Objectives

• Introduce the second law of thermodynamics.

• Identify valid processes as those that satisfy both the first and second
laws of thermodynamics.
MAE 320 - Chapter 6 • Discuss thermal energy reservoirs, reversible and irreversible processes,
heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps.
• Describe the Kelvin–Planck and Clausius statements of the second law of
thermodynamics.
The Second Law of • Discuss the concepts of perpetual-motion machines.
Thermodynamics • Apply the second law of thermodynamics to cycles and cyclic devices.
• Apply the second law to develop the absolute thermodynamic
temperature scale.
• Describe the Carnot cycle.
• Examine the Carnot principles, idealized Carnot heat engines,
refrigerators, and heat pumps.
The content and the pictures are from the text book: Çengel, Y. A. and Boles, M. A., “Thermodynamics:
• Determine the expressions for the thermal efficiencies and coefficients of
An Engineering Approach,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 6th Ed., 2008 performance for reversible heat engines, heat pumps, and refrigerators.

Introduction to the Second Law Introduction to the Second Law

A cup of hot coffee Processes occur in a certain direction,
does not get hotter in and not in the reverse direction.
a cooler room.
A process must satisfy both the
Transferring first and second laws of
heat to a thermodynamics to proceed.
paddle wheel
will not cause Major Uses of The Second Law
it to rotate. 1. The second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
2. The second law also asserts that energy has quality. The first law is
concerned with the quantity of energy and the transformations of energy
from one form to another with no regard to its quality. The second law
provides the necessary means to determine the quality as well as the
Transferring degree of degradation of energy during a process.
These processes cannot
heat to a wire 3. The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
occur even though they
will not theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
generate are not in violation of the systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting
electricity. first law. the degree of completion of chemical reactions.

Thermal Energy Reservoirs Heat Engines

Heat engines are the devices that
convert heat to work.
1. They receive heat from a high-
A source supplies temperature source (solar energy,
energy in the form oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
of heat, and a sink
2. They convert part of this heat to
absorbs it.
work (usually in the form of a
rotating shaft.)
Bodies with relatively large thermal Work can always
masses can be modeled as thermal 3. They reject the remaining waste
be converted to heat to a low-temperature sink
energy reservoirs. heat directly and (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x completely, but the
4. They operate on a cycle.
specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without reverse is not true.
Heat engines and other cyclic
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy Part of the heat devices usually involve a fluid to
reservoir, or just a reservoir. received by a heat and from which heat is
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well engine is transferred while undergoing a
as the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy converted to work, cycle. This fluid is called the
reservoirs because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or while the rest is working fluid.
thermal masses. rejected to a sink.

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A steam power plant Thermal efficiency
Schematic of a heat engine.

A portion of the
work output of a
heat engine is
consumed
internally to
maintain
continuous
operation.

Even the most efficient heat engines

reject almost one-half of the energy they
receive as waste heat.

Thermal efficiency Can we save Qout?

Some heat engines perform
better than others (convert more In a steam power plant, the condenser is the device where large quantities
of the heat they receive to work). of waste heat is rejected to rivers, lakes, or the atmosphere.

Can we not just take the condenser out of the plant and save all that waste
energy?

The answer is, unfortunately, a firm no for the simple reason that without a
heat rejection process in a condenser, the cycle cannot be completed.

Can we save Qout? Kelvin–Planck Statement

A heat-engine cycle cannot be completed without rejecting some heat to a low- Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible for any device that operates on a
temperature sink. cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of
work.
No heat engine can have a
thermal efficiency of 100 percent,
or as for a power plant to operate,
the working fluid must exchange
heat with the environment as well
as the furnace.

The impossibility of having a

100% efficient heat engine is not
due to friction or other dissipative
effects. It is a limitation that
applies to both the idealized and
the actual heat engines.
A heat engine that violates the
Kelvin–Planck statement of the
second law.

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Refrigerators and Heat Pumps Coefficient of Performance for Refrigerators
• The transfer of heat from a The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in
low-temperature medium terms of the coefficient of performance
to a high-temperature one
(COP).
requires special devices
called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat
engines, are cyclic
devices.
• The working fluid used in
the refrigeration cycle is
called a refrigerant.
• The most frequently used
refrigeration cycle is the
vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.

