to medium- environmental effects tests have been conducted after a
weight oils. Dispersants are most effective when applied dispersant application. The EPA encourages the
immediately following a spill, before the lightest monitoring of areas that may see increased dispersant use.
components in the oil have evaporated.

These problems are being overcome, however. New use was approved for approximately 100 miles of the
technologies that improve the application of dispersants Prince William Sound shoreline. Data collected through a
are being designed. The effectiveness of dispersants is monitoring protocol required by the State of Alaska
being tested in laboratories and in actual spill situations, indicated that nutrient addition accelerated the natural
and the information collected is being used to help design degradation of oil with no observed eutrophication or
more effective dispersants. In addition, the EPA maintains toxicity.
an authorized list of chemical and biological agents for use
Proof of the effectiveness of bioremediation as an oil spill
on oil spills.
cleanup technology was developed on the shoreline of
Delaware Bay in 1994. This EPA-funded study, which
Biological Agents involved an intentional release of light crude oil onto small
Biological agents are nutrients, enzymes, or microorganisms plots, demonstrated a several-fold increase in
that increase the rate at which natural biodegradation biodegradation rate due to the addition of fertilizer
occurs. Biodegradation is a process by which compared to the unfertilized control plots.
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and yeasts break Bioaugmentation or seeding with native microorganisms
down complex compounds into simpler products to obtain did not result in faster biodegradation.
energy and nutrients.
Biodegradation of oil is a natural process that slowly— IN-SITU BURNING
over the course of weeks, months, or years—removes oil
from the environment. However, rapid removal of spilled IN-SITU BURNING of oil involves the ignition and
oil from shorelines and wetlands may be necessary in controlled combustion of oil. It can be used when oil is
order to minimize potential environmental damage to spilled on a water body or on land. The National Oil and
these sensitive habitats. Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan authorizes in-situ
burning as a cleanup method but requires approval from
Bioremediation technologies can help biodegradation
the regional response team (RRT) before it can be used.
processes work faster. Bioremediation refers to the act of
RRT can provide approval through pre-authorization plans
adding materials to the environment, such as fertilizers or
and agreements among the federal and state agencies. In-
microorganisms, that will increase the rate at which
situ burning is typically used in conjunction with
natural biodegradation occurs. Furthermore,
mechanical recovery on open water. Fire resistant booms
bioremediation is often used after all mechanical oil
are often used to collect and concentrate the oil into a slick
recovery methods have been used. Two bioremediation
that is thick enough to burn.
approaches have been used in the United States for oil spill
cleanups—biostimulation and bioaugmentation. Many factors influence the decision to use in-situ burning
on inland or coastal waters. Elements affecting the use of
Biostimulation is the method of adding nutrients such as
burning include water temperature, wind direction and
phosphorus and nitrogen to a contaminated environment
speed, wave amplitude, slick thickness, oil type, and the
to stimulate the growth of the microorganisms that break
amount of oil weathering and emulsification that have
down oil. Limited supplies of these necessary nutrients
occurred. Weathering is a measure of the amount of oil
usually control the growth of native microorganism
already having escaped to the atmosphere through
populations. When nutrients are added, the native
evaporation. Emulsification is the process of oil mixing with
microorganism population can grow rapidly, potentially
water. Oil layer thickness, weathering, and emulsification
increasing the rate of biodegradation.
are usually dependent upon the time period between the
Bioaugmentation is the addition of microorganisms to the actual spill and the start of burn operations. For many
existing native oil-degrading population. Sometimes spills, there is only a short “window of opportunity”
species of bacteria that do not naturally exist in an area during which in-situ burning is a viable option.
will be added to the native population. As with nutrient
General guidelines for the use of in-situ burning on a
addition, the purpose of seeding is to increase the
water body are as follows:
population of microorganisms that can biodegrade the
spilled oil. This process is seldom needed, however, • Wind speeds of less than 23 mph,
because hydrocarbon-degrading bacterial exist almost • Waves less than 3 feet in height,
everywhere and non-indigenous species are often unable • Minimum slick thickness of 2-3 mm, depending upon
to compete successfully with native microorganisms. oil type,
During the Exxon Valdez oil spill cleanup and restoration • Less than 30 percent evaporative loss, and
activities, the Alaska Regional Response Team authorized • Emulsification of less than 25 percent water content.
the use of bioremediation products, including
biostimulation and bioaugmentation. Nutrient addition The major issues for in-situ burning of inland spills are
proximity to human populations (burning must take place
at least three miles away from population at risk), soil

type, water level, erosion potential, vegetation species and
condition, and wildlife species presence. Burning may
actually allow oil to penetrate further into some soils and
shoreline sediments.
Because it releases pollutants into the air, in-situ burning
requires careful air quality monitoring. Devices are pre- In-situ burning
deployed near populations to measure particulate levels. If can remove oil
air quality standards are exceeded, the burn will be quickly.
terminated.
Because in-situ burning uses intense heat sources, it poses
additional danger to response personnel. Igniting an oil
slick requires a device that can deliver an intense heat
source to the oil.
Photo courtesy of MMS

Vessel-deployed ignition devices are soaked with a volatile
compound, lit, and allowed to drift into an oil slick. During
the Exxon Valdez cleanup effort, plastic bags filled with
gelled gasoline were ignited and placed in the path of oil
being towed in a containment fire-boom. Hand-held
ignition systems can be thrown into oil slicks but require
personnel to be in close proximity to the burning oil. A conditions include remote areas, areas with herbaceous or
recently developed ignition device called the “Helitorch,” dormant vegetation, and water or land covered with snow
delivers a falling stream of burning fuel from a helicopter, or ice. In these circumstances, burning can quickly prevent
allowing personnel to maintain a safer distance from the the movement of oil to additional areas, eliminate the
burning slick and distribute ignition sources over a wider generation of oily wastes, provide a cleanup means for
area. affected areas with limited access for mechanical or
physical removal methods, or provide an additional level
Although it can be effective in some situations, in-situ
of cleanup when other methods become ineffective. When
burning is rarely used on marine spills because of
oil is spilled into water containing a layer or chunks of ice,
widespread concern over atmospheric emissions and
burning can often remove much more oil than
uncertainty about its impacts on human and environmental
conventional means. Burning can also help to eliminate
health. However, burning of inland spills is frequently used
some volatile compounds that might otherwise evaporate
in a number of states. All burns produce significant amounts
off a slick.
of particulate matter, dependent on the type of oil being
burned. Burning oil delivers polycyclic aromatic Although limited, research and development for in-situ
hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, burning in the areas of training, fire-resistant booms, and
and carbon monoxide into the air in addition to other ignition systems have increased in recent years.
compounds at lower levels. In addition, when circumstances Investigation into inland environments and vegetative
make it more difficult to ignite the oil, an accelerant such as species that are more tolerant of burns is also yielding
gasoline may need to be added, possibly increasing the results which can aid responders. As data regarding the
toxicity of the volatilizing particles. Lack of data regarding effects of burning oil on the environment and human
the environmental and human health effects of burning has population increase, consideration and use of in-situ
also discouraged its use. burning may become more frequent when spills occur.
In-situ burning will be used more often as federal response
agencies learn from its behavior and effects. As in the case
of the New Carissa, a Japanese freighter that ran aground at SUMMARY
the entrance to Coos Bay in Oregon on February 4, 1999, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL methods can be used in
the conditions were favorable for burning. The ship was conjunction with mechanical means for containing and
carrying approximately 360,000 gallons of bunker fuel. cleaning up oil spills. Dispersants are most useful in helping
Early assessment of the vessel revealed that it was leaking to keep oil from reaching shorelines and other sensitive
fuel. In order to reduce the potential for oil to spill from the habitats. Biological agents have the potential to assist
vessel during impending storms, responders ignited the recovery in sensitive areas such as shorelines, marshes, and
grounded ship with incendiary devices in an attempt to wetlands. In-situ burning has shown the potential to be an
burn the fuel in the cargo holds. effective cleanup method under certain circumstances.
Despite its drawbacks, in-situ burning may be an efficient Research into these technologies continues in the hope that
cleanup method under certain conditions where there are future oil spills can be contained and cleaned up more
few negative effects on humans or the environment. These efficiently and effectively.

Shoreline Cleanup
Of Oil Spills
4
INTRODUCTION
FRESHWATER and marine shoreline areas are important other freshwater bodies are known for their fishing
public and ecological resources. However, their cleanliness activities, while many beaches are famous for their wide
and beauty, and the survival of the species that inhabit expanses of beautiful sand and rugged rocky cliffs,
them, can be threatened by accidents that occur when oil is providing opportunities for sports such as swimming,
produced, stored, and transported. Oil is sometimes boating, and windsurfing. When response teams develop
spilled from vessels directly into waterways; spills from strategies for cleaning up a shoreline after an oil spill, they
land-based facilities can flow into waters and foul must consider the characteristics of the shoreline and the
shorelines. These accidents affect both oceans and natural and recreational resources it provides.
freshwater environments. Despite the best efforts of
response teams to contain spilled oil, some of it may
contaminate shorelines of oceans and lakes, banks of rivers FACTORS AFFECTING CLEANUP DECISIONS
and streams, and other ecologically sensitive habitats
along the water’s edge. To help protect these resources FREQUENTLY, oil spills will start on land and reach shore
from damage and to preserve them for public enjoyment areas. Whenever possible, control and cleanup of an oil
and for the survival of numerous species, cleaning up spill begins immediately. If the oil spill can be controlled, it
shorelines following oil spills has become an important is less likely that it will reach sensitive freshwater or
part of oil spill response. marine habitats. If the oil does reach the shore, however,
decisions about how best to remove it must be made.
These decisions will be based on factors such as the
following:
SHORELINES: PUBLIC AND
• Type of oil spilled
ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
• Geology of the shoreline and rate of water flow
FRESHWATER and marine shoreline areas serve as homes
• Type and sensitivity of biological communities likely to
to a variety of wildlife during all or part of the year. Many
be affected
bird species build their nests on sand or among pebbles,
while others regularly wander the shoreline searching for Each of these factors is described below.
food. Marine mammals, such as elephant seals and sea
lions, come ashore to breed and bear their pups. Fish, such Type of Oil Spilled
as salmon, swim near shorelines on their upriver
Lighter oils tend to evaporate and degrade (break down)
migrations during spawning season, and their offspring
very quickly; therefore, they do not tend to be deposited in
swim through these same areas on their trips to the sea in
large quantities on banks and shorelines. Heavier oils,
the following year. In addition, freshwater environments
however, tend to form a thick oil-and-water mixture called
are important to human health as they are often used for
mousse, which clings to rocks and sand. Heavier oils
drinking water and are home to many different mammals,
exposed to sunlight and wave action also tend to form
aquatic birds, fish, insects, microorganisms, and vegetation.
dense, sticky substances known as tar balls and asphalt that
Freshwater and marine shorelines also provide public are very difficult to remove from rocks and sediments.
recreation throughout the world. Rivers, streams, and Therefore, deposits from heavy oils generally require more

aggressive cleanup than those from lighter ones. Shoreline conditions, affected habitats may take years to recover.
clean-up of inland spills usually involves lighter oils. When oil spills into a flowing river, the impact may be less
Inland oil spills often involve refined petroleum products, severe than in standing water because the river current
although spills of other types of oil are not uncommon. acts as a natural cleaning mechanism. Currents tend to be
Spills in marine ecosystems often involve crude oils and the strongest along the outside edge of a bend in a river
heavy fuel oils originating from accidents during tanker where the current tends to flow straight into the outside
operations. bank before being deflected downstream. Oil
contamination is usually heavy in this area because
Geology of the Shoreline and Rate of Water Flow currents drive the oil onto the bank.
Shorelines can vary dramatically in their forms and In marine environments and on large lakes and rivers,
compositions. Some marine shorelines are narrow, with waves affect the movement and spreading of oil spills in
beaches formed from rounded or flattened cobbles and several different ways. Initially, the oil spreads to form a
pebbles; some are wide and covered in a layer of sand or thin film, called an oil slick. The slick appears smooth
broken shell fragments; and still others are steep cliffs with compared to the water around it. Momentum is then
no beach at all. Generally, freshwater shorelines are transferred from the waves to the oil slick. Small waves
composed of sediments and may be lined with trees or tend to push oil slicks in the direction of wave
heavy vegetation. The composition and structure of the propagation. This makes oil slicks move slightly faster than
bank will determine the potential effects of oil on the the surface of the water that they are floating on. Short,
shoreline. relatively steep waves can result in a surface current that
will move the oil in a downwind direction. As waves
Oil tends to stick to sediments and to the surfaces of break, the resulting plunging water creates a turbulent
cobbles and pebbles. It also flows downward in the spaces wake, carrying particles of oil down into the water column.
between cobbles, pebbles, and sand grains, and
accumulates in lower layers of sediments. Oil that sticks to
Type and Sensitivity of Biological Communities
sediment particles suspended in the water column, or to
cobbles and pebbles along the bank, is exposed to sunlight Biological communities differ in their sensitivity to oil
and waves, which help it to degrade and make it less spills and the physical intrusion that may be associated
hazardous to organisms that come into contact with it. Oil with various cleanup methods. Some ecosystems seem to
that sticks to rocks and pebbles can be wiped or washed recover quickly from spills, with little or no noticeable
off. Oil that flows onto sandy banks, however, can harm, while others experience long-term harmful effects.
“escape” downward into sand, making it difficult to clean
Animals and plants may be affected by the physical
up and reducing its ability to degrade.
properties of spilled oil, which prevent respiration,
The effects of an oil spill on marine and freshwater habitats photosynthesis, or feeding. Animals, such as elephant
varies according to the rate of water flow and the habitat’s seals, which depend on the marine environment for
specific characteristics. Standing or slow-moving water, breeding and pupping, can lose their ability to stay warm
such as marshes or lakes, are likely to incur more severe in cold water when their skin comes into contact with oil.
impacts than flowing water, such as rivers and streams, Birds lose their ability to fly and to stay warm when their
because spilled oil tends to “pool” in the water and can feathers are coated with oil, and fish can suffocate when
remain there for long periods of time. In calm water their gills are covered with oil. An oil spill can disrupt an
ecosystem’s food chain because it is toxic to some plants
which other organisms may depend on for food. In
The type of environment needs to be addition, oil in sediments like those that are common in
considered when devising a cleanup plan. freshwater shorelines may be very harmful because
sediment traps the oil and affects the organisms that live
in, or feed off, the sediments.
CLEANUP PROCESSES AND METHODS

