Introduction to Database Concepts

Q Purpose of Database Systems

Q View of Data
Q Data Models
Q Data Definition Language
Part I: Introduction to Databases Q Data Manipulation Language

Kostis Sagonas

Introduction to Databases 2

Database Management System (DBMS) Purpose of Database System

Q Collection of interrelated data

Q In the early days, database applications were built on top of
Q Set of programs to access the data file systems
Q DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
Q Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
Q DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and
+ Data redundancy and inconsistency
efficient to use.
 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
Q Database Applications:
+ Difficulty in accessing data
+ Banking: all transactions
+ Airlines: reservations, schedules  Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
+ Data isolation — multiple files and formats
+ Universities: registration, grades
+ Sales: customers, products, purchases + Integrity problems
+ Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain  Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become part
+ Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions of program code

Q Databases touch all aspects of our lives  Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Introduction to Databases 3 Introduction to Databases 4

Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.) Levels of Abstraction

Q Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.) Q Physical level describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.
+ Atomicity of updates Q Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial relationships among the data.
updates carried out type customer = record
 E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should either name : string;
complete or not happen at all street : string;
+ Concurrent access by multiple users city : integer;
 Concurrent accessed needed for performance end;
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies Q View level: application programs hide details of data types.
– E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the same Views can also hide information (e.g., salary) for security
time purposes.
+ Security problems
Q Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Introduction to Databases 5 Introduction to Databases 6

1
 Instances and Schemas Data Models

Q Similar to types and variables in programming languages

Q Schema – the logical structure of the database Q A collection of tools for describing
+ data
+ e.g., the database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts and the relationship between them) + data relationships
+ Analogous to type information of a variable in a program + data semantics
+ data constraints
+ Physical schema: database design at the physical level
+ Logical schema: database design at the logical level Q Entity-Relationship model
Q Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time Q Relational model
+ Analogous to the value of a variable
Q Other models:
Q Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema
+ object-oriented model
without changing the logical schema
+ semi-structured data models
+ Applications depend on the logical schema + Older models: network model and hierarchical model
+ In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should
be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

Introduction to Databases 7 Introduction to Databases 8

Entity-Relationship Model Entity Relationship Model (Cont.)

Q E-R model of real world

+ Entities (objects)
Example of schema in the entity-relationship model  E.g. customers, accounts, bank branch
+ Relationships between entities
 E.g. Account A-101 is held by customer Johnson
 Relationship set depositor associates customers with accounts
Q Widely used for database design
+ Database design in E-R model usually converted to design in the
relational model (coming up next) which is used for storage and
processing

Introduction to Databases 9 Introduction to Databases 10

Relational Model A Sample Relational Database

Attributes
Q Example of tabular data in the relational model

customer- customer- customer- account-

customer-id
name street city number

192-83-7465 Johnson
Alma Palo Alto A-101
019-28-3746 Smith
North Rye A-215
192-83-7465 Johnson
Alma Palo Alto A-201
321-12-3123 Jones
Main Harrison A-217
019-28-3746 Smith
North Rye A-201

Introduction to Databases 11 Introduction to Databases 12

2
 Data Definition Language (DDL) Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Q Specification notation for defining the database schema Q Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by
+ E.g. the appropriate data model
create table account ( + DML also known as query language
account-number char(10),
Q Two classes of languages
balance integer)
+ Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get
Q DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data those data
dictionary
+ Nonprocedural – user specifies what data is required without
Q Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data) specifying how to get those data
+ database schema Q SQL is the most widely used query language
+ Data storage and definition language
 language in which the storage structure and access methods
used by the database system are specified
 Usually an extension of the data definition language

Introduction to Databases 13 Introduction to Databases 14

SQL

Q SQL: widely used non-procedural language

+ E.g. find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465
select customer.customer-name
from customer
where customer.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’
+ E.g. find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with
customer-id 192-83-7465 Part II: The Relational Model
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer-id = ‘192-83-7465’ and
depositor.account-number = account.account-number
Q Application programs generally access databases through
+ Language extensions that allow embedded SQL
+ Application program interfaces (e.g. ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database

Introduction to Databases 15

The Relational Model Example of a Relation

Q Structure of Relational Databases
Q Relational Algebra
Q Tuple Relational Calculus
Q Domain Relational Calculus
Q Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
Q Modification of the Database
Q Views

Introduction to Databases 17 Introduction to Databases 18

3
 Basic Structure Attribute Types

Q Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of Q Each attribute of a relation has a name
D1 x D2 x … x Dn Q The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
Thus a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where of the attribute
ai ∈ D i
Q Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic, that is,
Q Example: if indivisible
customer-name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay} + E.g. multivalued attribute values are not atomic
customer-street = {Main, North, Park}
+ E.g. composite attribute values are not atomic
customer-city = {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield}
Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison),
(Smith, North, Rye),
(Curry, North, Rye),
(Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield)}
is a relation over customer-name x customer-street x customer-city

Introduction to Databases 19 Introduction to Databases 20

Relation Schema Relation Instance

Q The current values (relation instance) of a relation are
Q A1, A2, …, An are attributes
specified by a table
Q R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema
Q An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a table
E.g. Customer-schema =
(customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)
Q r(R) is a relation on the relation schema R attributes
E.g. customer (Customer-schema)
customer-name customer-street customer-city

