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    Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z: PhysicsAtoZ, #3
    Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z: PhysicsAtoZ, #3
    Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z: PhysicsAtoZ, #3
    Ebook423 pages5 hours

    Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z: PhysicsAtoZ, #3

    By Ian Eress

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    About this ebook

    This reference book provides an accessible overview of the fundamental concepts and laws of thermodynamics. It covers topics from classical thermodynamics, statistical thermodynamics, and quantum thermodynamics. Important principles are explained in detail, including the three laws of thermodynamics, concepts of equilibrium and entropy, thermodynamic potentials, and the sources and transfer of energy as heat and work. Applications of thermodynamics are explored across different fields, from physics and engineering to chemistry, and biology. With detailed explanations and illustrations, this is an invaluable resource for students and anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the principles, laws, and applications of thermodynamics. With its clear explanations, thorough coverage, and practical examples, this reference guide is an essential addition to any library or personal collection.

     

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherHandmade Books
    Release dateMar 21, 2023
    ISBN9798215929711
    Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z: PhysicsAtoZ, #3
    Author

    Ian Eress

    Born in the seventies. Average height. Black hair. Sometimes shaves. Black eyes. Nearsighted. Urban. MSc. vim > Emacs. Mac.

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      Book preview

      Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z - Ian Eress

      Ian Talks Thermodynamics A-Z

      PhysicsAtoZ, Volume 3

      Ian Eress

      Published by Handmade Books, 2023.

      While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher assumes no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

      IAN TALKS THERMODYNAMICS A-Z

      First edition. March 21, 2023.

      Copyright © 2023 Ian Eress.

      ISBN: 979-8215929711

      Written by Ian Eress.

      Table of Contents

      A

      B

      C

      D

      E

      F

      G

      H

      I

      J

      K

      L

      M

      N

      O

      P

      Q

      R

      S

      T

      U

      V

      W

      Z

      INDEX

      For Caitlyn

      A

      Absolute temperature: I. In the context of thermodynamics, absolute temperature refers to the temperature measured on an absolute temperature scale, like the Kelvin (K) or Rankine (R) scale. Unlike other temperature scales, like the Celsius or Fahrenheit scales, absolute temperature scales do not have negative values.

      Absolute temperature is important in thermodynamics because it is used to determine the direction and magnitude of heat flow between two systems. Heat naturally flows from a hotter system to a colder system, and the amount of heat transferred is proportional to the temperature difference between the two systems. The greater the temperature difference, the greater the rate of heat transfer.

      Absolute temperature is also important because it is directly related to the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the temperature of a gas is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules. As the temperature of a gas increases, the molecules move faster and collide with greater force, increasing the pressure and volume of the gas.

      The Kelvin scale is the most commonly used absolute temperature scale in thermodynamics. It is defined such that absolute zero, the theoretical temperature at which all molecular motion ceases, is zero Kelvin (0 K). This corresponds to approximately -273.15 degrees Celsius (-459.67 degrees Fahrenheit). The Rankine scale is used less frequently and is defined similarly to the Kelvin scale, but uses the Fahrenheit scale as its reference point instead of the Celsius scale.

      In summary, absolute temperature is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics that is used to measure the temperature of a substance on an absolute temperature scale. It is important for determining the direction and magnitude of heat flow between two systems, and for understanding the behavior of gases and other substances.

      II. • Absolute temperature: Temperature measured from absolute zero (0 K)

      • Absolute zero: The lowest possible temperature where all molecular motion stops (0 K = -273.15°C or -459.67°F)

      • Thermodynamic temperature scale: Temperature scale where absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature, absolute temperatures are measured in Kelvin (K)

      • Thermodynamics: The study of heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work. Deals with the transfer and transformation of energy in physical and chemical systems.

      III.

      https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_temperature

      https://www.britannica.com/science/absolute-temperature-scale

      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature

      Absolute zero: I. In the context of thermodynamics, absolute zero is the theoretical temperature at which all molecular motion ceases, and no further heat can be extracted from a substance. It is a fundamental concept that is important for understanding the behavior of gases and other substances at very low temperatures.

