POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

Abstract. These are the notes prepared for the course MTH 751 to
be offered to the PhD students at IIT Kanpur.

Contents
1. Rings 1
2. Quotient Rings 4
3. Hilbert Basis Theorem 7
4. Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz 8
References 11

1. Rings
A ring is a set with two binary structures, say, + and ×, which satisfy:
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group with identity 0.
(2) (R, ·) is an associative binary structure with identity 1.
(3) For all a, b, c ∈ R,
(a + b) · c = a · c + b · c, c · (a + b) = c · a + c · b.
A subset S of R is a subring if S is closed under addition, subtraction and
multiplication, and contains 1.
Remark 1.1 : If 1 = 0 then R = {0} : Note first that 0 · a = 0. Hence, if
a ∈ R then a = 1 · a = 0 · a = 0.

The set of integers Z is a ring with usual addition and multiplication.

Example 1.2 : Given a ring R, consider the set R[x1 , · · · , xm ] of polynomi-
als in the variables x1 , · · · , xm with coefficients from R. Then R[x1 , · · · , xm ]
is a ring with usual addition and multiplication of polynomials. The addi-
tive identity is the constant polynomial 0 and the multiplicative identity is
the constant polynomial 1.

A complex number α is called algebraic if there exists a non-zero p ∈ Z[x]

such that p(α) = 0. A number is called transcendental if it is not algebraic.
Any rational number is algebraic: If α = m/n for integer m and non-zero
integer n then p(x) = nx − m satisfies p(α) = 0.
1
2 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

Example 1.3 : Note that the imaginary number i is algebraic: x2 + 1 = 0

at x = i. Given a number α with a priori information that it is algebraic,
it may not be easy to find a p ∈ Z[x] for which p(α)
√ = 0.√Sometimes, the
following trick is helpful. Consider the number α = 3 + −5. Then
√ √ √ √
α − 3 = −5 ⇒ α2 − 2 3α + 3 = −5 ⇒ 2 3α = α2 + 8 ⇒ 12α2 = (α2 + 8)2 .
It follows that the polynomial p(x) = x4 + 4x2 + 64 satisfies p(α) = 0.

Exercise 1.4 : Show that the set of algebraic numbers is at most countable.

Let R and R0 denote two rings. A ring homomorphism or homomorphism

φ : R → R0 is a map which preserves addition and multiplication, and sends
1 to 1. An isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism.
Remark 1.5 : If φ is an isomorphism then the group structures (R, +) and
(R0 , +) are isomorphic. In particular, φ(0) = 0.

Proposition 1.6. Let α be a complex number. Define φ : Z[x] → Z[α] by

φ(p) = p(α), where Z[α] is the smallest subring of C that contains α. Then
φ is a surjective homomorphism. Moreover, φ an isomorphism if and only
if α is a transcendental number.
Proof. The first part is a routine verification. Thus it suffices to check that
φ is injective if and only if α is not algebraic. If α is algebraic then there
exists a non-zero p ∈ Z[x] such that φ(p) = 0. Also, φ being homomorphism,
maps the zero polynomial to 0. Hence φ is not injective. Conversely, if φ
is not injective then there exist p 6= q ∈ Z[x] such that φ(p) = φ(q), that
is, φ(p − q) = 0 for the non-zero polynomial p − q ∈ Z[x]. That is, α is
algebraic. 
Next we present a substitution principle.
Proposition 1.7. Let φ : R → R0 be a ring homomorphism. Given elements
a1 , · · · , an ∈ R0 , there is a unique homomorphism Φ : R[x1 , · · · , xn ] → R0 ,
which agrees with φ on constant polynomials, and which sends xi to ai for
each i.
Proof. The desired homomorphism is given by
X X
Φ( cα xα ) = φ(cα )aα for cα ∈ R.
|α|≤k |α|≤k

Clearly, Φ is unique. 
Corollary 1.8. There exists a unique isomorphism between the polynomial
ring R[x, y] and the ring R[x][y] of polynomials in y with coefficients from
R[x], which is identity on R, and which sends x to x and y to y.
Proof. Consider the inclusion map φ : R → R[x][y]. By the Substitution
Principle 1.7, there exists a unique homomorphism Φ : R[x, y] → R[x][y],
 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 3

which agrees on constant polynomials, and which sends x to x and y to y.