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye tuples
Curry North Rye
Lindsay Park Pittsfield

customer

Introduction to Databases 21 Introduction to Databases 22

Database
Relations are Unordered
Q Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order) Q A database consists of multiple relations
Q E.g. account relation with unordered tuples Q Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with each
relation storing one part of the information

E.g.: account : stores information about accounts

depositor : stores information about which customer
owns which account
customer : stores information about customers
Q Storing all information as a single relation such as
bank(account-number, balance, customer-name, ..)
results in
+ repetition of information (e.g. two customers own an account)
+ the need for null values (e.g. represent a customer without an
account)
Q Normalization theory deals with how to design relational
schemas

Introduction to Databases 23 Introduction to Databases 24

4
 The customer Relation The depositor Relation

Introduction to Databases 25 Introduction to Databases 26

E-R Diagram for the Banking Enterprise Keys

Q Let K ⊆ R
Q K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a
unique tuple of each possible relation r(R) by “possible r” we
mean a relation r that could exist in the enterprise we are
modeling.
Example: {customer-name, customer-street} and
{customer-name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can
possibly have the same name.
Q K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {customer-name} is a candidate key for Customer,
since it is a superkey {assuming no two customers can possibly
have the same name), and no subset of it is a superkey.

Introduction to Databases 27 Introduction to Databases 28

Determining Keys from E-R Sets Schema Diagram for the Banking Enterprise

Q Strong entity set. The primary key of the entity set becomes
the primary key of the relation.
Q Weak entity set. The primary key of the relation consists of the
union of the primary key of the strong entity set and the
discriminator of the weak entity set.
Q Relationship set. The union of the primary keys of the related
entity sets becomes a super key of the relation.
+ For binary many-to-one relationship sets, the primary key of the
“many” entity set becomes the relation’s primary key.
+ For one-to-one relationship sets, the relation’s primary key can be
that of either entity set.
+ For many-to-many relationship sets, the union of the primary keys
becomes the relation’s primary key

Introduction to Databases 29 Introduction to Databases 30

5
 Query Languages Relational Algebra

Q Language in which user requests information from the database. Q Procedural language
Q Categories of languages Q Six basic operators
+ procedural + select
+ non-procedural + project
Q “Pure” languages: + union
+ Relational Algebra + set difference
+ Tuple Relational Calculus + Cartesian product
+ Domain Relational Calculus + rename
Q Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages that Q The operators take two or more relations as inputs and give a
people use. new relation as a result.

Introduction to Databases 31 Introduction to Databases 32

Select Operation – Example Select Operation

Q Notation: σ p(r)
• Relation r A B C D
Q p is called the selection predicate
α α 1 7 Q Defined as:
α β 5 7 σp(r) = {t | t ∈ r and p(t)}
β β 12 3 Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting
of terms connected by : ∧ (and), ∨ (or), ¬ (not)
β β 23 10
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, ≠, >, ≥. <. ≤
• σA=B ^ D > 5 (r)
A B C D Q Example of selection:
σ branch-name=“Perryridge”(account)
α α 1 7
β β 23 10

Introduction to Databases 33 Introduction to Databases 34

Project Operation – Example Project Operation

Q Notation:

Q Relation r: A B C ∏A1, A2, …, Ak (r)

where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
α 10 1
Q The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by
α 20 1
erasing the columns that are not listed
β 30 1
Q Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
β 40 2
Q E.g. To eliminate the branch-name attribute of account
Q ∏A,C (r) A C A C ∏account-number, balance (account)

α 1 α 1
α 1 = β 1
β 1 β 2
β 2

Introduction to Databases 35 Introduction to Databases 36

6
 Union Operation – Example Union Operation

Q Notation: r ∪ s
Q Relations r, s: A B A B
Q Defined as:
α 1 α 2 r ∪ s = {t | t ∈ r or t ∈ s}
α 2 β 3
β 1 s Q For r ∪ s to be valid:
r 1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
r ∪ s: A B column of s)

α 1 Q E.g., to find all customers with either an account or a loan

∏customer-name (depositor) ∪ ∏customer-name (borrower)
α 2
β 1
β 3

Introduction to Databases 37 Introduction to Databases 38

Set Difference Operation – Example Set Difference Operation

Q Notation r – s
Q Relations r, s: A B A B
Q Defined as:
α 1 α 2 r – s = {t | t ∈ r and t ∉ s}
α 2 β 3 Q Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
+ r and s must have the same arity
β 1 s
+ attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
r

r – s: A B

α 1
β 1

Introduction to Databases 39 Introduction to Databases 40

Cartesian-Product Operation-Example Cartesian-Product Operation

A B C D E
Q Notation r x s
Relations r, s:
Q Defined as:
α 1 α 10 a
β 10 a r x s = {t q | t ∈ r and q ∈ s}
β 2
β 20 b Q Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That is,
r γ 10 b R ∩ S = ∅).
s
Q If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming must
r x s:
be used.
A B C D E
α 1 α 10 a
α 1 β 19 a
α 1 β 20 b
α 1 γ 10 b
β 2 α 10 a
β 2 β 10 a
β 2 β 20 b
β 2 γ 10 b

Introduction to Databases 41 Introduction to Databases 42

7
 Composition of Operations Rename Operation

Q Can build expressions using multiple operations Q Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of
Q Example: σA=C(r x s) relational-algebra expressions.

