MNL 70-2011 PDF
MNL 70-2011 PDF
MNL 70-2011 PDF
Soil Compaction
Using ASTM Standards
Quality Control of Soil Compaction
Using ASTM Standards
Copyright ª 2011 ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or
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Printed in Bridgeport, NJ
October, 2011
iii
Foreword
THIS PUBLICATION, Quality Control of Soil Compaction Using ASTM Standards, was sponsored by Com-
mittee D18 on Soil and Rock. This is Manual 70 of the ASTM International manual series.
v
Acknowledgments
This manual is supported by subcommittee D18.08. The following members of that subcommittee submit-
ted material to start the process of reviewing and editing for content in the manual:
James R. Talbot, USDA, Soil Conservation Service
Amster K. Howard, USDI, Bureau of Reclamation
Keith Rademacher, Chem Nuclear Geotech
Prof. C.W. Lovell, Civil Engineering Dept., Purdue University
Donald W. Shanklin, USDA, Soil Conservation Service
Raphael A. Torres, California Dept. of Water Resources
Jeff Farrar, USDI, Bureau of Reclamation
James Talbot and Jeff Farrar collaborated on the initial editing.
In 1999 on July 1–2, committee D18 sponsored a symposium titled “Constructing and Controlling
Compaction of Earth Fills”. The symposium was held in Seattle, Washington.
The symposium produced STP 1384 which was published in 2000.
Subcommittee D18.08 members Donald Shanklin, Keith Rademacher, and James Talbot were the edi-
tors of STP 1384. The final session of the symposium featured a review and discussion of the proposed
manual, entitled, “Testing Compaction of Earth Fills Using ASTM Standards”.
The final editing of the manual was passed to the Chairman of D18, Terry Hawk and Christopher Har-
din. With the sudden death of Terry Hawk in 2004, the uncompleted manual was sent to Donald Shanklin.
The bulk of the work remaining was putting together the visual aspects of the manual. This was accom-
plished with the help of Wendy Pierce, a computer graphical artist for USDA, Natural Resources Conserva-
tion Service. Jeff Farrar was also helpful in supplying visual materials from the Bureau of Reclamation.
Beginning with Terry Hawk, then Jim Horton, and finally Ron Ebelhar, all these Committee D18
Chairmen, supported the effort to complete this work. In addition, Bob Morgan, ASTM Staff Manager for
D18, has been a continual supporter. Kathy Dernoga, ASTM Managing Editor for Books and Journals has
been with the project from the very beginning and finally gets to see a product.
vi
Dedication
This publication, “Quality Control of Soil Compaction Using ASTM Standards,” is dedi-
cated to the memory of former Committee D18 Chairman, Terry Hawk. Terry had risen
to the leadership of Committee D18 through his 20 years of exemplary hard work and
quality performance. He sometimes faltered in pronouncing the names of those receiv-
ing awards at Main Committee Meetings, but never faltered in his dedication and per-
formance to the work of an ASTM volunteer. Terry rescued the “Compaction Manual,”
as it was commonly referred to, and recruited a young engineer, Chris Hardin, from
Geo-Environmental Engineering, to work with him and tackle the final editing to keep
the project moving forward. They completed the editing and identified most of the visu-
als needed for the manual. Then, suddenly, on January 24, 2004, Terry Hawk died,
unable to complete the project he believed in and had nurtured along. Rest easy, Terry.
vii
Contents
List of Referenced ASTM Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Chapter 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Purpose and Scope of this Manual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. General History of Soil Compaction and Methods of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
C. General Use of Compaction Tests, Density Tests, and Project Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
D. Updated Schedule for ASTM Standard Test Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 4: Standard Test Procedures for Determining Density or Unit Weight of Soil in Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
A. Purpose and Use of In-Place Density or Unit Weight Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
B. Standard Tests for Determining In-Place Density or Unit Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
C. Standard Tests for Density Testing and Quality Control of Very-Coarse-Grained Soils (Rock Fill) . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Chapter 5: Standard Test Procedures for Determining the Water Content of Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
A. Purpose and Use of Water Content Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
B. Standard Tests for Determining Water Content of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Chapter 6: Quality Control and the Coordinated Use of Laboratory and In-Place Tests for Compaction Testing. . 51
A. Silts and Clays or Sandy Fine Grained Soil with Little or No Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
B. Silty or Clayey Soil with Gravel (5 % or More Retained on the No. 4 Sieve and up to 30 % Retained
on the 3/4-in. Sieve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
C. Silty or Clayey Sand or Gravel Mixtures, or Both with More than 12 % Fines and More than 30 %
Retained on the 3/4-in. Sieve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
D. Relatively Clean Sand or Gravel Mixtures, or Both with Less than 12 % Fines (Material Passing the
No. 200 Sieve) and up to 30 % Retained on the 3/4-in. Sieve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
E. Quality-Control Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
F. Selection of the Standard Reference Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
G. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
viii CONTENTS
Appendix C: Photos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
ix
ASTM C127 Standard Test Method for Density, Relative ASTM D3017 Standard Test Method for Water Content of
Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of Soil and Rock in Place by Nuclear Methods
Coarse Aggregate (Shallow Depth) (Withdrawn 2007)
ASTM D558 Standard Test Methods for Moisture-Density ASTM D3665 Standard Practice for Random Sampling of
(Unit Weight) Relations of Soil-Cement Construction Materials
Mixtures
ASTM D4253 Standard Test Methods for Maximum Index
ASTM D559 Standard Test Methods for Wetting and Density and Unit Weight of Soils Using a
Drying Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures Vibratory Table
ASTM D560 Standard Test Methods for Freezing and ASTM D4254 Standard Test Methods for Minimum Index
Thawing Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures Density and Unit Weight of Soils and Calcu-
lation of Relative Density
ASTM D698 Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Com-
paction Characteristics of Soil Using Stand- ASTM D4564 Standard Test Method for Density and Unit
ard Effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)) Weight of Soil in Place by the Sleeve
Method
ASTM D1556 Standard Test Method for Density and Unit
Weight of Soil in Place by the Sand Cone ASTM D4643 Standard Test Method for Determination of
Method Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by Micro-
wave Oven Heating
ASTM D1557 Standard Test Methods for Laboratory
Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using ASTM D4718 Standard Practice for Correction of Unit
Modified Effort (56,000 ft-lbf/ft3 (2,700 Weight and Water Content for Soils Con-
kN-m/m3)) taining Oversize Particles
ASTM D1558 Standard Test Method for Moisture Content ASTM D4914 Standard Test Methods for Density and Unit
Penetration Resistance Relationships of Weight of Soil and Rock in Place by the
Fine-Grained Soils Sand Replacement Method in a Test Pit
ASTM D2166 Standard Test Method for Unconfined Com- ASTM D4944 Standard Test Method for Field Determina-
pressive Strength of Cohesive Soil tion of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by
the Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Tester
ASTM D2167 Standard Test Method for Density and Unit
Weight of Soil in Place by the Rubber Bal- ASTM D4959 Standard Test Method for Determination of
loon Method Water (Moisture) Content of Soil By Direct
Heating
ASTM D2216 Standard Test Methods for Laboratory
Determination of Water (Moisture) Content ASTM D5030 Standard Test Method for Density of Soil
of Soil and Rock by Mass and Rock in Place by the Water Replace-
ment Method in a Test Pit
ASTM D2435 Standard Test Methods for One-Dimen-
sional Consolidation Properties of Soils ASTM D5080 Standard Test Method for Rapid Determina-
Using Incremental Loading tion of Percent Compaction
ASTM D2487 Standard Practice for Classification of Soils ASTM D5084 Standard Test Methods for Measurement of
for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Clas- Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Porous
sification System) Materials Using a Flexible Wall
Permeameter
ASTM D2488 Standard Practice for Description and Iden-
tification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure) ASTM D6938 Standard Test Method for In-Place Density
and Water Content of Soil and Soil-Aggre-
ASTM D2850 Standard Test Method for Unconsolidated- gate by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth)
Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on
Cohesive Soils
1
Introduction
A. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THIS MANUAL test methods that are used for determining the reference val-
This manual has been prepared to provide guidance to ues for the density and water content of soil and rock. These
design and construction engineers, technicians, and earth- standard test methods were developed as consensus guides
work construction personnel on the use of ASTM Standard by experienced professionals in the geotechnical community
Test Methods for testing compaction of earth fills and other and are primarily used to determine in-place density and
earthwork. The manual includes a discussion of the types of moisture content of materials for engineering design pur-
fills in which compaction is used and the theoretical back- poses. By using the technical information provided by the
ground of compaction. In addition to the theoretical use of standard test methods, and their previous experience on fill
ASTM Standard Test Methods, this manual also includes dis- projects, engineers are then able to evaluate whether a fill
cussion on the overall purpose of compacting fills and the has been placed to meet the performance requirements of
potential negative effects on the engineering properties of the project. To successfully implement the standard test
compacted materials caused by the improper application of methods requires the ability to use good engineering judg-
compaction test methods. ment for the application of the test methods, the selection of
It is important for engineers and other technical profes- the compaction techniques, and for the evaluation of the
sionals involved in the placement and testing of fills to under- skill level of the on-site personnel. This manual was devel-
stand that ASTM Standard Test Methods have been developed oped to provide a description of the strengths, limitations,
to determine the compaction characteristics of soil and soil/ and applications of the ASTM Standard Test Methods so that
rock materials and establish reference values for density and engineers and technicians can make better judgment calls
water content. These reference values are used to determine during the completion of earthwork projects.
the density for preparing soil specimens for engineering prop- It is fair to say that the experienced contributors to this
erty tests in the laboratory or to compare with field test results manual had at least some difficulty in determining the most
for checking the compaction of earth fills. ASTM Standard important items that needed to be communicated to their fel-
Test Methods are also used to establish values for the unit low professionals involved with fill placement, compaction, and
weight or density and the water content of in-place soils, testing. In consideration of these difficulties, it is important to
including foundation subgrades, borrow areas, and embank- note that this manual is not intended to provide the following:
ment fills. The test results can be used independently for mak- • This manual is not a “how-to” manual that can be used
ing judgments on soil properties and characteristics or jointly to solve all problems with earthfill placement and
to make comparisons for the proper control of water content compaction.
and percent compaction of soil during construction. • This manual is not a specification guide. The principles
This manual was developed to provide a summary of and explanation provided in this manual will be useful
the important items that every experienced earthwork engi- for specification writing, but the authors have purposely
neer and technician should know and understand to success- not provided look-up tables and other standard lan-
fully complete an earthfill construction project. It also guage that could be misleading if applied without quali-
represents a summary of the skills and terminology that the fied engineering judgment.
authors of this manual would want new engineers and tech- • Although this manual references the ASTM Standard
nicians to understand and appreciate to obtain quality earth- Test Methods, it does not provide enough detail to tell a
work construction. Earthfill construction and compaction technician how to perform an ASTM test.
testing is simple and complex, depending on the nature of • This manual is not an introductory textbook on soil
the conditions encountered. The most important lesson that mechanics or soil testing, although we anticipate that
can be learned for any professional engineer involved in the the information provided will be useful for training and
placement and compaction of fill material is that soil and application of the test methods.
rock frequently provide situations that cannot be reliably • Most important, this manual is not a manual on how to
predicted using solely technical methods. Nonhomogeneous be a geotechnical engineer or how to practice engineer-
site and soil conditions are frequently the rule instead of the ing, although one of the goals of the manual is to assist
exception when dealing with compacted fills. As frequently practicing engineers on proper use and application of
described by the early practitioners of soil mechanics, the the ASTM Standard Test Methods used for fill place-
constantly changing nature of soil and rock continually pla- ment and compaction control.
ces engineers and technicians involved with earthwork con-
struction at the “borderline between science and art.” B. GENERAL HISTORY OF SOIL COMPACTION
Into the challenging interface of science and art that is AND METHODS OF CONTROL
required for successful earthwork construction, ASTM has One of the most important skills for any engineer or techni-
successfully implemented, for more than 20 years, standard cian involved in the observation and testing of earthfill
1
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
2 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
projects is to develop and maintain a deep appreciation for performance (e.g., saturated permeability, swelling pressure,
the history of earthfill construction and the corresponding and bearing capacity) and explained how these principles
test methods. Earthfill construction is one of the oldest meth- applied to earth dam construction.
ods of construction known to humankind and has included Proctor’s test used a constant amount of energy (compac-
innovation and input from many continents and cultures. tive effort) applied to several specimens of the same soil pre-
The first known earthwork construction was for roads, pared at different water contents. The compacted dry density
which dates back to approximately 3000 B.C. in China. The is plotted against water content for each specimen, resulting
historical information available does not make it clear whether typically in a parabolic curve, called “the compaction curve.”
compaction principles were used or understood at this time. The peak of the curve defines the “maximum dry unit weight
Some records exist for highway construction in the mid-1600s or dry density,” which occurs at a certain water content most
and later in 1747 in France when an engineering school was suitable for compacting that particular soil for the energy
established for educating engineers in highway design and applied. The water content at which the maximum dry density
construction. The early instruction dealt mainly with the types occurs is called the “optimum water content.” Proctor’s test
of soil that were best suited for construction and provided used a hammer of given mass falling a certain distance onto
explanation in descriptive terms common to that time. soil placed in a mold of known volume. The soil was placed in
There is evidence that some methods of compaction were the mold in layers, and a certain number of blows were
used in the United States in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It applied to each layer with the hammer. The mass of the ham-
appears that the use of compaction evolved mainly because it mer, times the height of the fall, times the number of blows
improved the performance of roads and other structures. This per layer, times the number of layers, divided by the volume of
compaction was accomplished mainly by routing hauling the mold, gives the compactive effort in foot-pounds per cubic
equipment or machinery over the fill. With the invention of foot of soil. Proctor also showed that as the compactive effort
tractors for towing, weighted rollers began to be used. is increased, the maximum density increases and the optimum
R. R. Proctor conducted the first complete investigation water content decreases. In Proctor’s articles, a standard test
into the theoretical aspects of compacting soil and the devel- was proposed using a compactive effort or energy of approxi-
opment of tests to determine compaction characteristics of mately 12,000 foot-pounds per cubic foot. This test has been
soil in the early 1930s. Four famous articles on the compac- known over the years as the “Standard Proctor Test” and is
tion of soils used in building earth dams were written by now ASTM Standard Test Method D698 that still uses the same
Proctor and published in the Engineering News Record dur- basic procedure as proposed by Proctor in 1933 (see Fig. 2 and
ing August and September of 1933 [1]. These articles pre- Chapter 3, Section B).
sented a test procedure for determining the compaction During World War II, Arthur Casagrande worked with
characteristics of a soil based on the relationship between soil the U.S. military on the design of airfields. His work dealt
water content and density for each soil as it is compacted (see mainly with the construction of soil subgrades to support
Fig. 1). This early work is the basis of the procedure used the heavy loads of large aircraft landing on paved runways.
today with very little change over the years. Proctor’s articles The main result of his work was a system of classifying soils
further established the basic testing equipment design that is for engineering uses, which was developed based on the
still used today. He further related soil compaction to soil engineering properties of compacted soils [2]. The classifica-
tion system was mainly related to strength or bearing
capacity of compacted soil and the ability to drain or pre-
Three variables determine the density of a compacted soil:
1. The energy used in compaction
vent water softening and freezing under airfield pavements.
2. The water content of the soil Because the soil subgrade had to support heavy loads, larger
3. The properties of the soil equipment was used to achieve higher bearing strength. In
1952, Casagrande’s classification system was adopted by most
Then: Using a standard energy, if a series of soil specimens are
compacted at increasing water contents, the resultant
dry density of the specimens will vary. The density will
increase to a peak value, then decrease.
Compaction rammer
weight=5.5 lb
%S
Maximum density atu V=1/30 ft
rati
120 on
110
Standard Proctor energy—ASTM D698
100
Optimum moisture
90 = 5.5 lb × 1 ft × 25 blows/lift × 3 lifts
0 5 10 15 20 1/30 ft3
Water content−percent = 12,375 ft–lb/ft3
110
Modified
105
Dry density of compacted soil, pcf
100 10
0%
sat
ura
tio
n
95
90
Standard
85
80
75
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Moisture content, percent of dry weight
125
120
Dry density of compacted soil, pcf
Modified
10
0%
115 sa
tu
rat
ion
110
Standard
105
100
95
90
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Moisture content, percent of dry weight
associated with the compaction of soils. It is the experience of 2. To ensure that the presentation of the field in-place den-
many quality-conscience earthwork engineers when evaluating sity data reflect the degree of observation and testing, it is
the quality of the earth or rock fill compaction that problems good engineering practice to describe very clearly whether
can occur when the tests are performed correctly but are the testing is provided on a “spot-check” or “full-time
improperly interpreted. Over the past years there have been observation” basis. This basic engineering practice is
numerous case studies completed on earth and rock fill pro- essential to ensure that highly accurate or passing test
ject failures in which the ASTM test methods have been com- results in a localized area are not used to suggest that a
pleted correctly, but the test results were misapplied during project has been constructed properly over the entire area
the evaluation of the data for moisture content, density, and/ of work.
or percent compaction. Successful completion of earth and 3. It is important to remember that time is of the essence in
rock fill projects, possibly more so than any other type of the testing of earth fill, so the test procedures should pro-
engineering work, requires a carefully balanced application of vide a method for developing preliminary values for mois-
the ASTM test methods, geotechnical engineering principles, ture content and dry density using direct heating or other
and old-fashioned engineering common sense. The following rapid moisture content measurements. To ensure consis-
is a list of the key items that must be considered when apply- tency and accuracy, the field test values will need to have
ing the ASTM test methods to a field project and/or writing regular verification using other ASTM methods including
specifications. oven dry moisture contents using ASTM D2216.
1. Select the standard reference compaction test method 4. Experienced earthwork engineers understand that the ref-
that is applicable to the soil and site conditions that are erence Proctor curve (standard reference density) may
present. The project specifications for the fill should des- change frequently on a typical earthfill project. To account
ignate the ASTM test method (compactive effort) to be for this field condition, the project specifications need to
used and the percentage of the maximum density and provide a method for making proper field decisions on
range of water content (plus or minus of optimum). The the selection of the standard reference density curves. The
specifications should avoid indiscriminate use of test project specifications also need to specify the method for
methods that do not meet the needs of the project, can determining which curve will be used if the visual classifi-
render the project work unnecessarily difficult because cation method is not suitable. Suitable methods for the
the reference standard is not appropriate, or both. It field selection of the standard reference density include a
also is important to realize that ASTM test methods for one-point method, a rapid three-point method, or visual
soil testing have a limit to the degree of precision that classification, or combinations thereof with a recognized
can be reasonably applied to earthwork projects. sample of material method. It is important to note that if
CHAPTER 1 n INTRODUCTION 5
guidelines on the selection of the standard reference den- compaction procedures in the project specifications should
sity curve are not provided, then the decision will be made include lift thickness, compactor type and size, and fill density
according to the level of experience of the field technician and water-content requirements. Properly written specifications
or the contractor at the project site (see Chapter 6 for must provide a balanced emphasis on the importance of com-
guidance in this evaluation). paction techniques, observations by the technician, and
5. A procedure should be set up for timely data review by adequate testing of the in-place fill materials. During the devel-
a qualified geotechnical professional. Allowing techni- opment of any quality assurance or quality control testing pro-
cians alone to select the standard reference density, gram it is important that the overall purpose of compacting the
review their own data, and determine adherence to the fill material is not overshadowed by a natural tendency to gener-
selected density and water content criteria typically does ate a large volume of testing information. A large amount of
not provide adequate checks and balances to ensure a very accurate testing without qualified observation of the com-
quality earthfill project. paction process will not necessarily ensure proper compaction
6. It is important to remember that nuclear gauge test or proper documentation of the fill material.
results for moisture content and density can be influenced Another engineering application of the standard refer-
by the presence of carbon, mica, and other materials. The ence value for maximum density and optimum water con-
manufacturers of these devices have made provisions to tent includes a direct or indirect comparison to other
adjust the gauges with moisture and density corrections. engineering properties that are used for the design of foun-
Water-content variations will occur on a regular basis dations and embankments. To ensure adequate correlation
whereas density variations may be quite rare. It is impor- of the design soil properties to field conditions, it is often
tant for all earthwork engineers and technicians to realize necessary to provide other types of testing at the anticipated
that the accuracy of the nuclear gauge and other ASTM in-place moisture and density values. These additional tests
density methods is only as reliable as the skill level and may include testing for engineering properties such as shear
experience of the equipment operator. strength, consolidation, and permeability as required for the
The in-place density/water-content test methods must be design and construction of the structure.
compatible with specification requirements regarding place- Immediately before and during the process of placing
ment requirements. These methods should also be implemented the fill, representative samples are obtained of the various
at frequencies and test locations that provide good documenta- soil types that are to be used in the fill. These samples are
tion of the earthwork involved. The explanation of the typically tested for the maximum density, optimum water
6 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
130
10
0%
sa
125 tu
Modified ra
Dry density of compacted soil, pcf
tio
n
120
Standard
115
110
105
100
95
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Moisture content, percent of dry weight
135
130 10
Dry density of compacted soil, pcf
0%
Modified
sa
tu
ra
125 tio
n
Standard
120
115
110
105
100
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Moisture content, percent of dry weight
130
125
Dry density of compacted soil, pcf
120
10
0%
sa
Method C
tu
ra
(w/34% gravel)
tio
115
n
110 Method A
(w/100% minus #4)
105
100
95
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 16 28
Moisture content, percent of dry weight
Fig. 10—Typical compaction test results for method A and method C tests.
8 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
130
25
GS
=2
.6 Theoretical curve at complete saturation;
9
120
numbers indicate percentage of voids
30
–5
Dry unit weight–lbf/ft3
36R
110 1 35
15
C–
56
5
–×1 40
100 61C
2
–16
56C 45
Laboratory USCS USCS
90 sample number group symbol group name
56C–162 CH Fat clay
61C–X15 CL Lean clay
56C–151 CL Lean clay with sand
36R–5 SC Clayey sand
80
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Moisture content–percent
content, and classification parameters including Atterberg reapproved at a maximum interval of once every 5 years. This
Limits and grain size distribution. In preparation for placing process is continuing so that, on the average, three or four
earth materials in the fill, water is added or removed from standards used in compaction control are typically reviewed
the fill material by the contractor to achieve the specified each year. This approach to review or revise (or both) applica-
water content. As the materials are placed in the fill, the soil ble ASTM test methods is an indication of the constantly
is spread into uniform lifts, and compaction is applied to changing application of test methods and the evolving of new
achieve the specified density. In-place unit weight or density compaction control test procedures. It is important to keep
tests and water-content tests are made on the compacted current with the revisions of these standards involved in this
materials to compare with the standard reference values compaction control area of earthwork engineering.
obtained as required by the project specifications. The following chapters provide an explanation of the
For practicality in keeping the specimen sizes reasonable, ASTM test methods and industry standard practices that are
standard reference compaction tests are made using materials used for earthfill construction. This manual is intended to
in which all particles larger than a specified size are removed provide a basic understanding of test methods that have
by sieving. The maximum density is then determined on the been developed and to encourage a renewed dedication to
remainder of the soil, eliminating a portion of or all of the quality earthwork engineering. As indicated in the technical
gravel-size particles. Tests made to determine the in-place den- information provided, the ASTM test methods provide a gen-
sity of the soil must then be based on this same size fraction eral framework and sound starting point for the successful
for proper comparison. Some in-place density tests (e.g., the completion of earthwork projects. To successfully complete
sand cone or drive cylinder tests) lend themselves to separat- an earthwork project using these methods requires that engi-
ing these fractions, whereas others (e.g., the nuclear gauge neers continually dedicate themselves to maintain an atti-
test) do not. In any case, the in-place density and water-content tude of constant learning to understand the procedures and
tests must be corrected or done in such a way that the oversize difficulties of dealing with soils and compacted materials.
fraction is accounted for. The procedures for making these
corrections are explained in Chapter 6 of this manual. A series
of flow charts showing the use of applicable test methods on a References
typical fill project is provided in Figure 1A of Appendix A. [1] Proctor, R.R., “Description of Field and Laboratory Methods,”
Eng. News Rec., Vol. 111, 1933, pp. 286–289.
[2] Casagrande, A., “Classification and Identification of Soils,”
D. UPDATED SCHEDULE FOR Trans. ASCE, Vol. 113, 1948, pp. 901–991.
ASTM STANDARD TEST METHODS [3] Soil Mechanics Training Series, Basic Soil Properties, Module
To ensure that the test methods reflect the most recent state #5–Compaction, National Employee Development Staff, USDA,
of the practice for the observation and testing of fill materials, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.,
ASTM standard test methods are updated as needed or are 1988.
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
2
Means, Methods, and
Mechanics of Compaction
A. DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPES AND TERMS the permeability of the foundation materials to minimize
FOR FILL COMPACTION excessive leakage and erosive piping channels. To accom-
Earthfill and/or compacted backfill are constructed using plish these design objectives, clayey-type soils with low per-
earthwork techniques that include excavating, hauling, meability and settlement characteristics are often selected.
spreading, soil processing, addition of water, and compact- To meet the design requirements for permeability and density
ing earth (soil and/or rock). Earthwork has wide application of the soil in the embankments, strict adherence to specified
in construction projects. Practically every construction pro- requirements for compaction and water content is required.
ject has a component of earth construction that buildings, If these water-retaining structure soils are compacted too dry
structures, or other project components are founded on, sup- of the optimum moisture, then the soil particles can remain
ported by, or constructed partially or entirely of soil or rock. loose enough to cause collapse (rapid settlement) upon satu-
Structural stability is usually dependent on proper founda- ration, resulting in tension cracks, shearing, or other prob-
tion preparation and the proper placement and control of lems. To minimize the potential for concentrated leaks due to
the earthfill placement and compaction process. Generally, cracking or internal piping channels, drainage zones are
all earth fills must be compacted to a specified density and often constructed in embankment dams consisting of sand
water content as determined by the design parameters. Con- and/or gravel to serve as filters and drains. These drainage
trolled compaction is usually required for roads, airfields, zones also require compaction to reduce the potential for
highways, building foundations, parking lots and drainage liquefaction, settlement, collapse, or to improve resistance to
features, pipelines, railways, embankment dams, canals, dikes rotational shear failures, or combinations thereof. For further
and levees, clay-lined containment structures and caps, and information and guidance on soil compaction related to these
other related structures. type of structures, see Table 1 [1].