BOTH NATURAL processes and physical methods aid in
the removal and containment of oil from shorelines.
Sometimes physical methods are used to enhance naturally
occurring processes. Examples of a technology that uses
both natural processes and physical methods to clean up
an oil spill are biodegradation and bioremediation, which are
described later.

Natural Processes namely, that nutrients should be applied in ways that will
keep them from washing away from the affected areas long
Natural processes that result in the removal of oil from the
enough to affect the enhanced treatment. In wetlands,
natural environment include evaporation, oxidation, and
bioremediation may not work as well because there is less
biodegradation.
oxygen in the sediments than there is on a sandy beach;
Evaporation occurs when liquid components in oil are even with added nutrients, microorganisms may not have
converted to vapor and released into the atmosphere. It enough oxygen to effectively combat the spill.
results in the removal of lighter-weight substances in oil. In
EPA is currently studying the biodegradability of non-
the first 12 hours following a spill, up to 50 percent of the
petroleum oils (vegetable oils and animal fats) and their
light-weight components may evaporate. Since the most
impacts on freshwater and marine environments during
toxic substances in oil tend to be those of lightest weight,
biodegradation.
this evaporation decreases the toxicity of a spill over time.
Oxidation occurs when oxygen reacts with the chemical Chapter three discusses bioremediation and other
compounds in oil. Oxidation causes the complex chemical alternative cleanup approaches.
compounds in oil to break down into simpler compounds
that tend to be lighter in weight and more able to dissolve Physical Methods
in water, allowing them to degrade further.
Physical removal of oil from shorelines, and especially
Biodegradation occurs when naturally occurring bacteria beaches, is time-consuming and requires much equipment
living in the water or on land consume oil, which they can and many personnel. Methods used to physically clean oil
use to provide energy for their various biological needs. from shorelines include the following:
When oil is first spilled, it may be toxic to some bacteria,
• Wiping with absorbent materials
which makes the initial rate of biodegradation quite slow.
As the oil evaporates and the more toxic substances are • Pressure washing
removed, the population of bacteria grows and • Raking or bulldozing
biodegradation activity accelerates.
Before physical cleaning methods are used, booms made of
In nature, biodegradation is a relatively slow process. It absorbent material are often set up in the water along the
can take years for a population of microorganisms to edge of the bank. Booms prevent oil released during bank
degrade most of the oil spilled onto a shoreline. However, cleanup activities from returning to the water and contain
the rate at which biodegradation occurs can be accelerated the oil so that it can be skimmed from the water for proper
by the addition of nutrients, such as phosphorus and disposal.
nitrogen, that encourage growth of oil-degrading bacteria.
This process is called biostimulation. Biodegradation rates Wiping with Absorbent Materials
can also be increased by adding more microorganisms to
the environment, especially species that are already used Materials that are capable of absorbing many times their
to consuming the type of oil spilled. Adding weight in oil can be used to wipe up oil from contaminated
microorganisms is referred to as bioaugmentation. The use shorelines. These materials are often designed as large
of nutrients or the addition of microorganisms to squares, much like paper towels, or shaped into “mops.”
encourage biodegradation is called bioremediation. The squares or mops are used to wipe the shoreline or oily
rocks during which time the absorbents are filled with as
When oil spill response personnel develop bioremediation
much oil as they can hold.
strategies, they have to consider the effects of waves, tides,
and currents on the nutrients and microorganisms they are There are advantages to the use of absorbents. They can be
applying to oil-contaminated areas. Contamination of used to clean up any kind of oil on any shoreline that can
coastal areas by oil from offshore spills usually occurs in be reached by response personnel. The use of absorbents is
the intertidal zone where waves and tides can quickly generally not harmful to the shoreline itself or to the
carry away dissolved nutrients. Adding nutrients may not organisms that live on it, and no material is left behind
be effective on beaches with a great deal of wave action following the cleanup effort. Some sorbents are reusable,
and tidal flows because most of the nutrients will be lost to reducing the need for disposal after a spill.
dilution. On calmer shorelines, adding nutrients may be an
Wiping with absorbent materials requires the use of a large
effective bioremediation strategy.
quantity of material and several personnel. Personnel must
With respect to freshwater shorelines, an oil spill is most wear proper protective clothing to minimize direct contact
likely to have the greatest impact on wetlands or marshes with the oil as they are removing it. Oil-filled absorbents
rather than on a wide shoreline zone like a marine and protective clothing that are used by response
intertidal zone. Less research has been conducted in these personnel must be properly disposed of following cleanup,
types of environments, so it is not yet known how well which can be costly. In addition, the intrusion of many
bioremediation enhances oil removal. The same principals people onto an isolated shoreline may disrupt animal
apply to this environment as a marine environment, behaviors such as breeding or nesting.

Pressure Washing bulldozers requires specially trained operators who can
maneuver them without damaging the shoreline
Pressure washing involves rinsing oiled shorelines and
unnecessarily; raking and tilling are time-consuming and
rocks using hoses that supply low- or high-pressure water
require many people.
streams. Hot or cold water can be used to create these
streams. The oil is flushed from the shoreline into plastic-
lined trenches, then collected with sorbent materials and
disposed of properly. Since many river banks, and some DISPOSAL OF OIL AND DEBRIS
lakes, have vegetation extending down into or growing in CLEANUP FROM an oil spill is not considered complete
the water, plants may have to be cleaned or removed. until all waste materials are disposed of properly. The
Depending on the type of oil, low-pressure washing will cleanup of an oiled shoreline can create different types of
usually remove most of the oil from the vegetation. In a waste materials, including liquid oil, oil mixed with sand,
marine ecosystem, high-pressure washing usually does and tar balls. Oil can sometimes be recovered and reused,
more harm than good by driving the oil deeper into the disposed of by incineration, or placed in a landfill. States and
beach and by killing many of the organisms on the beach. the federal government strictly regulate the disposal of oil.
Additionally, high-pressure water streams can accelerate
bank erosion and dislodge organisms, such as algae and Reuse or recovery of oil requires that the oil be processed
mussels, from the rocks and sediments on which they live, and separated from the other materials, such as water, that
or can force oil deeper into sediments, making cleanup are mixed in with it. The recovered oil can then be blended
more difficult. with other fuels for use in power plants or boilers.
Pressure washing has the advantage of being relatively Incineration uses extremely high temperatures to convert
inexpensive and simple to apply; however, it requires compounds, such as oil, into carbon dioxide and water.
many people. When a mobile incinerator is used at a remote spill site, the
need for transporting large volumes of oiled wastes to
Raking or Bulldozing distant disposal sites is eliminated. This can be a practical
and efficient method to manage large volumes of waste
When oil moves downward into the sands or between generated during a cleanup. Because incineration can
pebbles and cobbles on a shoreline, it becomes more potentially produce air pollution, it is important that it be
difficult to remove. If the oil has moved downward only a used in strict compliance with air pollution laws.
short distance, tilling or raking the sand can increase
evaporation of the oil by increasing its exposure to air and Landfilling is another method of disposing of oiled debris.
sunlight. If the oil has penetrated several inches into the The oil is mixed with chemicals, such as calcium oxide
sand, bulldozers may be brought in to remove the upper (“quicklime”), that stabilize the oil and make it less able to
layers of sand and pebbles. This allows the oil to be leak into groundwater or soils. Mixtures of quicklime and
exposed so it can be collected and removed from the site, oil must sometimes be taken to specially designed landfills
washed with pressure hoses, or left to degrade naturally. for disposal.
Raking and bulldozing are simple methods for helping to

remove oil that might otherwise escape into sediments. SUMMARY
However, these methods can disturb both the natural
shape of the shoreline and the plant and animal species CLEANING shorelines after an oil spill is a challenging
that live on and in the sediments. In addition, the use of task. Factors that affect the type of cleanup method used
include the type of oil spilled, the geology of the shoreline
and rate of water flow, and the type and sensitivity of
Response crews using high pressure hose
to wash an oil covered beach. biological communities in the area. Natural processes, such
as evaporation, oxidation, and biodegradation, help to
clean the shoreline. Physical methods, such as wiping with
sorbent materials, pressure washing, and raking and
bulldozing, can be used to assist these natural processes.
Oil collected during cleanup activities must be reused or
disposed of properly, using such methods as incineration
or landfilling. Choosing the most effective yet potentially
least damaging cleaning methods helps to ensure that the
natural systems of shorelines and the recreational benefits
they offer will be preserved and protected for future
generations.

Wildlife And Oil Spills
5
INTRODUCTION WILDLIFE AND SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS’
IN THE UNITED STATES there are more than 70 spills SUSCEPTIBILITY TO OIL SPILLS
reported on an average day. When oil spills occur, plants MOST BIOLOGICAL communities are susceptible to the
and animals will be contaminated and some will be unable effects of oil spills. Plant communities on land, marsh
to survive. Whether they occur in oceans, estuaries, rivers, grasses in estuaries, and kelp beds in the ocean; microscopic
lakes, ponds, or on land, they can affect algae, plants, plants and animals; and larger animals, such as fish,
invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles, birds, and amphibians and reptiles, birds, and mammals, are subject to
mammals. These species and communities are at risk of contact, smothering, toxicity, and the chronic long-term
smothering, hydrocarbon toxicity, hypothermia, and effects that may result from the physical and chemical
chronic long-term effects. properties of the spilled oil. The primary effects of oil
Planning ahead is one of the best ways to minimize the contamination include loss of the insulative capability of
impacts of oil spills on wildlife. Contingency planning at the feathers and fur which can lead to hypothermia;
local area level helps both planners and responders dehydration resulting from lack of uncontaminated water;
identify protection strategies and response options for fish, stomach and intestinal disorders and destruction of red
wildlife, and sensitive environments. The following blood cells resulting from ingestion of oil; pneumonia
chapter describes how contingency plans are used to help resulting from inhalation of oil vapors; skin and eye
prepare for oil spills. irritation from direct contact with oil; and impaired
reproduction. Animals can also suffer during capture and
EPA, along with other planners and responders, is working rehabilitation operations; potential ailments include
to develop a thorough understanding of how oil spills infectious diseases, skin problems, joint swellings, and
affect fish, wildlife, and environmental resources. Knowing lesions. In addition, eggs and juveniles are particularly
the species and communities that might be affected by a susceptible to contamination from oil. Very small quantities
spill and their susceptibilities to oil contamination helps of oil on bird eggs may result in the death of embryos.
planners choose the best response options. These response
concerns are addressed in pre-spill response planning so
that they can be implemented more easily during actual EFFECTS OF OIL ON FISH,
response efforts.
BIRDS, AND MAMMALS
When a spill occurs, wildlife responders try to minimize
injuries to fish, wildlife, and sensitive environments. By Fish
working with the response agencies that contain and clean
up spills, wildlife responders can reduce the negative Fish may be exposed to spilled oil in different ways. They
effects an oil spill has on natural resources. may come into direct contact and contaminate their gills;
the water column may contain toxic and volatile
components of oil that may be absorbed by their eggs,
larvae, and juvenile stages; and they may eat contaminated
food. Fish that are exposed to oil may suffer from changes
in heart and respiratory rate, enlarged livers, reduced
growth, fin erosion, a variety of biochemical and cellular