Q rxs Q Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.

A B C D E
Example:
α 1 α 10 a
α 1 β 19 a ρ x (E)
α 1 β 20 b
returns the expression E under the name X
α 1 γ 10 b
β 2 α 10 a If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
β 2 β 10 a
β 2 β 20 b ρx (A1, A2, …, An) (E)
β 2 γ 10 b returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
Q σA=C(r x s) attributes renamed to A1, A2, …., An.
A B C D E

α 1 α 10 a
β 2 β 20 a
β 2 β 20 b
Introduction to Databases 43 Introduction to Databases 44

Banking Example Example Queries

branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets) Q Find all loans of over $1200

customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-only) σamount > 1200 (loan)

account (account-number, branch-name, balance)

Q Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200
loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)
∏loan-number (σamount > 1200 (loan))
depositor (customer-name, account-number)

borrower (customer-name, loan-number)

Introduction to Databases 45 Introduction to Databases 46

Example Queries Example Queries

Q Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge
Q Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or branch.
both, from the bank
∏customer-name (σbranch-name=“Perryridge”
∏customer-name (borrower) ∪ ∏customer-name (depositor)
(σborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))
Q Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge
Q Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account
branch but do not have an account at any branch of the bank.
at bank.
∏customer-name (borrower) ∩ ∏customer-name (depositor) ∏customer-name (σbranch-name = “Perryridge”

(σborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

– ∏customer-name(depositor)

Introduction to Databases 47 Introduction to Databases 48

8
 Example Queries Example Queries

Q Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge Find the largest account balance
branch. + Rename account relation as d
+ Query 1 + The query then is:
∏customer-name(σbranch-name = “Perryridge” ∏balance(account) - ∏account.balance
(σborrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan))) (σaccount.balance < d.balance (account x ρd (account)))

+ Query 2
∏customer-name(σloan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number(
(σbranch-name = “Perryridge”(loan)) x
borrower)
)

Introduction to Databases 49 Introduction to Databases 50

Formal Definition Additional Operations

Q A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one

of the following: We define additional operations that do not add any power to the
+ A relation in the database relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.
+ A constant relation
Q Set intersection
Q Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are
all relational-algebra expressions: Q Natural join
+ E1 ∪ E2 Q Division
+ E1 - E2 Q Assignment
+ E1 x E2
+ σp (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1
+ ∏s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1
+ ρ x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

Introduction to Databases 51 Introduction to Databases 52

Set-Intersection Operation Set-Intersection Operation - Example

Q Notation: r ∩ s Q Relation r, s: A B A B
Q Defined as: α 1 α 2
Q r ∩ s ={ t | t ∈ r and t ∈ s } α 2 β 3
β 1
Q Assume:
+ r, s have the same arity r s
+ attributes of r and s are compatible Q r∩s A B
Q Note: r ∩ s = r - (r - s)
α 2

Introduction to Databases 53 Introduction to Databases 54

9
 Natural-Join Operation Natural Join Operation – Example

Q Notation: r s
Q Relations r, s:
Q Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.The result is a
relation on schema R ∪ S which is obtained by considering each pair of A B C D B D E
tuples tr from r and ts from s.
Q If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R ∩ S, a tuple t α 1 α a 1 a α
is added to the result, where β 2 γ a 3 a β
γ 4 β b 1 a γ
+ t has the same value as tr on r
α 1 γ a 2 b δ
+ t has the same value as ts on s δ 2 β b 3 b ∈
Q Example: r s
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D) r s A B C D E
Q Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
α 1 α a α
Q r s is defined as:
α 1 α a γ
∏r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (σr.B = s.B r.D = s.D (r x s)) α 1 γ a α
α 1 γ a γ
δ 2 β b δ

Introduction to Databases 55 Introduction to Databases 56

Division Operation Division Operation – Example

r÷s Relations r, s: A B B
Q Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”. α 1 1
α 2
Q Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively
α 3 2
where
β 1 s
+ R = (A1, …, Am, B1, …, Bn) γ 1
+ S = (B1, …, Bn) δ 1
The result of r ÷ s is a relation on schema δ 3
δ 4
R – S = (A1, …, Am)
∈ 6
∈ 1
r ÷ s = { t | t ∈ ∏ R-S(r) ∧ ∀ u ∈ s ( tu ∈ r ) } β 2
r ÷ s: A r

α
β

Introduction to Databases 57 Introduction to Databases 58

Another Division Example Division Operation (Cont.)