      Absolute zero is defined as 0 Kelvin (K) on the Kelvin scale, which is the most commonly used absolute temperature scale in thermodynamics. This corresponds to approximately -273.15 degrees Celsius (-459.67 degrees Fahrenheit) on the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales.

      At absolute zero, all substances are at their lowest possible energy state, and the particles that make up the substance have no thermal energy or kinetic energy. This means that they are not vibrating, rotating, or moving in any way. In the case of gases, the molecules would stop colliding with each other and the walls of the container in which they are held.

      Absolute zero is an important concept in thermodynamics because it provides a reference point for temperature measurements on the Kelvin scale. The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale, meaning that it is based on the theoretical concept of absolute zero, and it is not subject to the arbitrary offset that exists in other temperature scales like Celsius and Fahrenheit.

      The concept of absolute zero is also important in understanding the behavior of gases and other substances at low temperatures. For example, at very low temperatures, some substances may exhibit unusual behavior, like superconductivity or superfluidity, their proximity to absolute zero can explain that.

      In summary, absolute zero is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics that represents the theoretical temperature at which all molecular motion ceases. It is a reference point for temperature measurements on the Kelvin scale and is important for understanding the behavior of substances at very low temperatures.

      II. • Absolute zero: The lowest possible temperature where all molecular motion stops (0 K = -273.15°C or -459.67°F)

      • At absolute zero, atoms would stop moving and vibrating completely. All thermal energy is removed from a system.

      • It is not physically possible to actually reach absolute zero, but scientists can get very close using laser cooling and magnetic cooling techniques.

      • The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfectly ordered crystal at absolute zero is zero. It is impossible to cool an object to exactly 0 K in a finite number of steps.

      III. https://www.livescience.com/50942-third-law-thermodynamics.html

      Adiabatic accessibility: I. Adiabatic accessibility is a concept in thermodynamics that refers to the ability of a system to reach a particular state or configuration through an adiabatic process. An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process that occurs without any exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings, so the system is insulated from the external environment.

      In the context of thermodynamics, adiabatic accessibility is important because it determines the range of states that a system can reach without exchanging heat with its surroundings. If a particular state is adiabatically accessible, it means that the system can reach that state through an adiabatic process, without any heat exchange with its surroundings. Conversely, if a state is not adiabatically accessible, it means that the system cannot reach that state through an adiabatic process.

      The concept of adiabatic accessibility is closely related to the concept of adiabatic invariant, which is a quantity that remains constant during an adiabatic process. Adiabatic invariants are important because they provide a means of characterizing the behavior of a system during an adiabatic process, and they can be used to predict the final state of the system after the process is completed.

      Adiabatic accessibility is an important concept in many areas of thermodynamics. This includes thermodynamic cycles, heat engines, and heat pumps. In thermodynamic cycles, the adiabatic accessibility of different states determines the range of temperatures and pressures that can be achieved during the cycle. In heat engines, adiabatic accessibility is important for determining the efficiency of the engine, while in heat pumps, adiabatic accessibility is important for determining the maximum coefficient of performance that can be achieved.

      In summary, adiabatic accessibility is a concept in thermodynamics that refers to the ability of a system to reach a particular state or configuration through an adiabatic process. It is an important concept for understanding the behavior of thermodynamic systems, and it is used in many areas of thermodynamics to determine the range of temperatures, pressures, and other variables that can be achieved during a particular process.

      II. • Adiabatic accessibility: The ability to reversibly and slowly change a thermodynamic system from one state to another without heat transfer, just through internal energy changes.

      • If two states of a system are adiabatically accessible, it means they can be reversibly transformed into each other through a slow process without heat exchange with the surroundings.

      • The adiabatic accessibility of states depends on the entropy of the system and determines which states it can reach from a given initial state. It is a key concept in the thermodynamic analysis of systems.