Fill sections must be compacted to reduce the potential Some earth fills are named or referred to by the process
for excessive settlement or differential movements between used for construction or predominate characteristic of the
cut and fill segments. Earth is compacted adjacent to struc- fill. An example of this type of project would include earth-
tures such as bridge abutments [1] and in subgrades for fill construction projects in which soil or rock materials
roads to achieve uniform compressibility. Subgrade materi- were dumped in place with carts or carriages with little or
als that are too soft or weak may be removed and replaced no compaction. This type of fill is called “dumped fill” or
with compacted materials. Several base courses or layers of “uncontrolled fill” and typically exhibits less soil strength
select soil are compacted immediately below airfield and than mechanically compacted fills. Another type of earth fill
roadway pavements to improve or control, as much as possi- named after its placement method would include hydraulic
ble, the compressibility, strength, and drainage characteris- fills that are placed by mixing soil and water to create a
tics of the subgrade. fluid mixture. After the fill material is liquefied, it is then
Building foundations frequently require several forms of pumped, dredged, or transported through a pipe or flume
compacted backfill to ensure design performance. Backfill is into a pool where the compaction occurs as the water seeps
frequently needed for larger structures where excavation is away or evaporates, allowing a reduction in air voids and
used to provide a balanced loading of the foundation. Fill closer particle contact. Hydraulic placement of material has
placement is required under structures where the site must been used in the past for dams, dikes, and levees. More
be elevated for operational requirements or to reduce flood- recently this method has been used for waste fills or tempo-
ing or both. The perimeter of buildings is often backfilled to rary material stockpiles. It is important to note that loosely
prevent undesirable settlements and in some cases to support dumped fills (uncontrolled fills) and hydraulic fills are not
the walls. Some structures, such as pumping plants, must compacted by equipment and generally have undesirable
have compacted, free-draining soils in the foundation to pre- characteristics including a relatively high degree of compres-
vent erosion problems caused by leakage. Lightly loaded sibility, increased permeability, decreased slope stability, and
structures or soils on poor soils may require mat foundations an increased potential for liquefaction during earthquakes.
that must have compacted subgrades and backfill to ensure Most engineered earth fills are created using some type
uniform compressibility and maintain differential settlement of mechanical compaction or rolled compaction of the soil
less than 1 in. for structural integrity and appearance. or rock materials. Placement and compaction of earth fill in
Dams, canals, and levees and other earth structures that the modern era is typically accomplished using some type of
hold water are another type of structure that requires spe- heavy machinery on steel rollers or rubber tires that impart
cial earthwork and compaction techniques. Compaction and a compactive energy to the soil and/or rock. Compaction
moisture conditioning of the fill material are used to reduce equipment is often referred to as compactors or rollers, and
9
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
TABLE 1—Engineering Use of Soil Based on the USCS [Most desirable (1) to least desirable (14)] 10
Important properties Relative desirability for various uses
Clayey gravels, poorly graded GC impervious good to fair very low good 1 1 — 3 1 2 6
gravel-sand-clay mixtures
Poorly graded sands, gravelly SP pervious good very low fair — — 4 if 7 if gravelly — — 5
sands, little or no fines gravelly
Silty sands, poorly graded sand- SM semi- good low fair 4 5 — 8 if gravelly 5 erosion 3 7
silt mixtures pervious to critical
impervious
Inorganic silts and very fine ML semi- fair medium fair 6 6 — — 6 erosion 6 9
sands, rock flour, silty or clayey pervious to critical
fine sands with slight plasticity impervious
Organic silts and organic silt- OL semi- poor medium fair 8 8 — — 7 erosion 7 11
clays of low plasticity pervious to critical
impervious
— Not applicable
CHAPTER 2 n MEANS, METHODS, AND MECHANICS OF COMPACTION 11
common examples are sheepsfoot or tamping foot rollers, Soil liners are used in clean reservoirs to minimize seepage losses
rubber tire rollers, smooth drum rollers, grid rollers, and and may be placed over localized subgrade areas with a relatively
vibratory rollers. Some rollers incorporate vibration as well high permeability or over the entire bottom surface of the reser-
as impact and kneading action during the rolling process. voir or other liquid containment structures. Soil liners (usually
Specialty compaction is typically required in areas with constructed of clay or clay/silt mixtures) are placed under land-
limited access or with materials that may require a combina- fills or hazardous waste disposal sites as part of a geosynthetic
tion of methods to meet the specified standard. Specialty com- composite liner system to reduce the amount of leachate that
paction may include compaction of fill or backfill close to may percolate into the underlying soil or groundwater. Soil liners
structures using small, manually directed power (hand) tam- that are installed as part of a capping system are also used over
pers and/or compactors with vibratory action (see Figs. 1(a) the landfill waste containment structures to prevent infiltration
and 1(b)). Another type of specialty compaction would be of precipitation and surface water from entering the waste mate-
“saturated and vibrated” or “water-induced compaction.” This rial and creating more leachate.
type of compaction refers to a process in which compaction To reduce permeability or hydraulic conductivity of soil
is accomplished by applying water to the fill along with vibra- liners, it is essential to specify moisture contents on the wet
tory compaction. The theoretical basis for this compaction side of the optimum moisture content and provide a bal-
method is that the soil/rock particles become saturated, allow- anced emphasis on soil permeability and density. Soil liners
ing the breakdown of capillary bonds between soil particles or capping systems on the soil surface or as placed in the
and producing compaction of the soil matrix as the water bottom of ponds or reservoirs are often constructed by com-
drains from partially saturated material. The “sluiced or water pacting the natural in situ and on-site soils or by hauling in
compaction” procedure should only be used on free-draining off-site soils that have soil properties more compatible with
materials such as sand or gravel materials. the intended engineering use. In general, tighter quality con-
Zoned earth fills are fills that are constructed using dif- trol observation and more frequent compaction testing is
ferent soil or rock materials separated into certain sections required for soil liners used for waste containment purposes
or zones of the fill to accomplish water containment, stabil- because they are subject to more stringent regulatory require-
ity, drainage, or other desired engineering characteristics. ments and the margin for error is much smaller as compared
The zones may include silt and/or clay for low permeability, with other types of earthfill projects (see Fig. 3).
sand and gravel for filtering and drainage and for strength Earth fills are usually constructed of soil or rock materi-
and stability, and rock for strength and erosion resistance als that are placed within a specified water-content range suit-
(see Fig. 2). An example of this type of project would be the able for reworking, compaction, and grading or mixing. For
horizontal zoning of road and airport fills that provide for best results, it is typically recommended that water be added
lateral drainage and uniform pavement support. Another in the borrow area in 1–2 % increments and allowed to
example would be dams and other water-containment “cure” (be absorbed and distributed uniformly through the
embankments that use more vertical zoning for water reten- soil) before final compaction or moving to the construction
tion, slope stability, and for intercepting and carrying seep- area. Small increments of water (up to a 4 % increase) may
age to an outlet near the toe of the dam embankment. be incorporated into the soil on the fill or in a mixing area
Soil liners are thin layers of fine-grained soil that range in before compaction of the fill. It must be thoroughly mixed
thickness from 1 to 5 ft and require special moisture condition- using a disk or other equipment for distributing the water
ing and compaction to meet the required engineering properties. evenly in the soil. Sometimes, the soil is too wet for working
Soil liners are often placed and compacted to provide contain- or compacting and must be drained and disked to break up
ment of fluids either inside of a pit, reservoir, waste containment, clods and promote drying before compaction (see Fig. 4).
or as a cover over waste materials to reduce the potential for Soil materials, rock materials, or both are usually
liquids to enter the contained materials, or combinations thereof. obtained from a borrow area, pit, or quarry that has been
Fig. 1—(a) Manual-directed tamping plate (jumping jack) compacting backfill for a pipe; (b) hand-directed vibratory roller.
12 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
Fig. 2—Zonefill on an earthfill dam. Fig. 4—Disking earth fill to break up soil clods and/or incorporate
water. The disking may also be used to dry out wet soil.
factors are adjusted. Once the best combination has been Volume Density Mass
determined, it can be used throughout the rest of the pro-
ject, usually with less testing and more attention to the proc- Va Air ρa Ma ≅ 0
esses and coverage being used. Chapter 6 provides a more
in-depth discussion of quality control and quality assurance
Vv
practices as they apply to the successful completion of qual-
ity earthwork projects.
Vw Water ρw Mw
B. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND—MECHANICS Vt
OF COMPACTION Mt
Compaction is the densification of a soil by means of
mechanical manipulation. The compactive effort is applied in
Vs Soil ρs Ms
a high production manner and includes mechanical energy
applied as a kneading, impact, or vibration action that expels
air and small amounts of excess moisture. Conversely, consol-
idation is a process of densification that occurs over a longer
period of time after a static or surcharge load is applied. In
consolidation, the load is first supported by an increase in Fig. 5—Relationship between air, water, and solids in a soil mass.
pore fluid pressure. During consolidation, water (and air if
present) is gradually expelled from the voids and densifica-
tion occurs over a period of time that is determined by the energy applied by the compaction equipment in the field. In
consolidation characteristics of the soil. The main differences the case of a sheepsfoot (tamping) roller, the energy applied is
between compaction and consolidation are that with compac- a kneading and an impact action, which may not be fully
tion, the load is applied quickly, which expels mostly air, simulated by the impact hammer; however, it is considered to
whereas with consolidation, water or water and air are be a reasonable facsimile of the process. To maintain uniform
expelled over longer periods of time so that the water content and predictable conditions, the compactive effort should
is changed. Some consolidation and/or migration of water remain constant for the fill. This process requires uniform
can occur after individual lifts are compacted and subsequent water content, a uniform number of passes with the roller
lifts are placed over the fill. This type of lower-lift densifica- over each lift on the fill, and disking and/or blading to pro-
tion is typically not considered part of the compaction proc- duce uniform soil conditions and lift thickness.
ess unless heavier rollers are used to induce compaction in For fine-particle soils including silts and clays, it is impor-
lifts deeper than 1 ft below the compaction surface. tant to note that soil moisture conditions considerably below
The phase diagram in Fig. 5 shows the compaction results the optimum water content increase the frictional resistance
of a typical soil. The volume and weight or mass of solids and and capillary tension between the soil particles. A very dry soil
water remain constant during the compaction process, moisture condition makes the fine-particle soil absorb the
whereas the volume of air (thus the total volume of the soil compactive energy applied and creates elastic rebound in the
unit) decreases, resulting in a higher bulk density or unit soil particles. For this condition, the densification process is
weight. Fig. 5 also shows the notation in defining the soil com- not as efficient and the soil can contain a higher number of
ponents and in making calculations related to compaction of relative air voids after the compactive energy is applied. As the
soil such as unit weight and water content. It should be noted water content of the soil is increased by adding water, there is
that the water content and unit weight are expressed in terms more lubrication and less capillary tension between soil par-
of the dry mass (the mass of the solid particles). The dry unit ticles, which allows the impact energy to drive the particles
density is the mass of the solids divided by the volume of the closer together, whereupon the remaining capillary stresses
soil mass including air, water, and solids. hold them in the tighter arrangement. As more water is added
and the same compactive effort applied, the particles are
1. Compaction of Silty or Clayey Soils
The following discussion in this chapter applies to a fine-
grained soil (silt or clay) or sands and gravels with more 140
than 12 % fines. Clean sands and gravels (containing little or Zero air voids curve
no fines) represent a special case, which is discussed later. 130
Dry density−lb/ft3
The compaction curve shown in Fig. 6 is a plot of the dry Maximum density
unit weight of the compacted soil versus the water content of 120
the soil. Each point on the curve is obtained by applying the
same compactive effort to each of five or six specimens of the 110
soil. The compactive effort is a measure of the energy (m-kg/
m3 or ft-lb/ft3) applied to each unit volume of soil. It is deter- 100
mined by multiplying the mass of the standard hammer, times Optimum moisture
the number of blows of the hammer applied to each layer, 90
times the height of the hammer drop, times the number of 0 5 10 15 20
layers, divided by the volume of the soil specimen. When a Water content−percent
roller or other compactor is passed over a lift on the fill, it
applies energy to the soil. In the compaction test, the hammer Fig. 6—Typical moisture-density curve for one energy level of
is dropped, impacting the soil to apply energy simulating the compaction.
14 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
driven even closer together and the soil/water attractive forces The laboratory compaction test usually involves compact-
create stronger bonds that increase the plastic rebound of the ing four to six specimens, starting at a water content approxi-
fine-grained soils. When sufficient water has been added, then mately 5 or 6 percentage points below the optimum water
the void spaces in the soil matrix begin to be filled or nearly content and adding sufficient water to each specimen to
filled with water, and the water, being noncompressible, will increase the water content by approximately 2 percentage
not let the particles be pushed together any further. At this points between each specimen. A curve plotted through the
point of saturation and at the moment of impact with the test points usually takes the general shape of a parabola with
hammer, the water absorbs the energy with a momentary the apex at the optimum water content and maximum dry
increase in pore water pressure because of the soil/water par- unit weight as shown in Fig. 6. There should be at least two
ticle attractive forces. At this and at higher water contents, the points on each side of the optimum water content to properly
soil will deform under the hammer impact, but it will undergo plot the parabolic shaped curve. Test methods ASTM D698 and
a nearly equal rebound adjacent to the hammer impact area. ASTM D1557 provide the details for performing these tests.
This plastic rebound includes visual evidence of pumping or The ASTM Standard Test Methods presently cover two
rutting in the compaction mold and is caused by a localized compactive efforts, 12,500 ft-lb/ft3 for standard compaction
increase in the pore water pressure and capillary stresses in (Test Method D698) and 56,000 ft-lb/ft3 for modified com-
the soil. The higher the water content, the more pronounced paction (Test Method D1557). Fig. 7 shows a plot of compac-
this rebound is and a lower density is typically achieved, which tion curves for a given soil that was tested using several
causes a corresponding downward turn in the moisture-den- different compactive efforts. Fig. 7 also demonstrates that as
sity compaction curve. For each soil that is subjected to a the compactive effort is increased, the maximum dry density
given compactive effort, starting at a damp to moist condition increases and the optimum water content decreases. The line
and repeating the application of the effort for successive drawn through the peaks of the compaction curves is typi-
increases in water content, the dry density will increase up to cally defined as the line of optimums.
a certain water content, then decrease with successive Figs. 6 and 7 show a typical zero air voids (ZAV) curve
increases in water content. The water content at which the that runs adjacent to the reference density curve for a spe-
maximum dry density (cdmax) can be obtained for a given com- cific soil type. The ZAV curve may also be called the line of
pactive effort is the optimum water content (w). 100 % saturation. If the air could be removed from the soil
and the voids completely filled with water, then the soil
cwet matrix would be 100 % saturated. For some soils this 100 %
cd ¼ w ð2-1Þ
1 þ 100 saturation condition can be achieved by adding water after
compaction is complete, but for nearly all soils, it cannot be
achieved by expelling all of the air with compaction.
where: Although it is not easily achieved by using conventional com-
w ¼ moisture content (percent of dry unit weight) paction equipment, understanding the location of this 100 %
cd ¼ dry unit weight saturation line is useful for selecting the compaction curve
cwet ¼ wet unit weight of solid particles plus water necessary for evaluating the field moisture/density data.
130
Ze
ro
air
vo
ws idsc
126 Blo urv
40 e
)
s ion
low pact
Dry unit weight−lb/ft3
B
122 25 m 8
co -69
dard M−D
an ST
(St A
118
s
B low
15
114
s
B low
10
110
106
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Moisture content-percent by dry mass of soil
d, pcf
tions for control of compaction in the field, it is appropriate 130
to study the compaction curve and its relationship to the 20
3
d, kN/M
of in-place water contents to work with while attempting to 120 19
achieve compaction. While performing in-place field density
tests, if any points plot to the right of the ZAV curve, there 18
has definitely been an error made because this is an impossi- 110
ble condition. Typically, any points plotting above 95–97 % 17
saturation should be checked for potential errors or the ref-
erence density curve selection should be changed to account 16
for a change in soil type. 100
The equation for calculating the water content at 100 %
15
saturation is as follows:
cw 1 90
wsat ¼ 3 100 ð2-2Þ 0 5 10 15 20 25
cd Gs Water content−w, percent
where: Two typical, clean medium sands
wsat ¼ water content at saturation
cw ¼ unit weight of water Fig. 8—Compaction curves for sand.
cd ¼ dry unit weight of the compacted soil
Gs ¼ specific gravity of the soil solids compaction is applied at water contents between the two
Each soil has unique compaction characteristics. Repeated peaks, the curve is often concave upward, having a low
tests on the same soil sample (using the same compactive point at the mid-range of water contents. In a moist condi-
effort but different specimens) will generally produce very tion, the sand grains have a film of water around them
similar results. A higher compactive effort results in a simi- with capillary stresses that hold the particles in their cur-
lar shape of curve, with a higher maximum density and a rent loose arrangement, thereby resisting rearrangement by
lower optimum water content. A lower compactive effort compaction. This water content is referred to as the bulking
results in a similar shaped curve, with a lower maximum water content and usually ranges from 3 % to 8 %. These
density and a higher optimum water content. soil properties are most often only associated with clean
sands (see Fig. 9).
2. Compaction of Clean Sands and Gravels In consideration of their unique soil properties, the
The following discussion in this section applies to clean compaction of clean sands and gravels is most frequently
sands and gravels that have little or no fines (i.e., material tested using relative density criteria. The concept of relative
passing the #200 sieve). density is used in geotechnical practice to relate engineering
The compaction curve for clean sands or mixtures of
sand and gravel that have little or no fines has a different
shape than the curves developed for silts, clays, and mixtures
containing silts and clays. Other soil properties for coarser
grained soils (i.e., sands and gravels) including soil/water
particle interaction and the relationship of the compaction
curve to the ZAV line vary significantly from those devel-
oped for fine-particle materials (i.e., silts and clays).
Fig. 8 shows a typical compaction curve for clean sands.
The compaction curve for clean sands and gravels usually
has a shape that has a less defined peak and/or a very irreg-
ular progression of maximum dry density with increasing
moisture content. Compaction curves for clean fine sands
typically have two peaks: one at the dry condition and one
in a thoroughly wetted condition. [2] Because water can be
easily driven out of clean sand, compaction is not only pos-
sible but is also best at the saturated condition. Compaction
is best achieved by saturating the sandy material before the
compactive effort is applied so that capillary stresses are
reduced to zero. With a capillary stress approaching zero,
the sand particles are free to move and the water can be Fig. 9—Surface tension forces and ease of compaction for cohe-
more easily expelled during the compaction process. When sionless soils.
16 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
properties to the range of density conditions possible for seepage or leakage) can be improved with compaction at or
cohesionless soils. The relative density test consists of deter- near the optimum water content as defined by laboratory
mining the minimum unit weight of a material in its loose compaction tests. Shear strength and bearing capacity are
state (ASTM D4254) and the maximum unit weight of the increased with additional compaction because the soil par-
material in its most dense state (ASTM D4253). A vibrating ticles are compressed into a much tighter arrangement, pro-
table is used to determine the maximum index density viding more friction, better interlocking for granular soils,
because cohesionless soils are more efficiently compacted by and more soil/water particle attraction for fine-grained soils.
vibration than by impact. The in-place density is then Compaction usually produces a lower permeability because
expressed as a percentage of the range between the mini- the void spaces between soil particles are smaller and the
mum and maximum unit weight. Terzaghi originally defined total volume of voids is less than for an equal volume of
the relative density of soils, sands, and gravel in 1925. He uncompacted soil. Compaction also usually reduces the com-
defined it in terms of the void ratio of the soil, comparing pressibility of soil because of the smaller void spaces and the
the loosest state to the densest state. denser soil structure produced by compaction.
Compaction reduces the water holding capacity of the
emax e soil. Because the total void space is decreased, the water con-
Dd ¼ 3 100 ð2-3Þ
emax emin tent of the soil at saturation is less than the void space with-
out compaction. This characteristic of compacted soils may
where: reduce the volume change that takes place when a com-
Dd ¼ relative density pacted, saturated soil freezes and thaws as compared with an
e ¼ in-place void ratio uncompacted saturated soil. However, compaction will gener-
emax ¼ maximum void ratio ally not eliminate frost-heave problems in soils that typically
emin ¼ minimum void ratio exhibit frost-heave problems such as a silty sand (SM) soil.
Typical values for minimum and maximum dry den- The effects of compaction on the shrink and swell
sities for cohesionless soils are shown on Table 2 compiled potential of soil is somewhat less predictable. For certain
by Hilf [3]. From these data it can be seen that well-graded fine-grained soils (i.e., high plasticity clays), the smaller pore
cohesionless soils, as defined by the Unified Classification spaces produced by compaction cause higher capillary
System, can be compacted to very high densities. Well- stresses in the soil during drying. In comparing the shrink-
graded gravels can be compacted to a maximum density age potential of uncompacted soil with compacted soil, the
approaching 150 lb/ft3. Poorly graded soils such as uniform uncompacted soil has a higher potential for shrinkage
fine gravels cannot be compacted this dense. because compacted soil is denser and has less void space.
However, because the capillary stresses are higher in com-
C. INFLUENCE OF COMPACTION ON pacted soil, the shrinkage limit may be lower. Experience has
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES shown that the water content at compaction has an effect on
In general, the engineering properties of soil including shear the shrinkage potential of some expansive clay soils. When
strength, compressibility, and permeability (ability to control expansive clay soils are compacted at water contents above
GP-GM 112 129 0.32 0.52 300 .03 200 .50 .625
GW-GP 111 130 0.27 0.49 300 .20 105 7.5 .815
00
GW 111 132 0.25 0.49 3 2.9 9.7 1.8 .960
00
GP 114 135 0.22 0.45 3 2.0 11 .77 1.045
00
GM 122 141 0.17 0.36 1 1/2 .025 381 3.0 1.118
the optimum water content, they generally undergo more compaction conditions wet or dry of optimum are desired.
shrinkage than clay soils compacted at a water content below There are many definitive texts discussing engineering proper-
the optimum water content. (See Fig. 10) ties of compacted soils [3–5]. A brief review of how soil mois-
Clayey soils that contain plastic fines may exhibit swell ture conditions at the time of compaction influence some
potential when placed dry of optimum then subsequently engineering properties follows in this section.
wetted. The high swell conditions occur when the field com- In general, silty and clayey soils have more defined soil
paction results in dry densities higher than those obtained in structures associated with compaction at conditions wet and
the laboratory. Swell potential is reduced near optimum con- dry of optimum. At conditions dry of optimum, soil particles
ditions and may be further reduced for conditions wet of have a flocculated structure dominated by aggregates of soil
optimum and approaching the point of maximum saturation particles that are held together by capillary forces. Wet of
near the ZAV line. These effects are illustrated in Fig. 10 [3]. optimum, particles become more aligned. The difference in
Compaction at or near the optimum moisture content gen- soil structure affects the engineering properties and the over-
erally makes the soil stiffer and more rigid when compared with all soil performance during and after construction.
noncompacted soil. In certain cases, this can be detrimental One acceptable method for measuring the bearing
when small movements are expected that may cause cracking of capacity of soil compacted to laboratory conditions dry of opti-
an embankment or other feature constructed of compacted soil. mum is provided by the penetrometer needle test (ASTM
Flexibility can also be improved by compacting soils wet of the D1558). Needle tests can be performed on laboratory speci-
optimum water content. In many cases, cracking may be less det- mens to develop a penetration resistance curve, shown on
rimental than an increase in permeability or low shear strength. Fig. 2A in Appendix A. The penetration resistance is very high
The soil embankment structure may be designed with other fea- for conditions dry of optimum. As long as the compacted fill
tures to address the cracking problem while achieving the more remains unsaturated, unconfined compression strength and
desirable engineering properties with compaction. An example modulus are very high. However, for soil that is compacted
of this type of balanced engineering design is a compacted dam considerably dry of the optimum water content, collapse of the
or dike that is designed to hold water but is also designed with soil structure may occur when it is saturated under loading.
adequate allowance for internal cracking caused by minor differ- At water contents wet of optimum, needle resistance is
ential movements. This type of dam where minor cracking is very low, indicative of low bearing capacity. The laboratory
expected can be designed with a filter-drainage zone in a loca- observation can also be observed during construction when
tion where it will intercept additional drainage and localized con- soil is compacted 3–5 % wet of the optimum water content. A
centrated leaks. This type of engineered earthwork design low needle resistance and measured bearing capacity may be
internally limits unacceptable cracks and prevents the develop- apparent in the field by observations of “rutting” or “pumping”
ment of additional cracks by providing a seal at the filter face. of the fill under the action of heavy equipment. Compaction
The effects on engineering properties previously discussed of soil wet of the optimum water content will result in higher
in this chapter are achieved when compaction is accomplished compressibility and lower shear strength as compared with
at or near the optimum water content. If optimum conditions soils compacted near the optimum water content. In larger
are not reached, there could be important performance conse- embankments or deeper fills, excess pore pressures may build
quences. Conversely, there may be some instances in which up in lower lifts of the fill placed wet of the optimum water
content. These higher pore pressures will cause lower shearing
resistance and near-surface rutting and pumping in the
embankment or structural fill until the pore pressures dissi-
pate by the removal or displacement of excess moisture.
Needle penetration resistance and bearing capacity is a
function of water content and compactive effort. Some indi-
viduals have attempted to use the needle penetration tests or
probe rods for checking water content and the degree of com-
paction in the field, but this is recommended only for obtain-
ing a preliminary indication and never to replace testing for
compliance with the specifications. This application is not an
accurate way to make determinations of water content or unit
weight because penetration resistance can also be influenced
by soil particle size, angularity, cohesion, and other factors
that are not directly related to soil moisture content and den-
sity. Because needle resistance converges at optimum condi-
tions for different compactive efforts it may be somewhat
useful as a check for moisture; however, it should not be con-
sidered accurate or consistent enough to determine compli-
ance with specifications. Proctor (1955) gives guidance on use
of the penetrometer needle for field construction control [6].
For conditions dry of optimum, silty or clayey compacted
fill appears dense and hard during construction, giving those
unfamiliar with soil behavior a false impression that the com-
paction has been effective in achieving the required density.
In-place density tests of soil compacted dry of optimum may
Fig. 10—Effect of compaction water content on shrink–swell of soil. plot considerably below the maximum density on the
18 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
compaction curve for the soil. Consolidation tests on clays clods. The penetration can be assisted with repeated disking to
compacted at water contents greater than 3 % or 4 % dry of break up the clods. The best construction practice, when using
optimum usually exhibit sudden collapse of soil structure dry clays from a borrow area, is to irrigate these soils before the
when saturated under load [7]. For most construction applica- planned use and allow time for water penetration and curing
tions, water content is limited to within 2 % dry of the opti- to obtain suitable moisture conditions [8].
mum water content to avoid these problems. Some
specifications allow water contents 2–4 % dry of optimum if D. MECHANICS OF COMPACTION FOR SOILS IN
the settlement characteristics of the soil are understood and ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS
in-place density approaching 90–95 % saturation is achieved The practical side of earthwork involves working with avail-
[11]. able materials and site conditions to develop a high-quality
Permeability of silty or clayey soils is generally significantly compacted earthwork that meets the design requirements of
lower when they are compacted wet of the optimum moisture the project. Most specifications contain some prohibitions
content. Fig. 11 illustrates the results of permeability tests per- regarding the use of frozen materials. As practitioners of soil
formed on compaction specimens through the range of water mechanics, engineers and technicians frequently encounter
contents. These effects are especially important for clayey soils. conditions that are borderline or not within the specified
When clays are excavated and placed at conditions dry of opti- range and unacceptable. These conditions, if handled prop-
mum, they tend to form in aggregations sometimes called erly, can provide a quality earthwork project. When border-
“clods” or “peds.” During compaction the aggregations may line conditions are handled improperly, adverse soil and site
remain in the fill, forming a more permeable macroscopic conditions can be disastrous and lead to future failures. This
structure than if the peds are completely broken down and section provides general guidance on engineering principles
remolded. To alleviate this problem, clay soils should be wetted, and the application of soil mechanics as materials are placed
thoroughly disked, and cured in the borrow area if possible. and compacted in the adverse conditions of freezing, too
Sufficient time must be allowed for moisture to penetrate the wet, or too dry.
