Dept.

for Speech, Music and Hearing

Quarterly Progress and
Status Report

From touch to string

vibrations - the initial course
of the piano tone
Askenfelt, A. and Jansson, E. V.

journal: STL-QPSR
volume: 29
number: 1
year: 1988
pages: 031-109

http://www.speech.kth.se/qpsr
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

B. FROM TOUCH TO STRISG VIBRATIONS - THE INITIAL COURSE OF THE

PIANO TONE*
A. A s k e n f e l t & E. J a n s s o n

Abstract
T h i s a r t i c l e d e s c r i b e s an e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s
of sound production i n t h e grand piano. I n a f i r s t s e c t i o n , t h e t i m i n g
i n t h e p i a n o a c t i o n is s t u d i e d . I m p o r t a n t t i m i n g p r o p e r t i e s i n c l u d e d are
t h e r e l a t i o n between key-bottom c o n t a c t and hammer-string c o n t a c t , t h e
" f r e e " t i m e o f t h e hammer m o t i o n b e f o r e s t r i k i n g t h e s t r i n g , a n d t h e
hammer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e r e g u l a t i o n and t h e
dynamic l e v e l o n t h e s e t i m i n g p r o p e r t i e s i s a n a l y z e d . I n a s e c o n d sec-
t i o n / t h e m o t i o n o f t h e key and hammer a t d i f f e r e n t d y n a m i c s and u s i n g
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f " t o u c h " i s s t u d i e d . The a c c e l e r a t i n g f o r c e o n t h e
hammer and t h e motion o f t h e hammer a f t e r release ( " l e t - o f f " ) are i n v e s -
t i g a t e d . R e s o n a n c e s i n t h e hammer are m e a s u r e d a n d t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n
key and hammer m o t i o n s are d i s c u s s e d . I n a t h i r d s e c t i o n , s t r i n g m o t i o n
is analyzed. T y p i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t r i n g motion and s p e c t r a o v e r t h e
compass o f t h e p i a n o a r e p r e s e n t e d . The i n f l u e n c e o f changing t h e hammer
mass a n d a d j u s t i n g t h e hammer c o m p l i a n c e ( " v o i c i n g " ) o n t h e s p e c t r a l
p r o p e r t i e s is i n v e s t i g a t e d , a s w e l l as t h e spectral d i f f e r e n c e s evoked
b y t h e p i a n i s t by changing t h e dynamic l e v e l .

Introduction
This s t u d y is d e v o t e d t o a n e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t o n e
production i n t h e g r a n d p i a n o , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e m o t i o n o f t h e k e y and
e n d i n g w i t h t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s . The aim o f t h e s t u d y w a s t o e x p l o r e
t h e d i f Eerent s t e p s i n t h i s process, e s p e c i a l l y t o d e s c r i b e p r o p e r t i e s
which c o u l d be a s s u m e d t o b e o f i m p o r t a n c e f o r p l a y i n g a n d f o r t h e
sound p r o d u c e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r r t h e e x t e n t o f t h e p i a n i s t ' s and t h e
p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n ' s i n f l u e n c e on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e was g i v e n s p e c i a l a t t e n -
t i o n * * (Asken f e l t & J a n s s o n , 1982a; 1982b; 1983; 1985; J a n s s o n , 1978).

* The a r t i c l e is s u b m i t t e d f o r p u b l . i n J.Acoust.Soc.Am.

** R e p o r t s from p i l o t s t u d i e s d u r i n g d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1978-83 have

previously been p r e s e n t e d ( A s k e n f e l t & J a n s s o n , 1982a; 1932b; 1933;
1985: J a n s s o n , 1 9 7 5 ) .
F i g . 1. V i e w o f t h e a c t i o n o f a modern g r a n d p i a n o . The d o t t e d areas i n d i c a t e f e l t a n d t h e
broad l i n e s i n d i c a t e l e a t h e r .
STL-QPSR 1/1988

PART I. TIMING I N THE GRAND PIANO ACTION

A. P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e piano a c t i o n

1. Mechanical f u n c t i o n o f t h e g r a n d a c t i o n
The a c t i o n i n a l l g r a n d p i a n o s o f t o d a y e x h i b i t s a h i g h d e g r e e o f
functional s i m i l a r i t y ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e s are e s s e n t i a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e
d e s i g n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s . The c o n s t r u c t i o n stems from t h e I t a l i a n
h a r p s i c h o r d maker C r i s t o f o r i ' s i n v e n t i o n o f t h e hammer a c t i o n i n 1709,
revised and improved b y t h e French p i a n o m a n u f a c t u r e r Erard around
1820. The development s t a b i l i z e d b e f o r e t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , a f t e r
which n o m a j o r c h a n g e s have been made.
The a c t i o n c o n s i s t s p r i n c i p a l l y o f f o u r m a j o r p a r t s : t h e k e y , t h e
l e v e r body w i t h a p p u r t e n a n t p a r t s , t h e hammer, and t h e damper (see Fig.
1). I n s h o r t , t h e m o t i o n o f t h e k e y i s t r a n s f e r r e d v i a t h e l e v e r b o d y
t o t h e hammer. S h o r t l y b e f o r e hammer-string c o n t a c t I t h e f o r c e t r a n s -
m i s s i o n from key t o hammer is i n t e r r u p t e d and t h e hammer is l e f t swing-
i n g f r e e a g a i n s t t h e s t r i n g . Upon r e t u r n , t h o hammer is c h e c k e d . The
damper is l i f t e d o f f t h e s t r i n g b y t h e k e y b e f o r e t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g
c o n t a c t , and l e t down when t h e key is r e l e a s e d .
The s u c c e s s i v e s t e p s i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n d u r i n g a b l o w
is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 2a-d:

(a) The k e y i s a t w o - a r m e d l e v e r p i v o t i n g a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y i t s mid-

point. I n rest p o s i t i o n , t h e p l a y i n g end o f t h e k e y is pushed i n
i t s u p p e r p o s i t i o n b y t h e w e i g h t o f t h e l e v e r b o d y a n d hammer,
which p r e s s e s down on t h e f a r e n d o f t h e key. The hammer rests v i a
its r o l l e r o n t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r , a p a r t o f t h e l e v e r body. The
l e v e r b o d y rests o n t h e c a p s t a n screw, w h i c h i s s c r e w e d i n t o t h e
key. The d a m p e r i s r e s t i n g o n t h e s t r i n g , p u l l e d down b y l e a d
weights.

(b) A s t h e k e y is d e p r e s s e d , i t s i n n e r p a r t moves u p w a r d s , w h i c h i n
turn c a u s e s t h e l e v e r body t o r o t a t e upwards and t h e r e p e t i t i o n
l e v e r t o p u s h o n t h e hammer. I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e m o t i o n h a s
s t a r t e d , t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e hammer s w i t c h e s f r o m t h e l i g h t l y
s p r i n g - s u p p o r t e d r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r t o t h e j a c k . A s t h e hammer h a s
traveled h a l f o f its d i s t a n c e t o t h e s t r i n g , t h e i n n e r end of t h e
key s t a r t s t o l i f t t h e d a m p e r . When t h e hammer is c l o s e t o t h e
s t r i n g , t h e upper end o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r touches t h e d r o p
screw and t h e l e v e r is s t o p p e d a t t h i s l e v e l .

(c) The l e v e r body and t h e hammer c o n t i n u e t o move upwards u n t i l t h e

t a i l end of t h e j a c k is stopped by t h e escapement d o l l y which makes
STL-QPSR 1/1988

t h e j a c k t u r n b a c k w a r d s ( " l e t - o f f " ) . The t o p o f t h e j a c k is r a p i d l y

withdrawn f r o m t h e r o l l e r a n d t h e a c t i o n l o s e s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
hammer. The f r e e hammer c o n t i n u e s u p w a r d s , s t r i k e s t h e s t r i n g ,
and bounces back.

(d) Upon r e t u r n , t h e hammer r o l l e r f a l l s o n t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r i n

f r o n t o f t h e t r i p p e d j a c k , a n d t h e hammer i s c a p t u r e d b y t h e b a c k
c h e c k a t t h e f a r e n d o f t h e key. The s t r o k e may now b e r e p e a t e d ,
e i t h e r by r e l e a s i n g t h e key as normal, o r by using t h e double-
r e p e t i t i o n f e a t u r e . I f t h e key is l e t up e n t i r e l y , t h e hammer, t h e
damper, and t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e a c t i o n r e t u r n t o t h e i r i n i t i a l
p o s i t i o n s , and t h e whole p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d is r e p e a t e d upon making
t h e n o t e sound a g a i n .

When t h e d o u b l e - r e p e t i t i o n m e c h a n i s m i s u s e d , t h e k e y i s l e t u p
o n l y a b o u t a t h i r d o f i t s t r a v e l . A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e hammer h a s b e e n
released from t h e c h e c k and l i f t e d s l i g h t l y by t h e spring-supported
r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r . T h i s allows t h e s p r i n g - l o a d e d j a c k t o s l i p b a c k i n t o
i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n u n d e r t h e r o l l e r , a n d t h e a c t i o n is s e t f o r a
second blow. T h i s f e a t u r e o f t h e g r a n d a c t i o n e n a b l e s v e r y f a s t repeti-
t i o n s o n t h e same k e y , w i t h o u t t h e d a m p e r t o u c h i n g t h e s t r i n g b e t w e e n
t h e notes.
A c o r r e c t f u n c t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n , as o u t l i n e d above, r e q u i r e s a
c a r e f u l r e g u l a t i o n . Of c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e is t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e
t o p o f t h e hammer a t rest and t h e s t r i n g i n t h e f o l l o w i n g hammer-string
d i s t a n c e ("blow l e v e l " ) . T h i s d i s t a n c e is a d j u s t e d w i t h t h e c a p s t a n
screw. Of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e i s t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e j a c k
( " l e t - o f f " ). T h i s is a d j u s t e d w i t h t h e e s c a p e m e n t d o l l y . The a d j u s t m e n t
is made by o b s e r v i n g t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e s t r i n g and t h e t o p o f t h e
hammer a t t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t o f i t s t r a v e l ( l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e ) , when t h e
key is d e p r e s s e d s l o w l y .
Nominal v a l u e s f o r t h e g r a n d p i a n o i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t s a s g i v e n b y
t h e manufacturer were 47 mm f o r t h e hammer-string d i s t a n c e , and 1-3
mm f o r t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e * ( D i e t z , 1968a). A p r o p e r a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e
r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r s h o u l d p o s i t i o n its upper s u r f a c e above t h e t o p o f t h e
jack by " t h e t h i c k n e s s o f a paper". A c o r r e c t r e g u l a t i o n g i v e s t h e
p i a n i s t a p r e c i s e f e e l i n g o f t h e hammer r e l e a s e a t l e t - o f f ( " p r e s s u r e
point"), and a p r o p e r amount o f remaining key t r a v e l a f t e r l e t - o f f
( "after-touch" ) .
-- - -