Relations r, s: Q Property
A B C D E D E
+ Let q – r ÷ s
α a α a 1 a 1
α a γ a 1 b 1 + Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s ⊆ r
α a γ b 1 s Q Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
β a γ a 1 Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S ⊆ R
β a γ b 3
γ a γ a 1
γ a γ b 1 r ÷ s = ∏R-S (r) –∏R-S ( (∏R-S (r) x s) – ∏R-S,S(r))
γ a β b 1
r To see why
+ ∏R-S,S(r) simply reorders attributes of r
r ÷ s: A B C
+ ∏R-S(∏R-S (r) x s) – ∏R-S,S(r)) gives those tuples t in
α a γ
γ a γ ∏R-S (r) such that for some tuple u ∈ s, tu ∉ r.

Introduction to Databases 59 Introduction to Databases 60

10
 Assignment Operation Example Queries

Q The assignment operation (←) provides a convenient way to Q Find all customers who have an account from at least the
express complex queries, write query as a sequential program “Downtown” and the Uptown” branches.
consisting of a series of assignments followed by an expression
+ Query 1
whose value is displayed as a result of the query.
Q Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation ∏CN(σBN=“Downtown”(depositor account)) ∩
variable.
Q Example: Write r ÷ s as ∏CN(σBN=“Uptown”(depositor account))

temp1 ← ∏R-S (r) where CN denotes customer-name and BN denotes

branch-name.
temp2 ← ∏R-S ((temp1 x s) – ∏R-S,S (r))
+ Query 2
result = temp1 – temp2
+ The result to the right of the ← is assigned to the relation variable on ∏customer-name, branch-name (depositor account)
the left of the ←. ÷ ρtemp(branch-name) ({(“Downtown”), (“Uptown”)})
+ May use variable in subsequent expressions.

Introduction to Databases 61 Introduction to Databases 62

Example Queries Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations

Q Find all customers who have an account at all branches located

in Brooklyn city.

∏customer-name, branch-name (depositor account) Q Generalized Projection

÷ ∏branch-name (σbranch-city = “Brooklyn” (branch)) Q Aggregate Functions

Introduction to Databases 63 Introduction to Databases 64

Generalized Projection Aggregate Functions and Operations

Q Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions Q Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a
to be used in the projection list. single value as a result.
avg: average value
∏ F1, F2, …, Fn(E) min: minimum value
Q E is any relational-algebra expression max: maximum value
Q Each of F1, F2, …, Fn are are arithmetic expressions involving sum: sum of values
constants and attributes in the schema of E. count: number of values

Q Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit-balance), Q Aggregate operation in relational algebra

find how much more each person can spend:
G1, G2, …, Gn J F1( A1), F2( A2),…, Fn( An) (E)
∏customer-name, limit – credit-balance (credit-info)
+ E is any relational-algebra expression
+ G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
+ Each Fi is an aggregate function
+ Each Ai is an attribute name

Introduction to Databases 65 Introduction to Databases 66

11
 Aggregate Operation – Example Aggregate Operation – Example

Q Relation r:
A B C
Q Relation account grouped by branch-name:
α α 7
branch-name account-number balance
α β 7
β β 3 Perryridge A-102 400
Perryridge A-201 900
β β 10 Brighton A-217 750
Brighton A-215 750
Redwood A-222 700

sum-C (account)
J
branch-name sum(balance)
sum(c) (r)
27
branch-name balance
Perryridge 1300
Brighton 1500
Redwood 700

Introduction to Databases 67 Introduction to Databases 68

Aggregate Functions (Cont.) Modification of the Database

Q Result of aggregation does not have a name Q The content of the database may be modified using the following
+ Can use rename operation to give it a name operations:
+ Deletion
+ For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate
operation + Insertion
+ Updating
branch-name sum(balance) as sum-balance (account)
Q All these operations are expressed using the assignment
operator.

Introduction to Databases 69 Introduction to Databases 70

Deletion Deletion Examples

Q A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except instead

of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are removed Q Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
from the database. account ← account – σ branch-name = “Perryridge” (account)
Q Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only Q Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50
particular attributes loan ← loan – σ amount ≥ 0 and amount ≤ 50 (loan)
Q A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by: Q Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.
r←r–E
r1 ← σ branch-city = “Needham” (account branch)
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query. r2 ← ∏branch-name, account-number, balance (r1)
r3 ← ∏ customer-name, account-number (r2 depositor)
account ← account – r2
depositor ← depositor – r3

Introduction to Databases 71 Introduction to Databases 72

12
 Insertion Insertion Examples

Q To insert data into a relation, we either: Q Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has
+ specify a tuple to be inserted $1200 in account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.
+ write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted account ← account ∪ {(“Perryridge”, A-973, 1200)}
Q in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by: depositor ← depositor ∪ {(“Smith”, A-973)}
r← r ∪ E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression. Q Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge branch,
a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve as the
Q The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a
account number for the new savings account.
constant relation containing one tuple.
r1 ← (σbranch-name = “Perryridge” (borrower loan))
account ← account ∪ ∏branch-name, account-number,200 (r1)
depositor ← depositor ∪ ∏customer-name, loan-number,(r1)

Introduction to Databases 73 Introduction to Databases 74

Updating Update Examples

Q A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all Q Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.
values in the tuple account ← ∏ AN, BN, BAL * 1.05 (account)
Q Use the generalized projection operator to do this task where AN, BN and BAL stand for account-number, branch-name
r ← ∏ F1, F2, …, FI, (r) and balance, respectively.