CHAPTER 2 n MEANS, METHODS, AND MECHANICS OF COMPACTION 19
The only materials that can be effectively compacted at possibly most important, is to emphasize to contractors and
temperatures below freezing are rocks and dry granular owners that moisture conditioning and the degree of satura-
soils. Other materials exist as hard frozen chunks that can- tion are equally important as density in compaction of soil.
not be effectively densified. When thawing occurs, the com- One of the most useful skills that can be obtained by an
pacted material will be weak, highly compressible, and earthwork engineer is the ability to approximate the in-place
unsuitable for carrying loads. water content of soils using visual observation of soil proper-
Unfrozen soils may be effectively densified at air temper- ties and of the interaction of heavy equipment with the soils.
atures below freezing. The key is to complete the compaction For example, if a technician obtains a water-content reading
process before the water in the soil can freeze. Various techni- of 1 % dry of the optimum moisture content and field observa-
ques can be used to reduce the risk of freezing the water in tions indicate that the construction equipment is leaving 4- to
the soil. These include the use of inclined lifts, round-the-clock 6-in. ruts typical of much wetter soil conditions, then the con-
compaction, and working in smaller areas. Most specifications flict between the field observation and field data should indi-
prohibit the compaction of soils when they are frozen and/or cate that additional assessment is required. Field observations
when the ambient air temperature is less than 32°F. In prac- are an important part of the information that is used for
tice, the crust of frozen soil can be removed and unfrozen assessment of the earthwork operation along with the field-
borrow material placed and compacted as long as surface testing data. If the field-testing data do not provide adequate
freezing does not take place between lifts. correlation to field observations by a qualified inspector or
Working extremely wet soils is governed by principles engineer, then additional testing information and the use of
similar to those for frozen soils. Removal of excess water from possible comparative testing should be considered. It is good
soils is influenced by several factors, including the evapo- engineering practice to verify field-testing methods (e.g., the
transpiration ability of the soil, the soil particle size, the ambi- sand cone or drive cylinder) with an occasional nuclear gauge
ent air temperature, the equipment available for mixing and test. Likewise the nuclear gauge test data may be verified with
drying of the soil, and the skill of the operators involved in the an occasional sand cone or drive cylinder test.
drying operation. The skill of the on-site technician is very
important for determining when “rutting” or “pumping” of E. COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
the soils is an indication that the in-place moisture content is A wide variety of compaction equipment is available for com-
outside of the range where compaction can be achieved. paction of soils. When selecting the compaction equipment
There are also times when minor discrepancies in the test for a project, the type of compactor selected should be dic-
results can provide nonrepresentative high or low moisture tated by soil type, moisture conditions, and the intended func-
content readings that must be confirmed by skilled observa- tion of the compacted fill. Table 2A in Appendix A provides a
tion of the placement and compaction operation To deter- summary of the compaction equipment and typical applica-
mine whether it is feasible to dry soils or postpone earthwork tion requirements [9]. In addition to this table, there are sev-
operation to a drier time, the earthwork contractor typically eral good texts that report on compaction equipment and the
must develop an understanding of the rate of drying per hour research that has been performed [1,3,10]. Table 3A in Appen-
on the basis of the number of equipment passes of a disc or dix A summarizes these same compaction characteristics as
rotary mixer machine. Methods for increasing the rate of dry- they relate to the soils of the Unified Soil Classification.
ing include the addition of quicklime, repeated reworking, The effectiveness of compaction equipment depends on
and mixing in drier borrow materials. equipment details such as weight and contact pressures, cov-
Extremely dry soil conditions can also provide unique chal- erage or number of passes, lift thickness, water content, soil
lenges for obtaining suitable compaction, especially for high- type, and compactor drum configurations. In addition to the
plasticity, fine-grained soils. As mentioned previously, dry silt soil and equipment variables, lift thickness is an important
and clay soils can form clods and provide a bridging effect that variable during compaction. As shown in Table 3A in Appen-
can be a detriment to consistent, homogeneous compaction. dix A, lift thicknesses for heavier compaction equipment
This soil condition can cause significant problems with long- ranges from 6 in. to 1 ft. If lighter equipment is used, it is
term soil performance because, when saturated, these soils can often not sufficient to compensate by increasing the number
become highly compressible months or years after the initial of passes because the contact pressure zone of influence is
compaction. The problem of soil bridging and lack of compac- not deep enough. For most work with light equipment in
tion can be further increased if the field technician selects the tight areas, in addition to equipment passes, the lift thickness
wrong compaction curve so that the percent compaction is will need to be reduced to obtain satisfactory compaction.
falsely evaluated. This condition is very common on sites with The sheepsfoot roller was developed for compacting
unskilled technicians because dry compacted soil may look fine-grained soils in earth dams. Today, these rollers may be
very hard and highly compacted to an untrained eye. called “tamping foot compactors” and may be somewhat dif-
To minimize the difficulties of dealing with the compac- ferent than the original sheepsfoot rollers. Whether they are
tion of dry soils, it is best to focus on three main areas. First, called sheepsfoot or tamping foot rollers, the principles are
the proper reference density curve must be selected and be the same and compaction is achieved by the protruding feet
checked on a regular basis using the one-point (ASTM D698) that start compacting the soil near the bottom of the loose
or rapid three-point (ASTM D5080) methods. Second, the lift and compacts higher in the lift with succeeding passes.
borrow area needs to be controlled to select areas that are The ability of the sheepsfoot roller’s protruding feet to
closest to the optimum water content, have been moisture impart kneading and mixing action to the fill helps to pro-
conditioned before placement and compaction, or both. duce a more homogeneous fill.
Attempting to adjust the water content more than 4 percent- Sheepsfoot rollers are typically recommended for com-
age points in the fill placement area results in excessive proc- pacting cohesive soils in dams, dikes, landfill liners, or other
essing of a lift to properly incorporate the water. Third, and fills that contain or divert water, or combinations thereof.
20 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
Typical sheepsfoot rollers have drums ranging from 48 to 72 compaction. This method is not recommended for earth
in. in diameter and foot lengths ranging from 7 to 10 in. The dams, highway fills, or airfield runways.
feet have cross-sectional areas ranging from 5 to 12 in.2 and Rubber-tired rollers can be used on a wide variety of
there is a large variation of foot shapes available. Sheepsfoot soils. The compaction is achieved by a combination of static
or tamping roller drums are usually hollow so that they can weight and near-surface kneading action that occurs near the
be loaded with liquid or sand to control the weight of the tire interface. Information on recommended weights, tire
roller and the pressure applied to the soil by the feet. pressures, passes, and lift thicknesses is provided in Table 3A.
Loaded sheepsfoot roller weights range from 6,000 lb for Soil moisture should be such that excessive rutting is avoided.
older equipment pulled by a tractor up to 80,000 lb for mod- These rollers compact the soil near the surface of the lift to a
ern, self-propelled rollers. As shown in Table 3A, the foot higher degree than soil near the bottom of the lift. They also
spacing is such that contact pressures can range from 200 to may leave a relatively smooth surface in silty and clayey soils,
1,000 lb/in.2. Compacted lift thickness is normally 6 in. The which are typically scarified to improve bonding with the next
roller begins compaction at the bottom of the lift and pro- lift and minimize seepage planes in earth dams or other
gressively works its way up the lift until it “walks out” (the water-retaining structures. See Figs. 1C to 4C in Appendix C,
lift becomes sufficiently dense to support the tips of the “Compaction and Testing Equipment,” for additional photos.
roller feet near the surface of the lift). If the roller fails to With the wide range of equipment available for compac-
walk out after multiple passes, the soil is most likely too wet tion, it is often difficult to specify a single piece of equipment
for the foot contact pressure. This usually occurs when the for a particular need. In many cases there will be various
water content of the soil is more than several percentage pieces of equipment that may be used to achieve the desired
points wetter than the optimum water content. It may be product. Many agencies and firms will use combined perform-
impossible to obtain a specified density near the maximum ance and method specifications for compaction. Previously
density when the soil is this wet. successful methods may be specified, such as a standard range
Depending on the foot spacing and the in-place water of dimensions and weights for sheepsfoot rollers. The goal of
content of the soil, it usually takes two to four passes to most compaction standards is that performance or end result
have the feet contact the entire horizontal plane of the sur- is the most important product. If the contractor proposes
face being compacted. It usually takes 6–12 passes for the alternative equipment, test fills are often used to evaluate if
roller to walk out. For light rollers, this may be equivalent the appropriate degree of compaction and the desired fill
to the standard compactive effort (ASTM D698), but for the characteristics (homogeneity and lift bonding) is achieved.
heavy, modern rollers, the compactive effort will be more Tests can also be made on the test fill to verify that the
nearly at the modified compactive effort (ASTM D1557) or desired engineering properties have been obtained. More
greater. intensive testing is recommended at the beginning of the pro-
Vibrating tamping foot rollers are produced to compact ject to ensure that the proposed equipment is suitable for the
a wide variety of soils. They can effectively compact silty, job. The ballast (weight of sand or water filling the roller) and
low-plastic soil materials. The addition of vibration is not as number of passes of the equipment can be adjusted to achieve
effective for clayey soils. It is sometimes used for cohesive the desired product. Once procedures have been verified and
soils wet of optimum when a high degree of compaction is agreed to by the contractor, testing can usually be performed
not required but one desires remolding. The use of vibration less frequently. It is important to remember that use of the
in close proximity to a water table is not advisable compaction equipment is only one part of the job. Proper
Smooth wheel rollers are often used for highway con- excavation in the borrow area, processing, mixing, placing,
struction for rolling of subgrade or base course materials. moisture conditioning, and compacting of the earth fill in an
These types of rollers are designed to obtain compaction by organized manner all contribute to and are equally important
static pressure. The compaction surface left by these rollers in obtaining a quality earth fill.
is also smooth, which is good for proof rolling and paving
operations (see Fig. 12).
Vibratory smooth drum rollers are most often used for
compaction of cohesionless soils in large areas. Single and
double drum rollers are available in static weights up to 15
tons. These are equipped with eccentric vibrators that oper-
ate at frequencies from 1,000 to 2,000 cycles per minute. Lift
thickness depends on the size of equipment. Smaller rollers
and vibrating plate compactors are used with lift thicknesses
of 6–12 in. Large double drum rollers are used for compact-
ing rock fills with lift thickness up to 3 ft. Moisture content,
as previously discussed, is only critical to cohesionless soils
containing appreciable sand content.
Some densification of cohesionless soils may be
obtained by vibration under the tracks of crawler tractor
equipment. This method of compaction is sometimes used
for minor fills not requiring a high degree of compaction.
Because the soil pressure under crawler tractor tracks is low,
the compaction is achieved mainly from vibration and many
passes are needed to make sure the tracks cover the entire Fig. 12—Smooth wheel by static pressure and/or vibration as
surface a sufficient number of times to achieve the desired needed.
CHAPTER 2 n MEANS, METHODS, AND MECHANICS OF COMPACTION 21
References [7] Holtz, W.G., “The Determination of Limits for the Control of
Placement Moisture in High Rolled Earth Dams,” Proceedings
[1] Wagner, A. A. “The Use of the Unified Soil Classification System of ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1948, pp. 1240–1248.
by the Bureau of Reclamation,” The 4th International Confer-
[8] EPA/530-SW-86-007-F, "Design, Construction, and Evaluation of
ence on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1957.
Clay Liners for Waste Management Facilities."
[2] Poulos, S. J., “Compaction Control and the Index Unit Weight,”
[9] Bureau of Yards and Docks, U.S. Department of the Navy,
Geotech. Test. J., Vol. 11, 1988, pp. 100–108.
Design Manual: Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth
[3] Hilf, J.W., “Compacting Earth Fills,” Chapter 7, Foundation Structures, NAVDOCKS DM-7, Washington, DC, 1962, p. 7-9-8.
Engineering Handbook, H. Winterkorn and H. Fang, Eds., Van
[10] Johnson, A.W., and Sallberg, J.R., “Factors That Influence Field
Nostrand Reinhart, New York, 1974.
Compaction Characteristics of Field Equipment,” Bulletin No.
[4] Seed, H.B., and Chan, C.K., “Structure and Strength Characteris- 272, Highway Research Board, National Research Council,
tics of Compacted Clays,” J. Soil Mech. Vol. 85, 1959, pp. 87–128. Washington, DC, 1960.
[5] Holtz, R.D, and Kovacs, W.D., “An Introduction to Geotechnical [11] See article, “Comparison of Laboratory Data and Field Perform-
Engineering,” Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1981. ance for Fills Subject to Hydrocompression,” ASTM STP 1384
[6] Proctor, R.R., “Construction Moisture Control for Earthfills by Constructing and Controlling Compaction of Earth Fills, ASTM
Use of the Penetration Needle,” Annual Meeting of the Ameri- International, West Conshohocken, PA, 1999.
can Society of Civil Engineers, San Diego, CA, 1955, pp. 9–11.
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
3
Laboratory Compaction Tests
A. PURPOSE AND USE OF LABORATORY borrow samples before the tests on shear strength and perme-
COMPACTION TESTS ability tests are performed. This two-step process allows the
The ASTM test methods for compaction are used to develop selection of a specified percentage of density and water con-
a laboratory-derived standard reference density that is used tent for the preparation of specimens that are used for deter-
to determine the percentage of compaction and deviation mining other engineering properties. After the maximum dry
from the optimum water content that is measured by the density and optimum water content have been determined,
field in-place density tests. The ASTM Standard Test Methods then the test specimens are prepared at the selected density
used for determining compaction characteristics of soil are and water content for performing the shear strength, consoli-
D698, D1557, D558, D4253, and D4254. These test methods dation, or permeability tests, or combinations thereof to deter-
are performed in the laboratory on samples obtained from mine if the design engineering properties are achieved. The
the borrow area and are used to establish specimen compac- remolded samples are often tested for triaxial shear (ASTM
tion requirements for engineering property testing. The com- D2850), unconfined compressive strength (ASTM D2166), con-
paction test methods are also periodically performed in the solidation characteristics (ASTM D2435), or permeability
field as construction proceeds to account for variations in (ASTM D5084), or combinations thereof. If the desired engi-
soil types and to verify the previously run laboratory stand- neering properties are not obtained, the remolded density,
ard reference densities. water content, or both can be adjusted to see if more desirable
In general, the impact methods of compaction (ASTM engineering properties can be achieved. The engineering prop-
D698 and D1557) are useful for evaluating soils with a per- erties used in the design are selected based on laboratory-
cent fines ranging from 5 % to 95 %. The impact methods of measured engineering properties of the samples prepared at
compaction testing are typically used as an evaluation stand- the density and water content that the engineer decides can be
ard on fine-grained soils including silty sand, sandy silt, clay reliably and economically obtained in the field. Generally, the
silt, silty clay, and clay soils. Because it is difficult to obtain design analyses are based on the test results of engineering
a well-defined moisture density curve for most cohesionless, properties for the soils that give the worst-case conditions that
free-draining soils, an alternative method of density evalua- are likely to develop in the field.
tion using minimum (ASTM D4254) and maximum (ASTM After the target compaction values used in the design anal-
D4253) relative density methods was developed using a yses are established in the laboratory, these values are specified
vibratory table. The relative density test methods are applica- for controlling the field compaction process of the earth fill or
ble to cohesionless soils with a percent fines ranging from back fill. The basic assumption is that the engineering proper-
5% to 15% and a maximum particle size passing the 3-in. ties of the larger mass of soil being placed in the fill can be
sieve. The relative density method of compaction is typically controlled within the range of density and moisture content
used as an evaluation standard for select sand, gravel, and values obtained in the laboratory tests. To be valid, a sufficient
other free-draining materials. number of tests must be made to represent all of the soils that
As indicated by the range of the percent fines provided will be used. The number of these tests is often determined by
above, there is some overlap in the use of compaction test engineering judgment or regulatory guidelines.
methods for soils used in construction. The selection of the In special cases for critical structures or if variation in
most applicable method for the design and field quality con- the material occurs, undisturbed samples can be obtained
trol is best determined by the design engineer on the basis from the actual fill as it is constructed or from a test fill that
of a careful consideration of the required soil performance has been constructed using the specified compaction con-
properties and the practical use of the test methods in the trol. The field verification of the shear strength, permeability,
field. The following sections provide an explanation of how and consolidation characteristic can be based on test values
the results of compaction tests are used in the design and obtained from specimens prepared from the undisturbed
construction of earth fills. samples to make sure the compaction has achieved the
desired engineering properties. The number and frequency
1. Laboratory Testing for the Design and of the verification are most often determined by the risk
Determination of Field Control Values associated with the proposed construction and the expense
The engineering properties and performance of soil are and time delays associated with the test procedures.
dependent on many factors, including the in-place density and
water content. Several of the engineering properties including 2. Field Quality Control and Compaction Tests
shear strength, compressibility, and permeability can be con- Laboratory-controlled compaction tests for standard refer-
trolled to some degree by altering the amount of compaction ence density and optimum water content are made on all
applied to the soil. It is a typical design practice to perform soils expected to be used in the construction of the fill or
compaction and other index tests in the laboratory on soil back fill. Some standard reference compaction tests should
22
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
CHAPTER 3 n LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS 23
be performed during the process of construction on materi- saturation curve, and the maximum dry density and opti-
als obtained from the fill, especially when considerable varia- mum water-content values that are determined from the
tion is found in the borrow area. Another reason for compaction curve. The compaction curve for each method is
standard reference compaction testing of the material dur- plotted from the calculated results obtained by following the
ing placement is to account for mixing of different materials test procedures for a series of compaction specimens.
during the earthwork construction process and to verify that These test methods can be used for soils that have 30 %
the laboratory compaction test curves are representative of or less by weight of particles retained on the 3/4-in. (19.0-mm)
the borrow material properties. Standard reference compac- sieve. Three alternative procedures are included that require
tion curves are used as the comparison of field in-place con- different mold sizes and maximum particle sizes in the test
ditions to determine compliance with the construction specimens. For each procedure, the particles larger than a size
specifications. Measured in-place dry density and water con- specified by the test procedure are removed from the soil by
tent must be within the range of values specified. The speci- screening before the test is made.
fied range, when compacted, is usually expressed in terms of Procedure A uses a 4-in. (101.6-mm) diameter mold that is
a minimum percentage of the maximum dry density at a 4.584 in. (116.4 mm) in height and has a volume of approxi-
range of water content above and below the optimum water mately 1/30 ft3 (with some variance for dimension tolerances).
content. For example, the specified range of compaction The material is screened to pass the No. 4 sieve so that the
might be 90–95 % of the maximum dry unit weight at a largest particle in the test is 4.75 mm in diameter. This proce-
water content ranging from the optimum moisture content dure may be used for all soils in which 20 % or less of the
to 4 percentage points above the optimum water content. mass of the material is retained on the No. 4 sieve. If more
It is worth emphasizing that laboratory and field compac- than 20 % is retained on the No. 4 sieve, other procedures
tion tests provide the maximum dry density and optimum must be used. For the standard compactive effort (D698), the
moisture content that is used as the standard reference for material is placed in the mold in three layers, and five layers
each specific and unique soil type. Field in-place density tests are used for the modified effort (D1557). Each layer is to have
measure the actual density that is developed in the field by approximately equal thickness after compacting. After each
the compaction of the soil. As noted before, there may be reg- layer is placed in the mold in a loose condition, compaction of
ular variations in the maximum dry density of a soil because the layer is achieved using a 5.5-lbf (24.4-N) rammer dropped
of blending or variations in the borrow area that require addi- from a height of 12 in. (305 mm) for the standard effort
tional laboratory or field compaction testing or the use of (D698) and using a 10-lbf (4.54 kg) rammer dropped from a
methods described in Chapter 6. The accuracy of the in-place height of 18 in. (457.2 mm) for the modified effort (D1557).
evaluation of density is only as accurate as the standard refer- The rammer is dropped 25 times on each layer for both test
ence compaction test that is used for comparison. The labora- methods. The rammer is moved around to uniformly cover
tory or field compaction test is analogous to a frame of the surface of the layer while making the drops.
reference and the field in-place density is analogous to a mov- Procedure B also uses a 4-in. (101.6-mm) diameter mold
ing point that must be quantified. The difficulty occurs when that is 4.584 in. (116.4 mm) in height and has a volume of
the on-site soil conditions create the old-fashioned engineering approximately 1/30 ft3 (with some variance for dimension tol-
problem of a “moving point in a moving frame of reference.” erances). The material is screened to pass the 3/8-in. (9.5-mm)
To account for these soil and site conditions without resorting sieve so that the largest particle in the test is 9.5 mm in diame-
to a large amount of redundant testing requires that the geo- ter. For the standard effort (D698), the material is placed in
technical engineer obtain a practical understanding of the soil the mold in three layers, and five layers are used for the
and practical application of the ASTM compaction test meth- modified effort (D1557). After each layer is placed in the
ods on a wide variety of soil conditions. Chapter 6 provides mold in a loose condition, compaction of that layer is
some guidance to assist in this evaluation of testing. achieved using the same rammers and procedures as speci-
fied for Procedure A.
B. DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD AND MODIFIED Procedure C uses a 6-in. (152.4-mm) diameter mold that
COMPACTION TESTS is 4.584 in. (116.4 mm) in height and has a volume of approx-
1. ASTM D698, Test Method for Laboratory imately 0.075 ft3 (with some variance for dimension toleran-
Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard ces). The material is screened to pass the 3/4-in. sieve so that
Effort [12,400 ft-lbf/ft3(600 kN-m/m3)] and ASTM the largest particle in the test is 19.0 mm in diameter. This
D1557, Test Method for Laboratory Compaction procedure may be used for all soils in which 20 % or more of
Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort the mass of the material is retained on the 3/8-in. sieve and
[56,000 ft-lbf/ft3(2,700 kN-m/m3)] less than 30 % by weight of the material is retained on the
These two test methods are identical except for the compac- 3/4-in. (19.0-mm) sieve. If more than 30 % is retained on the
tive effort that is applied to the soil. The only differences are 3/4-in. sieve, other procedures must be used (see Section C in
the mass of the rammer, the height of rammer drop, the Chapter 4 of this manual). For the standard effort (D698), the
number of rammer blows, and the number of layers of soil material is placed in the mold in three layers, and five layers
to which compaction is applied in the mold. Both test meth- are used for the modified effort (D1557). After each layer is
ods are used to determine the compaction characteristics of placed in the mold in a loose condition, compaction of that
a soil with a specified compactive effort. Fig. 1 shows the layer is achieved using the same rammers as specified for
number of layers, the mass of the rammer, the height of the Procedure A of each test method. For Procedure C, the
rammer drop, and a sample calculation of the compactive rammer is dropped 56 times while moving it around to uni-
effort for each of the two test methods. formly cover the surface of the layer.
The compaction characteristics are demonstrated by the The test method procedures for ASTM D698 and D1557
shape of the compaction curve, its relationship to the 100 % contain all of the details for performing each test. The
24 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
Height Height
of drop of drop
12 in 18 in
3 lifts 5 lifts
V=1/30 ft V=1/30 ft
Fig. 1—Standard Proctor energy application and modified Proctor energy application.
following items are provided to point out some precautions nearest 0.0001 ft3 (1 cm3). This measured volume (not the nom-
or provide suggestions for making the tests and checking for inal volume) must be used in calculating the unit weight values
errors or both. The basic steps and commentary on both test for the test results. Failure to use the actual volume of the mold
methods (D698 and D1557) are as follows: in favor of the nominal volume for calculating the unit weight
makes this one of the more common sources of error.
STEP 1
The material is screened over a certain size sieve as specified STEP 4
by the method. It is helpful for controlling the water content The upper collar is assembled on the mold and the soil is
to have the entire sample of material at a uniform water compacted in the mold in equal layers. The number of
content before dividing it into five or six specimens before layers, the rammer size, fall distance, and the number of
testing. The material may be dried, but this is not always blows are specified by the method and procedure. Because
necessary if the oversize can be removed without having a the soil is placed in the mold in a loose state then com-
lot of the finer portion sticking to the oversize. There is an pacted, the layer thickness before compaction is determined
advantage in dividing the soil into specimens of equal mass; by judgment and usually requires experience to obtain uni-
5 lbm (2.3 kg) is suggested for Procedures A and B and form compacted layer thicknesses. The procedure in the
13 lbm (5.9 kg) is suggested for Procedure C. standard gives guidance on control of the rammer guide
sleeve, on keeping the rammer vertical, and on the rate and
STEP 2 coverage of the rammer blows to the surface of the soil
The five or six specimens of the material are prepared at dif- layer. In addition, when using the manual rammer, care
ferent water contents, usually approximately 2 percentage should be exercised to prevent the rammer from bouncing
points apart with one specimen near the optimum water or impacting more than once for each blow by catching the
content and two specimens wet and two specimens dry of rammer handle after the first impact. All of these precau-
the optimum water content. It is suggested the specimen at tions are important in obtaining accurate results.
optimum water content be prepared first while keeping
track of the amount of water added to the specimen. The STEP 5
trial water content for optimum is based on judgment, and After all of the layers are compacted, the top collar is
some guidance is given in the test method for making these removed without disturbing the compacted soil in the mold.
judgments (add water until it clumps into a firm ball when This sometimes requires using a spatula or knife to separate
squeezed in the hand). The spread of 2–3 percentage points the compacted soil from around the inside edge of the collar
in water content and can be controlled by adding the before twisting it to remove it. After the collar is removed,
amount (mass) of water to bring the soil to the desired the top layer of soil is trimmed to be level with the top of
water content relative to the first trial water content for opti- the mold. As the soil is trimmed from the top of the mold,
mum. Each specimen is placed in an airtight container and some of the larger particles that protrude across the plane
allowed to “cure” (stand) for a period of time as specified in of the top of the mold may be removed, leaving a small
the ASTM procedure to allow the water content to become void. These voids should be filled in with finer soil particles
uniform throughout the specimen. using finger pressure to make it firm. The mass of the mold
filled with compacted moist soil is then determined on a
STEP 3 calibrated scale and the soil is removed from the mold.