We check that Φ is the required isomorphism by displaying the inverse of Φ.
Note that R[x] is a subring of R[x, y]. Thus we have an inclusion map
ψ : R[x] → R[x, y]. Apply the Substitution Principle to ψ to get an homo-
morphism Ψ : R[x][y] → R[x, y], which is identity on R[x], and which sends
y to y. Finally, note that Ψ◦Φ is identity on R and {x, y}. By the uniqueness
part of the Substitution Principle, Ψ ◦ Φ is the identity map. This shows
that Ψ is surjective. Another application of the Substitution Priciple shows
that Φ ◦ Ψ is the identity map. 

Let φ : R → R0 be a ring homomorphism. The kernel ker φ of φ is given

by {a ∈ R : φ(a) = 0}.

Remark 1.9 : Since a ring homomorphism is also a group homomorphism,

ker φ is also an additive group. Note that for a ∈ ker φ and r ∈ R, then
φ(a · r) = φ(a) · φ(r) = 0 · φ(r) = 0. Similarly, for a ∈ ker φ and r ∈ R,
r · a ∈ ker φ. Note further that ker φ is a subring if and only if 1 ∈ ker φ if
and only if ker φ = R if and only if φ is identically zero.

Example 1.10 : Consider the ring homomorphism φ : R[x] → R defined

by evaluation at a real number a. By the polynomial factor theorem, ker φ
precisely consists of polynomials divisible by x − a.

Example 1.11 : Consider the homomorphism φ from the ring H of holo-

morphic functions on the unit disc onto the ring of complex numbers C given
by φ(f ) = f (0), f ∈ H. The kernel of φ consists precisely of all power series
convergent on the unit disc with vanishing constant term.
P
A non-empty subset I of a ring R is said to be the left ideal if ri · ai ∈ I
for all finitely many ri ∈ R and ai ∈ I. Similarly, one can define the right
ideal. An ideal is the one which is both left and right ideal.
In a commutative ring, left and right ideals coincide. In the remaining
part of these notes, all the rings are commutative.
Given elements a1 , · · · , ak ∈ R, the set
( k )
X
< a1 , · · · , ak >:= ri · ai : r1 , · · · , rk ∈ R
i=1

defines a left ideal of R. We will refer to < a1 , · · · , ak > as the left ideal
generated by a1 , · · · , ak .
For example, if R := R[x1 , · · · , xk ] and ai = xi for i = 1, · · · , k then
< a1 , · · · , ak > is the kernel of the homomorphism of the evaluation at 0.
The ideal I in R is principal if there exists a ∈ R such that I =< a > .
Every ideal in Z is of the form nZ for some integer n.

Proposition 1.12. If F is a field then every ideal in F[x] is principal.

4 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

Proof. Let I be a non-zero ideal of F[x]. Let k = min{deg p : p ∈ I} and

let p be in I with degree k. Clearly, < p >⊆ I. Let g ∈ I. By the Division
Algorithm, g = pq +r, where q, r ∈ F[x] and deg r < k. But then r = g −pq ∈
I with degree less than k. This is possible provided r = 0. This gives the
desired equality I =< p > . 

2. Quotient Rings
Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Since I is an additive group, so is the quotient
R/I. Further, if a + I, b + I ∈ R/I then R/I is a ring with multiplication:
(a + I) · (b + I) is the (unique) coset a · b + I which contains it. Note that as
subsets of R, (a + I) · (b + I) may be strictly contained in the coset a · b + I.
The additive identity of R/I is I and the multiplicative identity is 1+I. The
quotient map q : R → R/I given by q(a) = a + I is a ring homomorphism
with kernel I.
Example 2.1 : Consider the ring C of convergent sequences of real numbers
with termwise addition and multiplication. The mapping lim : C → R given
by lim{cn } = limn→∞ cn defines a ring homomorphism. The kernel of lim is
the ideal N of null convergent sequences in C. It is easy to see that C/N is
isomorphic to R.