Q Each F, is either the ith attribute of r, if the ith attribute is not

updated, or, if the attribute is to be updated Q Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000
Q Fi is an expression, involving only constants and the attributes of 6 percent interest and pay all others 5 percent
r, which gives the new value for the attribute
account ← ∏ AN, BN, BAL * 1.06 (σ BAL > 10000 (account))
∪ ∏AN, BN, BAL * 1.05 (σBAL ≤ 10000 (account))

Introduction to Databases 75 Introduction to Databases 76

Result of σ branch-name = “Perryridge” (loan)

End of Part II

Introduction to Databases 78

13
 Loan Number and the Amount of the Loan Names of All Customers Who Have
Either a Loan or an Account

Introduction to Databases 79 Introduction to Databases 80

Customers With An Account But No Loan Result of borrower × loan

Introduction to Databases 81 Introduction to Databases 82

Result of Πcustomer-name
Result of σ branch-name = “Perryridge” (borrower × loan)

Introduction to Databases 83 Introduction to Databases 84

14
 Largest Account Balance in the Bank Customers Who Live on the Same Street and In the
Same City as Smith

Introduction to Databases 85 Introduction to Databases 86

Customers With Both an Account and a Loan Result of Πcustomer-name, loan-number, amount
at the Bank (borrower loan)

Introduction to Databases 87 Introduction to Databases 88

Result of Πbranch-name(σcustomer-city = Result of Πbranch-name(σbranch-city =

“Harrison”(customer account depositor))
“Brooklyn”(branch))

Introduction to Databases 89 Introduction to Databases 90

15
 Result of Πcustomer-name, branch-name(depositor account) The credit-info Relation

Introduction to Databases 91 Introduction to Databases 92

Result of Πcustomer-name, (limit – credit-balance) as The pt-works Relation

credit-available(credit-info).

Introduction to Databases 93 Introduction to Databases 94

The pt-works Relation After Grouping Result of branch-name ς sum(salary) (pt-works)

Introduction to Databases 95 Introduction to Databases 96

16
 Result of branch-name ς sum salary, max(salary) as Names of All Customers Who Have a
max-salary (pt-works) Loan at the Perryridge Branch

Introduction to Databases 97 Introduction to Databases 98

The branch Relation The loan Relation

Introduction to Databases 99 Introduction to Databases 100

The borrower Relation

Part III: SQL

Introduction to Databases 101

17
 SQL Basic Structure

Q Basic Structure
Q SQL is based on set and relational operations with certain
Q Set Operations modifications and enhancements
Q Aggregate Functions Q A typical SQL query has the form:
Q Nested Subqueries select A1, A2, ..., An
Q Derived Relations from r1, r2, ..., rm
where P
Q Modification of the Database
+ Ais represent attributes
Q Data Definition Language + ris represent relations
Q Embedded SQL, ODBC and JDBC + P is a predicate.
Q This query is equivalent to the relational algebra expression.

∏A1, A2, ..., An(σP (r1 x r2 x ... x rm))

Q The result of an SQL query is a relation.

Introduction to Databases 103 Introduction to Databases 104

The select Clause The select Clause (Cont.)

Q The select clause corresponds to the projection operation of the Q SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.
relational algebra. It is used to list the attributes desired in the result of
a query. Q To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct
Q Find the names of all branches in the loan relation after select.
select branch-name Find the names of all branches in the loan relations, and remove
from loan duplicates
Q In the “pure” relational algebra syntax, the query would be: select distinct branch-name
∏branch-name(loan) from loan
Q An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
Q The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed.
select *
from loan select all branch-name
from loan
NOTES:
+ SQL does not permit the ‘-’ character in names, so you would use, for
example, branch_name instead of branch-name in a real implementation.
We use ‘-’ since it looks nicer!
+ SQL names are case insensitive.

Introduction to Databases 105 Introduction to Databases 106

The select Clause (Cont.) The where Clause

Q The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving Q The where clause corresponds to the selection predicate of the
the operation, +, –, ∗, and /, and operating on constants or relational algebra. If consists of a predicate involving attributes
attributes of tuples. of the relations that appear in the from clause.
Q The query: Q The find all loan number for loans made a the Perryridge branch
select loan-number, branch-name, amount ∗ 100 with loan amounts greater than $1200.
from loan select loan-number
from loan
would return a relation which is the same as the loan relations, where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’ and amount > 1200
except that the attribute amount is multiplied by 100.
Q Comparison results can be combined using the logical
connectives and, or, and not.
Q Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic expressions.