The compaction mold is then assembled and the mass of the
empty mold is determined. Each mold must be periodically STEP 6
measured using precise calipers and an inside micrometer or The mass of the empty mold is subtracted from the total
by using the water filling method to see that its volume is mass and the unit weight of the moist, compacted specimen
within tolerance. The measured volume is recorded to the is calculated by dividing the mass of the moist soil by the
CHAPTER 3 n LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS 25
measured volume of the mold. Steps 3–6 above are repeated upward shape with a peak very near 100 % saturation and
for all of the five or six specimens and the results of wet unit another peak near a completely dry condition. Using clean
weight are compared to make sure two points will be located sands or gravels, it may be possible to have points plot very
on each side of the optimum water content. A comparison of close to the 100 % saturation line provided the soil can
wet unit weight values can be made to determine when two retain sufficient water during the compaction process.
points are on each side of the optimum water content. For soils having between approximately 5 % and 10 %
fines, the shape of the curve can be concave upward or
STEP 7 downward depending on the nature of the fines and their
Immediately after removing the soil from the mold, a sam- ability to overcome the bulking tendency of the sand par-
ple of the compacted soil is obtained from each of the com- ticles. No point should plot on the wet side of the 100 % sat-
paction test specimens for a water-content test or the entire uration curve for any soil.
specimen is used. The procedures outlined in the ASTM The standard and modified compaction test methods
Standard Test Methods give guidance on obtaining speci- (D698 and D1557) are most often used to represent compac-
mens for the water-content tests. ASTM Standard Test tion of soils having more than 10 % by weight of fines (pass-
Method D2216 is usually used to determine the water con- ing the No. 200 sieve). These soils are best compacted by
tent. Other methods of water content may be specified for a impact or kneading compaction. This includes use of sheeps-
specific project, such as when tests must be made in field foot rollers, vibrating sheepsfoot rollers, pneumatic rollers,
conditions where more rapid results are desired or where and impact manually directed compactors.
the specified oven is not available. These water-content test It should be noted that the compaction characteristics
methods may be D4959 (by direct heating), D4643 (by determined by these methods can be related to the soil index
microwave oven), or D4944 (by carbide gas pressure tester). properties of gradation, specific gravity, and plasticity. Soils
having different gradations, specific gravity, and plasticity will
STEP 8 have different compaction characteristics. Sometimes small
After the water-content samples have dried, the specified differences in these values can cause substantial differences
length of time in the temperature-controlled oven or by using in the compaction test results. The soil tested also has a cer-
other methods as may be specified and the water content are tain maximum particle size. If oversize particles were retained
calculated for each specimen, the dry density is calculated as on the sieve used in preparing the sample for testing and dis-
outlined in the procedure. Using an assumed or measured carded, the compaction characteristics may not represent the
value for specific gravity, the 100 % saturation line or zero-air characteristics of the total soil. Corrections can be made to
voids line is plotted. The dry density compaction curve is then the results to account for the oversize particles that were dis-
plotted. Sometimes a wet density curve may also be plotted. It carded. These corrections are explained in Chapter 4.
is a good idea to use the same graph scales each time for plot-
ting compaction curves so that the shape of the curves can be 2. ASTM D558, Test Methods for Moisture-Density
compared for different materials. Good curves can usually be Relationship of Soil-Cement Mixtures
obtained where a square grid is used with the unit weight in These test methods are used to determine the compaction
lbf/ft3 twice as large between grid points as the water content characteristics of a soil-cement mixture for the compactive
in percent; for example, 4 lbf/ft3 between grid points for unit effort of the test that is [12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3)], the
weight on the ordinate and 2 % water content between grid same as the standard compaction test (D698). The compac-
points on the abscissa. For example forms, see 3B, 4B, and 5B tion characteristics are demonstrated by the shape of the
in Appendix B. compaction curve and its relationship to the 100 % satura-
tion curve, and by the maximum dry unit weight and opti-
STEP 9 mum water-content values that are determined from the
Checks for errors should be made after the curves are plot- shape of the compaction curve. The compaction curve is
ted. For soils having more than 10 % fines (material passing plotted from the calculated results obtained by following the
the No. 200 sieve), the dry density curve should have a well- test procedures for a series of compaction specimens and
defined peak and a general concave downward parabolic constitutes the final results of the test.
shape. The wet side slope of the compaction curve should Two alternative procedures (methods) for the prepara-
become nearly parallel to the 100 % saturation curve so that tion of soil cement specimens are included that allow differ-
the soil is between approximately 88 % and 95 % saturated. ent maximum particle sizes in the test specimens. For each
Any compaction point wetter than 95 % saturation is likely in method, the particles larger than a specific size are removed
error. The percent saturation can be easily determined by from the soil by screening before the test is made. Both
dividing the water content at any point on the curve by the cor- methods require a 4-in. (101.6-mm) diameter mold that is
responding water content for 100 % saturation at the same 4.584 in. (116.4 mm) in height and has a volume of approxi-
unit weight (see equation 2 from chapter 2). If a relatively mately 1/30 ft3 (with some variance for dimension toleran-
smooth curve cannot be plotted or if errors are indicated from ces). Also, both methods use a 5.5 lbf (2.5 kg) rammer
percent saturation checks, the test should be done over again dropped from a height of 12 in. (305 mm). The rammer
using another portion of the sample (not previously com- drops are 25 times on each of three layers for both methods.
pacted) if possible. If errors are indicated from percent satura- The rammer is moved around to uniformly cover the sur-
tion checks, then the compaction curve or specific gravity tests face of the layer while making the drops. If a manual
should be retested. Fig. 2 shows an example of the determina- rammer is used, it must be equipped with a guide sleeve that
tion of the curve and a check for percent saturation. controls the drop height and has certain requirements for
For sand or gravelly sand soils having less than approxi- clearance between the rammer head and the sleeve. These
mately 5 % fines, the dry density curve may have a concave requirements are detailed in the test method.
26 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
120
116
115 17%
Theoretical curve at
110
108
105
100
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Moisture content−percent
SM/ML
Classification ___________ Specific gravity Compaction
Gravel 13
________% 2.66
Minus no. 4 ________ Method____________________________
Sand 40
________% Bulk ________ 13
Percentage larger than tested ________
Fines 47
________% Fines ________ Maximum dry unit weight 114.0
________lbf/ft3
Note: Theorectical curve at complete saturation and the zero air voids curve from Chapter 2 are one and same.
• Determine the 100% saturation curve using selected dry density values with the
following formula (equation 2-2):
⎡ γwater 1 ⎤
wsat (%) = 100 × ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ γd Gs ⎦
1. For γd of 116 lb/cf
⎡ 62.4 1 ⎤
wsat (%) = 100 × ⎢ −
⎣ 116 2.66 ⎥⎦
= 15.8%
2. For γd of 108 lb/cf
⎡ 62.4 1 ⎤
wsat (%) = 100 × ⎢ −
⎣ 108 2.66 ⎥⎦
= 20.2%
• Check the percent saturation at optimum moisture and maximum dry density.
For Method A, the material is screened to pass the No. 4 methods D559 and D560 and because some special techniques
sieve so that the largest particle in the test is 4.75 mm in apply specifically to soil cement. The procedures of the method
diameter. For Method B, the material is screened to pass the should be studied and strictly followed in making the test.
3/4-in. sieve. Special requirements for treatment of the par-
ticles between the 3/4-in. sieve and the No. 4 sieve are C. DESCRIPTION OF THE INDEX DENSITY AND
required when using Method B. UNIT WEIGHT TEST METHODS
The general procedures and precautions discussed for test As mentioned previously, for cohesionless, free-draining
methods D698 and D1557 apply to this method; however, soils, it is often more representative to use a relative density
some details differ because this test is used in conjunction with value as the standard reference for determining if an earth
CHAPTER 3 n LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS 27
or rock fill has adequate density. The index density and unit 1. ASTM D4253, Test Methods for Maximum Index
weight test methods are applicable for soils containing 15 % Density and Unit Weight of Soils Using a Vibratory
or less fines and a maximum particle size of 100 % passing Table, and ASTM D4254, Test Method for Minimum
the 3-in. sieve, provided the soils have cohesionless, free- Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils and
draining characteristics. This section provides a description Calculation of Relative Density
of the test methods that ASTM has developed for evaluating These test methods determine the minimum and maximum
the density of cohesionless, free-draining soil and rock using index dry density/unit weight that are then used to compute
a vertically vibrating table. the relative density/unit weight for design and field quality
150 150
140 140
130 130
120 120
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative density, percent
Note: Scale to plot as straight line
5
Sample no. _____________________ 3
Hole no. ______________________ 10
Depth _____________________ Ft.
4
Test no. ________________Station 12+40
________________ 6685
Elevation ________________ 28R
Offset _______________
control purposes. The relative density/unit weight expresses electromagnetic, eccentric, or cam-driven vibrating table pro-
the degree of compactness of a cohesionless soil with respect viding a sinusoid-like, time-vertical displacement relationship in
to the loosest or least dense and most dense condition as accordance with the requirements of ASTM D4253. Following
defined by standard laboratory procedures. Only when viewed the vibration, the height of the specimen is obtained for use in
against the possible range of variation, in terms of relative conjunction with the cross-sectional area of the mold to calcu-
density/unit weight, can the density/unit weight be related to late the volume of the specimen. The soil is then dried to
the compaction effort used to place the soil in a compacted obtain the moisture content of the sample, and the maximum
fill. In a similar manner, this relative density/unit weight also density/unit weight is computed by dividing the oven-dried
indicates a volume change and stress-strain tendencies of the mass of the soil specimen by the calculated volume.
soils when subjected to external loading. As with any test methods, some potential sources of error
The maximum index density/unit weight of a free-draining may occur during the testing of samples for maximum
soil is determined by placing an oven-dried soil (Test Methods density/unit weight. One potential source of error can occur
1A and 1B) or a wet soil (Test Method 2A and 2B) in an appro- if the water level during vibration is above the soil surface.
priately sized mold on the basis of the maximum particle size This testing condition can influence the impact of the vibra-
of the soil. After the soil is placed in the mold, a 2-lb/in.2 sur- tion on the surcharge weight, thereby providing a maximum
charge weight is applied to the surface of the soil and a vertical density/unit weight that would be lower than the actual value.
vibration is applied to the mold, the soil, and the surcharge Other potential sources of error include innapropriate use of
weight. The vertical vibration may be applied using an the test method for a given soil, segregation of the soil during
138
20
122
19
FD5
d, pcf
Dry unit weight,
d, kN/m3
114 18
FD13
FD9
17
06
2 pcf
1% 16
Scale ratio
98
One-point compaction tests from field density samples
15
Full (5-point) compaction tests
90
0 4 8 12 16 20
Water content, w, %
Fig. 4—Compaction curves and field unit weight tests for clean sand.
CHAPTER 3 n LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS 29
130
120
115
105
100
100 105 110 115 120 125
processing, increase in soil moisture due to condensation or which is the Terzaghi formula from equation 2-3 expressed
absorption of moisture in the air, or misalignment of the in terms of unit weight.
guide sleeve in the mold, or combinations thereof. These sour-
ces of potential error are typically minimized or eliminated cd max cd cd min
Dd ¼ 3 100 ð3-1Þ
by careful attention to detail or review of the test results by a cd cd max cd min
qualified geotechnical engineer or both.
The test method for minimum density/unit weight is where:
ASTM D4254 and it represents the theoretical loosest condi- Dd ¼ relative density
tion that can be attained by a cohesionless, free-draining soil cd ¼ in-place dry unit weight
using a standard laboratory procedure. The test method con- cdmax ¼ maximum dry unit weight
sists of loosely pouring an oven-dried cohesionless soil into a cdmin ¼ minimum dry unit weight
mold in a manner that prevents bulking, particle segrega- In practice, a relative density of 70 % or greater has been
tion, and compaction of the soil. Potential sources of error found to be satisfactory for most conditions. For field control,
include inadvertent jarring of the mold, impact compaction the value specified can be determined by the use of the chart in
of the soil’s particles if the soil is placed too fast, and segre- Fig. 3. Individuals who want to use a comparison of the maxi-
gation of the soil when filling the mold. Adhering to the mum unit weight to control an earth fill can use one test (i.e.,
requirements of the test method minimizes these potential D4253), and those who want to use the relative density proce-
sources of error. dure can use both test procedures (i.e., D4253 and D4254).
Experience has shown that for a clean sand, maximum Experience has also demonstrated [1] that impact compac-
dry density and minimum dry density are not independent tion tests (ASTM D698 or ASTM D1557, or both) can also be
variables, thereby indicating that there is a relationship applied to clean sands and gravels to get similar results for the
between these values. Because this is the case, it may not be maximum dry unit weight as those provided by the vibrating
necessary to measure both values. If the in-place sands and table method. Fig. 4 shows this relationship. Fig. 5 [2] shows a
gravels are consistent, then the compaction can also be con- correlation between a one-point ASTM D698 test and relative
trolled or checked by comparing the in-place measured val- density values for 29 clean filter sands. When using these meth-
ues to the maximum unit weight. The ASTM Standard Test ods it is important to note that particle breakdown may also
Method for Determination of Relative Density includes the cause problems with obtaining consistent test results; therefore,
measurement of maximum and minimum unit weight of the regular observations and confirmatory gradation tests may have
soil and the calculation of relative density by using two to be conducted to provide representative testing information.
standard test methods. ASTM Designation D4253 is the
ASTM Standard Test Method for Maximum Index Density References
and Unit Weight of Soils Using a Vibrating Table. ASTM Des-
[1] Poulos, S.J., “Compaction Control and the Index Unit Weight,”
ignation D4254 is the ASTM Standard Test Method for Mini- Geotech. Test. J., Vol. 11, 1988, pp. 100–108.
mum Index Density and Unit Weight of Soils and [2] McCook, D., “Correlations between a Simple Field Test and Rel-
Calculation of Relative Density. The value of relative density ative Density Values,” Technical Note, J. Geotech. Eng., Vol.
is then obtained by using a formula such as equation 3-1, 122, 1996, pp. 860–862.
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
4
Standard Test Procedures for Determining
Density or Unit Weight of Soil in Place
A. PURPOSE AND USE OF IN-PLACE measured by filling it with sand having a known unit weight. The
DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT TESTS apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. See Photo 5C in Appendix C.
In-place density or unit weight tests are performed on the soil To ensure consistency and accuracy of the test results, the
to determine the undisturbed or in-place soil properties for surface of the fill where the hole is to be made must be
field quality-control purposes to determine whether an earth smooth. A template or base plate is placed over the spot where
or rock fill has been compacted to the desired or specified the hole is to be made before beginning the excavation. The
density or unit weight. The field in-place density tests are also base plate has a machined receptacle ring or guide to receive
conducted for making comparisons and calculations related a metal cone attached to a container that holds a known
to volume and weight relationships such as void ratio or amount of sand. The volume of sand used in the hole is usu-
degree of saturation. For design purposes, the tests are often ally calculated from the known unit weight of sand and deter-
conducted to provide information for calculating soil loads or minations of the mass of sand in the container before and
stresses within a soil mass or exerted by a soil mass. Another after filling the hole. An apparatus having a valved orifice, fun-
important reason for these test procedures is to assist in the nel, and cone is used to place the sand in the hole. There is a
control and management of the borrow area by providing mass of sand required to fill the apparatus cone and the base
information for calculating volume differences between exca- plate, which must also be determined before the test is made
vated volume and the volume of the compacted fill areas. so it can be subtracted from the total mass of the sand used.
The material excavated from the hole is placed in a plas-
B. STANDARD TESTS FOR DETERMINING tic bag or other waterproof container and transported to a
IN-PLACE DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT field laboratory where the mass and the water content of the
This section provides a description of the methods that are material removed from the hole are determined. The wet
most often used for the determination of in-place density or and dry unit weight and the water content of the in-place
unit weight. To assist the practitioner in earthwork application, soil can be calculated from the determinations of mass of
the description of the test methods also provides a listing of material taken from the hole, the volume of the hole, and
common applications, advantages, disadvantages, and poten- the water content of the material from the hole. The water
tial sources of error. The most common ASTM test methods content of the soil is determined by using one of the stand-
that are used to measure the in-place density or unit weight ard test methods explained in Chapter 5 of this manual.
are the following:
• D1556—Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the APPLICATIONS
Sand cone Method (sand cone method) This test is used on cohesive soils including all fine-grained
• D2167—Density and Unit Weight of Soil in Place by the soils (CL, ML, CH, MH) and silty or clayey sands or gravelly
Rubber Balloon Method (rubber balloon method) sands (SM, SC) or silty or clayey sandy gravels (GM, GC) with
• D6938—In-Place Density and Water Content of Soil and particles up to approximately 1.5 in. in diameter (see ASTM
Soil-Aggregate by Nuclear Methods (nuclear method) D4287). Most users limit the test to these materials; however, it
• D2937—Density of Soil in Place by the Drive Cylinder can be used on materials containing larger particles by using
Method (drive cylinder method) a 12-in.-diameter cone to provide a test-hole volume large
• D4564—Density of Soil in Place by the Sleeve Method enough to be representative of the soil. This test is generally
(sleeve method) not used on noncohesive soils or soft, saturated soils because
• D4914—Density of Soil in Place by the Sand Replace- it is difficult to maintain a stable hole while performing the
ment Method in a Test Pit (sand replacement method) test. The test procedure in the ASTM D1556 test method pro-
• D5030—Density of Soil in Place by the Water Replace- vides a more detailed list of explanations and precautions.
ment Method in a Test Pit (water replacement method)
• D5080—Rapid Determination of Percent Compaction ADVANTAGES
(rapid method) Because a hole is excavated in the in-place soil, the tester can
visually observe the nature of the soil being tested and make
1. Sand cone Method (D1556) judgments relating to whether it is representative of the fill. If
The purpose of the sand cone test is to determine the volume a large enough volume of soil is removed, then a one-point
and mass of soil material from a hole excavated into the com- compaction test can be performed on the soil removed from
pacted fill. The test is made by excavating a hole in the compacted the excavating hole, thereby making sure the maximum den-
fill and saving all of the material that is removed in a covered sity and optimum water content used for comparison are the
container to prevent moisture loss. The volume of the hole is correct ones. When the sand cone test is used as part of the
30
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
CHAPTER 4 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL IN PLACE 31
Calibrated sand
Valve
Pins to hold down plate Metal cone
Base plate
rapid method (D5080), the in-place density is measured and a to bridging across irregularities. Sand that is too coarse will
rapid three-point compaction test is performed on the mate- also be subject to bridging across irregularities. Sand that is
rial excavated from the hole. When used together, the rapid too fine will be subject to large changes in unit weight from
method (D5080) and sand cone method (ASTM D1556) pro- changes in atmospheric humidity. The standard test method
vide a good way to achieve accurate results within a few procedure spells out the limits for the type and gradation of
hours. With the sand cone test, the oversize particles can be the sand that must be adhered to for accurate testing.
removed from the material excavated from the hole by Sand should never be reused without screening out all
screening to determine the exact percentage of oversize or of the fines, drying it, and allowing the temperature to stabi-
determine the properties of the oversize, such as their mass lize. Sand should be stored in a dry location where the tem-
and volume. It is important to note that the accuracy of the perature is approximately the same as the air temperature at
test is very much operator dependent, and careful attention the location where the tests are to be made. The sand should
should be given to all of the measurements and calculations be kept in containers that will protect it from contamination
involved in the test procedures. with soil, dust, moisture, or any foreign matter.
avoid vibrating the sand in any way, such as while striking side, the hole must be reshaped above it to eliminate any
off the sand to the top of the container, because this will overhang that would cause voids as the sand flows into the
increase the unit weight to a higher value than the value that hole. Overhangs at the soil contact surface with the plate
will be measured in the field. To minimize this potential must also be avoided. Care should be exercised not to
source of error once the strike-off is completed, the con- deform the material surrounding the sides of the hole dur-
tainer can be vibrated to densify the sand below the rim so ing excavation. This can cause inconsistencies in the volume
spilling can be avoided. measurement with the test sand. Working on boards or tak-
One potential source of error is an increase in the mois- ing other measures to avoid excessive pressures on the sides
ture content of the sand because of changes in atmospheric of the excavation may be required.
humidity. Many users of the sand cone method simply do Care should be exercised to prevent loss of any soil
not determine the unit weight of the sand often enough. excavated from the hole or loss of any moisture from the
Most sand, particularly finer sand, is highly susceptible to soil during the testing process. All of the excavated soil
bulking and volume changes with small changes in water should be carefully and quickly placed in a container with a
content. The water content can change significantly with a lid or sealed in a plastic bag to prevent moisture loss until
change in atmospheric humidity as a water film is formed the wet density is determined and a water content specimen
over the surface of sand particles. In some humid climates, is obtained. The container of material from the hole should
the unit weight of the sand may need to be determined as not be stored where direct sunlight on the container will
often as several times each day, whereas in dry climates cause condensation and drying of the soil. Minor changes in
once each week may be enough. The needed frequency can the temperature of the soil after it is excavated will drive
be determined by comparing the results with previous tests. water out and onto the container sides, making the water
If the results are the same each time, the frequency of test- content measurement inaccurate.
ing can likely be reduced.
An associated procedure necessary for this test is the Placement of Sand in the Hole
determination of the volume of the apparatus cone and the The main precautions and potential sources of error for the
plate above a level surface. This determination should be placement of the sand are as follows: (1) place the cone in
made regularly (usually at the same time as the sand calibra- the plate in a vertical position, (2) carefully align the cone in
tion). Care should be taken to align the cone in the same the plate at the marked location used previously for determin-
location on the plate each time because slight warping or ing the volume of the cone and plate, (3) quickly open and
manufactured irregularities cause a different volume of sand close the valve to a fully open and fully closed position at the
to be used with differing alignments. See Fig. 6B in Appendix beginning and end of the sand placement to minimize vibra-
B for the sample form, “Bulk Sand Density Determination tion and provide consistent flow of the sand, and (4) stop all
and Calibration of the Cone and Base Plate.” equipment or other sources of vibration within at least 100 ft
of the test location while the valve to the sand cone is open.
Preparing the Soil Surface at the Test Location
Calibration of the volume of the cone and base plate is made Obtaining Water-Content Specimens
with the base plate on a smooth, level surface. To be accurate, The water-content test can be made using any one of five
the field condition should have a smooth, level surface before procedures outlined in Chapter 5 of this manual. The specifi-
starting the hole excavation. It is sometimes difficult to obtain cations should indicate which test is to be used to avoid con-
such a surface on the earth fill, particularly if the soil con- fusion or dispute. To provide a representative moisture-
tains some gravel-size particles that stick up or cause holes in content sample, the sample should be divided and processed
the surface. When a level surface cannot be obtained, the test enough to break up clods and other nonhomogeneous soil
procedure allows for an initial measurement of the test cone conditions. The water content can be determined by using a
volume and base plate on the prepared non-smooth surface representative portion of the in-place test material with a
using sand from a second container. If this method is used, minimum sample size as required by the ASTM test meth-
all of the sand should be cleaned up before the hole is exca- ods. On many projects it is standard practice to run a field
vated. The cleanup of the sand is best achieved when a thin moisture-content test with a confirmation oven-dry moisture
membrane is placed on the surface before the initial sand vol- content in accordance with ASTM D2216. If this process is
ume measurement is made. used, then the sample should be combined and then divided
into samples of appropriate size for the field and oven-dry
Excavating the Hole and Retaining the Soil moisture content.
To minimize the potential errors, the hole should be as large If the Standard Practice D4718 for Correction of Unit
as is practical. After the test area has been prepared with a Weight and Water Content of Soils Containing Oversize Par-
smooth surface, the base plate is set and not moved until the ticles is used, the water-content specimen should contain a rep-
hole is excavated and the sand is placed in the hole. Some resentative portion of the oversize material. The dried specimen
base plates have provisions for driving a pin through the should be saved and screened to determine the percentage of
plate in each corner to secure it to the soil surface and oversize material as a percentage of the total sample.
reduce the potential for movement during the testing. If the
base plate does not have provisions for securing it to the soil Equipment Care
surface, marks on the soil surface or a large spike can be The equipment used in the sand cone test is generally not a
driven next to each side to secure the base plate. large source of error. The most common errors caused by
In excavating the hole, care should be exercised to equipment are balance scales out of adjustment or ovens
ensure that the hole is conical shaped with smooth sides and with the wrong temperature. The sand cone apparatus
no overhangs. If a gravel-size particle is removed from the should be handled carefully to prevent damage, such as
CHAPTER 4 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL IN PLACE 33
distortion and poor fit with the base plate. Straight edges and is subtracted from the final reading when the volume of
used to strike off calibration containers must be kept the hole is measured. This allows for some small irregular-
straight. ities in the prepared surface before the hole excavation is
started, and these will need to be accounted for in the initial
Records of Testing reading. The equipment must be calibrated using a known
Sample forms for recording test data and the final test volume container before the test is made. Pressure adjust-
record can be found in Figs. 7B and 8B of Appendix B. ments are used to achieve the proper volume measurements.
The equipment must allow for weights to be added to the
Quality-Control Checks apparatus to keep it from being pushed up by the pressure
Some quality-control checks can be made to determine if the in the balloon. The operator must ensure sufficient weights
final test results using the sand cone method are reasonable. have been added to prevent any movement of the apparatus.
See Chapter 6, Section E for details on these checks. Small movements can cause large errors in the results.
As with sand cone test, once the material has been exca-
2. Rubber Balloon Method (D2167) vated from the hole, the container of excavated material is
The purpose of the rubber balloon test is to determine the transported to a field laboratory where the mass and water
volume and mass of soil material from a hole excavated into content of the material removed from the hole are deter-
the compacted fill. After the volume and mass of the hole mined. The wet and dry unit weight and the water content
for the rubber balloon method have been determined, the of the in-place soil can be calculated from the determina-
values are converted to a wet density/unit weight that is used tions of mass of the material taken from the hole, the vol-
to compute the dry density from the measurement of in- ume of the hole, and the water content of the material from
place moisture content. This test is made by excavating a the hole. The water content of the soil is determined by
hole in the compacted fill and carefully saving all of the using one of the standard test methods explained in Chapter 5
material that is removed in a covered container to prevent of this manual.
moisture loss. The volume of the hole is measured using an
apparatus that uses fluid (typically water) under pressure to APPLICATIONS
inflate a rubber balloon in the hole. The volume of the hole This test is typically used on cohesive soils, including all fine-
is determined by measuring the volume of liquid required to grained soils (CL, ML, CH, MH) and silty or clayey sands or
fill the balloon. The apparatus for this test is shown in Fig. 2 gravelly sands (SM, SC) or silty or clayey sandy gravels (GM,
and 6C in Appendix C. GC) with less than 5 % oversize fraction. It is generally not
As with the sand cone test, the surface where the hole practical to use this method on soils having particles larger
will be excavated is made smooth and a template or base than 3/4 in. because the larger particles create voids and
plate is placed over the spot where the hole is to be made irregularities that the balloon cannot accurately measure.
before beginning the excavation. The base plate is machined This test is generally not used on noncohesive soils or soft,
to fit the base of the balloon apparatus. The balloon appara- wet, or saturated soils because it is difficult to maintain a
tus is equipped so that an externally controlled pressure and stable hole while performing the test. See the test procedure
a small vacuum can be applied to a fluid chamber, which is in ASTM D2167 for additional explanation and precautions.
connected to a rubber balloon. The rubber balloon appara-
tus is designed so that the balloon can be inflated with fluid ADVANTAGES
in a downward direction into the base plate and hole. The Because a hole is excavated in the compacted soil, the tester
amount of fluid to fill the hole is measured by reading a vol- can visually observe the nature of the soil being tested and
ume indicator on the fluid reservoir before and after inflat- make judgments relating to whether it is representative of
ing the balloon. An initial volume of the space between the the fill. A compaction test can be performed on the soil
apparatus and the prepared surface (including the space cre- removed by excavating the hole; thereby making sure the
ated by the base plate) is made before the hole is excavated maximum density and optimum water content used for com-
parison are the correct ones. When the rubber balloon test
is used as part of the rapid method (D5080), a three-point
compaction test is performed on material excavated near the
test site and representative of the material removed from the
Scale test hole. Testing for the water content is not necessary, mak-
ing this a very good test for accurate results within approxi-
mately 2 h. With the rubber balloon test, the oversize
particles can be removed with a screen to determine the
Soil sample exact percentage of oversize or to determine the properties
removed Hand pump for air pressure
of the oversize, such as their mass and volume. The accuracy
Pump control valve of the test is very much operator dependent, and careful
attention should be given to all of the measurements and
calculations involved in the test procedures.
Rubber
balloon
Compacted soil DISADVANTAGES
The test is rather labor intensive and takes considerable time
to complete one test at one location. The construction proc-
ess must be disrupted or at least curtailed for a period of
Fig. 2—Rubber balloon method (ASTM D2167). time near the location of the test to provide safe access for
34 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
those performing the test and to reduce the potential for double balloon. The operator should always observe closely
vibration, which may cause inaccuracies in the test results. The for leaks along the surface of the balloon, at the connection
results of the test may not be available for up to 1 h and up to at the top of the balloon, at the pump, and at the valves.