*In t h e b a s s , t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e is set t o h a l f t h e s t r i n g d i a m e t e r ,
i n t h e m i d d l e and i n t h e t r e b l e between 1 and 2 mm.
STL-QPSR 1/1988

CAPSTAN SCREW

Fig. 2. Illustration of the function of the action at successive

stages during a blow.
a. Rest position. The hammer rests vla the hammer roller on
the repetition lever, a part of the lever body. The lever body
stands on the key, supported by the capstan screw. The weight of
1
the hammer and lever body holds the playing end of the key in its
upper position. The damper is resting on the string.

JACK

b. Acceleration. When the pianist's finger depresses the key,

the lever body is rotated upwards. The jack, mounted on the
lever body, pushes on the roller and accelerates the hammer.
The damper is lifted off the string by the far end of the key.
STL-QPSR 1/i988

I n a l l c o n t a c t p o i n t s between t h e moving p a r t s , o n e o f t h e s u r f a c e s
is c o v e r e d w i t h f e l t o r l e a t h e r i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e a s m o o t h a n d s i l e n t
motion, f r e e from b a c k l a s h . Even t h i n s h a f t s t f o r example, t h e s h a f t f o r
t h e j a c k i n t h e l e v e r body, are s u p p o r t e d i n f e l t bushings. T h i s makes
t h e a c t i o n change c o n d i t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o wear and c h a n g e s i n t e m p e r a t u r e
and humidity. P e r i o d i c r e g u l a t i o n is t h u s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o k e e p t h e
a c t i o n i n optimum c o n d i t i o n .
I

2. Hammer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n
The h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n a n d t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f hammer
release f r o m t h e s t r i n g h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n d e p t h b y H a l l ( 1 9 8 6 ;
1987a; 1 9 8 7 b ) . E f f e c t s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s e t h e o r i e s a r e : t h e r e s t o r i n g
f o r c e from t h e d e f l e c t e d s t r i n g ("bow and a r r o w " ) , t h e r e p e a t e d i m p u l s e s
o n t h e s h o r t s t r i n g s e g m e n t b e t w e e n hammer a n d a g r a f f e d u r i n g s t r i n g
c o n t a c t , a n d t h e o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e hammer m a s s a g a i n s t t h e s t r i n g
c a u s e d b y t h e c o m p l i a n c e o f t h e hammer f e l t . P r o p e r t i e s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n a r e t h e mass r a t i o o f t h e hammer a n d t h e s t r i n g , t h e
point o f e x c i t a t i o n , t h e fundamental p e r i o d o f t h e s t r i n g , and t h e
e f f e c t i v e c o m p l i a n c e o f t h e hammer. The d i s t i n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e c o m p l i a n c e
is n e c e s s a r y a s t h e p i a n o hammer h a s been shown t o e x h i b i t a n o n l i n e a r
compression c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( B o u t i l l o n , 1 9 8 8 ; H a l l & A s k e n f e l t , 1 9 8 8 ;
S u z u k i , 1985; Yanag i s a w a & Nakamura, 1934).
The dependence o f hammer and s t r i n g masses, e x c i t a t i o n p o i n t , and
fundamental p e r i o d o f t h e s t r i n g i m p l i e s t h a t t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t dura-
t i o n v a r i e s o v e r t h e compass o f t h e piano. F u r t h e r , t h e v a r i a t i o n i n
hammer c o m p l i a n c e i m p l i e s t h a t t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n f o r a g i v e n n o t e
w i l l change w i t h dynamic l e v e l .

B. Scope o f measurements
The aim o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s w a s t o p r o v i d e a v i e w o f t h e t i m i n g
p r o c e s s i n t h e a c t i o n a t d i f f e r e n t dynamic l e v e l s and b y u s i n g d i f f e r e n t
t y p e s o f "touch" (ways o f d e p r e s s i n g t h e key). C h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e t i m i n g p a t t e r n s which c o u l d b e assumed t o be o f p a r t i c u l a r i m -
p o r t a n c e i n p l a y i n g i n c l u d e t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e o n s e t o f t h e n o t e ,
i.e., t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t , a n d t h e m e c h a n i c a l r e s p o n s e t o t h e
p l a y e r , i.e., t h e k e y b o t t o m c o n t a c t . The r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e release
o f t h e hammer ( " l e t - o f f " ) and t h e moment o f t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t is anoth-
er i n t e r e s t i n g t i m i n g p r o p e r t y , which a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e
c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e k e y a n d t h e hammer i s b r o k e n a t s t r i n g c o n t a c t o r
n o t . F u r t h e r , t h e magnitude o f t h e s h i f t s i n t i m i n g p a t t e r n s i n t r o d u c e d
by d i f f e r i n g r e g u l a t i o n s is o f i n t e r e s t i n o r d e r t o judge t h e i m p l i c a -
t i o n s f o r t h e p i a n i s t ' s t i m i n g o f t h e notes. A l s o t h e hammer-string
contact d u r a t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t t i m i n g p a r a m e t e r l i n f l u e n c i n g t h e
c o n t e n t o f t h e s t r i n g spectra.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

