BARRIERS TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN OLDER ADULTS

WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

By

DENISE CHRISTINE REACH

A non-thesis option submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF NURSING

WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Nursing

AUGUST 2012
To the Faculty of Washington State University:

The members of the Committee appointed to examine the non-thesis option of

Denise Christine Reach, find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted.

11
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I give thanks to God and to nlY family, the rock of my existence that stood by me through

this journey and for whom witholit, I would not have succeeded.

Additionally, my heartfelt thanks to the Washington State University College of Nursing

faculty and staff for all their instruction and guidance provided to students, including myself, in

helping us all succeed. I would like to acknowledge with particular thanks the committee

advising this master's project, for their patience and understanding in helping me individually

complete this paper.

iii
 Abstract

by Denise Christine Reach, BSN

Washington State University
March 2012

Cllair: Janet Purath PhD

Many older adults are at risk for low levels of physical activity. The rising number of

older adults and the burden of inactivity-related health problems on individuals and on society,

mandate that healthcare providers address low physical activity levels in this population. This

paper synthesizes the literature to identify common barriers to physical activity encountered by

older adults including health related issues, safety or access to appropriate locations and cululral

or generational obstacles. An intervention to improve older adults' engagement in physical

activity, Motivational Interviewing, is outlined and suggested as an approach to promoting

physical activity among community-dwelling older adults.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

IV
 Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION 1

LITERATURE REVIEW 3

INTERVENTIONAL STRATEGy 8

IMPLICATION FOR PRACTICE 12

SUMMARy 15

BIBLIOGRAPHY 16

v
 Introduction

Physical activity (PA) is well documented to improve the health and fitness in people of

all ages including older adults. Cigarette smoking, poor dietary intake, and inadequate PA are the

leading modifiable risk factors in health promotion and chronic disease prevention or

management across the lifespan (Fierro, 2006). These modifiable factors were the root cause of

nearly 35% of all deaths in the United States in 2000. Regular physical activity alone can

prevent weight gain, promote weight loss, elevate mood and improve brain function, cardio-

respiratory fitness and muscular strength. PA can also prevent falls or reduce falls, improve

overall health, and lead to better management of chronic diseases (Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention and The Merck Company Foundation, 2007). Of adults over age 60, 80% live

with at least one chronic condition every day and another· 50% live with two chronic conditions

(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and The Merck Company Foundation, 2007; U.S

Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2008.

Starting as early as the 1950's, the benefits ofPA were suggested to the public (U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS] 2007) Research progressed and by the

1970's there was sufficient evidence for many national organizations to recommend PA for all

people. Expansion of knowledge on the health benefits ofPA continued and in 1995 the U.S.

Government recommended 30 mintltes or more of moderate intensity PA most days of the week

(CDC, 1999). Current PA guidelines combine both aerobic and muscle strengthening activities to

improve and maintain health. The recommendations for older adults are a cumulative amount of

at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic activity spread throughout the week combined

with muscle strengthening activities 2 or more days a week (USDHHS, 2008).

1
 Current statistics, however, indicate that PA participation among all age groups is

relatively modest. In 1998, 65.6% of adults over age 65 were inactive with only 7.0 % of this

age group having met the national objectives of combined aerobic and muscle-strengthening

activities. By 2009, the percent of older adults who were inactive had only decreased to 54.6 %,

and those who meet the current PA guidelines rose to 12.8% (Centers for Disease Control

[CDC],2010).

The increasing age of the U.S. population exponentially multiplies the significance ofPA

participation. By 2029, the numbers of persons over the age of65 will reach an estimated 69

million persons or 20% of the population. Life expectancy is predicted to increase from 79.5

years during 2010 to 82.0 years by 2050 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). As the numbers of

octogenarians increase, it is likely that their number of co-morbid health problems will also

increase. These changing demographics may further burden the already overwhelmed U.S. health

care system. As a population, older adults have the most to gain from increasing their PA levels.

Even modest increases in PAean lead to an improvement in overall health and better

management of chronic health conditions such as diabetes or hypertension (U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services, 2002). Though never too late to adopt a healthy lifestyle, the ideal

situation is a population that embraces healthy lifestyle habits, including regular participation in

PA, and continues those habits throughout life.