A ideal M of a ring R is said to be maximal if M ( R but M is not

contained in any ideals other than M and R.
Corollary 2.2. Every ideal in F[x] which is generated by an irreducible
polynomial is maximal.
Proof. Let p be an irreducible polynomial in F[x] and let < p > be the ideal
generated by p. Suppose there exists an ideal I such that < p >( I ⊆ F[x].
By Proposition 1.12, there exists q ∈ F[x] such that I =< q > . But then
p = qr for some r ∈ F[x]. Since p is irreducible and < p >( I, q is a non-zero
constant polynomial. Hence I = F[x]. 
By the previous corollary, the ideal in C[z] generated by z − a is maximal.
The following natural question arises: Whether every maximal ideal M in
C[z] arises in this way ? The answer is yes. Indeed, by Proposition 1.12, M
in C[z] is generated by some f ∈ C[z]. But then f has a root a in C. It follows
that M ⊆ < z − a > . Since M is maximal, we must have M =< z − a > .
We will later see that the last observation holds also for C[z1 , · · · , zn ].
This is a version of the celebrated Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz.
Proposition 2.3. Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal M of a ring R is
maximal if and only if R/M is a field.
Proof. Suppose R/M is a field. Let M 0 be an ideal such that M ⊆ M 0 .
Then there is an a ∈ M 0 \ M. It follows that a + M is a non-zero element of
R/M. Thus there exists b + M such that (a + M ) · (b + M ) = 1 + M, that
is, ab − 1 ∈ M ⊆ M 0 . Since ab ∈ M 0 , we get 1 ∈ M 0 , and hence M 0 = R.
 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 5

Conversely, suppose M is a maximal ideal of R. Let a + M be a non-zero

element of R/M. Then a ∈ / M. Thus the ideal I generated by M and a
properly contains M. Since M is maximal, I = R. It follows that there exist
r ∈ R and m ∈ M such that 1 = m + r2 a. Note that r2 + M is the desired
inverse of a + M. 
Remark 2.4 : If I is an ideal in F[x] generated by an irreducible polynomial
then F[x]/I is a field.
Q[x]
Exercise 2.5 : Let a ∈ Q. Show that the quotient ring <x−a> is isomorphic
to Q via the mapping p → p(a).

Example 2.6 : Consider the quotient ring Q[x]/I, where I =< x2 + 1 > .
The mapping p → p(i) is an isomorphism between Q[x]/I and C. In partic-
ular, Q[x]/I is a field. One can use this identification to find the inverse of a
given coset in Q[x]/I. For example, the inverse of (x4 − x3 + x − 5) + I is the
preimage of the inverse of i4 − i3 + i − 5 = −4 + 2i under this isomorphism.
Now the inverse of −4 + 2i is −2−i
√ . Hence the inverse of (x4 − x3 + x − 5) + I
2 5
−2−x
is the coset √
2 5
+ I.

The first isomorphism theorem for rings says that for a surjective ring
homomorphism φ : R → R0 , the quotient ring R/ ker φ is isomorphic to R0 .
We skip its routine verification.
Example 2.7 : Consider the ring homomorphism φ : R[x, y] → R[t] given
by φ(x) = t2 , φ(y) = t and φ(a) = a for a ∈ R. We claim that the quotient
ring R[x, y]/I is isomorphic to R[t], where I =< x − y 2 > . By the first
isomorphism theorem, it suffices to check that ker φ = I. Clearly, x − y 2 ∈
ker φ, and hence I ⊆ ker φ. To see that ker φ ⊆ I, let f ∈ ker φ. Consider the
quotient ring R[x, y]/I and the coset f +I. Since R[x, y] = R[x][y] (Corollary
1.8), f (x, y) = 2k i
P
i=0 fi (x)y for f1 , · · · , f2k ∈ R[x]. It follows that
2k
X
f (x, y) = fi (x)y i
i=0
= f0 (x) + (f1 (x) + f3 (x)y 2 + · · · + f2k−1 (x)y 2k−2 )y
+ (f2 (x)y 2 + f4 (x)y 4 + · · · + f2k (x)y 2k ).
Thus f + I is same as the coset containing the polynomial
f0 (x)+(f1 (x)+f3 (x)x+· · ·+f2k−1 (x)xk−1 )y+(f2 (x)x+f4 (x)x2 +· · ·+f2k (x)xk ),
which is of the form p(x) + yq(x) for some polynomials p, q ∈ R[x]. Thus
f (x, y) = p(x) + yq(x) + h(x, y) with h ∈ I. Now since f, h ∈ ker φ, we
obtain 0 = φ(f (x, y)) = p(φ(x)) + φ(y)q(φ(x)) + φ(h(x, y)) = p(t2 ) + tq(t2 ).
Since there are no common powers in the polynomials p(t2 ) and tq(t2 ), this
is possible provided p = 0 = q. Thus f = h belongs to I, and the claim
stands verified.
6 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