J a c k - d o l l y - t h e t a i l end o f t h e j a c k and t h e f e l t - c o v e r e d underside o f

t h e escapement dolly.
I
Jack-roller - t h e t o p o f t h e j a c k and t h e l e a t h e r on t h e hammer r o l l e r .

Hammer-string - t h e t o p o f t h e hammer head. The metal s t r i n g i t s e l f

s e r v e d as t h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s w i t c h .

Hammer-check - t h e c u r v e d b a c k s i d e o f t h e hammer head t a i l and t h e c h e c k

leather.

Damper-string - t h e u n d e r s i d e f e l t o f t h e d a m p e r . The metal s t r i n g

i t s e l f served as t h e o t h e r p a r t o f t h e switch.

I t t u r n e d o u t t o be a d v a n t a g e o u s t o u s e t h e c o p p e r f o i l f o r most o f
t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t s . The f o i l c o u l d s i m p l y b e a t t a c h e d o n t o p o f a f e l t
p i e c e , a n d i t f o l l o w e d t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e f e l t . On t h e hammer h e a d ,
however, a c o p p e r w i r e w a s used. The t h i n c o p p e r w i r e was soon embedded
i n t h e hammer f e l t a n d c a u s e d o n l y a m i n o r d e v i a n c e i n t o n e q u a l i t y .
With t h e f o i l on t h e hammer, t h e t o n e q u a l i t y was a f f e c t e d n o t i c e a b l y .
For t h e c r u c i a l c o n t a c t between t h e j a c k and t h e r o l l e r , g r a p h i t e
d i s p e r s i o n was used. The upper p a r t o f t h e wooden j a c k w a s p a i n t e d w i t h
g r a p h i t e d i s p e r s i o n and c o n n e c t e d w i t h p i e c e s o f c o p p e r f o i l w i t h con-
d u c t i v e adhesive*. The l e a t h e r r o l l e r was a l s o t r e a t e d w i t h g r a p h i t e .
I n a d d i t i o n , t w o c o p p e r wires ( d i a m e t e r 0.10 m m ) were sewn t o t h e l e a t h -
er, c l o s e t o t h e e d g e s o f t h e p a t h o f t h e j a c k . A s t h e j a c k a n d t h e
r o l l e r a l r e a d y are l u b r i c a t e d w i t h g r a p h i t e a t t h e manufacturing, t h e
response was n o t s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d . A p r o f e s s i o n a l p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n
and a p r o f e s s i o n a l p i a n i s t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , c o n s i d e r e d t h e d e v i a t i o n
from n o r m a l r e s p o n s e a s m a r g i n a l , w i t h o n l y a m i n o r l o s s o f a c l e a r
pressure point. I
2. Mechanical p l a y i n g
A s p e c i a l t o o l was used f o r producing r e p e a t e d s t r i k e s w i t h high
r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y . The p i a n i s t was s u b s t i t u t e d b y a pendulum ( l e n g t h 0.8
m ) , s u p p l i e d w i t h a w e i g h t ( m a s s 0.4 kg) which c o u l d be s e c u r e d a t a n y
d e s i r e d p o s i t i o n a l o n g t h e r o d . The p e n d u l u m t i p w a s c o v e r e d w i t h a
f o l d e d r u b b e r t u b e i n o r d e r t o make a r o u g h s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e f i n g e r
t i p . The pendulum was s u p p o r t e d i n a n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n above t h e key b y
a wooden s t i c k r e s t i n g o n t h e k e y b e d ( s e e F i g . 3).
Although t h e pendulum t o u c h g a v e v e r y r e p r o d u c i b l e b l o w s a s r e g a r d s
t h e dynamic l e v e l r t h e way o f d e p r e s s i n g o f t h e key was a l i t t l e d i f f e r -
e n t c o m p a r e d t o a human p l a y e r . When t h e p e n d u l u m was n o t u s e d 1 t h e
s t r e n g t h o f t h e e x c i t a t i o n w a s m e a s u r e d by t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e f i r s t
v e l o c i t y p u l s e on t h e s t r i n g .
I
Fig. 3. View of the grand action indicating the contact points prepared with copper foil or
graphite (circles). An arrangement of a pendulum for mechanical playing is also shown. I
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

3. Measurement equipment
The s i g n a l s w e r e r e c o r d e d b y m e a n s o f a d i g i t a l s t o r a g e o s c i l l o -
s c o p e (Gould, D i g i t a l S t o r a g e O s c i l l o s c o p e 1425) and a p l o t t e r .