1 day if the oven-dry method is used to determine the water
content. The graduated cylinder may be made of glass and sub- Excavating the Hole and Retaining the Soil
ject to breakage from field use. The whole operation is depend- As indicated above during the previous description of the
ent on the proper functioning of a rubber bulb assembly to sand cone method, a larger hole is desirable to reduce the
increase or decrease air pressure. As the bulb deteriorates, leak- influence of errors. The base plate is set and an initial read-
age may be a problem and the test results become inaccurate. ing is taken using the rubber balloon apparatus. The base
plate is not moved until the hole is excavated and the final
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR reading is made using the apparatus to inflate the balloon in
The rubber balloon method has precautions and potential the hole, which was excavated within the opening in the
sources of error that should be understood to minimize the plate. Larger hole volumes typically require a larger rubber
influence of the errors on the test results. The most signifi- balloon apparatus. Smaller apparatus (using small balloons)
cant precautions and potential sources of error for this will not work in large holes because the balloon will not
method are as follows. stretch far enough to provide accurate readings. Using a
hole smaller than those specified in the test method affects
Calibration of the Apparatus the precision and invalidates the test.
The calibration of the apparatus is explained in the Annex of In excavating the hole, care should be exercised to
the ASTM test method for D2167. The procedure should be ensure that the hole is conical shaped with generally smooth
followed closely to minimize the potential sources of error. sidewalls, no overhangs, or sharp intrusions or extrusions
For the calibration of the apparatus, the container of known from the surface of the hole. If a gravel-size particle is
volume should be approximately the same size as the hole removed from the side, the hole must be reshaped above it
that will be excavated in the field test to minimize inherent to eliminate any overhangs and narrow cavities in the near
dimensional influence and edge effects. If the compaction vicinity of where the particle was removed. Overhangs at the
molds specified in the compaction standards (D698 or contact with the plate must also be avoided. Care should be
D1557) are used, their measured volume must be determined exercised to not deform the material surrounding the sides
and used in the calibration comparison rather than using the of the hole during excavation of the hole.
nominal volume of the mold (e.g., 1/30 ft3). If water is used Care should be exercised to prevent loss of the soil or
to determine the volume of the compaction mold, it may moisture, or both from the material excavated from the hole
require a gasket at the base plate connection, which should before obtaining samples for the moisture/density computations.
be left in place during the volume measurement using the The material excavated from the hole should be placed in a
rubber balloon apparatus. Calibration is recommended peri- container with a lid or sealed in a plastic bag to prevent any
odically (i.e., annually as a minimum) even if the equipment moisture loss until the mass is determined and a water-
has not been repaired or subject to any observable damage. content specimen is obtained. The container of material from
the hole should not be stored where direct sunlight on the
Expelling Air from the Fluid and the Hole container will cause heating of the soil and drive moisture
Ways of expelling air from the known volume containers out of the soil and onto the container sides, making the
during calibration are explained in the calibration procedure water-content measurement inaccurate. The material from
in the Annex of the test method. Expelling air from the exca- the hole should be protected until all necessary tests are
vated holes in the field is usually not a problem, but placing made on it. When appropriate, ASTM D4718 may have to be
a string down the side of the hole as explained in the calibra- used to correct for oversize particles.
tion procedure may be needed when the material in the hole
is smooth, such as for a compacted clay soil. Obtaining Water-Content Specimens
The water-content test can be made using any one of five
Determining Weights to be procedures outlined in Chapter 5 of this manual. The specifi-
Applied for Various Pressures cations should indicate which test is to be used to avoid con-
Very slight movements of the apparatus caused by an fusion and provide consistency as part of a structured
increase in the fluid pressure can cause significant errors in testing program. The water content is typically determined
the test results. Sufficient weight must be applied to the using a thoroughly mixed portion of the in-place test mate-
apparatus so that the fluid pressure does not lift the appara- rial. If ASTM Standard Practice D4718 for Correction of Unit
tus. Fluid pressure of 5 psi can cause up to 100 lb of uplift Weight and Water Content of Soils Containing Oversize Par-
for large holes. If the weight to hold the apparatus down is ticles is used, then the water-content specimen should contain
supplied by the operator standing on the apparatus, another a representative portion of the oversize material. For samples
person may have to take the readings so a constant load can requiring oversize correction, the dried moisture content spec-
be applied to the apparatus. To provide consistent results, imen should be saved and mixed back with the total sample
the same amount of weight should be used on the apparatus for screening and determining the percentage of oversize in
during testing as during calibration. the total sample.
The rubber balloon apparatus is not recommended for
testing where the soils contain sharp, angular particles Equipment Care
because they may puncture the balloon. Using a double bal- The equipment manufacturer’s recommendations for care of
loon may help solve this problem, but if a double balloon the equipment should be followed to minimize damage that
thickness is used, the apparatus must be calibrated using a could cause erroneous test results. Care should be exercised in
CHAPTER 4 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL IN PLACE 35
penetrates easier than the other. When this occurs, the soil the cutting edge can be sharpened; however, a careful deter-
is cut in an elliptical shape so that there are voids on one mination of the volume is necessary after the sharpening
side and sidewall disturbance on the other. When a drive cyl- procedure is completed. The volume and mass of the cylin-
inder is driven crooked, the test should be stopped and der should be checked often. Distortion of the cylinder edge
moved to a new location because the results will be in error. or sidewall can substantially change the volume. A change in
volume will cause a corresponding change in the sample
Equipment Size mass when the cylinder is used in wet or dry conditions.
Some commercially available drive cylinder equipment is Care should be exercised in following the steps outlined in
too small to meet the sample size requirements for accurate the ASTM test procedure to determine the volume because it
testing. A minimum diameter of 4 in. is recommended. is critical to accurate test results. As required for all density
tests, the balance scales and ovens should be calibrated at
Coarse Fragments or Gravel Size Particles regular intervals. Straight edges used to strike off calibration
During driving of the cylinder rock, fragments can be containers must be kept straight.
encountered by the cylinder cutting edge. If the rock is
pushed ahead of the cylinder, the material is disturbed and Records of Testing
a groove is made in the soil that is retained in the cylinder. Sample forms for recording test data and final test records
Void caused by rock or gravel fragments in the soil can be can be found in Figs. 11B and 12B of Appendix B.
detected when the ends are trimmed or when the soil is
removed from the cylinder, or both. The results of tests with Quality-Control Checks
voids due to gravel are questionable and should not be used. To minimize the number and degree of the potential sources
of error, quality-control checks should be made on a regular
Overdriving the Cylinder into the Soil interval to determine if the final test results are reasonable
Overdriving may result in deformation or compression of the and consistent. See Chapter 6, Section E for a summary and
sample such that the unit weight measurement is incorrect. details on the procedures of the quality-control checks.
(a) (b)
Gauge
Gamma photon Soil
source Gamma photon surface
detector
Soil
surface
Paths of gamma
photons
Sample area
Gamma
Sample area Paths of photon
gamma photons source
(c) (d)
Slow neutron
detector
Soil
surface Soil
surface
Fig. 4—(a) Backscatter density measurement; (b) Direct transmission density measurement; (c) Backscatter moisture measurement; and
(d) Air-gap density measurement.
density. If the latter situation is the case, then an appropriate transmission mode. This method can also provide nondestruc-
sample needs to be taken from the soil under the gauge and tive testing of compacted soil covers for synthetic membrane
an alternative water content method should be utilized. liners by using the backscatter mode. The nuclear method also
The density measurement and the water-content mea- provides more convincing results because of a perceived high
surement are covered by ASTM D6938, Standard Test Meth- technology and fewer perceived operator errors.
ods for In-Place Density and Water Content of Soil and Soil-
Aggregate by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth). DISADVANTAGES
Some of the disadvantages of the nuclear gauge for soil
ADVANTAGES compaction control testing are as follows. Depending on the
The advantages of the nuclear gauge for soil compaction con- applicable nuclear regulatory guidelines, there can be cum-
trol testing are as follows. The tests can be performed in a short bersome and costly licensing requirements, fees, inspections,
time period, making it possible to perform more tests for more and work associated with the owning, operating, special stor-
complete coverage of an earth fill during construction. There is age, and transporting requirements of the gauges. Operator
typically less disruption to the construction operations because training and certification are required to use the gauge, and
of the speed and nature of the testing and the ability to provide operators also must be part of a radiation exposure detec-
more rapid information to help ensure timely corrective action tion program when operating the nuclear gauge.
of defective work. The gauge has the ability to take multiple It is important to note that the nuclear gauge can be sub-
tests with consistency and good repeatability of test results. This ject to several potential errors due to field conditions and soil
method can also provide nondestructive testing of compacted chemistry. The backscatter mode for density measurement is
soil covers for synthetic membrane liners by using the backscat- biased toward the surface layers of the soil, is very sensitive to
ter mode. The nuclear method, if properly used, can provide a the surface condition of the test site, and can provide inconsis-
rapid testing for density at multiple depths using the direct tent density measurements. The water-content measurements
38 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
are all made by the backscatter mode, and this measurement in soil are in the form of water (H2O); however, it is com-
method is biased to the moisture content present in the near- mon for hydrogen other than water to be present in the soil.
surface layers of soil. The moisture-content measurement Possible sources of hydrogen in the soil include hydrocar-
tends to penetrate deeper in drier soil, but rarely exceeds bons, hydrous minerals (e.g., gypsum), clay minerals, and
approximately 6 in. (15 cm) in depth. The water content meas- organic matter in the soil. This type of soil chemistry often
urements are also affected by the soil chemistry. A correction results in a correction factor that may run as low as 1 % to
must be applied to the gauge reading for the effects of as high as 10 percentage points in highly micaceous soils.
bound hydrogen in the soil. The proper adjustment of the Hydrogen in forms other than water typically results in
nuclear gauge for errors caused by soil chemistry requires water-content measurements in excess of the true value. The
some awareness and skill by the field operators. correction factor is nearly always negative, thereby reducing
the gauge water content reading and increasing the dry den-
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR sity computed by the gauge. Some chemical elements such
The nuclear density and moisture-content method(s) have as boron, chlorine, and minute quantities of cadmium will
precautions and potential sources of error that should be cause measurements lower than the true value that will
understood to minimize the influence on the test results. The require a positive correction factor. Before the nuclear
most significant precautions and potential sources of error gauge is used for soil/aggregate density and water-content
for this method are as follows. control, it must be calibrated to determine the site/location-
specific water content correction for each material type that
Test Location Selection, Preparation, is tested. This is done by taking nuclear gauge readings in
and Site-Specific Gauge Calibration the appropriate materials, sampling these materials from
To ensure representative test results, a good visual or physical directly under the gauge, and determining the water content
inspection of the soil surface should be made for anomalies by acceptable alternate methods. The most common and
because visual observation of the soil tested is typically not consistent method is the oven-dry method (ASTM D2216),
inherent in the test method. Nuclear gauges cannot be used but this method typically takes a 12-h period to obtain
close to trench walls, vertical banks or walls, or certain mate- results. Other methods that provide more rapid moisture
rials such as steel pipes without some special corrections or content measurements are the ASTM D4643 microwave
test procedures to ensure accurate test results. Special calibra- method, the ASTM D4959 direct heating method, and the
tion may be needed for certain “nonstandard” soils contain- ASTM D4944 gas pressure tester method. The latter method
ing compounds that affect nuclear gauge operation. should be the last choice because of inaccuracies caused by
For nuclear gauges that are capable of direct transmis- the small sample size, particularly with soils of higher plas-
sion measurements of soil density using a source probe, it is ticity where the sample size is further reduced to accommo-
recommended to have a source probe length that allows test- date the higher water-content range.
ing up to a 12-in. depth. The gauge should be capable of accu- The water-content correction method for the nuclear
rately measuring wet density and water content with a simple gauge is reliable if the difference in the measured water con-
correction procedure for the water-content measurements. tent between the nuclear gauge and other water-content meth-
The nuclear gauge is calibrated for a standard material ods is fairly consistent (i.e., less than a 1–2 % difference
by the manufacturer before being delivered to the pur- between the gauge and the check methods) for the soil type.
chaser. This calibration is accomplished using a set of stand- If the difference is quite variable within the same soil type,
ard blocks and historical curve data to cover the range of then the nuclear water-content measurement should be aban-
densities normally found in mineral soils. Checking instru- doned and one of the alternate soil water content methods
ment calibration and any adjustments of calibration should substituted. The gauge can still be relied on for the wet den-
be done in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommen- sity, and with the entry of an alternate water content, the
dations and in accordance with the procedures and intervals gauge will compute an accurate dry density for the soil tested.
recommended in ASTM D6938. Once the calibration is veri- A practical application of the procedure for water-con-
fied, the daily standardization count required at the start of tent correction is as follows:
each day’s use is a reasonable indicator that the instrument 1. Take water-content readings at a minimum of three differ-
is in satisfactory condition and may be used to give reliable ent locations in the same soil or soil-rock material. These
results. It is important to note that this daily gauge calibra- readings can be made in the borrow area or in fill materi-
tion does not preclude the need for operator skill and knowl- als as they are brought to the fill area and processed for
edge of the soil materials and the influence of their compaction. The gauge will be in the 1-min setting for
properties on the use of the gauge. Field adjustments using most field work. One 4-min reading may be taken if a
other ASTM density and moisture-content methods to pro- higher degree of precision is determined to be significant.
vide verification may be required to develop moisture and at 2. Obtain a sample of representative material from the top
times density offsets that take into consideration the unique 6 in. directly under the gauge at each location tested
properties of the soil. Regardless of the verification test and determine the water content by one of the previ-
method used, prior knowledge of the soil materials is essen- ously discussed ASTM Standard Test Methods. The mini-
tial for the proper use of the nuclear density gauge. mum size for each sample should be as specified in the
appropriate ASTM Standard Test Method.
Water-Content Correction 3. Using the average of the three water-content values, deter-
A water-content correction is generally needed in the field mine the bias or correction value for that type of soil mate-
for ordinary soil compaction control work when using the rial. Be alert for single values that are significantly
nuclear density gauge. The nuclear gauge uses neutrons to different from the other values. These should be discarded
detect hydrogen ions in the soil material. Most of these ions and a new test performed to replace the suspect value.
CHAPTER 4 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING DENSITY OR UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL IN PLACE 39
4. Repeat the procedure for each soil type to be used in recommended calibration interval should be followed to
the fill operations and for any new materials added as ensure that the gauge is operating with the desired accuracy
the work progresses. The fill is probably the preferred at all times. Daily standardization and checking for each
location for testing and sampling soils for water correc- instrument do not necessarily relate to proper calibration.
tion because the borrow source often has a stratification
of materials and natural moisture variability. Sampling Recognizing Erroneous Readings
of blended materials is acceptable as long as the blend- One common error is associated with gauges that have a
ing process can be reasonably controlled and is also manual set for the testing depth of the probe in direct trans-
reflected in the preparation of the standard reference mission. The manual set and the probe depth must be in
density being used for compaction control. agreement for a good reading. Because most new gauges
5. For larger projects with a wide variety of fill materials have an automatic feature for this, the problem has been
and a range of moisture-content correction, it is good eliminated. As in any test, an understanding of the materials
engineering practice to develop a database of moisture- being tested is required to be able to recognize unrealistic
content corrections on the basis of material classifica- testing values and then find the reason for those values.
tions and the most recent moisture-content corrections.
This method will allow the nuclear gauge operator and Correction for Oversize Particles
engineer to track trends in the moisture offset used and The nuclear gauge measures the mass density of the soil or
make corrections depending on the location in the bor- a soil-rock mixture. A correction will have to be made if the
row area. quantity of oversize is greater than 5 % more than what was
When determining the water-content correction, it may used in the standard reference density test. See Section B of
be useful to plot the nuclear gauge water content versus the Chapter 6 of this manual for the procedure for making over-
oven-dry (or other alternate method) water content to get a size rock corrections. Another consideration is to rotate the
visual picture of the relationship. This procedure will allow gauge and take multiple readings to determine if the over-
detection of a change that is increasing or decreasing in size is consistent or just one large rock.
magnitude. This procedure may be useful in the case in
which the soil contains a significant portion of micaceous Selection of the Standard Reference Density
material and the water-content correction is not uniform. Because the nuclear gauge is a nondestructive test, sampling
the material under the gauge by digging it up is a good way
Field Density and Water Content Testing to look at the nature of all of the materials involved in the
Select the test site to be representative of the location, test. This may be enough to make a visual and textural identi-
depth, and fill lift that has been compacted and is ready for fication of the material and match it with a density standard.
testing. As discussed in other parts of this guide, this may be Other procedures for selecting the appropriate density stand-
a bias selection of a test site or it may be intended as a ran- ard are covered in Section E of Chapter 6 of this manual.
dom selection. Refer to ASTM D3665 Standard Practice for
Random Sampling of Construction Materials. It may be nec- Sleeve Method (D4564)
essary to excavate to the desired elevation in the fill by This test method is relatively new and was developed by
using a bulldozer, grader, or scraper blade as available. employees of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation for use in test-
After the test location has been selected, prepare the test ing uniform, granular soils used for pipeline bedding. The
surface in accordance with the procedures in ASTM D6938. density measurement is made by preparing a smooth, level
Select the desired depth for the gauge source probe on the working area and placing a base plate on the area. A thin
basis of the thickness and location with respect to depth of metal sleeve with a beveled cutting edge is rotated into the
the lift (layer of earth fill placed at a specific elevation on soil with the aid of a driver plate that fits on the top of the
the fill). Set this depth on the gauge and verify that the metal sleeve. The material inside of the sleeve is removed
gauge has recognized the testing depth. Take the measure- and placed in a container with a lid to protect against mois-
ment and record the wet density, water content, and the ture loss. Material can be removed in several stages during
resulting computed dry density. A sample form for record- insertion of the sleeve into the soil until the sleeve is level
ing test data and the final test record can be found in Figs. with the base plate. The bottom of the hole is made level
13B and 14B of Appendix B. Photos are in Appendix C. and measured by placing a measurement plate on the sur-
When testing gravelly or stony soils, there may be con- face of the bottom and measuring the depth to the surface
siderable variations in the distribution of the coarse fraction of the plate at four locations. The volume of the excavation
of material. For material with nonhomogeneous soil and is calculated using the inside diameter of the sleeve and the
gravel mixtures, take at least three tests by rotating the average depth of the excavation. The mass and the water
gauge around the source probe to a new location. After the content of the material removed from the sleeve are meas-
test is complete, it is also advisable to dig out part of the test ured and the in-place dry unit weight and water content are
area to inspect the in-place materials and visually verify the calculated and reported.
rock distribution and to sample the test area for measure- Because of the recent development of the test method,
ment of the oversized material fraction. Digging out the test there is not much information available on which to base
area is advisable any time there is a question about the uni- further guidance and potential sources of error. The proce-
formity or nature of the material being tested. dure provided in the test method should be followed and
care given to performing each step of the procedure and the
Calibration calibration. The nature of the test is such that a high degree
Calibration is very important for nuclear gauges. The calibra- of accuracy should not be expected and technical judgment
tion is explained in the Annex of ASTM D6938. The will be required to determine the applicability and accuracy
40 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
of the test method for the acceptance or rejection of con- The filling of the space between the top of the soil and ring
struction work. may require several containers of sand. The test hole is exca-
vated while saving the excavated material in containers that
APPLICATIONS can be closed to protect against moisture loss. The volume
The application of the sleeve method is typically limited to of the hole is determined by calculating the amount of sand
determining density on cohesionless, granular soils for used to fill the excavated hole and by using sand with a
which the sand cone, rubber balloon, drive cylinder, nuclear known unit weight. A calibrated pouring device is used to
gauge, and test pit methods are not practical. It has mainly help in achieving a uniform density of sand in the large
been used for testing the in-place unit weight for materials hole. Fig. 5 shows test pit configurations for this test.
used as a bedding and backfill for pipeline trenches. The Two methods are indicated in the procedure (Method A
sleeve method is typically applicable for soils that are cohe- and Method B). Method A is for determining the in-place
sionless with a maximum of 5 % fines and a maximum parti- mass unit weight of the fill for checking against some speci-
cle size of 3/4 in. fied unit weight value. Method B is used when the in-place
unit weight will be compared with a standard reference den-
Sand Replacement in a Test Pit Method (D4914) sity test (laboratory compaction test). When large particles
This test method is based on the same principles and proce- are removed in making the laboratory compaction test, a
dures as the sand cone test (ASTM D1556). The sand replace- correction for oversize must be made to the in-place test or
ment test is performed by positioning a metal ring or square the compaction test so that the comparison is made for soils
frame on a relatively flat surface. The ring can be round or with the same particle sizes.
rectangular and is usually 2–4 ft or more in diameter or side
dimension and is sufficiently rigid so as not to bend or APPLICATIONS
deform when performing the test. Calibrated sand is placed This test is specifically designed for determining the in-place
in the ring on the surface of the test location using a pour- unit weight of soil material containing a considerable amount
ing device that is calibrated before excavating the hole. The of gravel, cobble, or rock-size particles, or combinations
sand is leveled to the top of the ring surface and the amount thereof. These materials are often used in the outer shells of
of sand to fill the ring is measured on a mass per unit basis. zoned earthfill or rockfill dams or in some road fills. Other
2 d=D/3
in-place density test methods cannot be used for large-particle- temperature is approximately the same as the air temperature
size soils because the required limitations in the specimen at the location where the tests are to be made. The sand
and hole size make the required test hole size impractical. should be kept in containers that will protect it from contami-
This method uses the same principles as the sand cone test nation with soil, dust, moisture, or any foreign mater.
(ASTM D1556) but provides a large test hole volume to obtain
a representative sample of the soil/gravel in fill constructed Determining Unit Weight of Sand
with large particle material. The test results can be used to The unit weight of the standard sand is determined by plac-
compare the in-place unit weight against a specified unit ing the sand into a known volume container and determin-
weight or a percentage of a maximum unit weight as deter- ing the mass of the sand to fill the container. The mass of
mined by a standardized laboratory compaction test, or both. sand to fill the known volume container can be determined
When the standardized compaction tests are conducted on by filling the container from the sand-pouring apparatus and
materials with larger particles, a correction factor is typically striking off the sand to be even with the top of the con-
used. It is important to note that the same correction factor/ tainer. The sand should be placed in the container through
method must be used for the in-place test results to allow the same apparatus as will be used in the field to place the
comparison with the standardized compaction test results as sand in the hole. It has been found that if the sand falls fur-
explained in Chapter 6. ther, it will have a higher unit weight. Some orifices have a
fine stream and others have a coarse stream; this can make
ADVANTAGES a substantial difference in the unit weight of the sand in the
Large test hole volumes are often required so that the test can hole. The known volume container used to determine the
be representative of materials containing large particles. The unit weight of the sand should have a shape such that
soil excavated from the hole can be observed, judgments can the sand will fall about the same distance as it will in the
be made about whether it properly represents the fill, and the excavated hole in the field. During the filling of the known
oversize particles can be screened out and measured to deter- volume container and after the container is full, care must
mine their mass and volume for developing correction factors. be exercised to avoid vibrating the sand in any way, such as
while striking off the sand to the top of the container (if this
DISADVANTAGES method is used) because this will increase the unit weight to
This test often takes a considerable amount of time and a higher value than in the field. Once the striking-off is com-
work effort, usually taking two or more individuals to per- pleted, the container can be vibrated to densify the sand
form it. The samples and sand containers are numerous, below the rim so that spilling can be avoided.
bulky, and heavy, making it very difficult to perform many One potential source of error is not determining the unit
tests without a large technician work force. The sand and weight of the sand often enough. Most sand, particularly the
sample containers must be labeled and carefully recorded to finer sand, is susceptible to bulking and volume changes with
prevent confusion and error. Special excavating and trans- small changes in water content. The water content can
porting equipment may be required, as well as small-scale change significantly with a change in atmospheric humidity
construction equipment for handling, drying, and screening as a water film is formed over the surface of sand particles.
the material. The construction process is typically disrupted In some climates, the unit weight of the sand may need to be
for a considerable length of time in the area of the test. If determined as often as several times each day, whereas in dry
the test method is not properly implemented, there can be climates once each week may be enough. The required fre-
many sources of error associated with this method and the quency for checking the unit weight of the density sand can
technician staff needs to use substantial care to achieve a be determined by comparing the results with previous tests. If
representative test result. the results are consistent and based on experience appear to
be representative of the soil/gravel that is being tested, the fre-
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR quency of testing can likely be reduced.
There are precautions and good technical practices that
should be followed to minimize the potential sources of Preparation of the Soil Surface
error that would affect the test results for this test method. at the Test Location
The published ASTM test method provides a description of The ring or frame should be placed on a relatively level surface
these precautions and a list of detailed procedures that and care should be taken to make sure it is in contact with the
should be carefully studied before running the test and fol- surface at all locations. Gaps or overhangs under the ring will
lowed while the test is being performed. A list of the primary cause errors in the measurement of the volume of the ring
areas of concern is as follows. before excavation or the volume of the hole, or both. The test
procedure requires an initial measurement of the ring on the
Selection and Storage of Sand prepared surface using sand from containers other than those
The sand must be uniform in size (narrowly graded), dry, to be used for measuring the volume of the excavated hole.
free flowing, and devoid of fines. Rounded or surrounded After this step is completed, all of the sand must be cleaned up
particles are typically best because angular sand is more sus- before the hole is excavated. A thin plastic membrane 1–3 mil
ceptible to bridging across irregularities. Sand that is too thick is recommended in the procedure to help with the
coarse will also be subject to bridging across irregularities. cleanup of the sand used for measuring the ring volume.
Finer sand may be more susceptible to changes in unit
weight from changes in atmospheric humidity. Excavating the Hole and Retaining the Soil
The sand should never be reused without screening out To measure the volume of soil/gravel removed, the ring is set
all of the fines, drying it, and allowing the temperature to sta- and not moved until the hole is excavated and the sand is
bilize. Sand should be stored in a dry location where the placed in the hole. The ring should be secured with pins or
42 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
inherently strong and low-compressibility material. As long attainable density, special equipment has been built to deter-
as good compaction is applied, it may not be necessary to mine a maximum density in a controlled condition. Addi-
perform routine check testing. Inspection of rockfill projects tional information on the laboratory-determined values for
typically involves observation to ensure good coverage of the the maximum density of rock fills can be found in the ASTM
compactor and to identify problem areas in the fill. Standard Test Procedure 523 on Relative Density testing [2]
Density testing of coarse rockfill material is most often and in other publications [3]. The projects described in these
expensive and labor intensive. Extensive testing is frequently publications describe density determination using large con-
limited to projects with critical design parameters such as tainers up to 36 in. in diameter that are equipped with con-
dams or power plants. Often, rockfill compaction is tested at crete form vibrators. The soil and rock fill in these test
the beginning of a project using test fills to develop placement procedures is placed in layers and vibrated with a surcharge
parameters that can be used for the remainder of the project. mass. Depending on the amount of oversize, control techni-
During the test fill construction, the rockfill material is placed ques are similar to previous sections where oversize correc-
at various lift thickness and number of passes of the equip- tions are made. It is important to note that many of the test
ment to determine the optimum parameters for construction. methods for the maximum dry density of coarse rock fill are
A sample form for recording test fill data is in Fig. 16B in the process of being evaluated by the ASTM at this time.
of Appendix B. Finer rock fill, including gravel fill, with less than 30 %
As part of the test fill procedure, the rock fill can be larger than 3 in. in dimension and less than 10–15 % fines
monitored for settlement after incremental compaction of can be controlled successfully with the Relative Density test
lifts using simple survey elevation measurement equipment. (D4253 and D4254) as the standard for comparison of field-
Once the optimum compaction method is established from derived values. The procedures for these methods are similar
the test fill information, the ongoing rockfill quality control to those for relative density provided in Chapter 3. Quality
is based on visual observation and records to ensure that control of finer rock fills can be based on percentage of rela-
that the compactor operator is providing a sufficient num- tive density or by percentage of the vibrated maximum den-
ber of passes. On many projects, visual observation of the sity. Once the percentage of particles larger than 3 in.
compaction process, the number of compactor passes, and increases past 30–40 % the smaller material begins to “float”
lift thickness are often the best indication that adequate in the matrix of coarse particles, and compaction of the con-
compaction is being attained. trol fraction is reduced. In the case in which a larger per-
The field in-place density of some rockfill materials can centage of coarse particles exists, the quality-control
be determined using D5030 (water replacement in test pit). program will require that larger dimension compaction tests
This test can handle maximum particle sizes of up to 12 in. be developed.
in 6- to 7-ft-diameter rings. Fig. 5 shows some typical pit
excavations. For most rockfill projects the particle is such
that the moisture content in not a significant parameter. For References
finer particle rock fill with a significant portion of sand and [1] Earth Manual, 3rd Ed., Part II, U.S. Department of the Interior,
gravel, the Oven-Dry Method (D2216) or Direct Heating Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash-
Method (D4959) can be used to determine the moisture con- ington, DC, 1990.
tent necessary for computing the in-place dry density. [2] Construction Testing of Embankments Containing Large Par-
ticles, U.S. Committee on Large Dams, Denver, CO, 1988.