Example 2.8 : Consider the quotient ring Z[i]/I, where I =< 1 + 3i > .
In this quotient ring, 1 + 3i = 0, that is, i = 3 or 10 = 0. Indeed, Z[i]/I
is isomorphic to the quotient ring Z/10Z. To see this, define the ring ho-
momorphism φ : Z → Z[i]/I by φ(n) = n + I. By the first isomorphism
theorem, the image of φ is isomorphic to Z/ ker φ. We check that φ is sur-
jective and ker φ = 10Z. Since a + bi and a + 3b belong to the same coset in
Z[i]/I, φ(a + 3b) = a + ib. Thus φ is surjective. Note further that if n ∈ 10Z
then n = 10m for some integer m, and hence φ(n) = 10m + I = I. Also, if
n ∈ ker φ then n ∈ I, that is, n = (a + ib)(1 + 3i) = (a − 3b) + (3a + b)i for
some integers a, b, and hence 3a + b = 0 forcing n = a − 3b = 10a ∈ 10Z.

Exercise 2.9 : Let I (resp. J) denote the ideal < x3 + x + 1, 5 > (resp.
< x3 + x + 1 >) in Z[x]. Verify:

(1) The polynomial x3 + x + 1 is irreducible in Z5 [x].

(2) The quotient rings Z[x]/I and Z5 [x]/J are isomorphic.
(3) The quotient ring Z[x]/I is a field.
(4) The ideal I is maximal in Z[x].

A non-zero ring R is an integral domain if it is without zero divisors: If

ab = 0 for a, b ∈ R then either a = 0 or b = 0.
An integral domain satisfies the cancellation law: If a · b = a · c with a 6= 0
then a · (b − c) = 0, and hence b = c.

Proposition 2.10. If R is an integral domain, the so is the polynomial ring

R[x1 , · · · , xn ].

Proof. Suppose that f, g ∈ R[x]. Suppose the degree of f is p and the degree
of g is q. If R is an integral domain then the degree of f g is p + q. In
particular, R[x] is an integral domain. The desired conclusion now follows
from Corollary 1.8 by a finite induction. 

For an ideal I in R, consider the quotient ring R/I. Suppose R/I is an

integral domain, that is, if (a + I) · (b + I) = I then either a + I = I or
b + I = I. This happens if and only if ab ∈ I implies either a ∈ I or b ∈ I.
This motivates the definition of prime ideal:
An ideal I is said to be a prime ideal if ab ∈ I then either a ∈ I or b ∈ I.

Proposition 2.11. An ideal M of a ring R is prime if and only if R/M is

an integral domain.

Example 2.12 : The ideal I =< x − y 2 > in R[x, y] is a prime ideal. This
follows from Example 2.7, where we observed that R[x, y]/I being isomorphic
to R[t] is an integral domain.
 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 7

3. Hilbert Basis Theorem

A ring R is said to be Noetherian if every ideal of R is finitely generated,
that is, for any ideal I of R there exist f1 , · · · , fk ∈ I such that
I = {g1 f1 + · · · + gk fk : g1 , · · · , gk ∈ R}.
Any field F is Noetherian as the only ideals of F are {0} and F, which are
generated by 0 and 1 respectively.
Lemma 3.1. Suppose R is a Noetherian ring. Suppose a1 , a2 , · · · , ∈ R.
Then there exists an integer m such that
am ∈ Im :=< a1 , · · · , am−1 > .
Proof. Since Il ⊆ Il+1 for each l, the union I := ∪∞ l=1 Il is an ideal. Since R
is Noetherian, I is finitely generated with generators b1 , · · · , bk belonging to
some Il . Thus I = ∪kj=1 Iij . If m = max{i1 , · · · , ik } then am ∈ I = Im . 