D. Measurements a n d r e s u l t s

This s e c t i o n opens w i t h an overview o f t h e t i m i n g i n a w e l l -

r e g u l a t e d a c t i o n . Then t h e e f f e c t o f c h a n g e s i n t h e r e g u l a t i o n o n t h e
t i m i n g a r e e x a m i n e d . The p i a n i s t ' s r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t i m i n g b y
changing t h e d y n a m i c l e v e l a n d t o u c h i s a l s o a n a l y z e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
t h e t i m i n g r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e k e y b o t t o m and t h e hammer-string c o n t a c t
is d e s c r i b e d . F i n a l l y , t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t i s
examined.

1. Overview o f t h e t i m i n g i n t h e a c t i o n
An o v e r v i e w o f t h e t i m e e v e n t s i n a w e l l - r e g u l a t e d a c t i o n d u r i n g
two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t o u c h a r e shown i n F i g . 4 a a n d 4b. The e x a m p l e
i n F i g . 4 a is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a " s t a c c a t o - t o u c h " i n f o r t e w i t h t h e
f i n g e r s t r i k i n g from some d i s t a n c e above t h e key, and r e l e a s i n g t h e key
i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e blow.
This timing diagram includes about 15 important events. Immediately
a f t e r t h e p r o c e s s was s t a r t e d b y t h e p l a y e r ' s f i n g e r o n t h e k e y , t h e
s u p p o r t o f t h e hammer was s w i t c h e d from t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r t o t h e j a c k
( n o t shown i n f i g u r e ) . Next, t h e damper w a s l i f t e d o f f t h e s t r i n g . A t
about 5 m s b e f o r e t h e hammer-string c o n t a c t , t h e t a i l end o f t h e j a c k
made c o n t a c t w i t h t h e e s c a p e m e n t d o l l y , a n d t h e t o p o f t h e j a c k w a s
withdrawn f r o m t h e r o l l e r . S h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e i m p a c t on t h e s t r i n g ,
t y p i c a l l y less t h a n 1 m s , t h e j a c k l o s t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e hammer r o l l e r ,
and t h e hammer swung f r e e l y t o w a r d s t h e s t r i n g . The k e y r e a c h e d i t s
b o t t o m p o s i t i o n a few m i l l i s e c o n d s b e f o r e t h e hammer s t r u c k t h e s t r i n g .
The hammer-string c o n t a c t t i m e o c c u p i e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m s . Almost
i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t h a d c e a s e d , t h e hammer
r e t u r n e d , f i r s t making c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r and t h e
r o l l e r . A f t e r a d d i t i o n a l 5 m s , t h e hammer was c a p t u r s d by t h e check. I f
t h e key were h e l d down a f t e r t h e s t r o k e , t h e a c t i o n would r e m a i n i n t h i s
s t a t e w h i l e t h e n o t e decayed u n d i s t u r b e d .
A s t h e key was r e l e a s e d , t h e p a r t s o f t h e a c t i o n r e v e r t e d t o t h e i r
i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s . The t o n e was t e r m i n a t e d when t h e damper came down on
t h e s t r i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 m s a f t e r t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t a n d
b r o u g h t t h e s t r i n g t o r e s t a f t e r s o m e b o u n c i n g . The f a l l i n g d a m p e r a n d
damper l e v e r , w h i c h l a n d e d o n t h e f a r e n d o f t h e k e y , c a u s e d t h e k e y
t o o c c a s i o n a l l y l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l e v e r body.
I n t h i s example, t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e n o t e was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 140 m s ,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s i x t e e n t h n o t e i n a n d a n t e t e m p o ( M M = 1 0 7 ) . The
 FINGER-KEY 1
El
"LEGATO" p

DAMPER-STRING I
JACK- DOLLY I I 1
JACK
REP LEVER} 1 r
HAMMER - STRING
KEY BOTTOM
I 3

FINGER-KEY L 1
I
I
"STACCATO"

-
DAMPER STRING 3 1o o ~ o ~ ~ a o
JACK- DOLLY
JACK
REP LEVER}
HAMMER - STRING
KEY BOTTOM
CHECK

Fig. 4 Overview t i m l n g d i a g r a m -
CAPSTAN LEVER BOO
o f t h e g r a n d a c t i o n ( C4 )
f o r two d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
of touch.
STRING VELOCIN
a . "Staccato", f o r t e .
The s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s
are i n c l u d e d f o r r e f e r -
ence.
b. "Legato", p i a n o .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

p r o c e s s from t h e moment t h e f i n g e r touched t h e key u n t i l t h e hammer was