Introduction to Databases 107 Introduction to Databases 108

18
 The where Clause (Cont.) The from Clause

Q SQL Includes a between comparison operator in order to simplify Q The from clause corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the
where clauses that specify that a value be less than or equal to relational algebra. It lists the relations to be scanned in the evaluation of
some value and greater than or equal to some other value. the expression.
Q Find the loan number of those loans with loan amounts between Q Find the Cartesian product borrower x loan
$90,000 and $100,000 (that is, ≥$90,000 and ≤$100,000) select ∗
select loan-number from borrower, loan
from loan
Q Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers having a
where amount between 90000 and 100000
loan at the Perryridge branch.
select customer-name, borrower.loan-number, amount
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number and
branch-name = ‘Perryridge’

Introduction to Databases 109 Introduction to Databases 110

The Rename Operation Tuple Variables

Q The SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using the as Q Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the
clause: as clause.
old-name as new-name Q Find the customer names and their loan numbers for all
Q Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers; customers having a loan at some branch.
rename the column name loan-number as loan-id. select customer-name, T.loan-number, S.amount
from borrower as T, loan as S
select customer-name, borrower.loan-number as loan-id, amount where T.loan-number = S.loan-number
from borrower, loan Q Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number some branch located in Brooklyn.

select distinct T.branch-name

from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’

Introduction to Databases 111 Introduction to Databases 112

String Operations Ordering the Display of Tuples

Q SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character Q List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a loan
strings. Patterns are described using two special characters: in Perryridge branch
+ percent (%). The % character matches any substring.
select distinct customer-name
+ underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.
from borrower, loan
Q Find the names of all customers whose street includes the substring where borrower loan-number - loan.loan-number and
“Main”. branch-name = ¶Perryridge·
select customer-name order by customer-name
from customer
Q We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending
where customer-street like ¶%Main%·
order, for each attribute; ascending order is the default.
Q Match the name “Main%”
+ E.g. order by customer-name desc
like ¶Main\%· escape ¶\·
Q SQL supports a variety of string operations such as
+ concatenation (using “||”)
+ converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)
+ finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.

Introduction to Databases 113 Introduction to Databases 114

19
 Duplicates Duplicates (Cont.)

Q In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how many copies of Q Example: Suppose multiset relations r1 (A, B) and r2 (C)
tuples appear in the result. are as follows:
Q Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra operators – r1 = {(1, a) (2,a)} r2 = {(2), (3), (3)}
given multiset relations r1 and r2: Q Then ΠB(r1) would be {(a), (a)}, while ΠB(r1) x r2 would be
1. If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1, and t1 satisfies selections σθ,, {(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}
then there are c1 copies of t1 in σθ (r1). Q SQL duplicate semantics:
2. For each copy of tuple t1 in r1, there is a copy of tuple ΠA(t1) in ΠA(r1) select A1,, A2, ..., An
where ΠA(t1) denotes the projection of the single tuple t1. from r1, r2, ..., rm
3. If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1 and c2 copies of tuple t2 in r2, where P
there are c1 x c2 copies of the tuple t1. t2 in r1 x r2
is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression:
Π A1,, A2, ..., An(σP (r1 x r2 x ... x rm))

Introduction to Databases 115 Introduction to Databases 116

Set Operations Set Operations

Q The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on Q Find all customers who have a loan, an account, or both:
relations and correspond to the relational algebra operations (select customer-name from depositor)
∪, ∩, −. union
Q Each of the above operations automatically eliminates (select customer-name from borrower)
duplicates; to retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset Q Find all customers who have both a loan and an account.
versions union all, intersect all and except all. (select customer-name from depositor)
intersect
Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it (select customer-name from borrower)
occurs: Q Find all customers who have an account but no loan.
+ m + n times in r union all s (select customer-name from depositor)
+ min(m,n) times in r intersect all s except
(select customer-name from borrower)
+ max(0, m – n) times in r except all s

Introduction to Databases 117 Introduction to Databases 118

Aggregate Functions Aggregate Functions (Cont.)

Q These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of Q Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch.
a relation, and return a value select avg (balance)
avg: average value from account
min: minimum value where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
max: maximum value Q Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.
sum: sum of values
count: number of values select count (*)
from customer
Q Find the number of depositors in the bank.
select count (distinct customer-name)
from depositor

Introduction to Databases 119 Introduction to Databases 120

20
 Aggregate Functions – Group By Aggregate Functions – Having Clause

Q Find the names of all branches where the average account

Q Find the number of depositors for each branch. balance is more than $1,200.
select branch-name, avg (balance)
select branch-name, count (distinct customer-name)
from depositor, account from account
where depositor.account-number = account.account-number group by branch-name
group by branch-name having avg (balance) > 1200

Note: Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the
formation of groups whereas predicates in the where clause are
must appear in group by list
applied before forming groups

Introduction to Databases 121 Introduction to Databases 122

Nested Subqueries Example Query

Q SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries. Q Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
Q A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested bank.
within another query. select distinct customer-name
Q A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set from borrower
membership, set comparisons, and set cardinality. where customer-name in (select customer-name
from depositor)
Q Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have
an account at the bank
select distinct customer-name
from borrower
where customer-name not in (select customer-name
from depositor)

Introduction to Databases 123 Introduction to Databases 124

Example Query Set Comparison

Q Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the Q Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch
Perryridge branch located in Brooklyn.
select distinct customer-name select distinct T.branch-name
from borrower, loan from branch as T, branch as S
where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number and where T.assets > S.assets and
branch-name = “Perryridge” and S.branch-city = ¶Brooklyn·
(branch-name, customer-name) in Q Same query using > some clause
(select branch-name, customer-name
from depositor, account select branch-name
where depositor.account-number = from branch
account.account-number) where assets > some
(select assets
from branch
Q Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner. where branch-city = ¶Brooklyn·)
The formulation above is simply to illustrate SQL features.