The method for the determination of the laboratory [3] ASTM STP 523, Evaluation of Relative Density and Its Role in
maximum dry density for coarse rock fill has not been Geotechnical Projects Involving Cohesionless Soils, ASTM Inter-
standardized. To provide some indication of the maximum national, West Conshohocken, PA, 1973.
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
5
Standard Test Procedures for Determining
the Water Content of Soils
A. PURPOSE AND USE OF The principal ASTM standard for the moisture content of
WATER CONTENT TESTS soil and rock is D2216, Test Method for Water (moisture)
The water content of soil is determined as a means to calcu- Content of Soil, Rock, and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures. This is
late the dry density of the soil or to determine if the water the “reference” method, or the method that the other tests
content is within the range that has been specified for the for water content are compared to. It is also the method
compaction of the soil. Water content testing is also used to used when the most accurate results are required. It has the
provide preliminary quality-control information that can be disadvantage of taking up to 24 h (or longer when lower
used as a guide during construction on whether water needs temperatures are required) to obtain results, so other faster
to be added or removed from the soil. The water content is methods have been developed that can provide results that
always an important factor in controlling earthfill compac- are accurate enough for most field work if adequate care is
tion. The values of water content are often needed quickly provided by implementing the precautions described in the
and sometimes in remote borrow areas. test methods.
The terms “water content” and “moisture content” have The other methods that can be used to determine the
historically been used interchangeably. Both terms may be water content of soil are described in the following ASTM
found in the ASTM standards. There is no significance to the standards:
use of one term over the other. • D6938 In-Place Density and Water Content of Soil and Soil
The definition of water content is “the ratio of the mass Aggregate in Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth)
of water contained in the pore spaces of soil or rock mate- • D4643 Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil
rial, to the solid mass of particles in that material, expressed by Microwave-Oven Heating
as a percentage.” The equation is • D4944 Field Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of
Mw Soil by the Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Tester Method
w¼ 3 100 ð5-1Þ • D4959 Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil
Ms
by Direct Heating Method
where: Although these four methods are used primarily to give
w ¼ water content in percent more rapid, and at times more approximate, results, they most
Mw ¼ mass of water often result in values comparable to the “oven-dry” method
Ms ¼ dry mass of soil (D2216). To ensure that the more rapid methods provide rep-
It is important that only the mass of water contained in resentative results, the tests need to be carefully performed on
the pore spaces is included in the calculation. For most inor- soils according to ASTM procedures. The proper performance
ganic soil, this is the mass of fluids driven off by heating the of the method includes performing the required equipment
soil to a constant mass at a specified temperature of 110 ± calibrations and implementation of the required quality-control
5°C or 212°F. It is important to note that when the soil con- checks/correlations.
tains some types of organic matter, gypsum, or other In some instances it may be necessary or desirable to test
hydrated compounds that dehydrate at temperatures under the material using two water-content methods for compari-
110°C, a drying temperature of 60°C is used. The solid mass son. Representative testing may require that the sample be
of particles is the constant mass at the end of the drying split into two or more separate size fractions. For easy han-
period at the specified temperature of 110 ± 5°C or 212°F. It dling or during sample preparation for other tests, separating
is also important to note that the water content is at the the material into fractions may be desirable if only a few ran-
required drying temperatures provided in the test methods dom, significantly larger particles are present. Because only
and that more moisture may be removed from finer-grained 100 g are typically needed for a specimen with most, minus
soils if the temperature is taken above the specified tempera- No. 4 sieve material, separating on the No. 4 sieve may be
ture of 110 ± 5°C or 212°F. The water content is calculated advantageous to conserve the minus No. 4 material.
as the mass of the water (difference in mass before and after To calculate the water content of a material that has a
drying) divided by the mass of soil remaining after drying, wide range of sizes, the percentage (by dry mass) and the
multiplied by 100. water content of each size fraction must be determined. This
is typically accomplished by separating the material into two
B. STANDARD TESTS FOR DETERMINING or more fractions using the appropriate sieves. The mini-
WATER CONTENT OF SOIL mum mass for each fraction must conform to the require-
There are several different ASTM standards for measuring ments listed in the ASTM method. The percent of each size
the water content of soils used for construction purposes. fraction and the water content must be determined.
44
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
CHAPTER 5 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE WATER CONTENT OF SOILS 45
w ¼ ½ðw1 3 P1 Þ þ ðw1 3 P2 Þ þ ðwn 3 Pn Þ 3 100 ð5-2Þ • There are good commercial ovens available for drying
soils that do not require any modification.
where:
w ¼ water content of total material (percent) DISADVANTAGES
P1, P2, Pn ¼ percent (by mass) of each size fraction in total The disadvantages of the oven-dry methods are
material (percent) • Most often 12–16 h are required to dry soil to a con-
w1, w2, wn ¼ water content of each size fraction (percent) stant mass. This turnaround time is typically unaccept-
100 ¼ constant representing total material (percent) able for field quality control in which moisture content
A data sheet for the summary of ASTM methods used and density results are needed in less than 1 h.
can be found in Fig. 16B of Appendix B. • The method typically requires a laboratory or location pro-
tected from the weather with an electric power source.
1. Oven-Dry Method (D2216) • Some commercial ovens do not have sufficient power to
APPLICATIONS consistently dry soils or do not meet the ASTM require-
This method includes all of the measurements needed to cal- ments for consistent temperature control, or both. Care
culate water content according to its definition. Some other must be exercised in selecting the proper oven.
ASTM test methods for water content of soil/rock refer to • Ovens with more than 1 m3 (10 ft3) of space may need
D2216 as the reference method and the standard that the a 220-V power source.
other methods are correlated or compared to. ASTM D2216
is the method most often specified and the one preferred CALIBRATION AND PRECAUTIONS
when sufficient time and facilities are available (equipment, There is not an ASTM standard for calibrating ovens, nor does
power source, etc.) to perform the test. test method D2216 give a procedure for calibrating ovens.
The water-content test specimen is dried in a thermo- The following is a step-by-step procedure that is used by
statically controlled oven at 110 ± 5°C or 212°F to a constant most soils laboratories for calibrating ovens used for mois-
mass. The loss in mass due to drying is considered to be ture-content testing. These procedures are modeled after a
water content of the soil. Sands with small amounts of fines Bureau of Reclamation procedure and are provided in
may often be dried to constant mass in approximately 4 h “USBR 1020, Procedure for Calibrating Ovens” [1]. This cali-
while most soils with some percentage of fine particles can bration procedure should be performed upon receipt of the
take 12–16 h. Typically, the soils are dried overnight. oven and typically on an annual basis thereafter.
The only equipment needed is an etched-stem glass ther-
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS FOR SOILS mometer with an eyehook at the end for easy hanging, a 0
CONTAINING HYDRATED WATER to 300°C temperature range, and 2°C graduations that is
The drying temperature of 110 ± 5°C or 212°F may not be filled with mercury. The procedure is as follows:
appropriate for determining water content of soils containing 1. Check to see that the thermometer to be used for this
cement, organdies, gypsum, or other materials containing sig- procedure has a certificate of inspection or calibration
nificant hydrated water. The user is referred to Paragraph 1.3 verification from the manufacturer. If there is any
in the Scope Section of Method D2216 for further description doubt as to the accuracy of the thermometer, it should
of the materials requiring special consideration. If a material not be used for this procedure. A thermometer with a
with a significant amount of hydrated water is suspected to verifiable accuracy should be obtained and used.
be in the soil, a companion specimen should be dried at 60°C 2. During the calibration procedure, the room temperature
or at room temperature to a constant mass and the results should not vary more than ±20°C.
compared with the results of the specimen dried at 110 ± 5°C 3. Locate and record the serial number and any other
or 212°F. The 60°C or room-temperature drying temperature identifying markings of the oven to be calibrated.
will likely require a much longer drying time to reach a con- 4. Remove any material (sample containers, pans, etc.)
stant mass. If a difference greater than 5°C is found, the from the oven.
lower temperature should be used on all subsequent tests on 5. Carefully hang the thermometer by its eyehook with a
this soil. For these tests, the test report should always indicate piece of wire as close to the center of the oven chamber
the temperature used for the drying process. as possible. Make sure that the thermometer hangs freely.
Materials containing water with substantial amounts of 6. Determine the applicable temperature at which the oven
soluble solids (such as salt in the case of marine sediments) will be calibrated and set the thermostat of the oven to
when tested by this method will give a mass of solids that that temperature. For most geotechnical purposes, the
includes the previously soluble solids. These materials oven will be calibrated at 110°C or 212°F. If calibration
require special treatment, including moisture offsets and of the oven is desired at another temperature, the proce-
controlled rates of heating to account for the presence of dure is similar. If a range of calibrated temperatures is
precipitated solids in the dry mass of the specimen or for a desired, the calibration should be performed in intervals
qualified definition of water content. of 5°C over the desired range of temperatures.
7. Allow sufficient time for the oven temperature to stabi-
ADVANTAGES lize and record the thermostat setting.
The advantages of the oven dry methods are 8. Determine the thermometer reading and record the value.
• Less safety hazards than other procedures for soil con- The oven temperature will drop drastically when the oven
taining nonhazardous materials. door is opened. The thermometer reading should be
• Test results are widely accepted. taken as quickly as possible once the door is opened.
• Most soils can be left drying in an oven over the weekend. 9. Calculate the difference between the thermostat setting
• Equipment is durable. and the thermometer reading.
46 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
10. If the thermometer reading is within ±5°C of the ther- 2. Microwave-Oven Method (D4643)
mostat setting, the calibration procedure is completed. APPLICATIONS
If the thermostat reading differs from the thermostat This method uses a microwave oven to dry the soil instead
setting by more than 5°C, adjust the thermostat by the of the conventional oven and is used when rapid results are
amount of the difference. Retest for the temperature to needed. Typically, the water content can be determined in
verify that the new setting will result in the desired less than 15 min. Microwave heating is a process by which
temperature. heat is induced within a material from the interaction
11. If the thermostat setting is different from the required between molecules of the material and an alternating, high-
temperature, a notice should be placed next to the frequency electric field. Microwaves are electromagnetic
thermostat. waves with 1-mm to 1-m wavelengths.
12. To check if the temperature is uniform throughout the Test Method D4643 uses an incremental drying proce-
drying chamber, the thermometer can be located in vari- dure to avoid overheating the soil. A moist soil specimen is
ous positions in the oven. placed in a suitable container and its mass is determined by
weighing on a calibrated scale. The sample is then placed in
PRECAUTION OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR a microwave oven, subjected to an interval of drying, and
As indicated in ASTM D2216, there are several precautions removed from the oven and its new mass is determined. The
and potential sources of errors that need to be understood interval of drying must be kept short to avoid overheating
to minimize the potential for errors in the test results. The the soil or causing damage to the oven, or both. This proce-
following sections list the most important sources of error dure is repeated and the result is recorded until the mass
and recommendations for decreasing their influence on the becomes nearly constant within a percent difference speci-
test results. fied in Test Method D4643. The difference between the mass
of the moist specimen and the dried specimen at its steady
Sample Selection and Preparation state or constant mass condition is used as the mass of
The selection and preparation of the sample are the most water originally contained in the specimen. The water con-
important procedures that can increase the degree of error in tent is determined by dividing the mass of water by the mass
the water-content test results. The important parts of sample of dry soil then multiplying by 100. For a given soil and sam-
selection include selecting a sample of sufficient size and a ple size, the time to achieve a constant dry mass can be
large enough cross section of a nonhomogeneous sample to noted and used as a minimum drying time for subsequent
be representative of the soil that is being tested and following tests using the same size specimen of the same soil.
the procedures outlined in D2216 for including or not includ- Although the microwave-oven method is typically used
ing oversize materials or deleterious materials in the sample. to get rapid, approximate results, more accurate results can
In addition to the sample selection, another important part of be obtained when the method is correlated to the oven
minimizing errors is to prepare the sample with proper tech- method for specific soil types. All parties interested in the
nique. Some of the key items for preparing samples are (1) test results should be aware of and agree that the results
protecting the sample from sunlight or heat before prepara- from the microwave-oven method can be used.
tion to minimize the amount of moisture loss from the soil, The incremental drying method can be tedious and time
(2) sieving and placing the sample in the drying container consuming. A system using a computer-controlled balance to
rapidly to minimize the moisture loss to the ambient air continually monitor the soil specimen mass has been devel-
before obtaining the predrying weight, and (3) including a oped and is available [2,3].
representative amount of oversize and deleterious materials
to be representative of the soil that is tested. ADVANTAGES
The advantages of the microwave-oven method are
Equipment Condition and Calibration • Results are typically available in less than 15 min.
In general, the water-content test is a simple and easily per- • This method can be used in place of conventional oven
formed test as long as the basic procedures for maintaining method D2216 when proper correlation studies and peri-
equipment condition and calibration are followed. The oven odic comparison to the results of D2216 are provided. Typ-
is obviously the most important piece of equipment and the ically a set of 5–10 tests for correlation is adequate for
procedures listed above provide a practical process to ensure smaller projects and a set of 20–30 tests and weighted
calibration. In addition to the oven calibration, the accuracy average for the entire project is used for larger projects.
of the scale and condition of the oven-dry pan should also • Microwave ovens are typically compact and portable
be checked to ensure that they are accurate before and after within the laboratory.
water mass is obtained. Typical sources of error are oven-dry • Equipment is usually available locally.
pans with inaccurate tare weights and scales that have not • Data sheets for oven-drying methods can be used.
been accurately calibrated to an independent standard of • Microwave ovens only need a 110-V power source.
weights and measures.
A detailed step-by-step procedure for performing the DISADVANTAGES
water content test is also provided in Test Method D2216. It The disadvantages of the microwave oven method are
is important to note that the water content is significantly • Specimen size can be limited because of the small vol-
affected by the selection of a representative sample. ume of the microwave heating chamber.
Although not included in the other water-content methods, • Because of potential particle explosion and loss of the
the principles in this section apply to all of the other meth- sample, the maximum particle size in soil should not
ods. A sample form and an example computation for this exceed 25 mm (1 in.). This method is best suited for
method can be found in Fig. 17B of Appendix B. minus No. 4 size material.
CHAPTER 5 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE WATER CONTENT OF SOILS 47
• This method is not reliable for soils containing a signifi- drying. Means for smothering flames to prevent opera-
cant amount of halloysite, mica, montmorillonite, gyp- tor injury or oven damage should be available during
sum, organic matter, or dissolved salts in pore water. testing. Fumes from contaminated soils or wastes may
• Metal drying pans or containers cannot be used in the be toxic, and the oven should be vented accordingly.
oven. • A “heat sink” (container of liquid or other material con-
• Use of a microwave oven to dry soils has unique haz- taining moisture) should be placed in the oven while
ards not associated with food preparation (see Precau- drying soil. The heat sink is to provide some moisture
tions section of the standard). Operators may neglect in the oven after the soil is completely dry and will help
required safety measures, which can cause injury or to reduce the potential for damage to the oven when
property damage. the soil approaches a dry condition. When using a heat
• Generally, a laboratory or location protected from the sink on multiple samples, the inside of the microwave
weather with an electric power source is required, can become saturated with excess water or condensa-
which may not be available at all field locations. tion in a manner that can add moisture to the sample
• Lower-cost microwave ovens can have an inconsistent or make consistent drying difficult. If this condition
source that may not be comparable to the temperature occurs, it is best to dry out the inside of the microwave,
generated by the more consistent temperature required place cooler water in the oven, and restart the drying
by D2216. The inconsistent heat source can cause over- process.
drying of fine-particle materials in a manner that pro- • The containers used to hold the soil placed in the oven
vides steady-state microwave moisture content readings for drying must not contain any metal. The soil or other
that do not correlate to the referee Test Method D2216. material being dried must not contain any metal or
The consistency of the microwave source may also metal-like material. There are other safety precautions
change over time as the microwave is used on multiple mentioned in Test Method D4643.
sample and soil types. A sample form and example computation for this
• The use of a microwave oven for the drying of soils may method can be found in Fig. 18B of Appendix B.
be considered abusive by the manufacturers and consti- To minimize the potential sources of errors, the step-by-
tute voiding of warranties. It is common practice for the step procedure described in Test Method D4643 should be
ovens used for the drying of soils to have a significantly followed closely without exception. To provide consistent
shorter life than standard microwaves because the goal results, it is the experience of most senior technicians that
of D4643 is to regularly dry the sample completely with the data sheets used for the conventional oven-drying
no water source remaining to protect the microwave method can be used for this method as long as the multiple
oven from damage. results are recorded to document when the sample weight is
within the maximum percent change described in Test
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR Method D4643.
The use of the microwave method for determining the water The moisture content of soils containing gravel particles
content of soils requires an understanding of the precau- can be successfully determined by separating out the gravel
tions and potential sources of errors listed above in D2216. particles and using the microwave oven to determine the
In addition to the technical concerns for D2216 and D4643, water content of the minus No. 4 fraction. A water content
the drying of soils with a microwave oven has certain haz- can be assumed for the gravel particles, typically approxi-
ards unique to its use as listed below. mately 3 %, and the combined water content can be calcu-
• Water-saturated particles may explode during and after lated using equation 5-2.
drying. Steam is generated more rapidly in the interior
of a particle than it can escape through particle pores. 3. Direct Heating Method (D4959)
Eye protection should be worn during the heating, mix- APPLICATIONS
ing, and weighing of the test specimen. A covering over This method includes applying direct heat to a metal pan
the sample container may be appropriate to prevent that contains a sample of moist soil for the purpose of dry-
operator injury or oven damage. A cover of heavy paper ing the soil. The direct heat is typically applied using a hot-
toweling has been found satisfactory for this purpose. plate, gas stove, a blowtorch with a control-setting valve, or a
This also prevents the scattering of the test sample in similar device that can give quick and useful results. The test
the oven during the drying cycle. method is typically used by field technicians when the
• The oven door must seal properly to prevent microwave requirements of the project will allow a water-content value
radiation leakage. The door of the oven is designed with that is not as precise as the Oven-Dry Method D2216. The
interlocks (reed switches and door-strike switches) to accuracy of the method can be increased by the judgment of
prevent open-door use. No attempt should ever be made skilled technicians, the use of methods that provide a low,
to defeat these interlocks. The microwave system should steady heat to the sample, and the comparison of test results
never be operated if the door has been damaged or to a database of split test samples using the Direct Heat
warped. Additionally, the system should be checked Method D4959 and the Oven Dry Method D2216.
periodically for leakage with a microwave leakage detec- Using heating devices that do not need electric power
tor. An allowable emission of microwave radiation is (gas stove, camp stove, etc.) makes direct heating a very use-
5 mW/cm2 measured at 5 cm from the surface of the ful method for remote locations. Because some soils can be
oven. If leakage intensity is higher than this level, a altered or organic matter burned from overheating, or both,
qualified technician should service the door. the user is cautioned to refer to the Significance and Use
• Highly organic soils and soils containing oil or other Section of Test Method D4959. The direct heating water-con-
contaminates may ignite into flames during microwave tent test is sometimes used to provide a quick indication of
48 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
the approximate value or to determine when other tests sample color and stirring the sample regularly to ensure
should be performed, but it may be used for acceptance test- that the soil is heated uniformly and not burned, and (4)
ing on those soils that are not adversely affected by over- sieving the sample carefully to pulverize sample particles
heating, such as clean sands and gravels. that would hold moisture and allow nonuniform heating of
The proper application of Test Method D4959 includes the sample.
the preparation and selection of the samples using techni-
ques similar to those used for D2216. After weighing, the Unintentional Moisture Loss from the Sample
moist soil specimen is put into a suitable container and the This potential source of error typically occurs during sample
container is heated by the hotplate, gas stove, etc. It is preparation or during the heating process. Typical sources
important to note that direct flame is never applied directly of error that can be minimized by the skill of the field tech-
to a soil that is being properly tested using Test Method nician include allowing heat or sunlight to condense mois-
D4959. ture out of the sample and onto the sample bag or
container. Storing the sample carefully and weighing the
ADVANTAGES sample within 20–30 min after it is obtained from the field
The advantages of the direct-heat drying method are most often minimizes this source of error. Another source of
• Test results are obtained rapidly, which is especially error that can be minimized is loss of the sample during the
advantageous for construction testing and quality con- heating process caused by popping of large particles or
trol of large earth- and rockfill projects. dropping of soil particles with the mixing spoon, or both.
• The equipment for direct-heat moisture-content testing Carefully mixing and processing of the sample minimize this
is typically simple, rugged, portable, and does not need source of error. A sample form and example computation
to be protected or stored in a laboratory-controlled envi- for this method can be found in Fig. 19B of Appendix B.
ronment. It can be used easily in unprotected field loca-
tions without a readily available electric power source. 4. Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure
• Bottled gas for field ovens and stoves can be used in Tester Method (D4944)
remote areas without electric power. APPLICATIONS
This test is primarily known as the “Speedy Moisture Meter
DISADVANTAGES Test.” The soil moisture is related to the gas pressure pro-
The disadvantages of the direct-heat drying method are: duced when the wet soil is mixed with a reagent, causing the
• Test results may not be accurate enough for soils in reagent to react with the water in the soil. The amount of gas
which overheating alters the soil. Test results may be produced is determined by the amount of water in the soil.
inconsistent when the direct heat method is used on A measured volume of calcium carbide is placed in the
organic soils, some types of micaeous soils, moisture- testing apparatus along with two steel balls and a small spec-
sensitive silts, and soils in which the chemically bound imen of soil having all particles smaller than the No. 4 sieve
water will be dehydrated at high temperatures. size and having a mass equal to that specified by the manu-
• Coarse sand-size particles and larger may explode dur- facturer of the instrument or equipment. The apparatus is
ing heating with the direct heating method. shaken vigorously in a rotating motion so that the calcium
• The soil is not dried uniformly and may become too carbide reagent can contact all of the available water in the
hot, which will change its characteristics. It is limited to soil. Acetylene gas is produced proportionally to the amount
soils that do not contain any combustible materials or of available water present. The apparent water content is
compounds that will dehydrate or be altered by read from a pressure gauge on the apparatus calibrated to
overheating. read in percent water content for the mass of soil specified.
A calibration curve is developed for each instrument
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR and each soil type by plotting the pressure gauge reading
The use of the direct heating method for determining the and the water content determined from Test Method D2216
water content of soils has similar precautions and potential using representative specimens of the soil. The calibration
sources of errors as the previous methods listed above. In curve is used to determine a corrected water content value
addition to the technical concerns for D2216 and D4643, the for subsequent tests on the same type of soil.
direct heating of soils requires that the technician under- This test method is used when results are needed within
stand the following potential sources of errors. a short time period and in locations where it is not practical
to install an oven or to transport samples to an oven. See
Overheating or Burning of Soils photos 10C and 11C in Appendix C.
To provide water content results that are similar to the
results for Test Method D2216, it is essential that the temper- ADVANTAGES
ature of the sample be controlled to avoid overheating of the The advantages of the Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Tester
sample. To accomplish a controlled yet rapid heating of the Method are
sample, experienced technicians use various methods to • The test results are usually available in less than 5 min.
determine when most of the moisture has left the sample, • The equipment is portable and can be transported and
but the sample is not burned. These techniques include the operated by one person. No laboratory or protection
following: (1) placing a glass lid in the pan with the sample from the weather is needed except that the calcium car-
that will condense excess moisture and remain dry when the bide must be kept dry.
sample is mostly dry, (2) heating the sample near comple- • Electric power is not needed for the test device.
tion and removing the sample and weighing it several times • The equipment is rugged and will usually not be dam-
until a steady-state weight is established, (3) observing the aged under normal transportation in field vehicles.
CHAPTER 5 n STANDARD TEST PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING THE WATER CONTENT OF SOILS 49
• Some soils containing compounds or minerals that protection from fire, a blanket or an ABC class dry
dehydrate with heat (such as gypsum) that are to have chemical fire extinguisher should be used.
special temperature control with Test Method D2216 • The operator should take precautions to avoid the gas
may not be affected (dehydrated) in this test method. fumes and use clothing with long sleeves, gloves, and
goggles to keep the reagent from irritating the eyes,
DISADVANTAGES respiratory system, or hands and arms.
The disadvantages of the Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Tes- • Attempts to test excessively wet soils or improper use of
ter Method are the equipment (e.g., adding water to the testing cham-
• The specimen size is very small (26 g), which can cause ber) could cause pressures to exceed the safety level for
the test results to have a low degree of accuracy if the the apparatus. This may cause damage to the equipment
specimen is so small that it is not representative of the and an unsafe condition for the operator.
soil intended. When the sample has to be reduced • Clean out the soil/reagent mixture from each test in a
because of high water content of the material to be well-ventilated area, preferably outdoors when possible.
tested, the size is even smaller at 13 g. • Care should be taken to keep the calcium carbide rea-
• Because the reagent must react with all of the water in the gent stored in a dry place and avoid contact with water
soil, the test is limited to friable soil that will pass a No. 4 because it will produce an explosive gas.
sieve. Highly plastic soils or any soil containing clods or A sample form and example calculation for this method
clumps that will not break down cannot be tested. can be found in Figs. 20B and 21B of Appendix B. Photos are
• There may be some soils containing certain compounds in Appendix C.
or chemicals that will react unpredictably with the rea-
gent and give erroneous results. CALIBRATION OF EQUIPMENT
• The safety hazards associated with the equipment require Calibration kits are available from manufacturers for testing
conscientious use by the operator to avoid injury to peo- gasket leakage and for calibrating the gauge. Periodic checks
ple or damage to property (see Precautions). for gasket leakage are recommended. The gasket should be
• Calcium carbide quality will deteriorate with time after changed when leakage is suspected. Gauge calibration prob-
it becomes exposed to the atmosphere or any source of lems can usually be detected when the instrument calibra-
moisture. Careful monitoring of the quality of the cal- tion curves are made. When the gauge needs adjusting, a
cium carbide being used and periodic purchase of a manufacturer-approved calibration method should be used.
new supply is recommended. Calcium carbide that has
deteriorated will usually turn color from a dark gray to CALIBRATION FOR TESTING
light brown. The following steps are the calibration procedure stated in
• Equipment limitations require the use of samples signifi- Test Method D4944. They are given here verbatim to empha-
cantly smaller than what is typically recommended to size that calibration curves must be developed for the soils
properly represent the soil that is being tested. Extra to be tested. Too often, this test is misused by running the
care must be exercised to select samples that are truly test and using the number on the gauge as the moisture con-
representative of the soil. tent without correcting the reading using calibration curves.