c a p t u r e d b y t h e c h e c k , l a s t e d a b o u t 40 m s .
I n a s o f t " l e g a t o - t o u c h " , w i t h t h e f i n g e r r e s t i n g on t h e k e y from
t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s w a s s l o w e d down (see F i g . 4 b ) . The
t i m e f r o m t h e s t a r t o f t h e k e y m o t i o n t o t h e c h e c k o f t h e hammer was
r o u 3 h l y q u a d r u p l e d compared t o t h e "staccato-touch". I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e
key bottom c o n t a c t was much d e l a y e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e hammer-string con-
t a c t a s compared t o t h e f o r t e touch. F u r t h e r , t h e hammer-string c o n t a c t
t ime was e x tended.
T h i s example s q g e s t s t h a t t h e dynamic l e v e l , c o n t r o l l e d by t h e
strength of t h e player's touch, causes l a r g e changes i n t h e timing
p a t t e r n s i n t h e a c t i o n . F u r t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s showed t h a t t h e t i m i n g
p a t t e r n s a l s o c o u l d be changed by t h e p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n ' s r e g u l a t i o n o f
t h e a c t i o n . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e f a c t o r s w i l l b e t h e t o p i c s o f t h e
following paragraphs.
The a s p e c t o f t h e r e p e t i t i o n r a t e was s t u d i e d b r i e f l y . I t w a s
c o n f i r m e d by measurements t h a t t h e d o u b l e r e p e t i t i o n mechanism a l l o w s
fast repetitions. A professional player w a s e a s i l y able t o reach a
r e p e t i t i o n r a t e o f a b o u t 8 n o t e s / s i n t h e m i d d l e r e g i s t e r by u s i n g t w o
f i n g e r s r e p e a t e d l y on t h e same key (120 m s between t h e n o t e o n s e t s ) . By
u s i n g t h r e e f i n g e r s , t h e r e p e t i t i o n r a t e was i n c r e a s e d t o a b o u t 1 6
t o n e s / s . A s e r n i t o n e t r i l l was performed w i t h t h e same r e p e t i t i o n rate.

2. Influence of regulation
a. Hammer-string d i s t a n c e
The hammer-string d i s t a n c e was v a r i e d i n t h r e e s t e p s from l o n g ,
v i a n o r m a l , t o s h o r t s e t t i n g . The d i s t a n c e s were 47 m m - + 3 m m (+ - 6%),
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The c h a n g e s frorn t h e normal s e t t i n g c o u l d be c h a r a c t e r i z e d
a s l a r q e , b u t w i t h t h e i n s t r u m e n t s t i l l i n a p l a y a b l e c o n d i t i o n . The
l o n g e r d i s t a n c e r e p r e s e n t s c o n s i d e r a b l e wear c a u s e d by a long p e r i o d o f
p l a y i n g , w h i l e n o r m a l l y t h e s h o r t e r hammer-string d i s t a n c e is n o t ob-
s e r v e d i n p r a c t i c e , e x c e p t when due t o a b l u n d e r i n t h e r e g u l a t i o n .
The e f f e c t o f t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e o n t h e
t i m i n g p a t t e r n i s s h o w n i n F i g . 5. The l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e w a s a d j u s t e d
a f t e r e a c h chanqe o f t h e hammer-string d i s t a n c e t o a n o r m a l v a l u e (1.8
mm). The dynamic l e v e l was h e l d c o n s t a n t a t a mezzo-forte l e v e l .
The c h a n g e s i n t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e a f f e c t e d m a i n l y t h e
tirning r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e k e y b o t t o m c o n t a c t a n d t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g
c o n t a c t . A s t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e w a s made l o n g e r ! t h e moment o f
t h e k e y b o t t o m c o n t a c t o c c u r r e d e a r l i e r , a s c o m p a r e d t o t h e hammer-
s t r i n g contact. With t h e normal s e t t i n g o f t h e hammer-string d i s t a n c e ,
t h e key r e a c h e d i t s bottom p o s i t i o n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m s a f t e r t h e hammer
s t r i n g c o n t a c t . T h i s d e l a y was a p p r o x i m a t e l y d o u b l e d i n t h e s h o r t set-
t i n g , w h i l e i t s h o r t e n e d t o a l m o s t no d e l a y a t a l l i n t h e l o n g s e t t i n g .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

HAMMER - STRING
DISTANCE

JACK - DOLLY
REF! LEVER - ROLLER

JACK- ROLLER
.......
...
....
.:.:.:.
I I
HAMMER - STRING

KEY BOTTOM

I I I I I I I
I I
>
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 rns

Fig. 5. Influence of the regulation of the hammer-string distance on the

timing in the action (C4 ) , mezzo-forte. The three regulation con-
ditions correspond to short hammer-string distance (top), normal
(middle), and long (bottom). The dashed line indicates the shift
in key bottom contact. The dotted parts indicate segments with
low contact force. The hatched portions in the bars for the repeti-
tion lever-roller indicate the changes caused by lowering the drop
screw by 0.8 mrn (one turn of the drop screw).
STL-QPSR 1/1988

