A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative density)

of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water.

A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb
weighted with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is
poured into a tall jar, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it floats
freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is
noted. Hydrometers usually contain a paper scale inside the stem, so that the specific
gravity can be read directly. The scales may be Plato, Oechsle, or Brix, depending on the
purpose.

Hydrometers may be calibrated for different uses, such as a lactometer for measuring the
density (creaminess) of milk, a saccharometer for measuring the density of sugar in a
liquid, or an alcoholometer for measuring higher levels of alcohol in spirits.

Principle

The operation the hydrometer is based on the Archimedes principle that a solid
suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. Thus, the lower the density of the substance, the further the hydrometer will
sink. (See also Relative density and hydrometers.)

History

An early description of a hydrometer appears in a letter from Synesius of Cyrene to

Hypatia of Alexandria. In Synesius' fifteenth letter, he requests Hypatia to make a
hydrometer for him.

The instrument in question is a cylindrical tube, which has the shape of a flute and is
about the same size. It has notches in a perpendicular line, by means of which we are able
to test the weight of the waters. A cone forms a lid at one of the extremities, closely fitted
to the tube. The cone and the tube have one base only. This is called the baryllium.
Whenever you place the tube in water, it remains erect. You can then count the notches at
your ease, and in this way ascertain the weight of the water.[1]

It was used by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century and described by Al-Khazini in
the 12th century.[2] It later appeared again in the work of Jacques Alexandre César
Charles in the 18th century.

Ranges

In low density liquids such as kerosene, gasoline, and alcohol, the hydrometer will sink
deeper, and in high density liquids such as brine, milk, and acids it will not sink so far. In
fact, it is usual to have two separate instruments, one for heavy liquids, on which the
mark 1.000 for water is near the top of the stem, and one for light liquids, on which the
mark 1.000 is near the bottom. In many industries a set of hydrometers is used —
covering specific gravity ranges of 1.0–0.95, 0.95–0.9 etc — to provide more precise
measurements.

Scales

Modern hydrometers usually measure specific gravity but different scales were (and
sometimes still are) used in certain industries. Examples include:

• API gravity, universally used worldwide by the petroleum industry.

• Baumé scale, formerly used in industrial chemistry and pharmacology
• Brix scale, primarily used in fruit juice, wine making and the sugar industry
• Oechsle scale, used for measuring the density of grape must
• Plato scale, primarily used in brewing
• Twaddell scale, formerly used in the bleaching and dyeing industries [3]

Commercial uses

Because the commercial value of many liquids, including sugar solutions, sulfuric acid,
and alcohol beverages such as beer and wine, depends directly on the specific gravity,
hydrometers are used extensively.

[edit] Lactometer

A lactometer (or galactometer) is a hydrometer used to test milk. The specific gravity of
milk does not give a conclusive indication of its composition since milk contains a
variety of substances that are either heavier or lighter than water. Additional tests for fat
content are necessary to determine overall composition. The instrument is graduated into
a hundred parts. Milk is poured in and allowed to stand until the cream has formed, then
the depth of the cream deposit in degrees determines the quality of the milk. Another
instrument, invented by Doeffel, is two inches long, divided into 40 parts, beginning at
the point to which it sinks when placed in water. Milk unadulterated is shown at 14°.[4]

[edit] Alcoholometer

An alcoholometer is a hydrometer which is used for determining the alcoholic strength of

liquids. It is also known as a proof and traille hydrometer. It only measures the density of
the fluid. Certain assumptions are made to estimate the amount of alcohol present in the
fluid. Alcoholometers have scales marked with volume percents of "potential alcohol",
based on a pre-calculated specific gravity. A higher "potential alcohol" reading on this
scale is caused by a greater specific gravity, assumed to be caused by the introduction of
dissolved sugars. A reading is taken before and after fermentation and approximate
alcohol content is determined by subtracting the post fermentation reading from the pre-
fermentation reading. [5]
[edit] Saccharometer

A saccharometer is a hydrometer used for determining the amount of sugar in a solution.

It is used primarily by winemakers and brewers,[6] and it can also be used in making
sorbets and ice-creams.[7] The first brewers' saccharometer was constructed by John
Richardson in 1784.[8]

It consists of a large weighted glass bulb with a thin stem rising from the top with
calibrated markings. The sugar level can be determined by reading the value where the
surface of the liquid crosses the scale. It works by the principle of buoyancy. A solution
with a higher sugar content is denser, causing the bulb to float higher. Less sugar results
in a lower density and a lower floating bulb.