The following is commonly known as the Hilbert Basis Theorem.

Theorem 3.2. If R is Noetherian then so is the polynomial ring R[x].
Proof. (H. Sarges, [4, 1.C.4]) Let J be an ideal in R[x]. Suppose J is not
finitely generated. Then one can choose f1 , f2 , · · · , inductively such that
fn is of smallest degree in J \ Jn , where Jn :=< f1 , · · · , fn−1 > . Suppose
fn is of degree dn and with the leading coefficient an ∈ R. Clearly, d1 ≤
d2 ≤ · · · . Since R is Noetherian, by Lemma 3.1, there exists an integer
m such that amP = a1 b1 + · · · am−1 bm−1 for some b1 , · · · , bm−1 in R. Note
that g := fm − m−1 i=1 bi x
dm −di f ∈ J \ J
i m with degree less than dm . This
contradicts the choice of fm . 

A finite induction argument combine with Corollary 1.8 immediately

yields the following:
Corollary 3.3. If R is Noetherian then so is the polynomial ring R[x1 , · · · , xn ].
Firstly, the Hilbert’s Basis Theorem (HBT) provides a simple way to
generate Noetherian rings. Secondly, its importance lies in its obvious con-
nection with the study of common zero sets of polynomials.
Example 3.4 : Let F ⊆ F[x1 , · · · , xn ] be an arbitrary family of polynomials.
Consider the ideal IF generated by the elements in F. By Hilbert Basis
Theorem, there exist finitely many polynomials p1 , · · · , pk ∈ F[x] such that
IF =< p1 , · · · , pk > . We claim that the common zero set
Z(IF ) = {x ∈ p(x) = 0 for every p ∈ F}
is same as the common zero set Z(p1 , · · · , pk ) of p1 , · · · , pk . Clearly, Z(F) ⊆
Z(p1 , · · · , pk ). Also, if x ∈ Z(p1 , · · · , pk ) then p1 (x) = 0, · · · , pk (x) = 0, and
hence p(x) = 0 for every p in IF .
8 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

4. Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz
We start with the easier half of Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz.

Lemma 4.1. For a = (a1 , · · · , an ) ∈ Cn , consider the ideal Ia in C[z1 , · · · , zn ]

generated by z1 − z1 , · · · , zn − an . Then the ideal Ia is maximal.

Proof. Consider the evaluation ring homomorphism ea : C[z1 , · · · , zn ] →

C given by ea (f ) = f (a). Since ea is surjective, by the first isomorphism
theorem, C[z1 , · · · , zn ]/ ker ea is isomorphic to the field C. In particular,
ker ea is a maximal ideal in C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. To prove that Ia is a maximal
ideal in C[z1 , · · · , zn ], it suffices to check that Ia = ker ea . We expand f ∈
C[z1 , · · · , zn ] about a as follows:

n
X n
X
f (z) = f (a) + βi (zi − ai ) + γi,j (zi − ai )(zj − aj ) + · · · .
i=1 i≤j=1

The right hand side of the last identity consists only finitely many terms as
f is a polynomial. It is now clear that f ∈ ker ea if and only if f ∈ Ia . 

The other half of Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz is quite difficult and needs more
preparation. The following change of variable makes life easy.

Lemma 4.2. Suppose that f ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] is of total degree d. Then

one can find scalars λ1 , · · · , λn−1 ∈ C such that the coefficient of znd in
f (z1 + λ1 zn , · · · , zn−1 + λn−1 zn , zn ) is non-zero. In particular, the mapping
f (z1 , · · · , zn ) f (z1 + λ1 zn , · · · , zn−1 + λn−1 zn , zn ) is a ring isomorphism
from C[z1 , · · · , zn ] onto itself.

Proof. Let fd denote the homogeneous component of f = g + fd of degree

d. Since fd 6= 0, there exists w ∈ Cn such that fd (w) 6= 0. By the continuity
of fd , we may assume that wn 6= 0. Put λi := wi /wn , i = 1, · · · , n − 1. Note
that the coefficient of znd in f (z1 + λ1 zn , · · · , zn−1 + λn−1 zn , zn ) is

1
fd (λ1 , · · · , λn−1 , 1) = fd (w1 /wn , · · · , wn−1 /wn , 1) = fd (w),
wnd

which is non-zero by our choice. Since the transformation (z1 , · · · , zn )

(z1 +λ1 zn , · · · , zn−1 +λn−1 zn , zn ) is bijective, the remaining part follows. 