      III. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process

      Adiabatic compressibility: I. Adiabatic compressibility is a measure of the responsiveness of a substance to changes in pressure under adiabatic conditions. It is defined as the change in volume per unit change in pressure when a substance is compressed adiabatically.

      An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process in which there is no exchange of heat between the system and its surroundings. This means that the temperature of the system remains constant during the process, and any changes in volume or pressure are due solely to changes in the internal energy of the system.

      Adiabatic compressibility is an important property of substances because it affects the behavior of substances when they are subjected to changes in pressure. Substances with high adiabatic compressibility are more easily compressed under adiabatic conditions, while substances with low adiabatic compressibility are more resistant to compression.

      The adiabatic compressibility of a substance can be expressed mathematically as:

      where β_s is the adiabatic compressibility, V is the volume of the substance, P is the pressure, and S is the entropy.

      The units of adiabatic compressibility are inverse pressure units, like Pa^-1 or atm^-1.

      Adiabatic compressibility is an important property in many areas of thermodynamics. This includes the study of sound waves in gases, the behavior of fluids in hydraulic systems, and the behavior of materials under extreme pressure conditions. For example, the adiabatic compressibility of a gas affects its speed of sound, which in turn affects its behavior in acoustic systems like musical instruments or loudspeakers.

      In summary, adiabatic compressibility is a measure of the responsiveness of a substance to changes in pressure under adiabatic conditions. It is an important property of substances that affects their behavior under different conditions, and it is used in many areas of thermodynamics to understand the behavior of fluids and materials.

      II. • Adiabatic compressibility: A measure of how much the volume of a substance changes with pressure at constant entropy.

      • It is the ratio of relative volume change to relative pressure change for a reversible adiabatic process.

      • Adiabatic compressibility is a useful concept in studying gases, liquids, and solids under high-pressure conditions where heat transfer is slow and the adiabatic assumption is valid.

      • It is related to other compressibility concepts like isothermal compressibility which assumes constant temperature instead of constant entropy.

      III. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressibility

      Adiabatic invariant: I. An adiabatic invariant is a quantity that remains constant during an adiabatic process. In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is a process in which no heat is transferred between the system and its surroundings, so the internal energy of the system remains constant. Adiabatic invariants are important because they provide a means of characterizing the behavior of a system during an adiabatic process, and they can be used to predict the final state of the system after the process is completed.

      Adiabatic invariants are related to the concept of conservation laws in physics. In many physical systems, there are certain quantities that remain constant during a particular process, like energy or momentum. These conservation laws provide a way to understand the behavior of the system and predict its final state. Adiabatic invariants are a type of conservation law that applies specifically to adiabatic processes.

      One example of an adiabatic invariant is the magnetic moment of a charged particle moving in a magnetic field. The magnetic moment is a measure of the strength of the particle's interaction with the magnetic field, and it remains constant during an adiabatic process because the energy of the system remains constant. This means that if a charged particle is subjected to a changing magnetic field in an adiabatic process, its magnetic moment will remain constant, and its behavior can be predicted based on this conservation law.

      Another example of an adiabatic invariant is the action of a particle in a periodic potential. The action is a measure of the phase of the particle's motion, and it remains constant during an adiabatic process because the energy of the system remains constant. This means that if a particle is subjected to a changing potential in an adiabatic process, its action will remain constant, and its behavior can be predicted based on this conservation law.

      Adiabatic invariants are important in many areas of thermodynamics and physics. This includes quantum mechanics, plasma physics, and the behavior of materials under extreme conditions. They provide a means of understanding the behavior of systems under different conditions and can be used to predict the final state of the system after an adiabatic process is completed.

      In summary, adiabatic invariants are quantities that remain constant during an adiabatic process. They are important because they provide a means of characterizing the behavior of a system during an adiabatic process, and they can be used to predict the final state of the system after the process is completed. Adiabatic invariants are related to the concept of conservation laws in physics and are used in many areas of thermodynamics and physics to understand the behavior of different systems.