[edit] Thermohydrometer

A thermohydrometer is a hydrometer that has a thermometer enclosed in the float section.

For measuring the density of petroleum products, like fuel oils, the specimen is usually
heated in a temperature jacket with a thermometer placed behind it since density is
dependent on temperature. Light oils are placed in cooling jackets, typically at 15oC.
Very light oils with many volatile components are measured in a variable volume
container using a floating piston sampling device to minimize light end losses.

As a battery test it measures the temperature compensated specific gravity and electrolyte
temperature.

[edit] Barkometer

A hydrometer scale used in the leather industries to describe the specific gravity of
tanning solutions. Symbol, Bk. One degree Bk is equivalent to an increase of 0.001 in
specific gravity, and the zero point of the scale (0° Bk) is at specific gravity 1.000. A
barkometer is calibrated to test the strength of tanning liquors used in tanning leather.[9]

[edit] Battery hydrometer

The state of charge of a lead-acid battery can be estimated from the density of the sulfuric
acid solution used as electrolyte. A hydrometer calibrated to read specific gravity relative
to water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit is a standard tool for servicing automobile batteries.
Tables are used to correct the reading to the standard temperature.

[edit] Antifreeze tester

Another automotive use of hydrometers is testing the quality of the antifreeze solution
used for engine cooling. The degree of freeze protection can be related to the density (and
so concentration) of the antifreeze; different types of antifreeze have different relations
between measured density and freezing point.

Soil analysis

A hydrometer analysis is the process by which fine-grained soils, silts and clays, are
graded. Hydrometer analysis is performed if the grain sizes are too small for sieve
analysis. The basis for this test is Stoke's Law for falling spheres in a viscous fluid in
which the terminal velocity of fall depends on the grain diameter and the densities of the
grain in suspension and of the fluid. The grain diameter thus can be calculated from a
knowledge of the distance and time of fall. The hydrometer also determines the specific
gravity (or density) of the suspension, and this enables the percentage of particles of a
certain equivalent particle diameter to be calculated.

Relative density and hydrometers

The relative density of a liquid can be measured using a hydrometer. This consists of a
bulb attached to a stalk of constant cross-sectional area, as shown in the diagram to the
right.

First the hydrometer is floated in the reference liquid (shown in light blue), and the
displacement (the level of the liquid on the stalk) is marked (blue line). The reference
could be any liquid, but in practice it is usually water.

The hydrometer is then floated in a liquid of unknown density (shown in green). The
change in displacement, Δx, is noted. In the example depicted, the hydrometer has
dropped slightly in the green liquid; hence its density is lower than that of the reference
liquid. It is, of course, necessary that the hydrometer floats in both liquids.

The application of simple physical principles allows the relative density of the unknown
liquid to be calculated from the change in displacement. (In practice the stalk of the
hydrometer is pre-marked with graduations to facilitate this measurement.)

In the explanation that follows,

ρref is the known density (mass per unit volume) of the reference liquid (typically
water).
ρnew is the unknown density of the new (green) liquid.
RDnew/ref is the relative density of the new liquid with respect to the reference.
V is the volume of reference liquid displaced, i.e. the red volume in the diagram.
m is the mass of the entire hydrometer.
g is the local gravitational constant.
Δx is the change in displacement. In accordance with the way in which
hydrometers are usually graduated, Δx is here taken to be negative if the
 displacement line rises on the stalk of the hydrometer, and positive if it falls. In
the example depicted, Δx is negative.
A is the cross sectional area of the shaft.

Since the floating hydrometer is in static equilibrium, the downward gravitational force
acting upon it must exactly balance the upward buoyancy force. The gravitational force
acting on the hydrometer is simply its weight, mg. From the Archimedes buoyancy
principle, the buoyancy force acting on the hydrometer is equal to the weight of liquid
displaced. This weight is equal to the mass of liquid displaced multiplied by g, which in
the case of the reference liquid is ρrefVg. Setting these equal, we have

or just

(1)

Exactly the same equation applies when the hydrometer is floating in the liquid being
measured, except that the new volume is V - AΔx (see note above about the sign of Δx).
Thus,

(2)

Combining (1) and (2) yields

(3)

But from (1) we have V = m/ρref. Substituting into (3) gives

(4)

This equation allows the relative density to be calculated from the change in
displacement, the known density of the reference liquid, and the known properties of the
hydrometer. If Δx is small then, as a first-order approximation of the geometric series
equation (4) can be written as:

This shows that, for small Δx, changes in displacement are approximately proportional to
changes in relative density.