Lemma 4.3. Let I be an ideal of C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. Consider the polynomials

f = f0 + f1 zn + · · · fd znd and g = g0 + g1 zn + · · · ge zne of degree d and e
respectively in C[z1 , · · · , zn−1 ][zn ]. Define R(f, g) as the determinant of the
 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 9

(d + e) × (d + e) matrix
f0 f1 ··· fd 0 0 ··· 0
 
 
 0 f0 ··· fd−1 fd 0 ··· 0 
 
 
 
.. ..
 

 . . 

 
 
 0 ··· 0 f0 f1 · · · fd−1 fd 
 
 
 
 g0 g1 ··· ge−1 ge 0 ··· 0 
 
 
 
 .. .. 

 . . 

 
 
 0 ··· 0 g0 g1 · · · ge−1 ge 

If f, g ∈ I then so does R(f, g).

Proof. Since the determinant is unchanged by the elementary column op-
erations, we take determinant after performing the following operations
C1 ↔ C1 + zni Ci , i = 2, · · · , d + e − 1. Note that the entries of the first col-
umn are f, zn f, zn2 f, · · · , znd−1 f, g, zn g, · · · , zne−1 g. It now clear that R(f, g)
belongs to the ideal generated by f and g. 
Theorem 4.4. (Hilbert Nullstellensatz, Weak Form) The maximal ideals of
the polynomial ring C[z1 , · · · , zm ] are in bijective correspondence with the
points of the complex n-dimensional space Cn via the mapping
(a1 , · · · , an ) < z1 − a1 , · · · , zn − an > .
Proof. (E. Arrondo) In view of Lemma 4.1, it suffices to prove that every
maximal ideal I of C[z1 , · · · , zn ] is of the form Ia :=< z1 − a1 , · · · , zn − an >
for some a ∈ Cn . We prove this by induction on n. The case n = 1 is
already discussed in the discussion following Corollary 2.2. Suppose n > 1
and assume that the conclusion holds for n − 1 variables. Let I be an ideal
in C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. By Lemma 4.2, we may assume that I contains a monic
polynomial g in zn :
g(z 0 , zn ) = g0 (z 0 ) + g1 (z 0 )zn + · · · + ge−1 (z 0 )zne−1 + znl , z 0 = (z1 , · · · , zn−1 ),
where g0 , · · · , ge−1 ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn−1 ].
Consider the ideal
I 0 := {f ∈ I : ∂f /∂zn = 0}
of the subring C[z1 , · · · , zn−1 ]. Since 1 ∈ I if and only if 1 ∈ I 0 , I 0 is a
proper ideal of C[z1 , · · · , zn−1 ]. By the induction hypothesis, there exists
a0 = (a1 , · · · , an−1 ) ∈ Cn−1 such that I 0 =< z1 − a1 , · · · , zn−1 − an−1 > .
10 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES

Consider now the ideal

I 00 := {f (a1 , · · · , an−1 , zn ) : f ∈ I}
of the ring C[zn ]. We claim that I 00 is a proper ideal of C[zn ]. Suppose to the
contrary that 1 ∈ I 00 . Then there exists f ∈ I such that f (a1 , · · · , an−1 , zn ) =
1. Write f (z 0 , zn ) = f0 (z 0 ) + f1 (z 0 )zn2 + · · · + fd (z 0 )znd , where f0 , · · · , fd ∈
C[z1 , · · · , zn−1 ] are such that f1 (a0 ) = 1 and fi (a0 ) = 0 for i = 2, · · · , d.
By Lemma 4.3, R(f, g) ∈ I. Since R(f, g) is independent of zn , R(f, g) ∈
I 0 =< z1 − a1 , · · · , zn−1 − an−1 > . This is impossible since R(f, g)(a0 ) =
1. Thus we obtain a contradiction, and hence the claim stands verified.
Thus I 00 is a proper ideal of C[zn ]. Hence, by the case n = 1, there exists
an ∈ C such that I 00 =< zn − an > . It now follows that I is generated by
z1 − a1 , · · · , zn − an . 
Remark 4.5 : Let I be a proper ideal of C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. Then the common
zero set Z(I) of members of I is non-empty. Indeed, since I is contained
in some maximal ideal J. By the Hilbert Nullstellensatz, J generated by
z1 − a1 , · · · , zn − an for some a ∈ Cn . It follows that a ∈ Z(I).