      II. • Adiabatic invariant: A property of a physical system that remains unchanged during a reversible adiabatic process.

      • Examples of adiabatic invariants include magnetic flux in a magnetic field.

      • Adiabatic invariants are useful because they allow us to predict how a system will change its state in response to changes, like variations in pressure or volume, without having to know the precise dynamics of the system.

      • The existence of adiabatic invariants depends on the structure and symmetries of the system and the type of adiabatic process. They are a key concept in thermodynamics and other areas of physics.

      III. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_invariant

      Adiabatic wall: I. In thermodynamics, an adiabatic wall is a hypothetical wall that does not allow heat to transfer between two regions separated by the wall. This means that the temperature on each side of the wall remains constant. There is no heat exchange between the two regions.

      Adiabatic walls are used in thermodynamics to simplify the analysis of certain processes. For example, in a piston-cylinder system, an adiabatic wall can be used to represent the cylinder walls, which are assumed to be thermally insulated and therefore do not allow any heat transfer between the gas inside the cylinder and the environment outside.

      The use of an adiabatic wall simplifies the analysis of the system, as the heat transfer term in the energy balance equation is zero. This means that the internal energy of the gas inside the cylinder remains constant during an adiabatic process, and any changes in temperature or pressure are due solely to the work done on or by the gas.

      Adiabatic walls are also used in the analysis of heat exchangers, where the heat transfer between two fluids is controlled by a physical barrier that does not allow heat to transfer between the two fluids. In this case, the wall is assumed to be perfectly thermally insulated and does not allow any heat to be transferred between the two fluids, except through the wall itself.

      The use of adiabatic walls in thermodynamics is based on the assumption that the wall is perfectly thermally insulated and does not allow any heat transfer between the two regions separated by the wall. While such walls do not exist in practice, they provide a useful tool for simplifying the analysis of certain thermodynamic processes and systems.

      In summary, an adiabatic wall is a hypothetical wall that does not allow heat to transfer between two regions separated by the wall. Adiabatic walls are used in thermodynamics to simplify the analysis of certain processes and systems. They are based on the assumption that the wall is perfectly thermally insulated and does not allow any heat transfer between the two regions.

      II. • Adiabatic wall: An idealized wall that prevents any heat transfer between two systems or a system and its surroundings.

      • An adiabatic wall allows work to be done on or by a system but does not allow energy transfer as heat. It is a theoretical concept used to study adiabatic processes.

      • In real systems, perfectly adiabatic walls are not possible, but some materials have very low thermal conductivity and can approximate an adiabatic wall. They are useful in applications where heat exchange needs to be minimized.

      • The concept of an adiabatic wall is important in thermodynamics for analyzing properties like entropy, temperature change, and work in adiabatic systems.

      III. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_wall

      Adiabatic work: I. In thermodynamics, adiabatic work refers to work done by or on a system in an adiabatic process. An adiabatic process is a process in which no heat is transferred between the system and its surroundings, so the internal energy of the system remains constant. In an adiabatic process, any changes in the system's energy or work done on the system must be due to changes in other forms of energy, like mechanical work.

      Adiabatic work can be done by or on a system in several ways. For example, in a piston-cylinder system, adiabatic work can be done by the gas inside the cylinder as it expands against the piston, or it can be done on the gas as it is compressed by the piston. The work done in these processes is equal to the integral of the pressure times the change in volume of the system or W = ∫PdV.

      Adiabatic work can also be done in other types of systems, like in a thermoelectric generator or in a combustion engine. In these systems, the work is done by the movement of charged particles or by the expansion of a gas as it is ignited.

      The amount of adiabatic work that can be done by a system depends on several factors. This includes the pressure and volume of the system, the temperature of the system, and the nature of the work being done. In general, adiabatic work is more efficient than work done in a non-adiabatic process, as there is no energy loss due to heat transfer between the system and its surroundings.