• Federal U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) haz- The tester normally has a calibration curve or table fur-
ardous materials regulations require that calcium car- nished; however, to make this procedure more accurate, a
bide reagents be shipped only by certified shippers and calibration table should be prepared for each individual
can go by ground or air. device and for the range of soil types to be tested. A differ-
• The soil/carbide mixture left at the end of the test can ent soil type means a different classification of soil by the
be hazardous unless it is properly disposed of. Precau- Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487).
tions are necessary to prevent igniting the explosive gas 1. The manufacturer-supplied equipment set, including the
that is produced. testing chamber with attached gauge and the balance
scales, are calibrated as a unit and paired together for
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR the testing procedure.
The use of the Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Test Method 2. Calibration curves must be developed for each set of
for determining the water content of soils requires an under- equipment using the actual soil types to be tested and
standing of the precautions and potential sources of errors the expected water content range of the soil. As new
listed in D2216 and other methods listed above. In addition materials are introduced, further calibration is needed
to the technical concerns for D2216, the water-content deter- to extend the curve data for the specific instrument. If
minations using a calcium carbide gas test device have cer- tests are made over a long period of time on the same
tain hazards unique to their use. soil, a new calibration curve should be made periodi-
• When combined with water, the calcium carbide rea- cally, not exceeding 12 months.
gent produces a highly flammable or explosive acetylene 3. Calibration curves are produced by selecting several sam-
gas. Testing should not be carried out in confined ples representing the range of soil materials to be tested
spaces or in the vicinity of an open flame, embers, or and having a relatively wide range of water content.
other sources of heat that can cause combustion. Care Each sample is carefully divided into two specimens by
should be exercised when releasing the gas from the quartering procedures or by use of a sample splitter. Tak-
apparatus to direct it away from the body. Lighted ciga- ing care to not lose any moisture, one specimen is tested
rettes, hot objects, or open flames are extremely danger- in accordance with the procedure of this test method
ous in the area of testing. If a fire results, water must without using a calibration curve, and the other speci-
not be used to put out the fire. To provide adequate men is tested in accordance with test method D2216.
50 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
4. The results of the oven-dry water content determined by content is below 5 % or above 30 %. To ensure consistent
Test Method D2216 from all of the selected samples are results, it is best to purchase calcium carbide in small con-
plotted versus the gauge reading from the calcium car- tainers with airtight replaceable lids, to store it in a dry
bide tester for the corresponding test specimen pair. A place, to keep the lid on the container at all times except
best-fit curve is plotted through the points to form a cali- when measuring out a portion for use in a test, and to use a
bration curve for each soil type. Comparisons should be complete container before opening a new one.
relatively consistent. A wide scatter in data indicates that
this test method or Test Method D2216 is not applicable 5. Nuclear Methods (ASTM D6938)
to the soil or conditions. Fig. 21B in Appendix B shows This test is covered in Chapter 4, Section B.3. A major pre-
a typical calibration curve. caution in the use of the nuclear gauge is the awareness that
5. A comparison of this test method with Test Method for most soils used in earthwork, a moisture correction is
D2216 for a given soil can be made using the calibra- necessary to obtain accurate values for water content and
tion curve. Points that plot off the curve indicate devia- dry density. This has already been covered in Chapter 4 and
tions. Standard and maximum deviations can be is mentioned again in Chapter 6.
determined if desired.
Each calibration curve should be compared to the previ- References
ous calibration curve on the same soil. If the gauge readings [1] U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, “USBR 1020, Procedure for Cali-
are more than 2 percentage points different, the device itself brating Ovens,” Earth Manual, Part 2, 1990.
needs to be recalibrated, repaired, or discarded. A change in [2] Gilbert, P.A., “Computer-Controlled Microwave Oven System for
Rapid Water Content Determination,” Technical Report GL-88-
the reading of more than 2 percentage points may be an indi-
21, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicks-
cation of an equipment problem, such as a pressure leak. burg, MS, 1988.
[3] Paul A. Gilbert, “Computer-Controlled Microwave Drying Poten-
DESCRIPTION OF TEST PROCEDURE tially Difficult Organic and Inorganic Soils,” Technical Report
The step-by-step procedure for the Calcium Carbide Gas Pres- GL-90-26, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS, 1990.
sure Test Method is described in Test Method D4944.
[4] Blystone, J.R., Pelzner, A., Steffens, G.P., “Moisture Content
Detailed procedures are also published by the Bureau of Determination by the Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Method,”
Public Roads [4] and by the manufacturer [5]. In addition to Bureau of Public Roads, Vol. 31, pp. 177–181, 1961.
the procedures provided in Test Method D4944, careful eval- [5] “Speedy Moisture Testing Procedure,” Operation Manual, Alpha-
uation of the data should be made when the soil water Lux Company, Philadelphia, PA.
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
6
Quality Control and the Coordinated Use
of Laboratory and In-Place Tests for
Compaction Testing
DURING THE INSTALLATION OF A TYPICAL EARTH- determined accurately. This can be done by performing com-
fill project, the density, water content, and degree of com- paction tests on all of the different types of soils that will be
paction of the earth fill is confirmed and documented by used in the earthfill construction. The borrow soils and all
testing the in-place compacted soil. The compacted soil is practical combinations (or blends) of soils should be repre-
measured to determine its dry density and water content. sented by the standard reference densities. This may be rela-
These values are then compared with the maximum dry den- tively simple for uniform materials in which the test results
sity (standard reference density) and optimum water content are nearly the same from test to test. In many alluvial depos-
of the soil being evaluated. The project specifications usually its or where the borrow area contains layers or pockets of
require the in-place dry density to be a minimum percentage differing material, hauling and spreading operations often
of the maximum dry density. The specifications will usually mix the various materials in different proportions. These dif-
require the placement water content of the fill to be within ferences must be recognized and provisions must be made
a range of water content relative to the optimum water con- for establishing appropriate standard reference densities or
tent of the soil being tested. utilizing methods to verify the appropriate reference den-
The in-place density and water content of compacted sities. Refer to Section F of this chapter for procedures that
soils are measured in the field using various methods. Sev- establish which standard reference density test values are
eral methods are also used to determine the laboratory refer- appropriate for a given field density test. Procedures such as
ence values for maximum dry density and optimum water the Rapid Determination of Percent Compaction (D5080)
content to which the field measurements are compared. and the Family of Curves—One-Point Method (AASHTO T
Specifications should state which methods are acceptable for 272) can be used.
measuring the field density and water content as well as The steps required to compare field in-place measure-
which method(s) is (are) acceptable for determining the ref- ments to standard reference density test values are explained
erence values for the soil. in the following section for various soil types. Different pro-
The ratio of the in-place field density test to the stand- cedures are used depending on the properties of the soils
ard reference density test for that soil is called “the percent being tested. The gravel content of the soil being tested can
compaction.” Compute percent compaction by dividing the significantly affect these procedures. These steps are also
in-place dry density by the maximum dry density of the illustrated in the flow chart in Fig. 1A (see Appendix A).
standard reference density test, then multiply by 100 and Table 1A (Appendix A) can also be helpful in relating to the
express as a percentage. The maximum dry density deter- compaction properties of different soil types.
mined by the standard reference density test must be deter-
mined for the same soil or a previously tested sample of the A. SILTS AND CLAYS OR SANDY FINE GRAINED
same soil type that represents the soil where the in-place test SOIL WITH LITTLE OR NO GRAVEL
was made. Refer to Section F of this chapter for guidelines For soils with less than 5 % oversized particles (gravel
on selecting the proper standard reference density used as a retained on the No. 4 sieve), the comparisons between the in-
comparison for in-place tests. The computed degree of com- place compacted soil and its reference test values can be
paction and in-place water content should be reported to the made directly without corrections. The standard laboratory
nearest whole number because the tests are not accurate compaction tests that are used to determine the compaction
enough to state results to any higher precision. For example, index properties (maximum dry density and optimum water
the specifications may indicate that compaction shall be to content) are D698 or D1557 or D558 for soil cement. The
95 % (not 95.0 %) of the maximum dry density determined standard tests for measuring the in-place density of the com-
by ASTM D698. The specifications may also indicate that the pacted soil are D1556 (sand cone), D2167 (rubber balloon),
water content shall be from 2 % (not 2.0 %) below to 2 % D6938 (nuclear gauge), and D2937 (drive cylinder). The appli-
above the optimum water content determined by ASTM cable water-content test procedures are D2216 (oven dry),
D698. An example of reporting the measured degree of com- D4643 (microwave oven), D4959 (Direct Heating), D4944 (Cal-
paction is to state the measurement as 96 % compaction, not cium Carbide Tester), and D6938 (Nuclear Method).
95.6 %. In reporting measured water content, the result
would be stated as 1 % wet of optimum, not 1.2 %. 1. Procedures
To accurately determine the percent compaction, the The procedures for checking an earth fill for compliance
maximum dry density (standard reference density) must be with density and water-content requirements when the soil
51
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
52 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
6. Determine the volume and mass of the oversize using same sieve size corresponding to the method (A, B, or C)
procedures in ASTM C 127 for determining the bulk used for the standard reference density test. The procedures
specific gravity, except the 24-h soaking period is elimi- in standard practice D4718 can be used to correct dry den-
nated. This is accomplished by determining the mass of sity and water content determined in the in-place test for the
the oversize in water (suspended beneath the balance total material to the corresponding dry density and water
scale in a submerged net) ¼ M3. The difference between content with the oversize removed. The procedures of stand-
the two masses (M2 – M3) divided by the density of ard practice D4718 can also be used to correct the maxi-
water is the volume of the oversize ¼ Vos. mum dry density and optimum water content determined in
7. Determine the volume of the control fraction, which is the the standard reference density test with the oversize
volume of the hole minus the volume of the oversize ¼ removed to the corresponding maximum dry density and
Vc ¼ VT – Vos. optimum water content for the total soil (with the oversize
8. Determine the wet mass of the control fraction (Mc) by included).
subtracting the mass of the oversize from the mass of the For example, an alternative method is to correct the
wet material removed from the hole. Mc ¼ (M1 – M2). standard laboratory reference compaction standard to a
9. Calculate the wet density of the control fraction (cwet) value corresponding to the soil without oversize removed. A
by assuming 1 lbm ¼ 1 lbf and dividing the mass of the new line of maximum density and optimum water content
control fraction by the volume of the control fraction. can be developed by calculating values of density and water
cwet ¼ Mc/Vc. content at various percentages of oversize material, say 10 %,
10. Calculate the dry density of the control fraction (cd) by 20 %, and 30% (using equations in D4718). The field test val-
dividing the wet density by 1 plus the decimal equiva- ues for percent oversize are entered into this new curve to
lent of the water content of the control fraction. Percent obtain the adjusted values for maximum density and opti-
compaction ¼ (cd/cdmax) 100. mum moisture. The percent compaction and the deviation
• Method B—The correction can be made for the from optimum water content can be determined using the
oversize by using the procedure of Standard Prac- corrected values
tice D4718, “Correction of Density and Water Con- When using the D4718 procedure, the soil sample that
tent for Soils Containing Oversize Particles.” is prepared for the standard reference density compaction
This method can be used with any of the in-place den- test (D698, D1557) or the sample representing a field in-
sity test methods including the nuclear gauge method. If this place test (or from under the nuclear gauge) is screened to
method is used, the total mass and percentage of oversize remove the oversize fraction. After the oversize fraction has
material of the in-place test must be determined using the been removed, the mass of the moist fine fraction of the
Natural moist. %
30
125 Compaction curve corrected for 17% rock
Density of compacted soil, pcf
20 Voids
17
10 30%
115 0 Total saturation
35%
40%
95
0 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Moisture content−percent of dry weight
sample and the mass of the moist oversize fraction (plus for constructing fills from materials having a large percent-
No. 4, plus 3/8-in., or plus 3/4-in.) is determined. The water age of oversize. The test fill can be used to develop the tech-
content of each fraction is then determined. The practice niques that will provide the most efficient method for
standard indicates that D2216 (oven-dry method) should be placing and compacting the fill.
used to determine the water content; however, if faster The specifications should spell out the material proper-
results are desired, other methods could be used to deter- ties and the method of compaction to be used and indicate
mine the water content of the fine (control) fraction and the whether field in-place density tests are to be made as part of
water content of the oversize fraction estimated between the field quality control. Most material containing a large
1 % and 3 %. The water content of the oversize fraction usu- percentage of oversize is placed in a lift thickness, which can
ally does not vary much and can be estimated based on pre- accommodate the largest particle size. The material may be
vious oven-dry tests in the same material. The dry mass of dumped from trucks or scrapers, leveled with dozers, and
the control fraction and the oversize fraction are calculated compacted with the appropriate equipment. When in-place
by dividing the wet mass by 1 plus the water content (in dec- field density testing will not be used to control the density of
imal form). With this information, the percentage of the the fill, a method compaction control will be used. In a
oversize can be calculated according to procedures and method compaction, the following items need to be speci-
equations presented in practice standard D4718. The correc- fied: (1) the type and size of roller, (2) the number of passes
tions of the in-place test results are then made by developing for each lift, and (3) the thickness of each lift. (see Table 3
values corresponding to the oversize removed. from Chapter 2).
The nuclear method measures the density and water
content of the total soil under the gauge, which includes the D. RELATIVELY CLEAN SAND OR GRAVEL
oversize particles. When an oversize correction is needed, MIXTURES, OR BOTH WITH LESS THAN 12 %
Standard Practice D4718 must be used. FINES (MATERIAL PASSING THE NO. 200 SIEVE)
3. For determining the water content of the in-place test, AND UP TO 30 % RETAINED ON THE 3/4-IN.
a representative specimen is usually selected from the soil SIEVE
control fraction, but all of the in-place control fraction could Clean sands and gravels are used for drain fill, filter-drain-
be used. The entire oversize fraction is typically used for the age zones, or shell zones of embankment dams or in many
water content test on this material. Test Method D6938 con- locations of road fills and other fills, or combinations
tains the procedures to be used for making water content thereof. Compaction of these materials usually requires
tests when using the nuclear gauge. The project specifica- vibrating rollers or vibrating hand compactors. The labora-
tions should indicate one of the five water-content test proce- tory test methods used as the reference standard for this soil
dures indicated at the beginning of this section. Test Method type have historically been D4253 (Maximum Index Density)
D4944 (calcium carbide tester) is not recommended for test- and D4254 (Minimum Index Density and Calculation of Rel-
ing the water content of soils with coarse fragments because ative Density). The measured dry density of the compacted
the specimen is too small to be representative. Chapter 4 of fill is compared to the values determined by these methods
this manual provides further guidance for water-content test- to compute the relative density of the fill by standard equa-
ing along with each of the standard in-place field test tions (see Chapter 2, equation 2). Recently, a more popular
methods. method is to compare the in-place dry density of the fill to a
maximum dry density as is done with other soils.
C. SILTY OR CLAYEY SAND OR GRAVEL The maximum dry density can be determined by using
MIXTURES, OR BOTH WITH MORE THAN 12 % Test Method D4253 or Test Methods D698 or D1557. Test
FINES AND MORE THAN 30 % RETAINED ON Method D4253 includes procedures for including particles
THE 3/4-IN. SIEVE up to 3 in. in diameter and may be more useful for soils
If a soil contains more than 30 % larger than the 3/4-in. with appreciable gravel content. Test Methods D698 and
sieve, standard reference density tests do not apply. Specifi- D1557 are limited to 3/4-in. particle size. Test Method D4253
cations for compacting fills constructed with these soils may requires a vibrating table that is expensive and may be diffi-
require a method control for compaction. This approach cult to maintain at a field location.
specifies a certain number of passes of a prescribed roller, a The standard in-place field tests that apply are D1556
definite lift thickness, and a given water content. The num- (sand cone), D2167 (rubber balloon), D6938 (nuclear gauge),
ber of passes is usually determined by constructing a test fill D4914 (sand replacement in a test pit), and D5030 (water
in which the roller is passed over the required lift until more replacement in a test pit). The applicable water content tests
passes result in little or no additional densification of the fill. for this soil are D2216 (oven dry), D4643 (microwave oven),
Measuring the elevation of the lift surface after each roller D4959 (direct heating), D6938 (nuclear method), and D4944
pass or measuring the in-place density of the fill during the (calcium carbide tester—for sand only). The sand cone and
compaction process are methods used to evaluate the rubber balloon methods are generally limited to sands that
desired number of passes and the overall methodology to be do not contain a significant content of large gravels, and
used. The in-place dry density of the soil in the test fill can that will maintain an excavated hole for running the test.
be determined using appropriate field in-place density tests. The calcium carbide tester and microwave oven are also lim-
The dry density in the actual fill can be checked periodically ited to soils without appreciable amounts of gravel. The
using these same test methods if desired. nuclear method may have problems where a relatively
Test fills may be used for any earth fill to demonstrate smooth surface cannot be obtained and where large rock
that the desired characteristics of the fill can be obtained particles under the gauge may prevent making a suitable
and which methods will best achieve these characteristics. hole for the insertion of the probe. The best in-place tests for
Test fills are particularly useful for evaluating the methods soils with larger rock fragments are the test pit tests D4914
CHAPTER 6 n QUALITY CONTROL AND THE COORDINATED USE OF LABORATORY 55
and D5030, where large specimens can be taken and sand or ASTM Method but can be found in American Association of
water replacement is used to determine the hole volume. State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) T
The procedures for checking an earth fill for compli- 272, Standard Test Method for Family of Curves—One-Point
ance with density and water-content requirements are the Method. The standard reference density to be used for com-
same as listed for Chapter 6, Section B. puting the degree of compaction is often a haphazard selec-
tion, usually based largely on the judgment of the person
E. QUALITY-CONTROL CHECKS making the comparison. This judgment is based primarily
For most test methods, checks can be made after the final on a visual comparison of previously tested samples to the
calculations have been completed to determine if the results soil in question. Without a standardized approach, disagree-
are reasonable. Important checks are as follows: ments and uncertainty over the conclusions from the testing
1. First, be sure the standard reference density test used to are common.
compute degree of compaction is for the same material
that the field measurement of dry density and water 1. Rapid Determination of Percent
content was made (see Section F of this chapter). Compaction (Test Method D5080)
2. The results of the in-place test should be plotted on a The Standard Test Method for Rapid Determination of Percent
standard plot with dry density as the y-axis plotted Compaction (D5080) is an accurate method for establishing a
against water content as the x-axis. The plot should value for standard reference density to use in computing the
include a zero-air voids (100% saturation) plot. If the degree of compaction of the soil on which field density and
moisture content and dry density value of the field mea- water contents were measured. If the borrow materials are
surement plots to the right of the zero-air voids line, variable on the project, or if there is any question about which
there is an error. The error may be in the measurement standard reference density values should be used, the rapid
of the density or water content of the field test or in the method provides a practical means to obtain accurate values
value of specific gravity used to determine the zero-air for reference density and water content.
voids line. If the specific gravity values and the resulting The rapid method is frequently used for larger earth-
zero-air voids line are suspect, the soil should be work projects, including earth dams, landfill soil liners, and
retested to determine an accurate value. airfields. This method is used infrequently on smaller proj-
3. If the computed degree of compaction is more than ects because it requires an on-site quality-control laboratory
approximately 110 % or less than approximately 85 %, and technicians who are experienced with performing the
for standard reference density effort D698, an error rapid test method. The rapid method gets its name because
should be suspected. the water content of the in-place test is not required to deter-
4. If the computed degree of compaction is more than mine the percent compaction and the deviation from opti-
approximately 105 % or less than approximately 75 % mum water content. The test requires less effort and can be
for modified reference density effort D1557, an error performed more quickly than a full compaction test made
should be suspected. on soil from the same location in the fill, but it provides sim-
The results can also be checked against Table 3A (see ilar accuracy results. One of the assumptions that simplify
Appendix A), which gives a range of average values for vari- this procedure is that the shape of the compaction curve is a
ous materials. Some deviation from the range of average val- true parabola. Because all compaction curves are parabolic
ues can be expected in some cases; however, differences in shape, this is a valid assumption.
should not be excessive and should be explainable. The test is performed by determining the in-place wet
density of the fill material using any one of the regular in-
F. SELECTION OF THE place tests as discussed in Chapter 4 of this manual. The soil
STANDARD REFERENCE DENSITY from the in-place test is used to make three reference den-
The two most important aspects of quality-control testing for sity tests. If the in-place field test is not large enough to pro-
soil compaction are (1) accurately measuring the density vide enough material for making three test specimens,
and water content of the compacted fill in place and (2) additional soil must be obtained immediately around the
selecting the appropriate value of the standard reference location of the in-place field test. When the nuclear method
density for the soil. If borrow materials are quite variable (D6938) is used with the rapid method, the soil for perform-
and are being mixed together during the normal processing ing the compaction test part should be obtained from the
of the fill materials, accurately determining an appropriate area on the fill immediately under the gauge at the test loca-
value for the standard reference density test is difficult. The tion. The compaction test procedure (mold size, rammer
most accurate method is to actually perform a standard ref- size, number of drops, and number of layers) is in accord-
erence density test on the soils at the same location where ance with the test method and procedure specified for the
the field in-place test was made. This solution is not very project. Any standard reference density test procedure can
practical and does not provide a timely response to a pro- be used.
duction operation. The standard test method procedure (D5080) includes
Two additional methods (other than performing a full all of the steps, spelled out in detail. See Figs. 2 and 3 for
standard reference density test) are recommended in this graphs used in the application of this method. This method
manual for selecting the standard reference density that is can be used on any soil in which the standard reference den-
used in comparing field in-place test results to determine sity test methods apply and is particularly appropriate for
percent compaction. The methods are the Standard Test earthfill projects in which fairly rapid results are needed
Method for Rapid Determination of Percent Compaction because it eliminates any question about what value for
(D5080) and the Family of Curves and One-Point Compac- standard reference density is valid. Corrections for oversize
tion Test Method. The One-Point Proctor Test is not an rock can be made as previously discussed in Section B of
56 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
ASTM D5080 this chapter. The procedure for making these corrections is
= Peak point
also provided in the published test method
With this method, it is possible to determine the percent
B compaction and the deviation from optimum water content
without determining the actual water content of any sam-
ym Y1
ples. The test procedure suggests that the actual water con-
zm
A tent be made for the record, but the fill compaction is
usually accepted or rejected based on the initial same-day
Converted wet density
xm
results. An accurate maximum density and optimum water
content may be obtained by drying a field sample by Test
Field moisture content Y2
Method D2216. The most significant thing about the proce-
dure is that the water content and maximum dry density val-
C ues obtained are for the exact same soil as the in-place field
density test.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES
Because this method uses the in-place field test procedures
x1 and the standard reference density procedures as specified,
x2 it has the same advantages and disadvantages as explained
for these tests in Chapters 3 and 4. The advantages unique
to this method have been explained.
-2.0 0 +2.0 The disadvantages unique to this method are that the test
Added water (%)
is a little more work and takes more time to complete than a
one-point test. The rapid method typically requires an on-site
Fig. 2—Determining peak point of compaction curve. field quality-control laboratory and qualified technicians to
provide proper test results in a timely manner. Gaining
ASTM D5080
145
Moisture adjustment values
2.3
140
2.2
135
2.1
130
Dry density of compacted soil, pcf
0.1%
0.1%
125 2.0
0.3%
0.3%
0.5%
120
0.7%
1.9
%
0.9%
0.5
1.3%.1%
115
1
%
0.7
1.5%
1.8
110 %
0.9
%
1.1 1.7
105 %
1.3
%
1.5
100 1.6
95
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Zm
proficiency in performing the test requires considerable expe- specific construction site. They may be supplemented with tests
rience and training of technicians. The computations involv- made on soils of similar geologic origin from adjacent areas.
ing the parabolic adjustment of the data are complicated and The first step is to plot the optimum water content and
computer programs are helpful in that regard. maximum dry density values from the available compaction
test curves on a regular compaction test report form with the
PRECAUTIONS OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ERROR scale values set to accommodate the full range of values. A
The precautions of the standard test procedures used in con- best-fit curve is then drawn through these points, which will
junction with this method also apply to this procedure. Things represent the true maximum points for all of the materials
such as properly calibrated molds and hammer weights and tested. This smooth curve forms a reference line and is the
drop heights are important. The main precaution unique to baseline from which the family of curves is developed. Soils
this method is that when the fill water content is at or above represented by plotted values that fall more than 2 water con-
the optimum water content, at least one specimen will have tent percentage points from the reference line should not be
to be dried to a lower water content. If heat is added to dry included in the family of curves and should be identified for
the soil, care must be exercised to dry only halfway and then special testing and the use of other methods. See Fig. 4 for
let the soil cool while it is drying the remainder. The soil must an example of the initial plot of a family of curves.
be at room temperature or the temperature of the mold and All compaction test curves to be used in the family of
rammer when the compaction is accomplished. If the soil is curves are then plotted to scale along the reference line. The
at a temperature higher than the surrounding air and the plotting is accomplished by shifting the water-content values
equipment, moisture will escape from the hot soil while the to the right or left as necessary to locate the maximum point
test is being performed and condensation will collect on on the reference line. The curves plotted in this shifted posi-
the equipment. The soil should be remixed after drying and tion on the reference line will serve to guide the shapes of the
the soil broken down to make sure the clods are not just dry entire family of curves. If large gaps exist between plotted
on the surface and still wet on the inside. curves along the reference line, then additional standard refer-
ence density test curves may be needed to fill in the gaps and
2. The Family of Curves and One-Point Compaction provide the appropriate shape of the curve in all ranges. See
Test Method for Determining Percent Compaction Fig. 4 for a final and corrected plot of the family of curves.
The Family of Curves and One-Point Compaction Test It is suggested, when possible, that the family of curves
Method for Determining Percent Compaction is not an be developed with one curve at each 5-bl maximum density
ASTM Method but can be found in AASHTO T 272 Standard interval beginning at selected points on the reference line.
Method of Test for Family of Curves—One-Point Method. Each new curve of the family of curves is then drawn as
Many state highway departments have developed this guided by the standard reference density test curves previ-
method for their use in quality control and selection of a ously plotted. Care should be taken to evenly space each
standard reference density to be used for computing degree curve in relation to adjacent curves of the family to mini-
of compaction and water-content deviations. (See Figs. 3A mize overlapping. The family of curves consists of these
and 4A in Appendix A.) This method utilizes typical relation- newly drawn curves and the reference line. It can be lifted
ships between optimum water content and maximum dry from the worksheet used in developing it to a new sheet of
density for soils from a specific borrow source being used cross-section paper for field use.
for a compacted earth fill. The relationship exists most often
when residual soil materials have been formed in place from Making the One-Point Compaction Test Specimen
the weathering of parent rock materials. Alluvial materials in The most significant precaution in using the family of curves
flood plains can also exhibit these same relationships if they has to do with the water content of the one-point compac-
are derived from materials that have a common geological tion test (D698 or D1557). This one-point test must be run at
origin. When a valid family of curves exists, a smooth curve a water content at least 1–2 % dry of the true optimum
can be drawn through the values of maximum dry density water content of the soil material.
and optimum water content of a series of compaction The curves of the family of curves begin to overlap on
curves developed from soil materials of varying weight, par- the wet side of the optimum moisture content. Therefore, if
ticle size, and plasticity within the borrow area. Developing a your one-point sample is not dry enough, it may be impossi-
series of these curves from field data and interpolation ble to determine what existing curve is the correct one to
between the known points produces the family of curves for match in shape with a new curve.
that specific borrow source.