The purpose of this paper is to synthesize barriers to PA identified in the literature. The

paper discusses the use of a therapeutic technique, Motivational Interviewing, as a strategy that

may help older adult clients improve the PA status.

2
 Literature Review

A comprehensive search using Pub Med and CINAHL databases was completed for this

paper. Key search words used were physical activity, exercise, elderly, older adults, and

barriers. Articles were scanned by title, then abstract. Forty two articles were considered for use

including four review articles. An ancestry search was also completed from articles published on

this topic. Articles were then limited to those that included participants over the age of 60, living

in the community, and those studies that specifically addressed barriers to PA as a goal of the

study. Ultimately eighteen articles were chosen for this literature review.

Health Related Problems

Chronic diseases are common in older adults and can limit participation in PA (Belza et

aI., 2004; Cohen-Mansfield et aI., 2003; DeForche & DeBourdeaudhuij, 2000; Jones & Nies,

1996; Newson & Kemps, 2007). Respiratory or cardiovascular conditions were found to cause

shortness of breath or fatigue and limited some older adults from participating in PA (Melillo et

aI., 1996). Neurological deficits caused mobility or gait disturbances that increased the risk of

falling. Falling and fear of falling were real concerns for older adults, particularly in those who

had previously fallen (Cooper, Bilbrow, Dubbert, Kerr, & Kirchner, 2001; Dergance, Calmbach,

Dhanda, Miles, Hazunda, & Mouton, 2003; Lavizzo-Mourey et aI., 2001; Newson & Kemps,

2007; Purath, Van Son & Corbett 2011; Whitehead, Wllndke, & Crotty, 2006). Falling and fear

of falling discouraged older adults from walking or participating in other PA (Coop.er et aI.,

2001; Dergance et aI., 2003; Newson & Kemps, 2007). Some participants also expressed fear of

not being able to get back up if they fell (Lavizzo-Mourey et aI., 2001).

3
Symptoms of chronic health problems

Chronic pain in hands, feet, arms, legs, and back from arthritis and other degenerative

diseases limited mobility or function and created barriers to PA (Cooper et aI., 2001). These

musculoskeletal problems kept some people from doing desired activities such as dancing or

gardening (Melillo et aI., 1996), or completing a walking program (Hall & McAuley, 2010). Pain

from arthritis symptoms in Slavic Immigrants limited their participation in PA (Purath, et. aI.,

2011). Muscular weakness (Cooper et aI., 2001), or the feeling that PA was just too difficult

(Jones & Nies, 1996; Purath et.aI., 2011) was reported as a barrier for some. Neuropathy, a

common complication in patients with diabetes, leads to insensitivity in the feet and lower

extremities and served as a barrier. Persons with diabetes also reported symptoms such as

dizziness, muscle sprains, falls, and hypoglycemic episodes and those symptoms were found to

limit participation in PA due to concerns about injury (Bowman, 2008). Sensory deficits such as

vision or hearing problems presented difficulty in going outside to walk for fear of not seeing or

hearing moving vehicles (Cooper et aI., 2001). Incontinence was also reported as a problem for

PA participation because some older adults felt the need to stay close to the bathroom (Cooper et

aI., 2001). Many of these chronic health problems can lead the older adult into a "viscous cycle"

in which symptoms of the chronic conditions such as pain that leads to inactivity, further

exacerbates their health problems, leading to further inactivity (Cohen-Mansfield et aI., 2003;

Egan & Mentes, 2010).

Feelings of Interest, Pleasure, Motivation and Discipline

Lack of interest, motivation, and discipline were cited as barriers for PA among older

adults (DeForche & DeBourdeaudhuij, 2000; Dergance et aI., 2003; Melillo et aI., 1996;

Whitehead et aI., 2006). Displeasure in PA deterred some older adults from participation (Cohen-

4
Mansfield et aI, 2003; Dergance et al; Purath et. aI., 2011). Some felt as though PAjust was not

necessary, that they were active enough or that they were just too old to exercise (Whitehead et

aI., 2006). Some older adults reported not wanting to exercise if they were told they have

exercise rather than if it was something they wanted to do for themselves (Melillo et aI., 1996).