      Adiabatic work is an important concept in thermodynamics, as it provides a means of characterizing the behavior of a system during an adiabatic process. It is used in the analysis of many types of thermodynamic systems. This includes engines, refrigeration systems, and heat exchangers. Understanding the principles of adiabatic work is essential for designing and optimizing these systems for maximum efficiency and performance.

      In summary, adiabatic work refers to work done by or on a system in an adiabatic process. It is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics and is used to characterize the behavior of many types of thermodynamic systems. Adiabatic work is more efficient than work done in a non-adiabatic process, and understanding its principles is essential for designing and optimizing thermodynamic systems.

      II. • Adiabatic work: Work done on or by a system in a reversible adiabatic process, where no heat is exchanged with the surroundings.

      • As no heat is transferred, all the energy goes into or comes from the internal energy of the system. The system's temperature will change as a result of adiabatic work.

      • Examples of adiabatic work include the expansion or compression of a gas in a thermally insulated container and a piston, or the stretching/compressing of an ideal spring in a vacuum.

      • The concept of adiabatic work is important in thermodynamics for analyzing how a system's internal energy and temperature change in response to work, in the absence of heat transfer.

      III. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adiabatic_process

      Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter: I. An alkali-metal thermal to-electric converter (AMTEC) is a type of thermoelectric converter that uses an alkali-metal vapor, sodium, or potassium, as the working fluid to convert heat directly into electrical energy. AMTEC is a solid-state device that operates on the principles of the thermoelectric effect, in which a temperature difference across a material generates a voltage.

      The operation of an AMTEC is based on the thermionic emission of electrons from a hot alkali-metal vapor across a solid-state electrolyte to a cooler electrode. The electrolyte is made of a ceramic material, like beta-alumina, that allows ions to pass through it but does not conduct electrons. The electrons emitted from the hot vapor flow through an external circuit, generating an electrical current that can be used to power electronic devices.

      The efficiency of an AMTEC is determined by the difference in temperature between the hot and cold sides of the device, and by the specific materials used to construct the device. AMTEC can achieve high conversion efficiencies, up to 30%, and can be used in a variety of applications. This includes spacecraft power systems, waste heat recovery, and portable power sources.

      One advantage of AMTEC over other thermoelectric devices is its ability to operate at high temperatures, up to 1200°C. This makes it suitable for use in high-temperature industrial processes, where waste heat can be recovered and converted into electrical energy.

      Another advantage of AMTEC is its scalability. Unlike other thermoelectric devices that rely on the size and number of thermocouples to generate electrical energy, AMTEC can be scaled up by increasing the size of the hot and cold reservoirs. This makes it suitable for large-scale power generation.

      One disadvantage of AMTEC is the need to maintain a constant supply of alkali-metal vapor, which requires a high-temperature heat source, like a nuclear reactor or solar concentrator. This limits the potential applications of AMTEC to situations where a high-temperature heat source is available.

      In summary, an alkali-metal thermal-to-electric converter (AMTEC) is a type of thermoelectric converter that uses an alkali-metal vapor as the working fluid to convert heat directly into electrical energy. AMTEC is a solid-state device that operates on the principles of the thermoelectric effect and can achieve high conversion efficiencies. AMTEC has advantages like high-temperature operation, scalability, and suitability for waste heat recovery. However, it requires a constant supply of alkali-metal vapor, which limits its potential applications.

      II. • Alkali-metal thermal to the electric converter (AMTEC): A solid-state device that converts heat to electricity using alkali metal ions.

      • It works by harnessing the ionization energy of alkali metals like sodium or potassium in a high-temperature environment. The alkali metal ions pass through an electrolyte and generate an electric current.

      • AMTEC devices are high-efficiency heat engines that can operate at high temperatures. They have no moving parts so are reliable and long-lasting.

      • The AMTEC concept is promising for waste heat recovery and renewable energy applications. It is still being researched to improve efficiency and costs before widespread commercial use.

      III.