With a s h o r t h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e , t h e hammer release a n d t h e

hammer-string c o n t a c t o c c u r a t a h i g h l e v e l i n t h e k e y t r a v e l , w h i c h
r e s u l t s i n a long " a f t e r - t o u c h " . T h i s means t h a t t h e key s t i l l h a s a
long way t o g o a f t e r t h e hammer r e l e a s e , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , i t w i l l
r e a c h its bottom p o s i t i o n l a t e a f t e r t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . A long hammer-
s t r i n g d i s t a n c e , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , g i v e s hammer r e l e a s e a n d s t r i n g
c o n t a c t w i t h t h e key f a r down and a l m o s t no "after-touch", which means
t h a t t h e key r e a c h e s i t s bottom p o s i t i o n c l o s e t o , o r even a f t e r , t h e
string contact.
The c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r a n d hammer r o l l e r is
i n t e r r u p t e d a s t h e l e v e r i s s t o p p e d b y t h e d r o p screw. T h i s moment i s
n o t i n f l u e n c e d by a change i n t h e hammer-string d i s t a n c e b u t o c c u r s a t a
c e r t a i n l e v e l i n t h e hammer m o t i o n , s e t b y t h e d r o p s c r e w . The r e p e t i -
t i o n l e v e r is n o t involved i n t h e f o r c e t r a n s m i s s i o n from key t o hammer.
The l e v e r is h e l d i n c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r o l l e r by its s p r i n g
u n t i l i t is s t o p p e d and h e l d i n w a i t i n g p o s i t i o n f o r t h e r e t u r n i n g
hammer.

b. Let-off d i s t a n c e
The l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e w a s v a r i e d i n t h r e e s t e p s f r o m l o n g , v i a
normal, t o v e r y c l o s e s e t t i n g . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s were 3.8 m m
( + I 1 0 % ) 1.8 m m (- + 0 % ), a n d 0 m m (-100%). The c h a n g e s f r o m t h e n o r m a l
s e t t i n g c o u l d be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s l a r g e , b u t w i t h t h e a c t i o n still i n a
p l a y a b l e c o n d i t i o n . The l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e is n o r m a l l y s e t w i t h i n t h e
r a n g e 1.0-2.0 mm i n t h e middle r e q i s t e r . The d i s t a n c e changes w i t h t i m e ,
mainly b e c a u s e o f t h e n o r m a l i n c r e a s e i n h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e , b u t
a l s o due t o d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e r o l l e r and compression o f t h e f e l t on t h e
escapement d o l l y . The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e d e p e n d s on t h e i n i t i a l
condition o f t h e a c t i o n , b u t i n most c a s e s t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e in-
c r e a s e s w i t h time*.
The e f f e c t of changes i n t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e on t h e t i m i n g p a t t e r n
is i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 6. The hammer-string d i s t a n c e was a d j u s t e d t o a
normal v a l u e p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t . The d y n a m i c l e v e l was k e p t t h e
same a t a piano-level i n a l l t h r e e cases.
The a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e a f f e c t e d m a i n l y t h e t i m e
d u r i n g w h i c h t h e hammer swung f r e e l y b e f o r e a n d a f t e r s t r i k i n g t h e
s t r i n g . A t t h i s dynamic l e v e l , a normal s e t t i n g of t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e
gave a f r e e i n t e r v a l f o r t h e hammer o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.5 m s , b e f o r e
the s t r i n g contact. The r o l l e r r e a c h e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e j a c k a g a i n
about 0.5 m s a f t e r t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t had ceased.

* P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , p r i n c i p a l p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n Hans Nor&, The

Swedish Radio Companyt and Conny Carlsson, The Keyboard Committee, Royal
Swedish Academy of Music, Stockholm.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

I LET- OFF
DISTANCE

JACK - DOLLY I
REF! LEVER - ROLLER
............................
................
...........................
..........

JACK - ROLLER
HAMMER - STRING

KEY BOTTOM

r
NORMAL
1.8 mm

CLOSE

Fig. 6. I n f l u e n c e o f r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e on t h e t i m i n g i n
t h e a c t i o n ( C ) , p i a n o . The t h r e e c a s e s c o r r e s p o n d t o l o n g ( t o p ) ,
4
normal ( m i d d l e ) , and c l o s e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e ( b o t t o m ) . The d a s h e d
l i n e s i n d i c a t e t h e s h i f t s i n t h e f r e e t i m e f o r t h e hammer. The
d o t t e d p o r t i o n s i n d i c a t e segments w i t h low c o n t a c t f o r c e .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