changes, and reproductive and behavioral responses. bleeding and in liver and kidney damage. Ingestion of oil
Chronic exposure to some chemicals found in oil may is of greater concern for species that groom themselves
cause genetic abnormalities or cancer in sensitive species. with their mouth, such as sea otters and polar bears.
If chemicals such as dispersants are used to respond to a Breathing hydrocarbon vapors can result in nerve damage
spill, there may be an increased potential for tainting of and behavioral abnormalities to all mammals.
fish and shellfish by increasing the concentration of oil in
Capturing and cleaning oiled marine mammals generally
the water column. This can affect humans in areas that
is not feasible. While procedures for dealing with oiled
have commercial and recreational fisheries. (Chapter three
birds have been developed, no such procedures have been
discusses dispersants and other alternative oil spill response
developed for marine mammals except for sea otters and,
techniques.)
to a more limited extent, polar bears.
Birds Procedures for capturing, treating, and releasing animals

may hurt them more than the oil does. For example,
Birds are very susceptible to oil spills. Seabirds, for manatees are particularly susceptible to secondary fungal
example, spend a lot of time on the ocean’s surface, dive and bacterial infections following capture or
when disturbed, and have low reproductive rates, making transportation.
them particularly vulnerable to oil spills. In addition, the
populations of species with small numbers of individuals,
a restricted geographic range, or threatened and
endangered species may be very adversely affected by oil
OIL SPILLS EFFECTS ON SPECIFIC
spill contamination.
TYPES OF MAMMALS
A bird’s feathers overlap to trap air and provide the bird Pinnipeds and Cetaceans
with warmth and buoyancy. Birds that contact an oil slick The most common pinnipeds are harbor seals, fur seals, sea
may get oil on their feathers and lose their ability to stay lions, and walrus. The most common cetaceans are
waterproof, they may ingest oil while trying to clean their porpoises, dolphins, and whales. Except for fur seals, both
feathers or when they try to eat contaminated food, and the pinnipeds and the cetaceans have blubber for
they may suffer long-term reproductive effects. insulation and do not groom or depend on fur to stay
warm. This characteristic makes them less susceptible to
oil spills than other mammals. The pinnipeds are
associated with coastal environments, as they must
venture onto land to reproduce and often inhabit beaches
and rocky shores at various times of the year. This may
make them more at risk to oil spills than cetaceans, which
are generally more nomadic and migratory. Contact with
oil has similar effects on both pinnipeds and cetaceans.
When they come to the surface to breathe they may inhale
hydrocarbon vapors that may result in lung injuries; oil that
comes in contact with the animals’ sensitive mucous
membranes and eyes may produce irritations. Young
pinnipeds and cetaceans may be injured due to ingestion
of oil from contaminated teats when nursing. There may be
long-term chronic effects as a result of migration through
Birds can be smothered by oil.
oil-contaminated waters.
Mammals Manatees
Mammals that may be affected include river otters, The effects of discharged oil on adult manatees’ body
beavers, sea otters, polar bears, manatees, seals, sea lions, temperature as a result of direct contact with oil is negligible
walrus, whales, porpoises, and dolphins. The sensitivity of because they have a layer of blubber for insulation. Also,
mammals to spilled oil is highly variable. The amount of they exhibit no grooming behavior that would contribute to
damage appears to be most directly related to how ingestion. However, manatees may be affected by inhaling
important the fur and blubber are to staying warm, which volatile hydrocarbons while they are breathing on the
is called thermoregulation. River otters, beavers, sea otters, surface, and it is very likely that exposure to petroleum
fur seals, polar bears, and land mammals need clean fur to would irritate sensitive mucous membranes and eyes.
remain warm.
As with most animals, the young are the most at risk.
Direct exposure to oil can result in temporary eye Nursing pups may be injured due to ingestion of oil from
problems. Ingestion of oil can result in digestive tract contaminated teats. There may be long-term chronic effects

as a result of migration through oil-contaminated waters, These response options are often limited in their
and there is a substantial possibility of consuming application and effectiveness, making it necessary to try to
contaminated plant material and other incidental maneuver healthy wildlife out of the path of the spill.
organisms. Manatees may not be severely affected by the
oil spill through direct contact, but they are sensitive to Keeping Animals Away from Spilled Oil
habitat disturbances and injury, such as collisions with
boats and barges and propeller strikes, that may occur The second response option for protecting wildlife
during response actions. emphasizes keeping unoiled wildlife away from oiled
areas through the use of deterrents and pre-emptive
capture. Like first response options, second response
Sea Otters
options also prevent healthy and clean wildlife from
Because sea otters spend a great deal of time on the ocean’s becoming oiled, but they may not be effective unless
surface and depend exclusively on their fur for insulation conditions are nearly perfect. The techniques, often called
and buoyancy, they are highly susceptible to oil hazing, use a variety of visual, auditory, and experimental
contamination. Sea otters are considered vulnerable to oil sensory deterrent methods. Visual deterrents include shiny
spill contamination during their entire life cycle. The most reflectors, flags, balloons, kites, smoke, scarecrows, and
harmful effect from direct exposure to oil is the fouling of model predators. Auditory methods often rely on loud
fur, which may lose its ability to insulate. In addition, noises generated from propane cannons, alarms, model
breathing hydrocarbon vapors and ingesting oil as they wildlife distress calls, predator recordings, and other noise
groom themselves or feed on contaminated prey can makers. These techniques have been used with mixed
damage their lungs, cause digestive tract bleeding, and success by airport personnel to keep flocks of birds away
result in liver and kidney damage. Indirect effects may from runways. A combination of visual and auditory
include loss of habitat and food resources. devices may be used, including herding with aircraft or
helicopters, and boats. One promising experimental
Polar Bears deterrent is the use of the chemical that produces grape
flavoring. When the grape flavoring is used in conjunction
Polar bears rely on blubber, guard hair, and a dense with bird feed, it appears to effectively deter birds from
underfur for thermoregulation and insulation. Polar bears landfills and public parks where birds pose a health threat
may groom oil-contaminated fur; swallowing oil during to humans. It might be used to create a buffer around the
grooming has killed several bears in Canada. There is some slick to preclude birds from swimming into it. The
evidence that oil’s toxic effects on polar bears include an application would only have an effect on birds that swim
inability to produce red blood cells and kidney damage. on the surface and less so on diving birds, which continue
to present extensive operational problems for recovery
during spill response.
RESPONSE OPTIONS TO PROTECT WILDLIFE Cases involving endangered species may warrant the use
WHEN A SPILL OCCURS, the severity of injuries to fish, of unusual or heroic secondary response options. Two
wildlife, and sensitive environments depends on the unique applications involving fish employ a visual method
location and the quantity and type of oil. Oils tend to and an auditory method.
spread rapidly whether spilled on land or water, but the 1. Many fish have a sensitivity to bright lights. For
spreading will be enhanced if the spill reaches example, walleyes in Lake Michigan collide with rocks
groundwater, lakes, streams, rivers, and the ocean. or beach themselves in an attempt to escape automobile
Currents, winds, and temperatures may complicate floodlights at close range. Lighting may be manipulated
response efforts. Once the spill reaches the environment, to restrict fish movement in specific areas.
fish, wildlife, and sensitive environments are at risk. Three
2. Most bony fish have the ability to detect vibrations.
categories of response options have been developed to
High frequencies have been used to keep fish away
meet the needs of responders trying to minimize injuries to
from the turbines at hydroelectric dams. While these
the environment.
methods have not been proven successful for all species,
the method does hold promise for some.
Containing Spilled Oil
If a spill occurs on land, a combination of deterrent devices
The first response strategy for fish, wildlife, and might be employed to keep wildlife from entering the spill
environmental protection emphasizes controlling the area. Deterrence is more difficult if a spill occurs on water
release and spread of spilled oil at the source to prevent or and the slick is moving. It is very difficult to keep the
reduce contamination of potentially affected species, their devices actively scaring wildlife from the area. Untended
habitats, and sensitive environments. In addition, primary or misdirected hazing of wildlife could result in accidently
response strategies include the removal of oiled debris, moving them into oiled areas. Noises and visual deterrents
including contaminated fish and wildlife carcasses, in work best in a smaller, well-defined spill area, which may
water and on land.

must be based on spill-specific criteria. The criteria must
be based on the best available science and focus on the
protection and maintenance of healthy wild populations of
the species affected or potentially affected by the spill.
Volunteers wash
a seabird coated Major Considerations in Oiled Animal Rescue
with a mixture of
vegetable oils. It is necessary to locate facilities that are capable of
handling the water, sewage, and solid waste requirements
of the operation. It is particularly important to ensure that
the facility, personnel, and operations are in compliance
Veterinary Care & Research Center
Photo courtesy of Marine Wildlife
with all laws, regulations, and permit requirements prior

to initiating operation of the facility.
In addition, responders must ensure that facilities operate
within established guidelines and that all wildlife
operations are conducted under qualified veterinary
supervision.
Finally, in order to have the best chance for success, the
capture effort must be initiated rapidly and efficiently,
using trained and qualified managers and responders,
be ringed with devices to make it unappealing for wildlife including rehabilitation workers.
to enter. Often, just the activities of oil spill cleanup
workers on beaches, in boats, in vehicles, or in aircraft
provide good deterrent effects for as long as they are in the OILED WILDLIFE CARE:
area. A VETERINARIAN’S OVERVIEW
Another way to keep wildlife from becoming oiled is to MANY GOVERNMENT AGENCIES, universities and
capture clean animals before they come in contact with oil. private organizations help rescue animals and birds that
However, this approach is complex and requires good have been exposed to oil pollution. While the government
planning. The capture, handling, transportation, and is responsible for animal rescue efforts, many private
release of uncontaminated wildlife is labor and equipment organizations assist in rescuing injured wildlife. Before any
intensive and should be reserved for animals that can be person or organization can handle or confine birds or
captured easily and species of particular concern. mammals for rescue, however, they must get special
Preemptive capture should only be attempted when the permits that are issued by state and federal officials. It is
threat of oiling is very high. Small populations of unlawful for any person or organization to capture and
endangered or critically sensitive wildlife may be captured handle oiled wildlife without training or permits. This
with nets or traps that do not hurt the animals. Careful training prepares them to capture, handle, and treat
consideration must be given to finding clean release sites, injured wildlife without causing pain and suffering to the
which should be determined before capturing animals. animals or causing injury to themselves as they treat
wildlife.
Rescuing Oiled Animals
Rescue parties usually will contact rehabilitation workers
The third response option is capturing and treating even before they arrive to make sure that they are
animals that have already been oiled; this option is used prepared to care for the captured birds immediately. This
only as a last resort. Typically only a small percentage of ensures that the birds are treated as quickly as possible.
wildlife that are highly sensitive to the effects of oiling will Birds that are most likely to be affected by oil spills are
be captured. Even very oiled animals are often able to those that remain in, dive in, or feed in the water, such as
evade capture until they are very ill. Of those captured, ducks, loons, grebes, cormorants, gulls, terns, herons,
only a portion will survive the treatment process and be murres, pelicans, coots, auklets, bald eagles, and ospreys.
released back into the wild. Some will survive, but their
Once a bird has been brought to a rehabilitation center,
injuries will require them to live under the care of
certain basic procedures are followed. First, birds are given
aquariums and zoological parks.
complete physical exams, including checking body
The fate of animals released back into the wild has been temperature, respiratory rates, and heart rates. Birds are
questioned and requires additional investigation to examined for broken bones, skin burns and abrasions. Oil
determine if these efforts are warranted. The decision to is flushed from birds’ eyes and nares. Heavily oiled birds
capture and treat oiled wildlife, and the decision to release are wiped with absorbent cloths to remove patches of oil.
them back to the wild or retain treated wildlife in captivity Pepto Bismol™ or Toxiban™ is administered orally to