Knowledge'

Older adults often have special needs that influence or limit the types ofPA

participation. Lack of knowledge about their own needs may have detrimental effects such as

increased vulnerability for injury when inappropriate activity is selected (Dergance et aI., 2003;

Newson & Kemps, 2007). As an example, persons with peripheral neuropathy from diabetes

could sustain injury to their feet due to their insensitivity and be unaware of the injury

potentiating further damage to their feet. One researcher suggested that a walking program may

not be the most appropriate PA plan for older adults with diabetic peripheral neuropathy

(Bowman, 2008).

Time

Being too busy or not having enough time was a common reason cited by older adults for

decreased participation in PA (Cohen-Mansfield et aI., 2003; DeForche & DeBourdeaudhuij,

2000; Lim & Taylor, 2005; Whitehead et aI., 2006). Most of the older adults in one study said

exercising itself was not a barrier but that scheduling conflicts and other priorities seemed to take

precedence (Lavizzo-Mourey et aI., 2001). In a study of culturally diverse older adults, social

obligations interfered with exercise anlong Chinese participants. Filipino participants cited that

family and work obligations were barriers to regular PA (Belza et aI., 2004).

5
Safety Concerns

Fear of crime and personal safety were common barriers for many older adults when

considering outdoor PA (Belza et aI., 2004). Those living in large urban areas reported more

safety concerns and crime than those who lived in suburban or rural areas (Jones & Nies, 1996;

Lavizzo-Moureyet aI., 2001). Dogs running loose on the streets imposed fear to older Slavic

immigrants and linlited their ability to get outside for exercise (Purath et. aI., 2011). Other

reports of safety concerns that limited outdoor PA were poorly maintained sidewalks and streets

(Lavizzo-Mourey et aI., 2001), poor lighting (Purath et. aI., 2011) few walking paths close to

their homes, poor street connectivity, and concerns about heavy traffic (Hall & McAuley, 2010).

Environment, Location, Transportation and Access limitations

Adverse weather conditions such as cold, heat or rain deterred some older adults from

participating in PA (Cohen-Mansfield et aI., 2003; Lim & Taylor, 2005; Newson & Kemps,

2007; Purath et. aI., 2011). Snowy conditions lead to increased fear of falling (Belza et aI., 2004).

These and other adverse conditions showed a need for some older adults to have an indoor place

to participate in PA. However, many older adults reported that places designed for indoor PA

were too far away; a lack of transportation inhibited access (Jones & Nies, 1996; Melillo et aI.,

1996; Newson & Kemps, 2007), or the transportation was unreliable or too costly (Belza et aI.,

2004). Some who would have participated in PA and had access to get to a facility described an

inability to leave the house due to a need to care for an ailing spouse (Whitehead et aI., 2006), an

increasingly common experience as couples age.

Socialization

Older adults frequently preferred to exercise with others. Socializing with others while

participating in PA enhanced their experience and increased motivation (Melillo et aI., 1996;

6
Newson & Kemps, 2007). Engaging in PA as a group often meant using an exercise facility,

which presented problems for some as mentioned previously. Some older adults preferred more

spontaneous activities such as dancing, as opposed to those that are more fixed or preplanned.

This influenced their decision to participate in PA at a facility (Melillo et al., 1996). Three

different studies of older adults reported individuals who described themselves as antisocial

(Dergance et aI., 2003; Whitehead et aI., 2006) or as a loner (Melillo et aI., 1996) and not

wanting to be with others, which limited participation in PA.

Cultural and Generational Considerations

Preference for or against physical activity can be attributed to cultural and generational

norms. Belza and colleagues (2004) reported that a cultural history of oppression created a

barrier of poor self-esteem and reduced motivation for self-care in American Indian and Alaskan

Natives. These groups expressed strong cultural connectivity and the need to be with others like

themselves when considering PA. This cultural connection of being with others of the same

descent and age range was also important to Filipinos and Koreans (Belza et. aI., 2004). In a

study of Korean women, sedentary lifestyle was preferred and participants lived in areas where

health education was not the cultural norm (Sung, 2009). African Americans regarded social

activities such as dancing as important (Lavizzo-Mourey et aI., 2001), and did not feel the need

to conform to activities planned out by others (Belza et aI., 2004). Other ethnicities preferred

walking, gardening, and forms of PA common in their culture such as tai chi chuan, and qigong,

low cost activities and activities associated with church groups (Lian et aI., 1999; Purath et. aI.,

2011).