Introduction to Databases 125 Introduction to Databases 126

21
 Definition of Some Clause Definition of all Clause

Q F <comp> some r ⇔ ∃ t ∈ r s.t. (F <comp> t)

Where <comp> can be: <, ≤, >, =, ≠ Q F <comp> all r ⇔ ∀ t ∈ r (F <comp> t)

0 0
(5< some 5 ) = true (5< all 5 ) = false
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation)
6 6
0 6
(5< some 5 ) = false (5< all 10 ) = true

0 4
(5 = some 5 ) = true (5 = all 5 ) = false

0 4
(5 ≠ some 5 ) = true (since 0 ≠ 5) (5 ≠ all 6 ) = true (since 5 ≠ 4 and 5 ≠ 6)
(= some) ≡ in (≠ all) ≡ not in
However, (≠ some) ≡ not in However, (= all) ≡ in
Introduction to Databases 127 Introduction to Databases 128

Example Query Test for Empty Relations

Q Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all Q The exists construct returns the value true if the argument
branches located in Brooklyn. subquery is nonempty.
select branch-name Q exists r ⇔ r ≠ Ø
from branch Q not exists r ⇔ r = Ø
where assets > all
(select assets
from branch
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’)

Introduction to Databases 129 Introduction to Databases 130

Example Query Test for Absence of Duplicate Tuples

Q Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in

Brooklyn. Q The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any
duplicate tuples in its result.
select distinct S.customer-name
from depositor as S
where not exists ( Q Find all customers who have at most one account at the
(select branch-name Perryridge branch.
from branch select T.customer-name
where branch-city = ‘Brooklyn’) from depositor as T
except where unique (
(select R.branch-name select R.customer-name
from depositor as T, account as R from account, depositor as R
where T.account-number = R.account-number and where T.customer-name = R.customer-name and
S.customer-name = T.customer-name)) R.account-number = account.account-number and
account.branch-name = ‘Perryridge’)
Q Note that X – Y = Ø ⇔ X ⊆ Y
Q Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants

Introduction to Databases 131 Introduction to Databases 132

22
 Example Query Example Queries

Q Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the Q A view consisting of branches and their customers
Perryridge branch. create view all-customer as
(select branch-name, customer-name
select distinct T.customer-name from depositor, account
from depositor T where depositor.account-number = account.account-number)
where not unique ( union
select R.customer-name (select branch-name, customer-name
from account, depositor as R from borrower, loan
where T.customer-name = R.customer-name and where borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number)
R.account-number = account.account-number and Q Find all customers of the Perryridge branch
account.branch-name = ¶Perryridge·)
select customer-name
from all-customer
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’

Introduction to Databases 133 Introduction to Databases 134

Derived Relations Modification of the Database – Deletion

Q Delete all account records at the Perryridge branch
Q Find the average account balance of those branches where the
delete from account
average account balance is greater than $1200. where branch-name = ¶Perryridge·
select branch-name, avg-balance
from (select branch-name, avg (balance)
Q Delete all accounts at every branch located in Needham city.
from account
group by branch-name) delete from account
as result (branch-name, avg-balance) where branch-name in (select branch-name
where avg-balance > 1200 from branch
where branch-city = ¶Needham·)
delete from depositor
Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we where account-number in
(select account-number
compute the temporary relation result in the from clause, and the
from branch, account
attributes of result can be used directly in the where clause. where branch-city = ¶Needham·
and branch.branch-name = account.branch-name)

Introduction to Databases 135 Introduction to Databases 136

Example Query Modification of the Database – Insertion

Q Delete the record of all accounts with balances below the Q Add a new tuple to account
average at the bank. insert into account
delete from account values (‘A-9732’, ‘Perryridge’,1200)
where balance < (select avg (balance) or equivalently
from account)
+ Problem: as we delete tuples from deposit, the average balance insert into account (branch-name, balance, account-number)
changes values (‘Perryridge’, 1200, ‘A-9732’)
+ Solution used in SQL: Q Add a new tuple to account with balance set to null
1. First, compute avg balance and find all tuples to delete insert into account
2. Next, delete all tuples found above (without recomputing avg or values (‘A-777’,‘Perryridge’, null)
retesting the tuples)

Introduction to Databases 137 Introduction to Databases 138

23
 Modification of the Database – Insertion Modification of the Database – Updates
Q Provide as a gift for all loan customers of the Perryridge branch, a Q Increase all accounts with balances over $10,000 by 6%, all
$200 savings account. Let the loan number serve as the account other accounts receive 5%.
number for the new savings account
+ Write two update statements:
insert into account
update account
select loan-number, branch-name, 200
set balance = balance ∗ 1.06
from loan
where balance > 10000
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’
insert into depositor
select customer-name, loan-number update account
from loan, borrower set balance = balance ∗ 1.05
where branch-name = ‘Perryridge’ where balance ≤ 10000
and loan.account-number = borrower.account-number
Q The select from where statement is fully evaluated before any of
+ The order is important!
its results are inserted into the relation (otherwise queries like
insert into table1 select * from table1
would cause problems

Introduction to Databases 139 Introduction to Databases 140

Data Definition Language (DDL) Domain Types in SQL

Q char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.