prevent additional absorption of oil inside the bird’s
stomach and to help remove internal oil from the bird. The GOVERNMENT AGENCIES RESPONSIBLE
bird is then warmed and placed in a quiet area. Curtains, FOR PROTECTING WILDLIFE
towels, and sheets are often hung to limit visual contact
THE U.S. FISH and Wildlife Service (FWS) has
with people.
management authority for fish species that live in both
Nutrition is essential for the recovery of oiled birds. Birds freshwater and marine environments, coastal fishes, and
are fed and rehydrated using a rehydration solution inland threatened or endangered species.
(Pedialyte™) and gruel (fish, vitamins, minerals) until they
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
are washed. Birds need up to five days to rehydrate and
(NOAA) has management authority over marine and
strengthen themselves before being washed.
estuarine fishes. It is authorized to manage or protect
After a bird is alert, responsive, and stable, it can be marine fish during oil discharges and releases of
washed. DawnTM dishwashing detergent diluted with hazardous materials.
water has been found to be the most effective washing
Individual states have responsibility for all wildlife
agent for oiled birds. Beads of water will roll freely from
within their state boundaries unless federal law gives
the feathers, and down will begin to fluff up and appear
the authority to another agency (such as NOAA or
dry when a bird has been acceptably rinsed. Failure to
FWS).
properly rinse birds is one of the most common causes of
unsuccessful rehabilitation.
After its feathers are completely rinsed, the bird is placed are banded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and are
in a clean holding pen lined with meshed nets and a released early in the day into appropriate habitat. Release
ceiling made of sheets or towels. The pen is warmed with location is a very important element in rehabilitation. Birds
pet dryers, and, again, minimizing human contact is must not be allowed to return to oiled areas nor should
important. If behavior appears normal and a bird’s they be released into an unsuitable habitat.
condition remains stable, it is placed in a recovery pool
and allowed to swim. The bird then begins to preen and Post-release Survival Studies
realign its feathers to restore them to their original
structure, helping the bird to become waterproof again. In the past, oil spill success has been measured by release
rates. However, it has become apparent that release does
Before a bird is released, it must pass the waterproofing not mean that birds will necessarily survive. In order to
test; it must demonstrate buoyancy (the ability to float) evaluate survival after release, several techniques have
and water-repellency (the ability to keep water away from been used. In the United States, birds are routinely banded
its body). Once a bird passes this test, it is slowly exposed with federal stainless steel bands. If birds die and they are
to temperatures comparable to outside weather. Its weight recovered, or if birds are recaptured at a later date, based
should be close to the average for the species, and it should on banding records maintained by the Bird Banding
show no signs of abnormal behavior. Rehabilitated birds Laboratory (National Biological Survey, Department of the
Interior), it is possible to know the duration of survival.
Unfortunately, many banding studies rely on recovery of
After extensive washing, birds very few banded birds.
still have oil coated feathers.
Outside the US, and with different species of birds
(penguins), color bands are attached to the wings of birds
making them visible from long distances even when birds
are in large congregations. Through resighting of wing
placed color bands, some of the best information on long-
term survival and breeding success has been documented.
More recently, technological advances in radio-marking
aquatic avian species has made radio-tracking a valuable
tool for post-release survival monitoring. In these studies,
Veterinary Care & Research Center
oiled and rehabiliated birds are radio-marked upon release

Photo courtesy of Marine Wildlife
and both their survival and behavior can be evaluated.

This technique can provide daily, weekly or monthly
information on habitat use, movement patterns, and
survival, as well as determine survival rates of oiled and
rehabilitated birds.

SUMMARY
OIL SPILLS can harm wildlife in a number of ways. The
toxic effects of inhaling vapors and ingesting oil when
grooming or feeding can make animals sick. Oil can also
coat an animal’s fur or feathers, leading to hypothermia
and a loss of buoyancy. Preventing spills is the best way to
protect wildlife from oil spills. When oil is spilled,
however, responders try to (1) prevent it from reaching
animals and sensitive environments, (2) keep animals
away from the oil, and (3) capture and rehabilitate oiled
animals.
Spill responders have learned a great deal since the Exxon
Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, in
1989. There are new laws providing additional protection
for natural resources that may be affected by oil spills.
Area contingency planning is becoming the primary tool
for preparing for an effective spill response. Wildlife and
sensitive environmental resources must be identified and
prioritized. Communication and cooperation between
response agencies and other agencies that protect wildlife
will ensure that when a spill occurs the fish and wildlife
response operations will effectively minimize injuries to
natural resources.

Preparing For Oil Spills:
Contingency Planning
6
INTRODUCTION
OIL SPILLS ARE, unfortunately, common events in many Planners use hazard identification and vulnerability
parts of the United States. Most of them are accidental, so analysis to develop a risk assessment. The risk assessment
no one can know when, where, or how they will occur. is then used as the basis for planning specific response
Spills can happen on land or in water, at any time of day actions. Each of the four elements is described below.
or night, and in any weather condition. Preventing oil
spills is the best strategy for avoiding potential damage to Hazard Identification
human health and the environment. However, once a spill
occurs, the best approach for containing and controlling It is impossible to know when an oil spill is going to
the spill is to respond quickly and in a well-organized happen and how much oil is likely to be spilled. However,
manner. A response will be quick and organized if it is possible to identify where oil is stored, the corridors
response measures have been planned ahead of time. through which it travels, and the industries that use large
quantities of oil.
Different situations can affect the ability of response
THE ROLE OF CONTINGENCY PLANS personnel to contain and clean up an oil spill, such as
weather conditions, geographic isolation, and spill size.
A CONTINGENCY PLAN is like a “game plan,” or a set of
Private companies and local, state, and federal agencies
instructions that outlines the steps that should be taken
design their contingency plans to address spills from many
before, during, and after an emergency. A contingency plan
locations and under many different conditions. The
looks at all the possibilities of what could go wrong and,
following information is usually collected as part of the
“contingent” upon actual events, has the contacts, resource
hazard identification:
lists, and strategies to assist in the response to the spill.
• Types of oils frequently stored in or transported through
that area
ELEMENTS OF A CONTINGENCY PLAN • Locations where oil is stored in large quantities and the
mode of transportation used to move the oil, such as
AT FIRST GLANCE, an oil spill contingency plan may pipelines, trucks, railroads, or tankers
appear complicated because it provides many details
about the numerous steps required to prepare for and • Extreme weather conditions that might occur in the area
respond to spills. It also covers many different spill during different times of the year
scenarios and addresses many different situations that • The location of response equipment and personnel
may arise during or after a spill. Despite its complexity, a trained to use the equipment and respond to the spill
well-designed contingency plan should be easy to follow.
Although they are different in many respects, contingency Vulnerability Analysis
plans usually have four major elements in common:
The vulnerability analysis section of a contingency plan
• Hazard identification provides information about resources and communities
• Vulnerability analysis that could be harmed in the event of a spill. This
• Risk assessment information helps personnel involved in cleaning up a spill
• Response actions make reasonable, well-informed choices about protecting

public health and the environment. Vulnerability analysis few hours or several days. Exercises provide the following
information might include the following: benefits:
• Lists of public safety officials in the community • Training of response staff in the procedures developed
• Lists of facilities such as schools, nursing homes, for the plan
hospitals, and prisons • A test of the plan to see what needs to be improved
• Lists of recreational areas, such as campgrounds • A low-stress environment where new techniques and
• Lists of special events and when they take place procedures may be tried without adverse consequences
• Identification of parts of the environment that are Exercises are also a time for responders from different
particularly susceptible to oil or water pollution organizations to meet in a low-stress environment. This
builds familiarity and teamwork, which can make
Risk Assessment response more effective during real spills.
Contingency planners compare the hazard and the

vulnerability in a particular location to see the kind of risk
that is posed to a community. The plan then addresses
IMPROVING CONTINGENCY PLANS
those problems by determining how best to control the AFTER AN OIL SPILL has been controlled and cleaned
spill, how to prevent certain populations or environments up, or after an exercise, the companies, as well as the local,
from exposure to oil, and what can be done to repair the state, and federal agencies that were involved in the
damage done by the spill. emergency or exercise, should assess the usefulness of
their contingency plans. Information gathered during the
Response Actions assessment, such as problems that had not been considered
in the original plan and the successes or failures of cleanup
Response actions are developed to address the risks that techniques used, is used to revise and improve
are identified in the risk assessment. A carefully designed contingency plans.
contingency plan will describe major actions that need to
be taken when a spill occurs. These actions should take Lessons learned during oil spills and exercises are also
place immediately following a spill so as to minimize shared with other private, state, regional, and federal
hazards to human health and the environment. The agencies so that they too may learn from oil spills to
following response actions should be included in a improve their contingency plans.
contingency plan:
• Notifying all private companies or government agencies Improving Plans with GIS
that are responsible for the cleanup effort Contingency planners in EPA and other response
• Getting trained personnel and equipment to the site organizations are now using geographic information
quickly systems (GIS) to make contingency plans better and easier
• Defining the size, position, and content of the spill; its to use. GIS make electronic maps that can focus attention
direction and speed of movement; and its likelihood of on the locations of things that are important to planners
affecting sensitive habitats and oil spill responders. For example, planners can make
maps that show the locations of sensitive environments,
• Ensuring the safety of all response personnel and the
drinking water intakes, roads, oil storage and production
public
facilities, pipelines, and boat launches. GIS can also
• Stopping the flow of oil from the ship, truck, or storage provide detailed information about each of the items
facility, if possible, and preventing ignition shown on a map, such as how large an oil storage facility
• Containing the spill to a limited area or pipeline is, whether a road is paved, or the times of the
• Removing the oil year that sensitive species are in the area.
• Disposing of the oil once it has been removed from the Having all of this data easily accessible in one place and
water or land being able to see these things in relation to each other can
make planning more effective. It allows planners to know
where spills are most likely to happen and how bad they
might be and lets them prioritize actions to protect the
TESTING THE PLAN most sensitive resources first. It can also help planners
AFTER THE PLAN is developed, it is important to test it know what kind of resources (booms, skimmers, vacuum
to see if it works as anticipated. Testing usually takes the trucks, etc.) they may need in a given area and how much
form of an exercise or drill to practice responding to a spill. of a specific resource may be needed. GIS can also help to
Exercises can range from a discussion around a table about determine the best way to get to potential spill sites and
how things would occur to a full-scale deployment of identify areas that responders might have difficulty
equipment and mobilization of staff. Exercises can take a accessing.

EXAMPLES OF CONTINGENCY PLANS Contingency Plans, may cover only a few counties. These
plans describe the area covered by the plan; describe the
SOME CONTINGENCY plans are designed to deal with responsibilities of an owner or operator and of government
oil spills that might occur at specific places, such as oil agencies in removing, mitigating, or preventing a
storage or refining facilities. Others are designed to discharge; and list all equipment, dispersants, or other
address spills that might occur anywhere within a large mitigating substances and devices available to an owner or
geographic region. In fact, the federal government has operator and government agencies to ensure effective and
designed a national plan that establishes the process for immediate removal, mitigation, or prevention of a
dealing with any spill that occurs in the United States. discharge.
Area Contingency Plans may be broken into sub-areas
The National Contingency Plan
based on higher risk, such as busy transportation corridors
The federal government has designed a spill response and environmentally sensitive areas.
plan, called the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Area and sub-area contingency plans are prepared with
Pollution Contingency Plan, also called the National
the involvement of the local, state, and federal
Contingency Plan or NCP. The NCP ensures that the
governments, as well as with state and federal Natural
resources and expertise of the federal government would
Resource Trustees. Natural Resource Trustees are federal,
be available for those relatively rare, but very serious, oil
state, or tribal officials who act on behalf of the public for
spills that require a national response. This plan was
resources under their control. They are important to
designed primarily to assist with coordinating the various
contingency planning because they often have special
federal agencies that are responsible for dealing with oil
knowledge about areas where oil might be spilled and
spill emergencies. The following chapter discusses the
resources that might be affected.
roles of the different federal agencies and how the NCP fits
in with the National Response System.
Facility Contingency Plans
Area Contingency Plans Every facility in the United States that stores or refines oil
products, whether owned by a private company or
Because a single plan cannot address the unique conditions
operated by a government agency, is required to develop a
of all areas, EPA and other organizations have developed
plan for dealing with an accidental release of oil on its
many plans for smaller areas. These plans, known as Area
property.
Contingency plans range from general to very specific.
National Oil and Hazardous

Substance Pollution
Contingency Plan
(NCP)
Regional
Contingency
Plans (RCPs)
Area
Contingency
Plans (ACPs)
Sub-Area Plans State/Local Plans FRPs Vassel Response Plans

SUMMARY
PLANNING FOR an oil spill emergency helps to minimize
potential danger to human health and the environment by
ensuring a timely and coordinated response. Well-
designed local, state, regional, and national contingency
plans can assist response personnel in their efforts to
contain and clean up oil spills by providing information
that the response teams will need before, during, and after
spills occur. Developing and exercising the plan provides
opportunities for the response community to work
together as a team and develop the interpersonal
relationships that can mean so much to the smooth
functioning of a response.
Because the approaches and methods for responding to oil
spills are constantly evolving and each oil spill provides an
opportunity to learn how to better prepare for future
incidents, contingency plans are also constantly evolving
and improving—ensuring increased protection for human
health and the environment from these accidents.