In the United States, many older women were raised in an era when vigorous PA was not

the expectation. Rather, it was considered by some not to be ladylike and hard on the

7
reproductive organs and, as a result, many older women have never been physically active

(Taunton, Rhodes, Wolski, Donelly, & Elliot, 1997). Some older adults, both men and women,

never received formal exercise training or participated in leisure time PA during any point of

their lives. They have been sedentary throughout their many years and are often resistant to

initiating PA as older adults (Newson & Kemps, 2007).

Awareness of PA barriers common to older adults and consideration of individual

problems and concerns allows practitioners to focus on behavior changes that are more

compatible with client goals and values (Rollnick, Miller, & Butler, 2008). A therapeutic

technique called Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a strategy that practitioners may choose to

use to facilitate increased PA among older adult clients.

Motivational Interviewing: An Intervention Strategy

When practitioners set out to assist clients with changing a health behavior such as PA,

they usually begin by giving their clients advice using a direct communication approach. The

expectation is that the client will make a favorable health related decision because the advice is

sensible. Advice often has little or no impact on health behaviors because often times the

information is too complex for the client, is of no concern to the client, or is too overwhelming in

its amount or content and is, therefore, not heard (Rollnick, Miller, & Butler, 2008). A more

effective approach to helping clients become more physically active might be a therapeutic

technique called Motivational Interviewing (MI). Relatively new in the field of disease

management, MI addresses the behavioral and psychological aspects of why people maintain

current health habits (Cummings, Cooper, Cassie, 2008).

In using MI, Rollnick and colleagues (2008) suggest that practitioners not dispense

advice or instructions on how a client should change a behavior. The authors noted that, in life,

8
there exists a natural human behavior to resist being told what to do. This resistance creates

ambivalence about the change (Rollnick et aI., 2008). Combining resistance with perceived

barriers to PA only adds to the problem. The client envisions how one "should exercise",

imagines the difficulty in doing it, and eventually quits thinking about it all together (Rollnick et

aI., 2008). In MI, ambivalence to change is viewed as part of normal human behavior (Rollnick

et aI., 2008). Practitioners who understand this are better able to help their clients move tllrough

a process of change that is consistent with their goals and values. This is accomplished by

employing empathy, one of the core principles in MI. As skills are learned, techniques are

improved, and are applied in the clinical setting; the client eventually recognizes the individual

role held in solving the problem of physical inactivity. The goal ofMI is to attain an initiation

and commitment for change that is collaborative, evocative, honoring of client autonomy and

sought by both the client and the practitioner (Cummings et. aI., 2009; Rollnick, et aI., 2008).

The 'objective is to have the client verbally express the reasons to change to a more physically

active lifestyle and then in combination with hearing those reasons as they are said, the progress

towards improved physically active behavior is strengthened (Bundy, 2004).

Learning this new approach may sound simple, but in reality there is some difficulty in

mastering the skills for MI (Bundy, 2004; Rollnick et aI., 2008). Additional practitioner training

in use of this technique with ongoing coaching may be necessary (Folta & Nelson, 2010). In a

systematic review on training in MI, the authors reviewed 27 different training programs that

targeted various health care providers and lasted an average of 2 days, with variable results in the

ability to effectively train the health· care providers in using MI (Madson, Loignon, & Lane,

2009). Once learned well, MI can been used effectively in the short amount of time allotted for

most office visits (Bundy, 2004; Cummings, et. aI., 2009; Folta, 2010; Rollnick et. aI., 2008).

9
However, even with a lack of training, practitioners who employ counseling techniques

consistent with an expression of empathy can expect small increases in PA levels (Cox et aI.,

2011 ).

MI was originally developed for addictions management, particularly alcohol. It has since

made its way into other areas of healthcare (Burke, Arkowitz, & Menchola, 2003; Folta &

Nelson, 2010): Diabetes (Greaves, Middlebrooke, O'Loughlin, Holland, Piper, Steele, et. aI.,

2008), cardiovascular disease (Brodie, Inoue, Shaw, 2008; Folta & Nelson, 2010) and obesity

(Befort, Nollan, Ellerback, Sullivan, Thomas, Ahluwalia, 2008; Carels, Darby, Cacciapaglia,

Holly, Kondrad, Coit, et. aI., 2007) are exanlples of conditions targeted for behavior

management with MI. Studies using MI as an intervention to increase PA are more limited. A

search of electronic literature databases failed to elicit any studies using MI to affect change in

PA status in older adults for the purpose of general health promotion.