COPR can be greater than unity. That is,

In a household refrigerator, the freezer compartment
the amount of heat removed from the
where heat is absorbed by the refrigerant serves as
Basic components of a the evaporator, and the coils usually behind the
refrigerated space can be greater than
refrigeration system and refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the kitchen
The objective of a refrigerator is to the amount of work input
typical operating conditions. air serve as the condenser. remove QL from the cooled space.

Coefficient of Performance for Heat Pumps Coefficient of Performance for Heat Pumps
The objective of a heat pump is to supply heat • Most heat pumps in operation today have a
QH into the warmer space. seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold
outside air as the heat source in winter (air-
source HP).
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators
whose refrigerated space is a room or a
building instead of the food compartment.
• The COP of a refrigerator decreases with
decreasing refrigeration temperature.
for fixed values of QL and QH • Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate
to a lower temperature than needed.

Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount of

heat removed from the cooled space in Btu’s for
Can the value of COPHP be lower than 1 Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed.
unity?
When installed backward, an
What does COPHP=1 represent? air conditioner functions as a
heat pump.

Coefficient of Performance for Refrigerator Coefficient of Performance for Refrigerator

Example 6-3 Example 6-3
(a) The coefficient of performance of the refrigerator:
•

QL 360 kJ / min 360 kJ / 60 s

COP R = •
= = =3
2 kW 2 kJ / s
Wnet , in

(b) The rate of heat ejected to room:

• • •
Q H = Q L + W net ,in = 360 kJ / min + 2kW
= 360kJ /(60 s ) + 2kJ / s = 8kJ / s

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Clausius Statement Equivalence of Two Statements
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in their
effect other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a consequences, and either statement can be used as the expression of the second
higher-temperature body. law of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also violates the Clausius
It states that a refrigerator cannot operate statement, and vice versa.
unless its compressor is driven by an
external power source, such as an electric
motor.

This way, the net effect on the

surroundings involves the consumption of
some energy in the form of work, in
addition to the transfer of heat from a
colder body to a warmer one.
To date, no experiment has been
conducted that contradicts the second law,
and this should be taken as sufficient proof
of its validity.
A refrigerator that violates the Clausius
statement of the second law.

Perpetual-motion Machines Reversible and Irreversible Processes

Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.

During a cycle, a system can be restored to

its initial state following a process,
regardless of whether the process is
reversible or irreversible.

But for reversible processes, this

restoration is made without leaving any net
change on the surroundings,
A perpetual-motion machine that A perpetual-motion machine that
violates the first law (PMM1). violates the second law of whereas for irreversible processes, the
thermodynamics (PMM2).
surroundings usually do some work on the
Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second law. system and therefore does not return to
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1. their original state.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.
Two familiar reversible
Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
processes.
worked. If something sounds too good to be true, it probably is.

Reversible and Irreversible Processes Irreversible Processes

Friction
renders a
process
irreversible.

Reversible processes deliver the most and consume the least work. • The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
• They include friction, unrestrained
• All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible. expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat
• Why are we interested in reversible processes? transfer across a finite temperature
• (1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as idealized models (theoretical difference, electric resistance, inelastic
limits) to which actual processes can be compared. deformation of solids, and chemical
reactions.
• Some processes are more irreversible than others. (a) Heat transfer through a temperature
• The presence of any of these effects
• We try to approximate reversible processes. difference is irreversible, and (b) the
renders a process irreversible.
reverse process is impossible.

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Irreversible Processes Internally & Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the
Irreversible compression and boundaries of the system during the process.
expansion processes. • Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system
boundaries.

Totally and internally reversible heat transfer processes.