Corollary 4.6. Let f1 , · · · , fk ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] be such that they have no

common zero. Then there exist g1 , · · · , gk ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] such that
f1 g1 + · · · + fk gk = 1.
Proof. Consider the ideal I generated by f1 , · · · , fk . If I is a proper ideal
then by the last theorem, f1 , · · · , fk would have a common zero. In view
of the hypothesis, the only possibility left is I = C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. Thus 1 ∈ I,
and the desired conclusion follows. 
Example 4.7 : Consider the polynomials f (z1 , z2 ) = z12 + z22 − 1, g(z1 , z2 ) =
z12 − z2 + 1, h(z1 , z2 ) = z1 z2 − 1. We show that the ideal generated by f, g, h
is C[z1 , z2 ]. In view of the last corollary, it suffices to check that the common
zero set of f, g, h is empty. To see that, let us solve the system
z12 + z22 = 1, z12 + 1 = z2 , z1 z2 = 1.
By solving first two equations, we obtain z12 (3 + z12 ) = 0. This forces z1 = 0
or z12 = 3i. It is easy to see that (z1 , z2 ) does not satisfy z1 z2 = 1 and
z12 + z22 = 1 simultaneously.

Note that the conclusion of Remark 4.5 raises the following interesting
question: If I is a proper ideal of C[z1 , · · · , zn ] and J denotes the ideal of
all polynomials vanishing on Z(I), then clearly I ⊆ J. Note also that if
f ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] such that f m ∈ I for some positive integer m then f ∈ J.
It is evident that, in general, I ( J (e.g. I =< z 2 > then J =< z > in
C[z]). How to obtain J from I ?
Corollary 4.8. (Hilbert Nullstellensatz) Suppose that I is a proper ideal of
C[z1 , · · · , zn ]. Let J denote the ideal of all polynomials vanishing on Z(I).
Then J = {f ∈ C[z1 , · · · , zn ] : f m ∈ I for some positive integer m}.
 POLYNOMIAL RINGS IN SEVERAL VARIABLES 11

Proof. (J. Rabinowitsch, [5]) In view of the preceding discussion, it suffices

to check that if f ∈ J then f m ∈ I for some positive integer m. Fix f ∈ J
and introduce a new variable z0 . Consider the ideal K generated by I and
1 − z0 f ∈ C[z0 , z1 , · · · , zn ]. Since Z(I) ∩ Z(1 − z0 f ) = ∅, by Theorem 4.4,
K = C[z0 , z], where z = (z1 , · · · , zn ). Thus there exist p ∈ I and q, r ∈
C[z0 , z] such that
(4.1) pq + r(1 − z0 f ) = 1.
Consider the ring homomorphism e : C[z0 , z] → C[z] given by
φ : g(z0 , z) g(−1/f, z) for g ∈ C[z0 , z].
Since φ(1 − z0 f ) = 0 and φ(p) = p, by applying φ on both sides of (4.1), we
obtain p(z)q(−1/f, z) = φ(1) = 1. It follows that p fq̃m = 1 for some q̃ ∈ C[z]
and positive integer m. Thus f m ∈ I as desired. 

References
[1] E. Arrondo, Another Elementary Proof of the Nullstellensatz, Amer. Math. Monthly,
February, 2006, 169-171.
[2] M. Artin, Algebra, Eastern Economy Edition, 1996.
[3] S. Kumaresan, How to work with quotient rings: Expository Articles (Level 2), pri-
vate communication.
[4] D. Patil and U. Storch, Introduction to algebraic geometry and commutative algebra,
IISc Lecture Notes Series, 2010.
[5] K. Pommerening, Hilbert’s Nullstellensatz over the complex numbers, available on-
line, 1982.