One study used a telephone-only MI intervention to evaluate the effectiveness ofMI in

improving the participation ofPA in rural adults. In the study all the intervention participants had

a significant statistical improvement for self efficacy for exercise but little improvement for

increase in activity itself. One possible reason for the equivocal result was the short, 6-month

duration of this trial, which was not long enough to create significant change (Bennett, Young,

Nail, Winters-Stone, & Hanson, 2008). In a similar study that lasted for 1 year and combined a

MI telephone intervention with culturally sensitive educational materials in an African-American

socioeconomically diverse community, significant changes in diet and activity in both

intervention groups were shown. The -group that received the MI intervention demonstrated a

clear benefit in increasing PA. The authors suggested continued research of culturally-targeted

interventions witll telephone interviewing, particularly using MI. (Resnicow, Jackson, Blissett,

10
Wang, & McCarty, 2005). Bennett & colleagues, (2008) point out the potential benefit of adding

MI to other interventional modalities such as video or print (Bennett, Young, Nail, Winters-

Stone, & Hanson, 2008).

Folta (2010) suggested that the ideal situation might be the use ofMI in clinical practice

while at the same time referring individuals to community-based programs that would work

together for a greater effect. Folta and Nelson recommended one such program for individuals at

risk for cardiovascular disease called 'Healthy Hearts'. This program targets midlife, older,

sedentary, overweight women and focused on several aspects of weight nlanagement, including

PA (Folta & Nelson, 2010).

Conversely, a third study that used MI as part of a weight reduction program with African

American women did not show any improvement diet or PA over 6 months. The authors

suggested a possible cultural factor that influenced the effectiveness of the MI intervention

(Befort, Nollen, Ellerback, Sullivan, Thonlas, & Ahluwalia, 2008). A cultural influence may be

further supported in another study using an MI intervention for smoking cessation among

predominantly low income African-American females. Participants showed no significant

improvement in smoking cessation using MI at the end of the six month trial (Okuyemi, James,

Mauo, Nolan, Catley, Choi, & Ahluwalia, 2007).

MI is showing promise in changing PA behaviors and for disease management in people

of various ages and cultures, however studies are limited. Some studies have shown favorable

results ~nd few studies have shown equivocal results or negative results and long-term results are

not known. Future research is recommended to determine if there is a mininlum amount and

length ofMI interventions needed that should be delivered to produce consistent long term

results (Cummings, et. aI., 2009). MI should also be studied in various cultures to address its

11
usefulness across all cultural groups (Befort et al., 2008). In addition, MI should be studied in

specific age groups, particularly the older adults who have needs specific to their generation.

Using Motivational Interviewing: Implications for Practice

Many of the studies used in the literature review provided recommendations to overcome

identified barriers. While this is helpful, there is still a human tendency to resist being told what

to do (Melillo et.al, 1996; Rollnick et aI., 2008). Resistances to directions, coupled with

perceived barriers, are strong forces that clients and healthcare providers may view as

insurmountable. But behavioral change can happen, and the initial decision to do so is the

fundamental element to beginning the process of MI.

When using MI, the practitioner and the client need to agree on the goal of increasing PA

at the beginning of the consultatio.n because if the client is not willing to be an active participant,

time is wasted in the continued pursuit (Rollnick et aI., 2008). The key communication skills of

MI include listening, asking, and informing. Practitioners need to be understood these skills well

before using MI and incorporate them in a guiding style that evokes the client's own motivation

for change.

.The skill of listening may be the easiest to master as many practitioners believe they do

this already. Listening is more than just repeating the words said. Rather, it is a summary that

conveys understanding of both intellectual and emotional meanings of the words, spoken back to

the client. Effective use of this skill conveys feelings that the practitioner believes the client is

interesting, important, and potentiates the principle of enlpathy that creates hope and optimism.