Responding To Oil Spills:
The National Response System
7
INTRODUCTION
WHEN A MAJOR oil spill occurs in the United States, of individuals and teams from local, state, and federal
coordinated teams of local, state, and national personnel agencies who combine their expertise and resources to
are called upon to help contain the spill, clean it up, and ensure that oil spill control and cleanup activities are
ensure that damage to human health and the environment timely, efficient, and minimize threats to human health and
is minimized. Without careful planning and clear the environment.
organization, efforts to deal with large oil spills could be
The three major components of the National Response
slow, ineffective, and potentially harmful to response
System are the (1) On-Scene Coordinators, (2) National
personnel and the environment. In the United States, the
Response Team, and (3) Regional Response Teams. A fourth
system for organizing responses to major oil spills is called
component, Special Forces, are organizations with special
the National Response System. This chapter describes the
skills and knowledge that can be called upon to support a
origins of the National Response System and outlines the
response.
responsibilities of the teams and individuals who plan for
and respond to major oil spills in navigable waters. The National Response System is activated when the
National Response Center receives notification of an oil spill.
The National Response Center, located in Washington,
THE NATIONAL RESPONSE SYSTEM D.C., is one of the first organizations to be notified when
an oil spill occurs. It is staffed by officers and marine
UNTIL 1967, the United States had not formally addressed science technicians from the U.S. Coast Guard, and serves
the potential for major oil or hazardous substance spills. as the national communications center responsible for
On March 18, 1967, a 970-foot oil tanker, the Torrey Canyon, notifying On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs) who oversee
ran aground 15 miles off Land’s End, England, spilling 33 cleanup efforts at a spill site.
million gallons of crude oil that eventually affected more
than 150 miles of coastline in England and France. The
spill had negative impacts on beaches, wildlife, fishing,
and tourism. ON-SCENE COORDINATORS
Recognizing the possibility of a similar spill in the United ON-SCENE COORDINATORS have the most prominent
States, the federal government sent a team of role in the National Response System. They are federal
representatives from different federal agencies to Europe officials responsible for directing response actions and
to observe the cleanup activities and bring back lessons coordinating all other efforts at the scene of a discharge or
learned. Based on what the team learned from the Torrey spill. In addition, OSCs work in partnership with other
Canyon spill and response, several federal agencies federal, state, local, and private response agencies. OSCs’
developed the National Oil and Hazardous Substances duties also include providing support and information to
Pollution Contingency Plan, or National Contingency Plan regional response committees.
(NCP) for short.
Four federal agencies have staff that serve as OSCs: the
The NCP, which was signed into law on November 13, Coast Guard, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
1968, established the National Response System, a network (EPA), the U.S. Department of Energy, and the U.S.

Department of Defense. Among these agencies, the Coast
Guard and EPA have the greatest responsibility for THE OIL SPILL LIABILITY TRUST FUND
responding to oil spill emergencies. There are 48 OSCs in
THE COMPANY or individual responsible for an oil
the Coast Guard and 215 OSCs in EPA. OSCs are stationed
spill—known as a responsible party—is legally
in locations across the country to allow for quick and
responsible for expenses related to containment and
efficient response to spills. When a spill occurs in coastal
cleanup of the spill. However, when the responsible
waters, the local Coast Guard Port Commander is the OSC.
party is unable to pay for cleanup, funds from the Oil
When a spill occurs in an inland area, such as a spill from a
Spill Liability Trust Fund can be used to pay for removal
pipeline or rail tank car, a regional EPA official is assigned
costs or damages resulting from discharges of oil into
as the OSC. The OSC is responsible for four main tasks
U.S. waters. Up to one billion dollars from the Fund
during an oil spill response: (1) assessment, (2) monitoring,
may be expended on a spill incident. The Fund, created
(3) response assistance, and (4) reporting.
by Congress in 1990, is administered by the U.S. Coast
Guard. The money comes from a five-cent per barrel fee
Assessment on oil.
As part of a response to a spill, an OSC must evaluate the
size and nature of a spill and its potential hazards. The
OSC who is in charge also estimates the resources needed
to contain the oil and clean it up and assesses the ability of
the responsible party or local authorities to handle the These reports can be used to identify problem areas and
incident. Collectively these activities are called assessment. improve spill response plans. They can also be shared with
OSCs typically conduct assessment activities at the other agencies who may make recommendations about
beginning of a response. The assessment determines the how to respond more effectively in future incidents or how
need for personnel, equipment, and other resources to to prevent more spills.
promptly and effectively combat the spill.
Planning
Monitoring
Under the NCP guidelines, OSCs also participate in the
Throughout an oil spill response, OSCs monitor the actions inland/coastal area planning committees. These
being taken to control and clean up a spill to make sure committees support the OSC in preparing area
they are appropriate. All spills of a legally defined contingency plans for emergency incidents. (Chapter six
minimum size must be monitored by an OSC, even though discusses contingency planning in greater detail.)
most spills are small and are cleaned up by the responsible
party or local fire or police departments. Monitoring can
be conducted from the site when necessary, or from an
agency office if the situation appears to be under control.
REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAMS
REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAMS (RRTs) are another
Response Assistance major component of the National Response System. There
are 13 RRTs in the United States, each representing a
Once a spill has been assessed, an OSC determines particular geographic region of the United States
whether federal assistance will be necessary to help control (including Alaska, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin).
and contain the spill. If an OSC decides that federal RRTs are composed of representatives from states and from
assistance is required, he or she will obtain needed field offices of the federal agencies that make up the
resources such as personnel and equipment. If sufficient National Response Team. The RRTs provide assistance
resources are not available at or near the spill site, an OSC when it is requested by OSCs and may respond on-scene.
can secure them using a special fund—the Oil Spill The four major responsibilities of RRTs are (1) response, (2)
Liability Trust Fund—that the federal government planning, (3) training, and (4) coordination.
established for this purpose. (See the box on this page for
more information). The fund is intended to ensure that oil
Response
spill cleanups will not be hindered by a lack of personnel
or equipment. Regional Response Team members do not respond directly
to spills like OSCs do, but they may be called upon to
Reporting provide technical advice, equipment, or manpower to
assist with a response. RRTs provide a forum for federal
As required by the NCP, OSCs report all activities that take agency field offices and state agencies to exchange
place during and after a spill. For example, following a information about their abilities to respond to OSCs’
spill, the OSC is required to file a summary report that requests for assistance.
outlines the actions taken to remedy the spill and the level
of assistance provided by local, state, and federal agencies.

RRT Areas
I
X
V II
VIII
XI III
VII
IV
VI
ALASKA
OCEANIA
Hawaii
Guam CARIBBEAN
Northern Marianas Puerto Rico
Pacific Island Gov’ts U.S. Virgin Islands
American Somoa
Planning
Each RRT develops a Regional Contingency Plan to ensure are used as wisely as possible and that no Region is lacking
that during an actual oil spill the roles of federal and state what it needs to protect human health and the
agencies are clear. Following an oil spill, the RRT reviews environment from the effects of an oil spill.
the OSC’s reports to identify problems with the Region’s
response to the incident and improves the plan as
necessary. THE NATIONAL RESPONSE TEAM
THE THIRD MAJOR component of the National
Training
Response System is the National Response Team (NRT). It
Regional Response Teams provide simulation exercises of is an organization composed of 16 federal agencies, each of
regional plans to test the abilities of federal, state, and local which has responsibilities in environmental areas and
agencies to coordinate their responses to oil spills. Any expertise in various aspects of emergency response to
major problems identified as a result of these exercises pollution incidents. EPA serves as the NRT’s chair and the
may be addressed and changed in the Regional Coast Guard serves as the vice chair. Although the NRT
Contingency Plans so the same problems do not arise does not respond directly to incidents, it is responsible for
during an actual oil spill response. three major activities relating to managing oil spill
response: (1) distributing information, (2) planning for
Coordination emergencies, and (3) training for emergencies.
The RRTs are responsible for identifying the resources

Distributing information
available from each federal agency and state in their
regions. Such resources include equipment, guidance, The NRT is responsible for ensuring that technical,
training, and technical expertise for dealing with oil spills. financial, and operational information about oil spills is
When there are too few resources in a Region, the RRT can available to all members of the team. NRT committees
request assistance from federal or state authorities to focus attention on specific issues, then collect and
ensure that sufficient resources will be available during a disseminate information on those issues to other members
spill. This coordination by the RRTs ensures that resources of the team.

NATIONAL AND REGIONAL RESPONSE TEAM MEMBER AGENCIES
ONE REPRESENTATIVE from each of the following 16 federal agencies sits on the NRT. The RRTs are composed of
representatives from the field offices of these agencies along with representatives from each state within the Region.
Environmental Protection Agency Department of Justice
Coast Guard Department of Labor
Department of Agriculture Department of State
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Department of Transportation
Department of Defense Federal Emergency Management Agency
Department of Energy General Services Administration
Department of Health and Human Services Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Department of the Interior Department of the Treasury
Planning for Emergencies SPECIAL FORCES

The NRT ensures that the roles of federal agencies on the SPECIAL FORCES are national resources with unique
team for oil spill emergency response are clearly outlined expertise. When responders face difficult problems, they
in the NCP. After a major spill event, the effectiveness of can call on special forces for assistance. The NCP
the response is carefully assessed by the NRT. The NRT designates five special force components: (1) the Coast
may use information gathered from the assessment to Guard National Strike Force (NSF), (2) the Coast Guard
make recommendations for improving the NCP and the Public Information Assist Team (PIAT), (3) the EPA
National Response System. The NRT may be asked to help Environmental Response Team (ERT), (4) the National
Regional Response Teams (see below) develop Regional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Scientific
Contingency Plans. The NRT also reviews these plans to Support Coordinators (SSCs), and (5) National Resource
ensure that they comply with federal policies on Trustees.
emergency response.
National Strike Force
Training for Emergencies
The NSF provides specially trained personnel equipped to
One important aspect of any emergency response is handle major oil spills and chemical releases and maintains
preparedness, which is best developed by training. a national inventory of spill response equipment. In
Although most training is actually performed by state and addition, the NSF aids development and implementation
local personnel, the NRT develops training courses and of exercises and training for the National Response System.
programs, coordinates federal agency training efforts, and
provides information to regional, state, and local officials Public Information Assist Team
about training needs and courses.
The PIAT is a team of skilled public affairs specialists that
supplements the existing public information capabilities of
Supporting RRTs
OSCs.
The NRT supports RRTs by reviewing Regional
Contingency Plans and ensuring that they are consistent Environmental Response Team
with national policies on oil spill cleanup. The NRT also
supports RRTs by monitoring and assessing RRT The scientists and engineers who make up the ERT provide
effectiveness during an oil spill cleanup activity. The NRT expertise in sampling and analysis, hazard assessment,
may ask an RRT to focus on specific lessons learned from cleanup techniques, and technical support.
an incident and to share those lessons with other members
of the National Response System. In this way, the RRTs can Scientific Support Coordinators
improve their own Regional Contingency Plans while
Scientific Support Coordinators lead the scientific teams
helping to solve problems that might occur elsewhere
that provide support to OSCs in the areas of chemistry,
within the National Response System.
natural resources, pollutant transport modeling,
contingency planning, and environmental tradeoffs. SSCs
also serve as liaisons to natural resources trustees and the
scientific community.

Natural Resource Trustees
Natural Resource Trustees are federal, state, or tribal
officials who act on behalf of the public for resources under
their control. They are important to oil spill response
because they often have special knowledge and technical
expertise about areas where oil is spilled. Trustees also
cooperate with the OSC in coordinating assessments,
investigations, planning, and response.
SUMMARY
THE NATIONAL Response System is the mechanism
established by the federal government to respond to
discharges of oil into navigable waters of the United States.
This system functions through a cooperative network of
federal, state, and local agencies. The primary mission of
the system is to provide support to state and local response
activities.
The major components of the National Response System
are the On-scene Coordinators, the National Response
Team, and the 13 Regional Response Teams, with
supplementary support from Special Forces. These
individuals and teams work together to develop detailed
contingency plans to outline responses to oil spill
emergencies before they occur and to develop or engage in
training that prepares responders for actual emergencies.
During oil spill events, they cooperate to ensure that all
necessary resources such as personnel and equipment are
available and that containment, cleanup, and disposal
activities are timely, efficient, and effective. Four Special
Forces components provide specialized support to OSCs
during spill response. It is through this cooperation that
the National Response System protects human health and
the environment from potential harm from oil spills in
navigable waters.