Allows the specification of not only a set of relations but also Q varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum
length n.
information about each relation, including:
Q int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
Q The schema for each relation. Q smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer
Q The domain of values associated with each attribute. domain type).
Q numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits,
Q Integrity constraints with n digits to the right of decimal point.
Q The set of indices to be maintained for each relations. Q real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point
numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
Q Security and authorization information for each relation.
Q float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n
Q The physical storage structure of each relation on disk. digits.

Introduction to Databases 141 Introduction to Databases 142

Create Table Construct Integrity Constraints in Create Table

Q not null
Q An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command: Q primary key (A1, ..., An)

create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn, Q check (P), where P is a predicate
(integrity-constraint1),
..., Example: Declare branch-name as the primary key for
(integrity-constraintk)) branch and ensure that the values of assets are non-
negative.
+ r is the name of the relation
create table branch
+ each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r (branch-name char(15),
+ Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai branch-city char(30)
Q Example: assets integer,
primary key (branch-name),
create table branch check (assets >= 0))
(branch-name char(15) not null,
branch-city char(30), primary key declaration on an attribute automatically
assets integer) ensures not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be
explicitly stated in SQL-89
Introduction to Databases 143 Introduction to Databases 144

24
 Drop and Alter Table Constructs SQL Data Definition for Part of the Bank Database

Q The drop table command deletes all information about the

dropped relation from the database.
Q The after table command is used to add attributes to an
existing relation. All tuples in the relation are assigned null
as the value for the new attribute. The form of the alter
table command is
alter table r add A D
where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r
and D is the domain of A.
Q The alter table command can also be used to drop attributes
of a relation

alter table r drop A

where A is the name of an attribute of relation r
+ Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases

Introduction to Databases 145 Introduction to Databases 146

Embedded SQL Example Query

Q The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of

programming languages such as Pascal, PL/I, Fortran, C, and From within a host language, find the names and cities of
Cobol. customers with more than the variable amount dollars in some
Q A language to which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as account.
a host language, and the SQL structures permitted in the host Q Specify the query in SQL and declare a cursor for it
language comprise embedded SQL.
EXEC SQL
Q The basic form of these languages follows that of the System R
embedding of SQL into PL/I. declare c cursor for
select customer-name, customer-city
Q EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request from depositor, customer, account
to the preprocessor where depositor.customer-name = customer.customer-name
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement > END-EXEC and depositor account-number = account.account-number
Note: this varies by language. E.g. the Java embedding uses and account.balance > :amount
# SQL { …. } ; END-EXEC

Introduction to Databases 147 Introduction to Databases 148

Embedded SQL (Cont.) JDBC

Q The open statement causes the query to be evaluated Q JDBC is a Java API for communicating with database systems
EXEC SQL open c END-EXEC supporting SQL

Q The fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the query Q JDBC supports a variety of features for querying and updating
result to be placed on host language variables. data, and for retrieving query results

EXEC SQL fetch c into :cn, :cc END-EXEC Q JDBC also supports metadata retrieval, such as querying about
Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query result relations present in the database and the names and types of
relation attributes
Q A variable called SQLSTATE in the SQL communication area
(SQLCA) gets set to ‘02000’ to indicate no more data is available Q Model for communicating with the database:
+ Open a connection
Q The close statement causes the database system to delete the
+ Create a “statement” object
temporary relation that holds the result of the query.
+ Execute queries using the Statement object to send queries and
EXEC SQL close c END-EXEC
fetch results
Note: above details vary with language. E.g. the Java embedding + Exception mechanism to handle errors
defines Java iterators to step through result tuples.

Introduction to Databases 149 Introduction to Databases 150

25
 JDBC Code JDBC Code (Cont.)
public static void JDBCexample(String dbid, String userid, String passwd)
Q Update to database
{
try {
try {
stmt.executeUpdate( "insert into account values
Class.forName ("oracle.jdbc.driver.OracleDriver"); ('A-9732', 'Perryridge', 1200)");
Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection( } catch (SQLException sqle) {
"jdbc:oracle:thin:@aura.bell-labs.com:2000:bankdb", userid, passwd);
System.out.println("Could not insert tuple. " + sqle);
Statement stmt = conn.createStatement();
}
… Do Actual Work ….
Q Execute query and fetch and print results
stmt.close();
ResultSet rset = stmt.executeQuery( "select branch_name, avg(balance)
conn.close(); from account
} group by branch_name");
catch (SQLException sqle) { while (rset.next()) {
System.out.println("SQLException : " + sqle); System.out.println(
} rset.getString("branch_name") + " " + rset.getFloat(2));

} }

Introduction to Databases 151 Introduction to Databases 152

JDBC Code Details

Q Getting result fields:

+ rs.getString(“branchname”) and rs.getString(1) equivalent if
branchname is the first argument of select result.
Q Dealing with Null values
int a = rs.getInt(“a”);
if (rs.wasNull()) Systems.out.println(“Got null value”);

Introduction to Databases 153

26