When a family of curves has been developed, it can be Plotting the One-Point and Drawing the New Curve
used in conjunction with a one-point compaction value from The one-point compaction test identifies one point on a com-
the appropriate method in D698 or D1557 to determine the paction curve. When the one point is plotted on the family
optimum water content and maximum dry density for the of curves, it will identify the location of a new curve repre-
soil used in the one-point compaction test. The soil for senting the material of the in-place test. The new curve is
the one-point compaction test is taken from alongside the in- then drawn through this point and shaped to conform to the
place field test on the fill. The in-place field test may be adjacent curves of the family.
made with any of the standard test methods appropriate for
the material being tested. Locating and Recording the Optimum Water
Content and Maximum Dry Density
Procedures for Developing a Family of Curves The optimum water content and maximum dry density val-
The compaction test curve data used to develop a family of ues for the specific soil sample are determined by noting
curves should be from tests made on soil materials taken from a these values defined by the peak of the new curve that
58 QUALITY CONTROL OF SOIL COMPACTION USING ASTM STANDARDS
correspond with the intersection of the curve and the refer- Compaction (Test Method D5080) prevents this error because
ence line on the family of curves. They can be recorded for the standard reference density is determined on the same soil
reference on the in-place test report. as the in-place field density test. The Family of Curves—One-
Point Method (AASHTO T 272) helps prevent this error by
identifying the proper curve or establishing values for a new
G. SUMMARY curve.
The greatest source of error in the evaluation and control of Some checks can be made after the results have been
earthfill compaction is usually in selecting the proper standard calculated to determine if the results are reasonable. The
reference density test to compare with the in-place field density results of the in-place field density tests should be plotted
test. Poulos (1988) [2] has shown that basing this comparison on the appropriate standard reference density curve. If the
on soils that appear visually to have the same gradation leads degree of saturation is greater than 95 %, there is likely an
to significant error. The Rapid Determination of Percent error. Compacting soils to the point where they are more
CHAPTER 6 n QUALITY CONTROL AND THE COORDINATED USE OF LABORATORY 59
than 95 % saturated is highly unlikely because water is in some cases; however, differences should not be excessive
incompressible. In no case should any dry density value and should be explainable.
plot to the right of the zero-air voids (100 % saturation)
curve. These guidelines are dependent on having accurate
specific gravity values from which to plot the zero-air voids References
curve. [1] Earth Manual, 3rd Ed., Part II, U.S. Department of the Interior,
While comparing the in-place field density test against Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash-
the standard reference density test (D698), there may be an ington, DC, 1990.
[2] Poulos, S.J., “A Compaction Control and the Index Density,”
error if the dry density in-place is more than approximately Geotech. Test. J., Vol. 11, 1988, pp. 100–108.
108 % or less than approximately 75 % of the maximum dry [3] Standard Test Method for Family of Curves—One-Point Method,
density. While checking against the modified reference den- AASHTO Designation: T 272.
sity test (D1557), there may be an error if the dry density in [4] Plotted Ohio Typical Density Curves, Manual of Procedures for
place is more than approximately 104 % or less than approx- Earthwork Construction, Vol. II, Ohio Department of Transpor-
tation, Columbus, OH, 1998, Chapter 4.
imately 65 % of the maximum dry density. The results can
[5] Family of Curves and the One-Point Proctor Procedures, Certi-
also be checked against Table 3A (see Appendix A), which fied Technician Program Training Manual for Construction
gives a range of average values for various materials. Some Earthworks, Indiana Department of Transportation, Indianapo-
deviation from the range of average values can be expected lis, IN, 2003, Chapter 15.
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
Appendix A
Perform in-place field density test for wet density and water content,
compute dry density, apply correction for oversize when more than 5%.
Test for density by nuclear gauge, sand cone, drive cylinder, rubber balloon
test for water content by quick dry, microwave, oven dry, carbide tester.
Fig. 1A—Flow chart for field compaction quality control of earth fill
60
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
APPENDIX A 61
2800
40 Blows
2400
25 Blows
(Standard
compaction)
2000
Penetration resistance, lbf/in2 15 Blows
1600
10 Blows
1200
800
400
0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Moisture content-percent by dry mass of soil
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Moisture
Percent of dry weight
148 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
146
144
142
140
138
136
134 18
132
130 17
128 16 128
lb/ft3 (wet density)
15
126 126
14
124 124
13
122 122
12
120 11 120
10
118 118
9
116 8 116
7
6
114 5 114
112 4 112
3
2
110 1 110
108 108
106 106
104 104
102 102
100 100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Moisture content
Percent of dry weight
of original degrees)
height
GW Well graded 125–135 11–8 0.3 0.6 0 0 >38 >0.79 5 3 102 40–80 300–500
clean grav-
els, gravel-
sand
mixtures.
GP Poorly 115–125 14–11 0.4 0.9 0 0 >37 >0.74 10–1 30–60 250–400
graded
clean grav-
els, gravel-
sand mix.
GM Silty gravels, 120–135 12–8 0.5 1.1 . . ... . . ... >34 >0.67 >10–6 20–60 100–400
poorly
graded
gravel-sand-
clay.
GC Clayey grav- 115–130 14–9 0.7 1.6 . . ... . . ... >31 >0.60 >10–7 20–40 100–300
els, poorly
graded
gravel-sand-
clay.
SM Silty sands, 110–125 16–11 0.8 1.6 1050 420 34 0.67 5 3 >10–5 10–40 100–300
poorly
graded
sand-silt
mix.
TABLE IA—Typical properties of compacted soils (Continued)
Group Soil type Range of Range of Typical value of Typical strength characteristics Typical coef- Range of Range of
symbol maximum optimum compression ficient of CBR values subgrade
dry unit moisture permeability module k
weight pcf percent f t/min lb/in3
SM-SC Sand-silt clay 110–130 15–11 0.8 1.4 1050 300 33 0.66 2 3 >10–6 5–30 100–300
mix with
slightly plas-
tic fines.
SC Clayey 105–125 19–11 1.1 2.2 1550 230 31 0.60 5 3 >10–7 5–20 100–300
sands,
poorly
graded
sand-clay-
mix.
ML Inorganic 95–120 24–12 0.9 1.7 1400 190 32 0.62 >10–5 15 or less 100–200
silts and
clayey silts.
ML-CL Mixture of 100–120 22–12 1.0 2.2 1350 460 32 0.62 5 3 >10–7 . . ...
inorganic silt
and clay.
CL Inorganic 95–120 24–12 1.3 2.5 1800 270 28 0.54 >10–7 15 or less 50–200
clays of low
to medium
plasticity.
OL Organic silts 80–100 33–21 . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... 5 or less 50–100
and silt-
clays, low
plasticity.
MH Inorganic 70–95 40–24 2.0 3.8 1500 420 25 0.47 5 3 >10–2 10 or less 50–100
clayey silts,
elastic silts.
CK Inorganic 75–105 36–19 2.6 3.9 2150 230 19 0.35 >10–7 15 or less 50–150
clays of high
plasticity.
OH Organic 65–100 43–21 . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... 5 or less 25–100
APPENDIX A
clays and
silty clays.
Notes:
1. All properties are for condition of “Standard Proctor” maximum density, except values of k and CBR, which are for “Modified Proctor” maximum density.
2. Typical strength characteristics are for effective strength envelopes and are obtained from USBR date.
65
3. Compression values are for vertical loading with complete lateral confinement.
4. (>) indicates that typical property is greater than the value shown. (. . ...) indicates insufficient data available for an estimate.
66
Equipment Applicability Compacted lift Passes or coverages Dimensions and weight of equipment Possible variations in
type thickness, inches equipment
Rubber tire For clean, coarse-grained 10 3 to 5 coverages Tire inflation pressures of 35 to 130 lb/in2 for clean granular Wide variety of rubber
roller soils with 4 to 8 percent material or base course and subgrade compaction. Wheel tire compaction equip-
passing the No.200 load 18,000 to 25,000 lb. ment is available. For
sieve. cohesive soils, light-
For fine-grained soils or 6 to 8 4 to 6 coverages Tire inflation pressures in excess of 65 lb/in2, for fine-grained wheel loads, such as pro-
well-graded, dirty soils of high plasticity. For uniform clean sands or silty fine vided by wobble-wheel
coarse-grained soils with sands, use large size tires with pressures of 40 to 50 lb/in2. equipment, may be sub-
more than 8 percent stituted for heavy-wheel
passing the No.200 load if lift thickness is
sieve. decreased. For granular
soils, large-size tires are
desirable to avoid shear
and rutting.
Smooth Appropriate for sub- 8 to 12 4 coverages Tandem type rollers for base course or subgrade compaction 3-wheel rollers obtain-
wheel roller grade or base course 10- to 15-ton weight, 300 to 500 lb per lineal inch of width able in wide range of
compaction of well- of rear roller. sizes. 2-wheel tandem
graded sand-gravel rollers are available in
mixtures. the range of 1- to 20-
May be used for fine- 6 to 8 6 coverages 3-wheel roller compaction of fine-grained soil; weights from ton weight. 3-axle tan-
grained soils other than 5 to 6 tons for materials of low plasticity to 10 tons for dem rollers are generally
in earth dams. Not suita- materials of high plasticity. used in the range of 10-
ble for clean well- to 20-ton weight. Very
graded sands or silty heavy rollers are used
uniform sands. for proof rolling of sub-
grade or base course.
TABLE 2A—Compaction equipment and methods (Continued)
Requirements for compaction of 95 to 100 percent standard proctor maximum density
Equipment Applicability Compacted lift Passes or coverages Dimensions and weight of equipment Possible variations in
type thickness, inches equipment
Vibrating For coarse-grained soils, 8 to 12 3 to 5 1 to 20 tons ballasted weight. Dynamic force up to 20 tons. May have either fixed or
sheetsfoot sand-gravel mixtures variables cyclic
rollers frequency.
Vibrating For coarse-grained soils, 6 to 12 (soil) 3 to 5 1 to 20 tons ballasted weight. Dynamic force up to 20 tons. May have either fixed or
smooth drum sand-gravel mixtures, to 36 (rock) 4 to 6 variables cyclic
rollers rock fills. frequency.
Vibrating For coarse-grained soils 8 to 10 3 coverages Single pads or plates should weigh no less than 200 lb. May Vibrating pads or plates
baseplate with less than about 12 be used in tandem where working space is available. For are available, hand-
compactors percent passing No. 200 clean coarse-grained soil, vibration frequency should be no propelled, single or in
sieve. Best suited for less than 1,600 cycles per minute. gangs, with width of
materials with 4 to 8 coverage from 1-1/2 to
percent passing No. 200 15 ft. Various types of
sieve, placed thoroughly vibrating drum equip-
wet. ment should be consid-
ered for compaction in
large areas.
Crawler Best suited for coarse- 6 to 10 3 to 4 coverages Vehicle with “Standard" tracks having contact pressure not Tractor weight up to 85
tractor grained soils with less less than 10 lb/in2. tons.
than 4 to 8 percent pass-
ing No. 200 sieve, placed
thoroughly wet.
Power tam- For difficult access, 4 to 6 in. for silt or 2 coverages 30-lb minimum weight. Considerable range is tolerable, Weight up to 250 lb.,
per or trench backfill. Suitable clay, 6 in. for depending on materials and conditions. foot diameter 4 to 10 in.
rammer for all inorganic soils. coarse-grained soils
APPENDIX A
67
68 APPENDIX A
Pt Not suitable Not suitable for most fills - usually placed with draglines and little compaction
1
All conditions are for compaction of 95 of 100 percent standard proctor maximum density at optimum water content, except for soils covered by
footnote
2
Saturated water content
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
Appendix B
69
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
70 APPENDIX B
Fig. 2B—Materials testing report: unified soil classification system visual-manual procedure (ASTM D2488).
APPENDIX B 71
Maximum γ3_____________lb/ft3
Optimum moisture _________ %
Natural moisture ___________ %
Remarks _____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Compaction Data
Volume of cylinder _____________ ft3 using: ASTM Standard D 698/D 1557 _______________, method ________________
Procedure data: weight of hammer: ________________ lb, drop _______________ in., number of lifts __________________
% Difference from Avg. = [(Avg. of 3 trials – Trial #___ ) / Avg. of 3 Trials] x 100
% Difference from Avg. = [(Avg. of 3 trials – Trial #___ ) / Avg. of 3 Trials] x 100
Location of test
Test
Date Centerline Moisture (%) Material classification
No. Station Elevation
offset
Remarks:
1
Oversize correction required based on method selected in ASTM D698 or D1557.
Indicate weight and volume units used in test.
Fig. 6B—In-place moisture-density determination: test record for sand cone method (ASTM D1556), fine-grained soils–less than 5% þ
oversize1.
APPENDIX B 75
Test No.
Volume Determination
1 2 3 4
1. Bulk density of sand (predetermined): _____________
2. Initial weight of sand, cone, and container: __________
3. Final weight of sand, cone, and container: ___________
4. Weight of sand in hole, plate, and cone = [2] – [3]: _________
5. Weight of sand in plate plus cone (predetermined): _________
6. Weight of sand in hole = [4] – [5]: _____________
7. Volume of hole = [6] ÷ [1]: ____________
Container No.
Moisture Determination
1 2 3 4
Sample tested using: direct heat ___ oven ___ microwave ___
8. Weight of moist sample and container: ____________
9. Weight of dry sample and container: ___________
10. Weight of moisture = [10] – [11]: ___________
11. Weight of container: ____________
12. Weight of dry sample = [9] – [11]: ____________
13. Moisture content = ([10] ÷ [12]) 100: ____________
14. Correction for ignition: ___________
15. Corrected moisture content = [13] – [14]: ____________
Container No.
Density Determination
1 2 3 4
16. Weight of moist sample plus container: _________________
17. Weight of container: ________________
18. Weight of moist sample = ___________
19. Wet density = [18] ÷ [7]: ___________
20. Dry density = [18] ÷ [1 + [15]/100]:____________
21. Required density = ___________________
22. Ratio1 = ([20] ÷ [21]) 100: ___________________
1
Oversize correction required based on method selected in ASTM D698 or D1557.
Indicate weight and volume units used in test.
Fig. 7B—In-place moisture-density determination: test data for sand cone method (ASTM D1556) fine-grained soil–less than 5% þ oversize1.
76 APPENDIX B
Location of test
Test Borrow source, location,
Date Centerline Material classification
No. Station Elevation and depth
offset
Remarks:
Fig. 8B—In-place moisture-density determination: test records for the rubber balloon method (ASTM D2167) fine-grained soils–less than
5% þ no. 4 sieve.
APPENDIX B 77
Test No.
Volume Determination
1 2 3 4
1. Final base reading:_____________________________
2. Initial case reading:____________________
3. Volume of hole = [1] – [2]: ____________
Container No.
Moisture Determination
1 2 3 4
Sample tested using: direct heat ___ oven ___ microwave ___
4. Weight of moist sample and container: ____________
5. Weight of dry sample and container: ___________
6. Weight of moisture = [4] – [5]: ___________
7. Weight of container: ____________
8. Weight of dry sample = [5] – [7]: ____________
9. Moisture content = ([6] ÷ [8]) 100: ____________
10. Correction for ignition: ___________
11. Corrected moisture content = [9] – [10]: ____________
Container No.
Density Determination
1 2 3 4
12. Weight of moist sample plus container: _________________
13. Weight of container: ________________
14. Weight of moist sample = ___________
15. Wet density = [14] ÷[3]
16. Dry density = [15] ÷ [1 + [11]/100]:____________
17. Required density: ___________
18. Ratio1 = ([16] ÷[17]) 100: ____________
1
Oversize correction required based on method selected in ASTM D698 or D1557.
Indicate weight and volume units used in test.
Fig. 9B—In-place moisture-density determination: test data for the rubber balloon method (ASTM D2167), fine-grained soils–less than
5% þ no. 4 sieve.
78 APPENDIX B
Location of test
Test Borrow source, location,
Date Centerline Material classification
No. Station Elevation and depth
offset
Remarks:
Fig. 10B—In-place moisture-density determination: calibrated cylinder method test record (ASTM D2937) fine-grained soils–less than 5% þ
no. 4 sieve.
APPENDIX B 79
Test No.
Volume Determination
1 2 3 4
1. Volume of cylinder (volume of hole)
Test No.
Moisture Determination
1 2 3 4
Sample tested using: direct heat ___ oven ___ microwave ___
2. Weight of moist sample plus container: _____________
3. Weight of dry sample plus container: ______________ Container No.
4. Weight of moisture = [2] – [3]: __________
5. Weight of container: ____________
6. Weight of dry sample = [3] – [5]: ____________
7. Moisture content = ([4] ÷ [6])*100: ________________ (%)
8. Correction for ignition: _____________ (%)
9. Corrected moisture content = [7] – [8]: _____________ (%)
Density Determination
1
Ratio of fill dry density to maximum dry density.
Indicate weight and volume units used in test.
Fig. 11B—In-place moisture-density determination: calibrated cylinder method test data (ASTM D2937), fine-grained soils–less than 5% þ
no. 4 sieve.
80 APPENDIX B
Location of test
Test Borrow source, location,
Date Centerline Material classification
No. Station Elevation and depth
offset
Size of template:
Remarks:
Fig. 12B—In-place moisture-density determination: template and plastic liner method test record (ASTM D5030).
APPENDIX B 81
Test No.
Volume Determination
1 2 3 4
1. Weight of water plus container before filling template: ( )
2. Weight of water plus container after filling template: ( )
3. Weight of water required to fill template = [1] – [2]: ( )
4. Weight of water plus container before filling template and hole: ( )
5. Weight of water plus container after filling template and hole: ( )
6. Weight of water to fill template and hole = [4] – [5]: ( )
7. Net weight of water to fill hole = [6] – [3]: ( )
8. Volume = [7] ÷ [62.4] : ____________________________________ ( )
Container No.
Moisture Determination
1 2 3 4
Sample tested using: direct heat ___ oven ___ microwave ___
9. Weight of moist sample and container: ( )
10. Weight of dry sample and container: ( )
11. Weight of moisture = [9] – [10]: ( )
12. Weight of container: ( )
13. Weight of wet sample = [9] – [12]: __________________________ ( )
14. Weight of dry sample = [10] – [12]: ( )
15. Moisture content = ([11] ÷ [14]) 100: (%)
16. Correction for ignition: _____________ (%)
17. Corrected moisture content = [15] – [16]: (%)
Test No.
Density Determination
1 2 3 4
1
Ratio of fill dry density to maximum dry density.
Indicate weight and volume units used in test.
Fig. 13B—In-place moisture-density determination: template and plastic liner method test data (ASTM D5030).
82 APPENDIX B
Project
NUCLEAR COMPACTION TEST DATA Job number
FOR ASTM D6938 Date
Taken by
Test number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Station
Offset
Elevation
Mode & depth
Density count
Wet density
Moisture cnt.
% Moisture
Moisture corr.
Dry density
Std. density
Opt. moisture
% Compaction
Test number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Station
Offset
Elevation
Mode & depth
Density count
Wet density
Moisture cnt.
% Moisture
Moisture corr.
Dry density
Std. density
Opt. moisture
% Compaction
1
WW-Weight of moisture sample and container DW=Weight of dry sample and container TW=Weight of container
2
Moisture content (%)=[(WW–DW)÷(DW–TW)]*100
Fig. 15B—Moisture content determination summary data sheet for ASTM methods.
84 APPENDIX B
SAMPLE NUMBER
UNITS
CONTAINER NUMBER
MASS OF WATER
lbm
MASS OF DRY SPECIMEN
ASTM D4643 Moisture Determination Using Microwave Oven Designation USBR 5315
0 0 231.62 — — —
3 3 217.75 71.45 13.87 19.4
1 4 216.22 69.92 15.40 22.0
1 5 215.72 69.42 15.90 22.9
1 6 215.48 69.18 16.14 23.3
1 7 215.32 69.02 16.30 23.6
1 8 215.22 68.92 16.40 23.8
1 9 215.19 68.89 16.43 23.8
1 10 215.19 68.89 16.43 23.8
Fig. 17B—Moisture content determination summary data sheet for ASTM methods.
86 APPENDIX B
* If the moisture content of the full specimen exceeds the limit of the gauge
on the testing equipment, a half-sized specimen is used.
** If (2) = half-size specimen, (4) = (3) x 2.
If (2) = full-size specimen, (4) = (3).
Fig. 19B—Determining moisture content of soil using the calcium carbide method.
88 APPENDIX B
16
Oven-dried Moisture Content (percent)
14.5
Example:
12 Gauge reading = 15
ASTM D2216
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 16 18
Gauge Moisture Content (percent)
Fig. 20B—Calibration curve for determining moisture content of soils using ASTM D4944.
APPENDIX B 89
Appendix C
Fig. 3C—Pheumatic roller—provides static rolling for soils of low Fig. 4C—Grid roller—used to break down fill material such as
to no plasticity. shales.
90
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
APPENDIX C 91
Fig. 5C—Sand cone method (ASTM D1556). Fig. 6C—Rubber balloon method (ASTM D2167).
Fig. 7C—Drive cylinder method (ASTM D2937). Fig. 8C—Nuclear method (ASTM D6938)
92 APPENDIX C
Fig. 10C—Calcium carbide gas pressure tester method (ASTM Fig. 11C—Calcium carbide gas pressure tester method (ASTM
D4944). D4944).
MNL70-EB/Oct. 2011
Index
A methods for evaluating density and unit weight of,
adverse weather conditions 26–29
compaction in, 18–19 relative density methods for, 22
ASTM D558, 22, 25–26, 51, 52 and sleeve method, 40
ASTM D559, 26 cohesive soils
ASTM D560, 26 and rubber balloon method, 33
ASTM D698. See Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698) and vibrating tamping foot rollers, 20
ASTM D1556. See sand cone method (ASTM D1556) compacted soil
ASTM D1557. See Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D1557) soil classes of, 68t
ASTM D2166, 22 typical properties of, 64–65t
ASTM D2167. See rubber balloon method (ASTM D2167) variables determining density of, 2
ASTM D2216. See oven-dry method (ASTM D2216) compaction, 13
ASTM D2435, 22 in adverse weather conditions, 18–19
ASTM D2850, 22 effect of compactive effort on, 14f
ASTM D2937. See drive cylinder method (ASTM D2937) effect of effort of on penetration resistance, 61f
ASTM D3107, 42 effects of on shrink and swell of soil, 16–17
ASTM D3665, 39 equipment for, 3, 9, 11, 19–20, 66–67t
ASTM D4253, 16, 22, 27–29, 43, 54 history of, 2
ASTM D4254, 16, 22, 27–29, 43, 54 impact methods of and types of soil for, 22
ASTM D4287, 30 influence of on engineering properties, 16–18
ASTM D4564, 30, 39–40 quality control flow chart for, 60f
ASTM D4643. See microwave-oven method (ASTM D4643) compaction curve, 2
ASTM D4718, 32, 34, 36, 53–54 for dry density, 25
ASTM D4914. See sand replacement in test pit method and energy applied, 13f
(ASTM D4914) family of, 8f
ASTM D4944. See calcium carbide gas pressure tester of gravel, 15
method (ASTM D4944) for modified compaction test, 14, 23
ASTM D4959. See direct heating method (ASTM D4959) and percent saturation, 26f
ASTM D5030. See water replacement in test pit method for reference density, 71f, 72f
(ASTM D5030) relationship of to ZAV curve, 15
ASTM D5080. See rapid determination of percent of sand, 15f, 28f
compaction (D5080) of soil-cement mixtures, 25
ASTM D5084, 22 for standard compaction test, 14, 23
ASTM D6938. See nuclear method (ASTM D6938) for wet density, 25
ASTM STP523, 43 compaction tests, standard reference, 22–23
ASTM test methods, 1, 4–5, 8, 22
Atterberg Limits, 8 D
density
B and cohesionless soils, 16, 22, 26–29
backfill, 9, 11f, 36 compaction curve for dry density, 25
backscatter mode comparing to standard reference, 51, 55
of nuclear gauge, 36, 37f, 38 curve for for dry soil conditions, 19
of finer particle rock fill, 43
C index test method of, 26–29
calcium carbide gas pressure tester method (ASTM D4944), and nuclear method, 36, 38, 39
25, 44, 48–54, 87f, 91f plotting of, 59
calibration curve with, 49–50, 88f and rapid determination of percent compaction, 55–57
and nuclear density method, 38 relative method of, 22, 27f, 29
and sand replacement in test pit method, 42 and rubber balloon method, 33
Casagrande, Arthur, 2–3 and sand replacement in test pit method, 40–41
CH soil, 30, 35 and sleeve method, 40
clay, 13–17, 22, 51–52 variables determining, 2
clayey soil, 13–15, 17–19, 52–54 and vertical vibration, 28
clay silt, 22 of very-coarse-grained soils, 42–43
CL soil, 30, 33, 35 density, standard reference, 14
cohesionless soils, 15f, 16t compaction curve for, 71f, 72f
equipment used with, 16, 20 comparing to compacted soil, 51, 55
93
Copyright © 2011 by ASTM International www.astm.org
94 INDEX
sand cone method (ASTM D1556), 8, 19, 30–33, 31f, 51, 52, Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2488), 3, 70f
54, 90f unit weight, maximum dry, 25, 29
density and calibration for, 73f unit weight test, 24–30
in-place moisture-density determination for, 74f, 75f and drive cylinder method, 35
sand replacement in test pit method (ASTM D4914), 30, and rubber balloon method, 33
40–42, 52, 54–55 and sand cone method, 30–32
sandy fine grained soil, 51–52 and sand replacement in test pit method, 40–41
sandy silt, 22 and sleeve method, 40
saturation, 25, 30
SC soil, 30, 33, 35 V
sieve, 8 vertical vibration, 28
silt, 13–15, 51–52 void ratio, 30
silty soil, 17–20, 52–54 volume, 33, 40, 42
sleeve method, 39–40
SM soil, 16, 22, 30, 33, 35 W
soil water content, maximum, 22
classification system of, 2–3 water content, optimum, 2, 14, 24–25
engineering use of, 10t and compaction, 16–17
testing samples of, 5, 8 comparing to compacted soil, 51
soil-cement mixtures and penetrometer needle test (ASTM D1558), 17
test methods for, 25–26 and rapid method, 56
soil liners, 11 and water-retaining structures, 9
soil load, 30 water content test, 8, 17f, 24, 43–45
soil mass stress, 30 comparing to optimum water content, 51
“Speedy Moisture Meter Test,” 48–50 and drive cylinder method, 35, 36
Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698), 2, 3, 14, 19, 23–24 and nuclear density method, 36–39
and compaction characteristics of soil, 22, 51, 52 and oven-dry method, 45–46
comparing in-place density test to, 59 and rapid determination of percent compaction, 55–57
comparing to degree of compaction, 55 and rubber balloon method, 33, 34
and maximum dry density, 54 and sand cone method, 30–32
and maximum dry unit weight, 29 and sand replacement in test pit method, 42
and rubber balloon method, 34 summary data sheet for, 83f
and sheepsfoot roller, 20 water replacement in test pit method (ASTM D5030), 30, 42,
steps of, 24–25 43, 52, 54–55
in-place moisture-density determination for, 80f, 81f
T
test fill report, 89f Z
test pit configurations, 40f zero-air voids, 14–15, 25, 55, 59
tractor, crawler, 20 zoned earth fills, 11, 12f
U
uncontrolled fill, 9
Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487), 3, 49, 69f
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ISBN: 978-0-8031-7023-0
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