Response To Oil Spills
8
INTRODUCTION
RESPONSE TO OIL spills requires the combined efforts of response more effective when spills do occur. This chapter
the owner or operator of the facility or vessel that spilled describes these spills and the responses to them. It also
the oil, the federal On-Scene Coordinator (OSC), and state describes three other spills that highlight a variety of types
and local government officials. The specific steps taken to of oil spills and response activities.
respond to a spill depend on the type of oil discharged, the
location of the discharge, the proximity of the spill to
sensitive environments, and other environmental factors. EXXON VALDEZ SPILL
Oil spills do not occur only in coastal areas. Various types AT TWO YEARS OLD, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez, with a
of oils are also spilled in inland areas. Many of the same capacity of 1.46 million barrels (62 million gallons) of oil,
problems associated with cleanup efforts found in was the newest and largest of Exxon’s 19-ship fleet. On the
conjunction with coastal spills are created when spills evening of March 23, 1989, 1.26 million barrels of oil (54
occur in inland areas from sources such as storage tank million gallons) were loaded onto the ship in Valdez,
rupturing, pipeline leaks, and oil transport accidents. Alaska. The ship left the port at 9:10 p.m., bound for Long
Because they usually occur closer to areas where people Beach, California.
live and work, inland spills typically have a more direct Chunks of ice from the nearby Columbia Glacier were
impact on human populations than marine and coastal sitting low in the water, so the ship’s captain tried to turn
spills do. Inland oil spills are more likely to have negative into an empty inbound shipping channel to avoid them.
impacts on drinking water sources, metropolitan areas, The ship was moving at approximately 12 miles per hour
recreational waterways, and shoreline industry and when it struck the rocks of Bligh Reef in Prince William
facilities. Also, species affected by coastal and inland spills Sound. The underwater rocks tore huge holes in 8 of the
are likely to differ because freshwater and marine vessel’s 11 giant cargo holds, releasing a flood of oil into
ecosystems are different. the Sound. More than 11 million gallons of oil spilled
There are many sources of oil spills. Vessels are major within 5 hours of the event. Seven hours after the spill was
sources for both coastal and inland spills. Offshore reported, the resulting oil slick was 1,000 feet wide and 4
facilities such as oil rigs are also large contributors to miles long.
coastal spills. Fixed facilities such as gas stations and oil In addition to the spilled oil, there were other immediate
tank farms are responsible for a large percentage of inland dangers. About 80 percent of the ship’s oil cargo remained
releases. on board; the ship was resting in an unstable position and
The Exxon Valdez oil spill is probably the best known and was in danger of capsizing. Removing the remaining oil
most widely reported of all spills. Another very large spill, from the ship and cleaning the spilled oil were top
the Ashland oil spill, happened the year before the Exxon priorities.
Valdez spill, when a giant inland storage tank ruptured. Since the incident occurred in coastal waters, the U.S.
Although these events were catastrophic, responders Coast Guard’s OSC had authority over all activities
learned a great deal from them. The lessons they learned relating to the cleanup effort. Once the OSC was notified of
have helped to prevent more oil spills and to make the spill, he immediately closed the Port of Valdez to all

traffic. A Coast Guard investigator, along with a were forced to land in Anchorage, a nine-hour drive from
representative from the Alaska Department of Valdez. The Federal Aviation Administration, the agency
Environmental Conservation, visited the scene of the responsible for all air traffic control, had to set up a
incident to assess the damage caused by the spill. By noon temporary tower to manage increased flights to the area.
on Friday, March 25th, the Alaska Regional Response Team
At the start of the spill, necessary communications
was brought together by teleconference. The National
between response personnel were difficult because there
Response Team was activated soon thereafter. The National
was limited phone service in Valdez. The Coast Guard
Response Team is based in Washington, D.C. It is
OSC was the only person with a direct telephone line out
composed of representatives from 14 different federal
of the community. The lack of phone lines delayed requests
agencies, with either the U.S. Environmental Protection
for resources that response teams needed to combat the
Agency (EPA) or the U.S. Coast Guard taking primary
spill; it took time for the phone company to increase the
responsibility for coordinating oil-spill cleanup activities.
number of phone lines. Radio communication was also
The Alyeska Pipeline Service Company first assumed troublesome. The large number of boats working the area
responsibility for the cleanup. Alyeska operates the trans- led to multiple simultaneous radio transmissions. The
Alaska pipeline and the shipping terminal at Valdez. mountainous terrain also made radio communication
Exxon and the other oil companies that operate in Alaska difficult. The Coast Guard established a news office and
each own part of the pipeline company. Alyeska is requested more communications staff because many news
responsible for carrying out plans for oil-spill emergencies reporters and crews were arriving in Valdez every day.
in the area. The company opened an emergency
On the second day of the spill, Exxon assumed
communications center in Valdez shortly after the spill was
responsibility for the cleanup and its costs. Exxon activated
reported and set up a second operations center in
its emergency center in Houston, Texas, which sent
Anchorage, Alaska.
equipment to stabilize the ship. The company directed
The OSC, in cooperation with the Exxon Corporation, another ship, the Exxon Baton Rouge, to remove the
established several goals for the response. The most remaining oil from the stricken Exxon Valdez. In taking
important goal was to prevent additional spilling of oil. responsibility for the cleanup operations, Exxon set out to
Because the Exxon Valdez was unstable and in danger of address the problems mentioned earlier. The company
capsizing, the 43 million gallons of oil still onboard the opened a communications network that allowed
tanker threatened the environmentally sensitive Prince information about the spill and the cleanup efforts to be
William Sound. The first priority was to protect four fish shared with state and federal government officials, private
hatcheries that were threatened by the spill. In addition, company representatives, and others who were interested
there were concerns about the safety of response in the events surrounding the spill. The company, in
personnel, since highly flammable and toxic fumes made cooperation with the Coast Guard, installed four weather
response actions difficult. stations around Prince William Sound to provide weather
forecasts that were critical to planning cleanup efforts. A
Numerous equipment problems slowed down the response
refueling station for helicopters was set up in Seward,
to the spill. Alyeska had booms and other mechanical
Alaska. More than 274 tons of additional equipment,
containment equipment available, but there was not
including skimmers, booms, and dispersants, arrived at the
enough equipment to contain an 11 million-gallon spill.
site by the fourth day.
Because of the remote location of the spill, equipment had
to be moved over great distances to reach the accident
scene. The barge that Alyeska’s response team normally
used had been stripped for repairs and was not
Maxi-barge hoses down the shoreline.
immediately available. It took ten hours to prepare and
load the barge and another two hours to reach the Exxon
Valdez.
In addition, the remote location of the incident presented
many logistical problems. Because the spill site was located
two hours by boat from the port of Valdez, every task was
time-consuming. The response had to be staged from
mobile platforms, and equipment had to be air-dropped or
delivered by boat.
Other problems became apparent as the emergency teams
began to arrive to help with the cleanup. Only limited
lodging was available in Valdez, a small village of only
4,000 people. The small airstrip at Valdez could not handle
large planes carrying the cleanup equipment. These planes

following the spill. Thick oil and heavy kelp tended to clog
the equipment. Repairs to damaged skimmers were time-
consuming. Transferring oil from temporary oil storage
vessels into more permanent containers was also difficult
because of the oil’s weight and thickness. Continued bad
weather slowed down the recovery efforts.
Efforts to save delicate areas began early in the cleanup.
Sensitive environments were identified, defined according
to degree of damage, and then ranked for their priority for
cleanup. Seal pupping locations and fish hatcheries were
given highest priority; special cleaning techniques were
approved for these areas. Despite the identification of
sensitive areas and the rapid start-up of shoreline cleaning,
Wildlife can become heavily oiled. wildlife rescue was slow. Adequate resources for this task
did not reach the accident scene quickly enough. Through
direct contact with oil or because of a loss of their food
resources, many birds and mammals died.
Hundreds of people were brought to the area to help
conduct the cleanup effort within two days of the spill. On June 12, 1992, more than three years after the spill, the
More than 1,000 Coast Guard personnel, along with Coast Guard announced that the cleanup activities should
employees of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric end. Although the cleanup activities ceased, there were
Administration, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and still pools of oil left in some areas. The harm caused to the
EPA helped with the response. Nine additional Coast ecosystem by the oil left in these areas was considered too
Guard cutters and eight aircraft were brought to the scene. small to justify the cost of further cleanup.
Specialists from the Hubbs Marine Institute of San Diego,
During the years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, cleanup
California, set up a facility to clean oil from otters, and the
and environmental restoration of the affected shorelines
International Bird Research Center of Berkeley, California,
and islands continues. The cost of the cleanup has
established a center to clean and rehabilitate oiled
amounted to billions of dollars, and the cost of legal
waterfowl.
settlements has resulted in millions more.
Three methods were attempted in the effort to clean up the
The Exxon Valdez incident and the environmental impact
spill: in-situ burning, chemical dispersants, and
caused by the spill attracted the attention of political,
mechanical cleanup.
scientific, and environmental groups from around the
A trial burn was conducted during the early stages of the world. The scientific groups include those from Exxon
Exxon Valdez spill. A fire-resistant boom was placed on tow
lines, and the two ends of the boom were each attached to
a ship. The two ships, with the boom between them,
moved slowly through the main portion of the slick until
the boom was full of oil. The ships then towed the boom
away from the slick, and the oil was ignited. The fire did
not endanger the main slick or the Exxon Valdez because of
the distance separating them. Because of unfavorable
weather conditions, however, no additional burning was
attempted in this cleanup effort.
Soon after the spill, dispersants were sprayed from
helicopters. Mechanical cleanup was started using booms Workers use
and skimmers. The use of dispersants proved to be pressure hoses to
clean the shoreline.
controversial. Alyeska had less than 4,000 gallons of
dispersant available at its terminal in Valdez and no
application equipment or aircraft. A private company
applied dispersants on March 24 with a helicopter and
dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave
action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, the
Coast Guard representative at the site concluded that the
dispersants were not working.
Skimmers, devices that remove oil from the water’s
surface, were not readily available during the first 24 hours

Corporation and EPA that were involved in efforts to use The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council concluded that
experimental technologies, such as bioremediation, to natural resource injuries from exposure to the spill or from
clean up the spill. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric the cleanup included the following:
Administration provided weather forecasts for Prince • Mortality: Death caused immediately or after a period of
William Sound. This allowed the cleanup team to know time by contact with oil, cleanup activities, reductions in
what type of cleanup technology would be compatible critical food sources caused by the spill, or other causes
with the changing weather conditions in the sound. Some
• Sub-lethal effects: Injuries that affect the health and
of the groups formed a trustee council. This council is
physical condition of organisms (including eggs and
made up of representatives from numerous federal and
larvae), but do not result in the death of juvenile or
Alaskan state agencies that deal with environmental
adult organisms
issues. This trustee council has been successful in
promoting more scientific research on the Exxon Valdez • Degradation of habitat: Alteration or contamination of
incident. flora, fauna, and the physical components of the habitat
The Exxon Valdez incident also prompted the U.S. Congress The Trustee Council also acknowledged that some
to pass the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. This law required EPA environmental damage might persist for generations.
and the Coast Guard to strengthen regulations on oil tank Other resources that the Trustee Council listed as injured
vessels and oil tank owners and operators. As of July 17, included archeological sites that may have been oiled or
1992, all tank vessels of 20,000 tons or greater are required affected by cleanup activities on sensitive sites. Areas
to carry special equipment that will enable the vessel designated by the state or federal governments as
captain and the vessel traffic center in Valdez to Wilderness Areas were considered to be injured because
communicate better for safer sailing through that area. the spill damaged the public’s perception that these areas
were pristine. The Trustee Council also found that services
Projects to restore affected areas to their original conditions (human uses) were injured by the spill.
have been ongoing. A legal settlement has helped to fund
restoration efforts. On September 30, 1991, Exxon agreed to Services were considered reduced or lost if the spill caused
pay $900 million to the U.S. and Alaska governments in 10 any of the following:
annual payments. The agreement requires that the funds • Reduced the physical or biological functions performed
be used first to reimburse the federal and state by natural resources that support services
governments for the costs of cleanup, damage assessment, • Reduced aesthetic and intrinsic values, or other indirect
and litigation. The remaining funds are to be used for uses provided by natural resources
restoration. The settlement also has a provision allowing
• Reduced the desire of people to use a natural resource
the governments to claim up to an additional $100 million
or area
to restore resources that suffered a substantial loss.
Each year after the incident, the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill
The Exxon Valdez oil spill caused injury to the environment
Trustee Council has funded research and monitoring
at virtually all levels. However, the extent and degree of
projects. Information from these projects helps to define
injury was uneven across the oiled landscape. Some
the status and condition of resources and services—
species were only slightly affected, for example, the brown
whether they are recovering, whether restoration activities
bear and Sitka blacktail deer. Other species, like the
are successful, and what factors may be constraining
common murre and the sea otter, suffered population-level
recovery. Recovery monitoring projects have tracked the
injuries, with possible long-term consequences.
rate and degree of recovery of resources and services
The complex issue of determining injury from the Exxon injured by the spill. They may also determine when
Valdez spill is highly controversial and is still being argued recovery has occurred or detect reversals or problems with
in the courts, at scientific meetings, and in scholarly and recovery. Research projects have provided information
professional journals. Both the oil that reached the shore needed to restore an injured resource or service or
and the efforts to clean it up severely impacted intertidal information about ecosystem relationships. Results of
habitats and biota. Seabirds and marine mammals, which restoration monitoring studies suggest that affected
are especially vulnerable to floating oil, suffered heavy ecosystems and populations may regain normal species
mortalities. Some of the studies done to determine the composition, diversity, and functional organization
damage estimated that between 100,000 and 300,000 birds through natural processes.
were killed. Studies also reported that populations of some
Exxon’s annual payments to the restoration fund end in
common murre colonies in the affected area were reduced
September 2001. To ensure funding for continued
by one-half. One study estimated a loss of 2,650 sea otters
restoration activities, the Trustee Council places a portion
in Prince William Sound. The spill severely impaired
of the annual payments into a restoration reserve fund.
south-central Alaska’s fisheries, which are the foundation
for most of the region’s small communities. The spill also
had severe social and psychological consequences for the
area’s human population.