Listening communicates genuine understanding of the client's predicament that is contributing to

ambivalence towards PA (Bundy, 2004). For example, the practitioner might hear the client

describe how exercise has always caused shortness of breath, and how it is getting worse even

12
with simple activity. The client expresses belief in initially just working too hard, but later the

client expresses uncertainty. The practitioner could respond by affirming that the client is not

sure of what is going on and that things seem to have changed and that it is scary. Rephrasing

with a tone that conveys interest in the client and what is being said is vital and will be more

productive in.a very short anlount of time than merely periodically nodding (Rollnick et aI.,

2008).

The next skill, asking, uses open-ended questions that require responses greater than

single words or phrases and elicits information on the perspective of the client's problem with

physical inactivity. Asking continues the process of the relationship-building between the client

and practitioner and potentiates problem solving. Answers to two of the most important

questions practitioners should seek to identify are "how important is it for the client to change

their PA behavior?" and "how competent is the client to increase PA?" (Rollnick et al.~ 2008).

The last skill, informing, provides the client with information. The practitioner needs to

consider the delivery method as an exch.ange of infornlation that takes into account individual

concerns and uses strategies to improve understanding. Practitioners should provide information

at a slow pace and listen for the silent moments or simple verbal remarks that indicate the client

is listening and understands the message. Practitioners should consider the anlount of

information they wish to convey and deliver it in a way the client will understand or find most

useful. Using a positive tone will increase receptiveness. Statements such as "you may find your

blood sugars easier to control if you get regular daily exercise" may be more beneficial than the

statement "if you don't exercise every day your diabetes is only going to get worse" (Rollnick et

aI., 2008).

13
 During consultations, practitioners need to listen for key words of change or "change

talk" (Rollnick 'et aI. 2008). "Change talk" is expressed in themes such as desire, reasons,

necessity, and ability to change. "Change talk" themes indicate the client is contemplating

change but is not quit~ ready, as these phrases are followed by words that support the barrier.

For example, "I wish I could exercise" would be followed by the words such as "but I just don't

have time", or "I probably could exercise" followed by "if I just didn't hurt so badly".

Practitioners can use additional MI strategies to help clients improve their physical

activity status. One strategy is to ask the client to list the pros and cons to their current PA status

and how life nlight be different if it included daily PA. This process allows the client to hear

words, spoken aloud, about their issues for and against increasing PA. Another technique in MI

is the "elicit-provide-elicit" exchange of information where the practitioner asks what the client

already knows about PA, followed by information being provided about PA that the client needs,

and then eliciting another response to the new information (Rollnick et aI., 2008). Practitioners

should also avoid their natural tendency to want to correct the client's wrong thoughts or beliefs.

Arguing with the client is counterproductive and hinders progress (Bundy, 2004). Aptly named

the "Righting Reflex" these efforts to convince a client of the error in thinking creates more

defensiveness and further reinforces the erroneous belief (Rollnick et aI., 2008). Lastly, it is

important to review with the client the change goals, as well as the plans for the next step in

proceeding with that change. It may be necessary for the practitioner to return to the beginning

again and review goal setting together and then agree upon what the next step to becoming

physically active would be and how it can be implemented (Rollnick et aI., 2008).

14
 Summary

Physical activity is an important part of disease prevention and health promotion that

lacks widespread participation among older adults (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 2010). It

is a problem that holds nationwide significance. Older adults have the most chronic disease of

any age group and have the most to gain by increased PA (U.S. Department of Health and

I-Iuman Services, 20'02). MI is a therapeutic technique originally developed for treatment of

addictions that has demonstrated good success, and shows some promise of effectiveness in other

11ealth areas, including promoting PA in older adults (Burke et aI., 2003). MI uses skills that

express empathy as well as considering and honoring the goals and values of the client during

communication. MI is not advice giving and nor directive, both of which exacerbate

ambivalence. In MI, ambivalence is viewed as a normal part of human behavior (Rollnick et. aI.,

2008). Barriers to PA such as health problems, time constraints, safety, and cultural restrictions

contribute to client ambivalence. Practitioners who use MI to address these barriers, and thus

clients' ambivalence to changing PA may be better able to move the client forward.

There is paucity of research about the use ofMI to promote PA in older adults. Though

much of the research that has been done in other areas has demonstrated positive results, some

findings have been variable. Further research is needed to validate the use of this therapeutic

technique for in1provement ofPA in older adults.

15
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