Internally & Externally Reversible Processes The Carnot Cycle

• Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.
or its surroundings. A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer
through a finite temperature difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes,
and no friction or other dissipative effects. Reversible Isothermal
Expansion (process 1-2):
TH = constant, Pv = mRT =C;
heat input QH

Reversible Adiabatic Expansion

(process 2-3):
A reversible process involves no internal temperature drops from TH to TL;
and external irreversibilities. Pvn=C

The Carnot Cycle The Carnot Cycle

Wnet, out =QH-QL
Reversible Isothermal
Compression (process 3-4):
TL = constant; Pv = mRT = C; Pv=C
heat release QL

Pvn=C

Reversible Adiabatic
Compression (process 4-1):
temperature rises from TL to TH,
Pvn =C
P-V diagram of the Carnot cycle.

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The Reversed Carnot Cycle The Carnot Principles
Wnet, in =QH-QL The Carnot principles

QL • The efficiency of an irreversible

L Pv=C heat engine is always less than
(1) –(2) (2) –(3) the efficiency of a reversible one
operating between the same two
reservoirs.
Pvn=C
QH • The efficiencies of all reversible
H

heat engines operating between

the same two reservoirs are the
(3) –(4) (4) –(1) same.
P-V diagram of the reversed Carnot
cycle.

The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.

Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed, in which case
it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle.

The Carnot Principles The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

All reversible heat engines operating

between the same two reservoirs have
the same efficiency.
Proof of the first Carnot principle. The efficiency of reversible engines is The arrangement of heat engines
independent of the working fluid and its used to develop the
property thermodynamic temperature scale.

The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Since the energy of reservoirs is characterized by the temperature, the thermal
efficiency if reversible heat engines is a function of the reservoir temperature only:
Wnet,out Q H −QL Q
ηth,rev = = = 1 − L = g (TH , TL )
QH QH QH For a reversible heat engine between two reservoirs at temperature TH and TL

For all the engines in the figure Lord Kelvin has proposed taking to define the thermodynamic
temperature as

The temperature scale is called the Kelvin scale. The temperature on this
scale is called absolute temperature.

A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substances that are
used to measure temperature is called a thermodynamic temperature scale.
Left side is not a function of T2, the condition will be met if the right side will be: Such a temperature scale offers great conveniences in thermodynamic calculations.

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The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale The Carnot Heat Engine
Any heat engine

absolute temperatures. Carnot heat engine

-- Carnot efficiency

For reversible cycles, the heat

transfer ratio QH /QL can be A conceptual experimental setup to
replaced by the absolute determine thermodynamic temperatures on
temperature ratio TH /TL. the Kelvin scale by measuring heat transfers
QH and QL.

The Carnot Heat Engine The Carnot Heat Engine

The Carnot heat engine is the
most efficient of all heat
engines operating between
the same high- and low-
temperature reservoirs.

No heat engine can have a

higher efficiency than a
reversible heat engine
operating between the same
high- and low-temperature
reservoirs.

The Carnot Heat Engine The Quality of Energy

Example 6-5

Can we use °C unit for

temperature here?
The higher the temperature of the
thermal energy, the higher its quality.
The fraction of heat that can be How do you increase the thermal efficiency of a
converted to work as a function Carnot heat engine? How about for actual heat
of source temperature. engines?

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The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
Example 6-7
Any refrigerator or heat pump
A heat pump is used to heat a house during
the winter as shown in Fig. 6-53. The house
is maintained at 21 oC at all times. The
house is estimated to be losing heat at a
rate of 135 MJ/h when the outside
temperature drop to – 5 oC. Determined the
minimum power required to drive this heat
pump.
Carnot refrigerator or heat pump

No refrigerator can have a higher COP

How do you increase the COP of a
than a reversible refrigerator operating
Carnot refrigerator or heat pump?
between the same temperature limits.
How about for actual ones?

The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump Summary

Example 6-7 • Introduction to the second law
• Heat engines
9 Thermal efficiency
9 The 2nd law: Kelvin-Planck statement
• Refrigerators and heat pumps
9 Coefficient of performance (COP)
9 The 2nd law: Clasius statement
• Perpetual motion machines
• Reversible and irreversible processes
9 Irreversibilities, Internally and externally reversible processes
• The Carnot cycle
9 The reversed Carnot cycle
• The Carnot principles
• The thermodynamic temperature scale
• The Carnot heat engine
9 The quality of energy
• The Carnot refrigerator and heat pump