ASHLAND OIL SPILL
ON THE AFTERNOON of January 2, 1988, a four million-
gallon oil storage tank owned by Ashland Oil Company,
Inc., split apart and collapsed at an oil storage facility
located in Floreffe, Pennsylvania, near the Monongahela
Photo courtesy of US EPA Region III

River. The tank split while being filled to capacity for the
first time after it had been dismantled and moved from an
Ohio location and reassembled at the Floreffe facility. The
split released diesel oil over the tank’s containment dikes,
across a parking lot on an adjacent property, and into an
uncapped storm drain that emptied directly into the river.
Within minutes, the oil slick moved several miles down
river, washing over two dam locks and dispersing
throughout the width and depth of the river. The oil was The Ashland storage tank split when filled to capacity.
carried by the Monongahela River into the Ohio River,
temporarily contaminating drinking water sources for an
estimated one million people in Pennsylvania, West Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. These agencies
Virginia, and Ohio. The Ashland oil spill is the largest worked cooperatively to provide advice and guidance to
inland oil spill in U.S. history. Although it was less than the OSC regarding environmental and response matters as
half the size of the Exxon Valdez spill, the Ashland spill well as political and legal issues.
highlights the direct impact inland spills can have on large
Contractors employed by Ashland performed the actual
populations—in this case, one million people were
cleanup duties. The contractors used booms, vacuum
affected.
trucks, and other equipment to retrieve the spilled oil,
The fuel contaminated river ecosystems, killing thousands recovering about 20 percent of the oil that flowed into the
of animals, such as waterfowl and fish. Two oil impact river.
studies designed by aquatic toxicologists from the
EPA, in cooperation with other agencies, monitored the
Pennsylvania Department of Natural Resources took
cleanup process and river conditions. State personnel set
mussel samples and a census before and after the spill.
up a river monitoring system to track the spill, as well as a
Pennsylvania and West Virginia authorities conducted
sampling and analysis process to protect water supplies.
shoreline counts to determine the number of fish killed. In
EPA also performed follow-up activities, such as
the week following the spill, several counts of dead and
compliance inspections and a spill prevention control and
stressed fish were taken in dam pools along the river. Fish
countermeasures (SPCC) plan inspection of the facility.
collection surveys conducted by a local contractor in
conjunction with state agencies yielded further Several important lessons were learned from this spill
information regarding ecological effects. Several groups, response. The quick notification by Ashland to the local
including the Pennsylvania Game Commission, the response authorities and the National Response Center
Audubon Society, and dozens of volunteers, were involved (NRC) was fundamental to the establishment of the
in capturing oiled waterfowl. This effort had only limited command post on the evening of the spill.
success due to weather conditions; ice and very low
temperatures kept rescue workers on shore, hampering the
recovery effort. Although many birds were saved,
waterfowl mortality estimates ranged from 2,000 to 4,000
ducks, loons, cormorants, and Canada geese, among
others.
After local authorities executed the initial on-scene
response during the night, EPA took control of cleanup
Photo courtesy of US EPA Region III
operations. Response personnel from EPA were dispatched

to the site immediately following the incident, and an EPA
OSC assumed the lead role in the spill response. The OSC
was responsible for delegating tasks and responsibilities to
the agency best qualified to perform them.
The Incident-Specific Regional Response Team (RRT) was
formally activated two days after the incident. The RRT
consisted of many environment- and health-related
agencies from the federal level, as well as from the states of The Monongahela and Ohio Rivers converge.

Although there was prompt notification, responders Throughout the incident, authorities evaluated the oil’s
concluded that establishment of a central command post actual and potential impact on human health and the
sooner would have improved the response coordination. environment. The public water intakes along the rivers
However, communication was enhanced by the positive presented the greatest concern and were promptly shut
presence of the media throughout the incident. This was down. Local drinking water wells were also feared to be
instrumental in keeping the public informed of the cleanup contaminated, but sampling proved that they were not
operations. Evaluators of the response recommended that affected. The greatest problem for area residents turned
inventories of locally available equipment be prepared so out to be fuel odor. EPA received many complaints from
that emergency responders might locate needed citizens about strong odors. These concerns led the
equipment quickly. It was also recommended that, to National Park Service to the close nearby Great Falls
protect public water sources in future emergencies, water National Park. Forty-one residents were evacuated from
suppliers should plan for the availability of contingency their homes as a precautionary measure. EPA monitored
water supplies and equipment. air quality to identify and mitigate health risks associated
with the oil fumes.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the National Oceanic
COLONIAL PIPELINE SPILL and Atmospheric Administration, and natural resource
ON MARCH 28, 1993, a rupture occurred in an oil trustee agencies provided reports on the effects of the spill
pipeline in Fairfax County, Virginia, sending a 100-foot on fish, wildlife, and other environmental resources;
plume of fuel oil into the air. The high-pressure pipeline, shoreline evaluations; and rehabilitation of affected
owned by the Colonial Pipeline Company, released an wildlife. County animal control set up shelters and
estimated 477,436 gallons of No. 2 heating oil into the recovery activities to restore any affected animals. Fish
environment before it could be shut down and fully kills did occur in Sugarland Run, although no other serious
drained. One of the largest inland oil spills in recent impacts on area wildlife were reported.
history, the oil affected nine miles of the nearby Sugarland Establishing a unified command was a key to the
Run Creek as well as the Potomac River. successful and timely response at the spill. It made the
The Fairfax County Fire Department conducted the initial following critical contributions:
response to the release, quickly notifying the NRC. The • Early and continued support of the Coast Guard Marine
federal response was initiated by the OSC from EPA. Safety Office and National Strike Force
Because many organizations were involved in the • Coordination with the RRT, leading to rapid assembly of
response, a unified command was established to a large support team to assist the OSC
coordinate the efforts of federal, state, and local
• Provision of a means of input from all levels of
authorities, as well as Colonial Pipeline representatives.
government in spill response
The OSC received support in the form of personnel and • Allowed EPA enforcement of efforts by the responsible
equipment from other federal agencies, primarily the party, along with elimination of duplicate efforts in
Coast Guard Atlantic Strike Team. State officials provided assessment of the affected areas
technical support and information. The RRT, a group of
representatives from a variety of federal agencies, The response to the Colonial Pipeline spill demonstrates
provided valuable advice and guidance regarding the smooth operation of the National Response System.
recovery actions and policy questions which arose during Federal, state, and local authorities were able to coordinate
the incident. personnel and equipment in an efficient manner to recover
the spilled oil.
Colonial Pipeline carried out its duties as the responsible
party, hiring contractors to perform containment and Participants identified several areas for improvement. One
recovery actions. Under the direction of the OSC, suggestion was to develop a directory of water intakes in
contractors secured the source of the release by shutting the area in order to better ensure that drinking water
down the pipeline. They then attempted to contain the oil sources are not contaminated in the event of an oil release.
flow along the creek through the use of booms, but a sheen A second recommendation addressed the need for better
had already developed on the Potomac River. As a communication with personnel downstream from a
precaution to protect public health, water intakes along the release. Other technical issues concerned improvements in
Potomac River were closed. Recovery of the oil involved skimming and dam systems to increase the speed and ease
use of skimmers, vacuum trucks, sorbents, and a of recovery.
temporary pipeline to direct recovered oil into tanker
trucks. Through these actions, response personnel
recovered 372,498 gallons of spilled oil.

WISCONSIN FIRE AND BUTTER SPILL
NOT ALL OIL spills involve petroleum oil. Animal fats
and vegetable oils can also cause great harm to the
environment when spilled. The butter spill described
below demonstrates that oil spills can come from many
different sources and that fires and other accidents can
lead to spills.
Photo courtesy of WI DNR

A fire broke out at the Central Storage and Warehouse
Company facility in Madison County, Wisconsin, around
3:30 p.m., May 3, 1991. The facility provided refrigerated
storage space for the perishable goods of several food
companies. Seventy firefighters responded to the four-
alarm blaze, which burned for nearly three days and
became the most costly fire in Madison County history. Workers contain spilled butter with booms.
The fire was believed to have been started by the explosion
of a forklift battery. Approximately 3,000 nearby residents
were evacuated due to the threat of toxic fumes that might
have escaped from tanks of anhydrous ammonia and
sulfuric acid if the fire had reached them.
The fire destroyed roughly 50 million pounds of food,
including nearly 16 million pounds butter. When the fire
reached the butter and animal tallow in the warehouse
storage facility, it became a hard-to-control grease fire.
Photo courtesy of WI DNR

Melted butter spilled into roadways and ditches,
increasing difficulty in fighting the fire and threatening the
environment.
Six truckloads of sand were applied to the butter spill in an
attempt to absorb it and prevent it from reaching
Starkweather Creek. Engineers from the Wisconsin Warehouse scene two hours after start of fire.
Department of Natural Resources dug a channel from the
warehouse to a low-lying area beneath a highway overpass
and built hundreds of feet of redirecting dikes to allowed
the melted butter to flow into the depression and other
lagoons. Water that collected in these areas along with the
LAKE LANIER SOYBEAN OIL SPILL
butter was pumped to the city’s sewer treatment plant, ON SEPTEMBER 26, 1994, north of Atlanta, Georgia, a
while congealed material was skimmed from the surface. tanker truck wrecked, releasing approximately 5,000
gallons of low-grade soybean oil. The oil entered a small
Instead of incurring additional costs for disposal, a
stream, which allowed it to flow into a man-made
contractor was hired to attempt to salvage the butter and
impoundment on the Chattahoochee River called Lake
lard for use in animal feed. Collected material was
Lanier.
dumped in a railcar fitted with steam tubes, melted,
filtered, processed, and sold. Within two hours of the spill, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers had contained the oil within a one-acre area by
Very few contaminants were reported to have reached the
deploying a boom across a cove. The federal OSC began
creek. The area residences are connected to the municipal
removal activities because the responsible party had failed
system’s wells, which are deep and securely encased, so
to initiate a response. The oil was corralled to a collection
the spill did not present a threat to drinking water.
point by boats towing a sorbent boom. Skimmers and
Quick and persistent response action performed by the vacuum trucks then extracted the oil from the surface of
local fire authorities and the Wisconsin Department of the water. The remaining oil was recovered using sorbent
Natural Resources prevented severe environmental pads and sweeps, bringing the total response time to six
damage. It was hypothesized that, had the butter been able days at a cost of nearly $43,000.
to reach the creek, the resulting loss of oxygen in the water
No environmental damage was recorded during response
would have affected the resident fish species and reversed
activities. Fish may have been forced to swim from the
the effects of a recent $1 million cleanup effort in the area’s
localized spill area, but no other effects on wildlife were
watershed.
apparent. Effects on the water body itself are unknown

because no measurements of water quality criteria were
made during the cleanup. The OSC decided not to use
dispersants because they might have caused the oil to
biodegrade very quickly, severely reducing dissolved
oxygen levels in the water and damaging the local
ecosystem. The primary effects of the spill were realized by
property owners who dealt with unpleasant odors and oil
coated boats and docks. Several thousand dollars worth of
claims for cleaning were incurred; however, the damage
would have been much more costly if reaction to the spill
had not been as timely.
SUMMARY
OIL SPILLS, especially the Exxon Valdez spill, have
increased public awareness about the risks involved in the
storage and transport of oil. The location of a spill and a
lack of necessary equipment often add to response
problems. Prevention of spills is the first line of defense,
and the oil industry, together with federal agencies, has
taken steps to reduce the risks of oil spills. Once a spill
occurs, however, improved response coordination between
federal, state, and local authorities should produce more
rapid and effective cleanup actions and decrease the
environmental impact of the discharge. A program to
provide better training of emergency response personnel is
being prepared, and safety issues are being addressed.
Cleaning techniques that are more effective and less labor-
intensive are being developed. Studies of the long-term
environmental effects of oil spills and their influence on
food chains in oceans, freshwater, and on land are now
underway. The costs of cleanup activities, ecosystem
restoration, and legal settlements of oil spills are so high
that the best strategy is to work to prevent discharges.