      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali-metal_thermal_to_electric_converter

      https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20060034496

      Avogadro’s number: I. Avogadro's number is a fundamental constant in thermodynamics that relates the number of particles in a given amount of substance to its molar mass. It is denoted by the symbol Nₐ and is defined as the number of atoms, molecules, or other particles in one mole of a substance. The value of Avogadro's number is approximately 6.022 x 10²³ particles per mole.

      The concept of Avogadro's number is based on the idea that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. This was first proposed by Amedeo Avogadro in 1811, but it was not widely accepted until the late 19th century.

      Avogadro's number is important in thermodynamics because it allows us to relate macroscopic quantities, like pressure, temperature, and volume, to microscopic quantities, like the number of particles in a substance. For example, the ideal gas law, which relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas, can be expressed in terms of the number of particles in the gas using Avogadro's number.

      Avogadro's number also plays a critical role in the definition of other important thermodynamic constants, like the gas constant R, which relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas to its molar mass.

      In summary, Avogadro's number is a fundamental constant in thermodynamics that relates the number of particles in a given amount of substance to its molar mass. It allows us to relate macroscopic quantities to microscopic quantities and plays a critical role in the definition of other important thermodynamic constants.

      II. • Avogadro's number: The number of atoms or molecules in a mole of a substance, equal to 6.022 x 10^23.

      • It is a fundamental physical constant important in thermodynamics, physical chemistry, and other areas.

      • Avogadro's number is used to calculate quantities like the molar mass of an element or chemical compound and to convert between mass, moles, and volume of substances.

      • It allows macroscopic thermodynamic quantities to be related to molecular properties, linking the microscopic and macroscopic viewpoints. So it is crucial to many calculations in thermodynamics and chemistry.

      III. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Atomic_Theory/The_Mole_and_Avogadro's_Constant

      Axiomatics of thermodynamics: I. The axiomatics of thermodynamics refers to the set of fundamental principles or postulates that underlie the entire field of thermodynamics. These principles serve as the foundation for all thermodynamic analyses and allow for the development of rigorous and consistent mathematical models for the behavior of physical systems.

      The axiomatics of thermodynamics is based on four fundamental postulates or laws:

      The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another.

      The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a closed system always increases over time.

      The third law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible to reach absolute zero temperature.

      The zeroth law of thermodynamics establishes the concept of temperature and thermal equilibrium.

      These four postulates serve as the building blocks for the entire field of thermodynamics and provide the necessary foundation for understanding the behavior of physical systems in terms of energy, temperature, entropy, and other thermodynamic variables.

      In addition to these fundamental postulates, there are also several derived principles and concepts in thermodynamics, like the Gibbs free energy, enthalpy, and thermodynamic cycles, that are built upon the axiomatics of the field.

      Overall, the axiomatics of thermodynamics provides a powerful framework for understanding and analyzing the behavior of physical systems in terms of their thermodynamic properties, and has been critical in the development of a wide range of scientific and engineering applications. This includes energy conversion, chemical reactions, and materials science.

      II. • Axiomatics of thermodynamics: The process of deriving the laws of thermodynamics from a set of basic axioms or postulates.

      • Different approaches have been proposed to derive thermodynamic laws in a logically consistent way from simpler starting points.

      • Some axiom sets start from concepts like the possibility of measurement and reproducibility of experiments. Others are based on information theory or other principles.

      • Developing a rigorous axiomatic basis for thermodynamics is challenging but could lead to deeper insights into its logical structure and connections to other fields. However, there is no universally accepted axiomatic approach yet.

      III. https://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node38.html

      B

      Bennett acceptance ratio: I. The Bennett acceptance ratio (BAR) is a method used in computational statistical mechanics to estimate the free energy difference between two states of a system. It is particularly useful for situations where the two states being compared have significantly different populations and traditional methods like the Widom insertion method are not effective.

      The BAR method was first introduced by Charles L. Bennett in 1976 as an improvement over the traditional thermodynamic integration method. The basic idea of the BAR method is to

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