Glossary
Accelerant: A chemical used to intentionally speed up a Ecosystem: The interrelationships between all of the living
fire; gasoline can be used as an accelerant to speed up oil things in an area.
fires.
Emulsification: The formation of a mixture of two liquids,
Aquatic: Habitats and ecosystems that exist in bodies of such as oil and water, in which one of the liquids is in the
water; refers to both marine and freshwater environments. form of fine droplets and is dispersed in the other.
Asphalt: A brown to black residue formed from weathered Emulsions: A mixture of small droplets of oil and water.
petroleum products, consisting chiefly of a mixture of
Evaporation: The physical change by which any substance
hydrocarbons; varies in texture from hard and brittle to
is converted from a liquid to a vapor or gas.
plastic.
Facility Response Plan: A detailed plan which must be
Bioaugmentation: The addition of microorganisms to the
prepared in accordance with the Oil Pollution Prevention
existing native oil-degrading population; also known as
regulation (40 CFR 112.20) by facilities which may cause
microbial seeding.
“substantial harm” to the environment or exclusive
Biodegradation: The breaking down of substances by economic zone. The plan must contain an Emergency
microorganisms, which use the substances for food and Response Action Plan (ERAP) and demonstrate that a
generally release harmless byproducts such as carbon facility has the resources to respond to a worst case
dioxide and water. scenario oil spill.
Biological community: All of the living things in a given Fate: The outcome; the fate of an oil spill is what happens
environment. to the oil.
Bioremediation: The act of adding nutrients or Fertilization: The method of adding nutrients, such as
microorganisms to the environment to increase the rate at phosphorus and nitrogen, to a contaminated environment
which biodegradation occurs. to stimulate the growth of microorganisms capable of
biodegradation; also known as nutrient enrichment or
Biostimulation: Also known as nutrient enrichment, the
biostimulation.
method of adding nutrients such as phosphorus and
nitrogen to a contaminated environment to stimulate the Freshwater spill: An oil spill that occurs in or affects
growth of the microorganisms capable of biodegradation. bodies of freshwater, such as lakes and rivers.
Boom: A temporary floating barrier used to contain an oil Hydrocarbons: A large class of organic compounds
spill. containing only carbon and hydrogen; common in
petroleum products and other oils.
Cetaceans: A group of related marine mammal species that
includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Hydrophobic: Having a tendency to repel water;
hydrophobic materials will not easily absorb water.
Contingency plan: A document that describes a set of
procedures and guidelines for containing and cleaning up Incineration: The destruction of wastes by burning at high
oil spills. temperatures.
Deployment: Strategic placement of equipment and Marine: Relating to the seas and oceans.
personnel.
Microorganism: A very small plant, animal, or bacteria;
Dispersants: Chemicals that are used to break down some microorganisms, like larger organisms can be hurt by
spilled oil into small droplets (See surfactant). oil spills; however, some microorganisms actually break oil
down into less harmful substances.
Dispersion: The spreading of oil on the water’s surface
and, to a lesser degree, into the water column.

Mortality: The proportion of deaths to population or to a Seeding: Adding microorganisms to the environment to
specific number of the population. speed up biodegradation (also known as bioaugmentation).
Mousse: A thick, foamy oil-and-water mixture formed Skimmers: Devices used to remove oil from the water’s
when petroleum products are subjected to mixing with surface.
water by the action of waves and wind.
Slick: A thin film of oil on the water’s surface.
National Response Center: An organization, staffed by
Sorbents: Substances that take up and hold water or oil;
officers and marine science technicians from the U.S. Coast
sorbents used in oil spill cleanup are made of oleophilic
Guard, that serves as the national communications center
materials.
responsible for notifying On-Scene Coordinators.
Specific gravity: The ratio of the density of a substance to
National Response System: A network of individuals and
the density of water; substances with a specific gravity
teams from local, state, and federal agencies who combine
greater than one are denser than water and sink;
their expertise and resources to ensure that oil spill control
substances that have a specific gravity less than one are
and cleanup activities are timely and efficient and
less dense than water and float.
minimize threats to human health and the environment.
Sub-lethal effects: Injuries that affect the health and
National Response Team (NRT): An organization
physical condition of organisms (including eggs and
composed of 16 federal agencies, each of which has
larvae) but do not result in the death of juvenile or adult
responsibilities and expertise in responding to oil spill and
organisms.
hazardous materials emergencies.
Surface tension: The attractive force exerted upon the
National Contingency Plan (NCP): A plan designed to
surface molecules of a liquid by the molecules beneath the
ensure that resources and expertise of the federal
surface. When oil is spilled on water, this tension makes
government will be available in the event of a very serious
the oil behave as a continuous thin sheet that is difficult to
oil spill. The full name of the NCP is the National Oil and
separate or break up.
Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan.
Surfactant: A substance that breaks oil into small droplets;
Non-petroleum oils: Oils that are not derived from
this helps to increase the surface area of the oil spill, which
petroleum; this group of oils includes vegetable oils and
increases the rate at which the oil can be degraded or
animal fats.
weathered into less toxic substances (See dispersant).
Oil: Crude oil and refined petroleum products (motor oils,
Tar balls: Dense, black sticky spheres of hydrocarbons;
fuels, lubricants, etc.), as well as vegetable oils, animal fats,
formed from weathered oil.
and other non-petroleum oils.
Viscosity: Having a resistance to flow; substances that are
Oil slick: A layer of oil floating on the surface of water.
extremely viscous do not flow easily.
Oleophilic: Having a strong affinity for oils; oleophilic
Viscous: The tendency of a liquid to hold itself together;
materials absorb or stick to oils.
viscous liquids do pour freely and having the consistency
On-Scene Coordinator (OSC): The person responsible for of syrup or honey.
overseeing the cleanup efforts at a spill; the OSC
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): A family of chemical
represents either the U.S. Environmental Protection
compounds found in oils; VOCs evaporate quickly and
Agency or the U.S. Coast Guard.
can cause nerve damage and behavioral abnormalities in
Oxidation: A chemical reaction that occurs when a mammals when inhaled.
substance is combined with oxygen; oxidation may lead to
Water column: An imaginary cylinder of water from the
degradation or deterioration of the substance.
surface to the bottom of a water body; water conditions,
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs): A family of chemical temperature, and density vary throughout the water
substances that are found in many types of oil; column.
polyaromatic hydrocarbon vapors can cause harm to
Weathering: Action of the wind, waves, and water on a
humans and animals that inhale them.
substance, such as oil, that leads to disintegration or
Pinnipeds: A group of related species of marine mammals deterioration of the substance.
that have flippers for all four limbs; pinnipeds include sea
Weir: An underwater structure that controls the flow of
lions, seals, and walrus.
water; weir-type oil skimmers use a dam-like underwater
Regional Response Teams (RRTs): Thirteen teams (each barrier that lets oil flow into the skimmer while holding
representing a particular geographic region) that provide back the water.
assistance to OSCs; RRTs are composed of representatives
from field offices of the federal agencies that make up the
National Response Team, as well as state representatives.

For Further Information
PUBLICATIONS WEB SITES

Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council. Legacy of an Oil U.S. EPA Oil Program: http://www.epa.gov/oilspill
Spill, 10 Years After Exxon Valdez. March 1999.
U.S. EPA Publications:
Frink, L., and E. A. Miller, Tri-State Bird Rescue and http://www.epa.gov/epahome/publications.htm
Research, Inc. Wildlife and Oil Spills: Response, Research, and
National Response Team: http://www.nrt.org
Contingency Planning. Newark, Delaware, 1995.
Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council:
LaFleur, Joseph. Pennsylvania State Response to the Ashland
http://www.oilspill.state.ak.us/
Oil Spill. Conference Presentation at Pittsburgh Oil Spill,
Past Response, Future Plans, March 1989. (Available from National Response Center: http://www.nrc.uscg.mil
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 3,
Oil Wildlife Care Network:
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.)
http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/owcn/
National Research Council. Spills of Non-floating Oils: Risk
Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Inc.:
and Response. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.,
http://www.tristatebird.org/
1999.
National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan. 40
CFR 300.
Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) FEDERAL AGENCIES
Regulation 40 CFR 112: Facility Owners/ Operator’s Guide to
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Oil Pollution Prevention. EPA Publication EPA540K98003.
Oil Program Center
Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Wildlife & Oil Spills 401 M Street, SW
(periodical). Available from Tri-State Bird rescue and Mail Code 5203G
Research, 110 Possum Hollow Road, Newark, Delaware Washington, DC 20460
19711. http://www.epa.gov/oilspill
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Oil Spill U.S. Coast Guard
Program Update, vol. 2, no. 2, January 1999, and vol. 1, no. 2100 2nd Street, SW
4, July 1998. Special issue on vegetable oils and animal Washington, DC 20593
fats. The Oil Spill Program Update is available on line at http://www.uscg.mil
www.epa.gov/oilspill
Department of the Interior
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Evaluation of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Response to the Major Oil Spill at the Ashland Terminal, 1849 C Street, NW
Floreffe, Pennsylvania, by the Incident-specific Regional Washington, DC 20240
Response Team. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.fws.gov
Region III, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Oil Pollution Office of Response and Restoration
Prevention; Non-Transportation Related Onshore Facilities 1305 East-West Highway
Rule. 40 CFR Part 112. October 20, 1997. Silver Spring, MD 20910
http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/index.html
Walton, William D., and Nora H. Jason, eds. In-situ Burning
of Oil Spills. Proceedings of the 1998 Workshop on In-situ
Burning of Oil Spills, New Orleans, Louisiana. November
2-4, 1998.

BIRD REHABILITATION MAMMAL REHABILITATION
International Bird Rescue Research Center Center of Marine Conservation
699 Potter Street 312 Sutter Street, Suite 316
Aquatic Park San Francisco, CA 94108
Berkeley, CA 94710
Defenders of Wildlife
Tri-State Bird Rescue and Research, Inc. 1244 19th Street, NW
110 Possum Hollow Road Washington, DC 20036
Newark, DE 19711
Friends of the Sea Otter
University of California, Davis P.O. Box 221220
Oiled Wildlife Care Network Carmel, CA 93922
Wildlife Health Center
Monterey Bay Aquarium
School of Veterinary Medicine
886 Cannery Row
University of California, Davis
Monterey, CA 93940
Davis, CA 95616
National Wildlife Federation
1412 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Oiled Wildlife Care Network
Wildlife Health Center
School of Veterinary Medicine
Davis, CA 95616
To Report
Chemical And Oil Spills:
Call The National Response Center
at 1-800-424-8802

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United States Office of Emergency EPA 540-K-99-007

Environmental Protection And Remedial OSWER 9200.5-104A

Understanding Oil Spills

Understanding Oil Spills

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 1

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 3

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 5

6 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 7

8 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 9

Photo courtesy of RO-CLEAN DESMI

Other Barriers: Improvised Booms

and empty oil drums. They can be as simple as a board

10 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

Photo courtesy of US Coast Guard

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 11

12 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

TYPES OF SUBSTANCES USED

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 13

14 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

Photo courtesy of MMS

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 15

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 17

CLEANUP PROCESSES AND METHODS

18 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 19

Raking and bulldozing are simple methods for helping to

20 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 21

Birds Procedures for capturing, treating, and releasing animals

22 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 23

with all laws, regulations, and permit requirements prior

24 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

oiled and rehabiliated birds are radio-marked upon release

and both their survival and behavior can be evaluated.

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 25

26 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 27

Contingency planners compare the hazard and the

28 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

Contingency plans range from general to very specific.

National Oil and Hazardous

Sub-Area Plans State/Local Plans FRPs Vassel Response Plans

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 29

30 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 31

32 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

The RRTs are responsible for identifying the resources

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 33

Planning for Emergencies SPECIAL FORCES

34 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 35

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 37

38 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

EPA Office of Emergency and Remedial Response • 39

40 • Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response

Photo courtesy of US EPA Region III