The l o n g e r t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e w a s l t h e l o n g e r
became t h e f r e e i n t e r v a l b e f o r e t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . T h i s w a s a c o n s e -
quence o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e t a i l end o f t h e j a c k r e a c h e d t h e e s c a p e m e n t
d o l l y a t a n e a r l i e r moment. W i t h t h e l o n g s e t t i n g o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s -
t a n c e ~t h e f r e e i n t e r v a l was a l m o s t twice a s l o n g as normal, and i n t h e
v e r y s h o r t s e t t i n g i t was a p p r o x i m a t e l y halved.
For t h e p i a n i s t , a c l o s e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e means
t h a t t h e key c a n b e d e p r e s s e d f u r t h e r down b e f o r e t h e " l e t - o f f M - p o i n t is
reached, which f a c i l i t a t e s p i a n i s s i m o p l a y i n g under s t r i c t c o n t r o l . A
c l o s e s e t t i n g a l s o m e a n s t h a t t h e hammer is a c c e l e r a t e d c l o s e r t o t h e
moment o f t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t , w h i c h m e a n s t h a t m o r e p o w e r c o u l d b e
d e l i v e r e d t o t h e s t r i n g ( ~ o r k& C a r l s s o n , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ;
Edwards, 1984; see a l s o P a r t 11). While a p i a n i s t w i l l be a b l e t o b r e a k
a s t r i n g w i t h a c l o s e s e t t i n g o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e , t h e piano techni-
c i a n may e a s i l y e l i m i n a t e t h i s d a n g e r b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e l e t - o f f d i s t -
ance.
A s t h e hammer r e t u r n e d from t h e s t r i n g , t h e r o l l e r f i r s t touched
t h e s i d e o f t h e t r i p p e d j a c k b e f o r e i t l a n d e d on t h e r e p e t i t i o n l e v e r .
I n t h e c l o s e a d j u s t m e n t , t h i s c o n t a c t had a l r e a d y begun b e f o r e t h e
hammer h a d l e f t t h e s t r i n g . T h i s was p r o b a b l y c a u s e d b y a f o r w a r d
motion o f t h e j a c k , a s t h e e n t i r e a c t i o n s e t t l e d a f t e r t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n
process*.
The t i m i n g r e l a t i o n between key b o t t o m c o n t a c t and hammer-string
c o n t a c t was o n l y m a r g i n a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e l e t - o f f
d i s t a n c e . T h i s was a somewhat unexpected r e s u l t . For example! w i t h t h e
l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e a d j u s t e d t o t h e c l o s e c o n d i t i o n , t h e hammer was acce-
lerated closer t o the s t r i n g resulting i n a shorter f r e e t i m e f o r the
hammer. T h i s c o u l d b e a s s u m e d t o c a u s e a n e a r l i e r s t r i n g c o n t a c t com-
p a r e d t o t h e key bottom c o n t a c t . However, t h e f r e e t i m e f o r t h e hammer
seemed t o have m a r g i n a l i n f l u e n c e o n l y on t h e t i m i n g between t h e s t r i n g
contact and t h e key bottom c o n t a c t . I t w a s o n l y t h e l e v e l o f t h e key a t
"let-off", set by t h e hammer-string d i s t a n c e , which d e t e r m i n e d t h e
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e hammer-str ing c o n t a c t and t h e key b o t t o m c o n t a c t
f o r a g i v e n dynamic l e v e l .
A t h i g h e r dynamic l e v e l s , t h e motions o f t h e p a r t s o f t h e a c t i o n
were f a s t e r and t h e e n t i r e t i m i n g p a t t e r n compressed.

* H i g h - s p e e d f i l m made b y H. S u z u k i , i n c l u d e d i n "How t o r e g u l a t e a
Steinway" , Steinway & Sons.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

JACK - DOLLY I
REP LEVER - ROLLER 71
JACK - ROLLER 3 I
HAMMER - STRING

KEY BOTTOM

Fig. 7. Influence of dynamic level (p - mf - f ) on the timing in the

action ( C ) . Normal regulation condition. The dashed line
4
indicates the shift in key bottom position.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

I n f o r t i s s i m o , t h e key r e a c h e d its bottom p o s i t i o n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5

m s b e f o r e t h e hammer s t r u c k t h e s t r i n g , i n mezzo-forte a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y
t h e same m o m e n t , a n d i n p i a n i s s i r n o u p t o 35 m s a f ter s t r i n g c o n t a c t .
Different p r i n c i p a l t y p e s o f touch w i t h t h e f i n g e r r e s t i n g on t h e key
i n i t i a l l y ( " s o f t touch"), vs. w i t h t h e f i n g e r s t r i k i n g t h e key from
above ("hard a t t a c k " ) , showed a l m o s t no d i f f e r e n c e s a t a l l i n t h e rela-
t i o n between key b o t t o m and hammer-string c o n t a c t . However, t h e l o u d e s t
dynamics c o u l d n o t b e r e a c h e d w i t h t h e " s o f t t o u c h " . The d y n a m i c r a n g e
c o v e r e d i n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t was l a r g e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 33 dB (Burghauser &
Spelda, 1971).
The moment o f hammer c a p t u r e by t h e c h e c k f o l l o w e d a t r e n d similar
t o t h e key b o t t o m c o n t a c t , b u t d e l a y e d . The d e l a y between s t r i n g c o n t a c t
and c h e c k i n c r e a s e d from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 m s i n f o r t e t o a b o u t 20 m s i n
p i a n o , r e f l e c t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n hammer v e l o c i t y .
A comparison o f t h e performances o f an u n t r a i n e d s u b j e c t and a
p r o f e s s i o n a l p i a n i s t showed small d i f f e r e n c e s , and o n l y a t s o f t dynamic
l e v e l s (see F i g . 8b). The s k i l l e d p l a y e r managed t o make o n l y s m a l l
deviations from t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d , even though he w a s encouraged t o
a p p l y d i f f e r e n t u n u s u a l t y p e s o f touch*.
The c o n t i n u o u s s h i f t i n t h e t i m i n g r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e hammer-
s t r i n g c o n t a c t and t h e key b o t t o m c o n t a c t is p r o b a b l y p a r t l y c a u s e d b y a
compression o f t h e f e l t a n d l e a t h e r p a r t s i n t h e h i g h e r d y n a m i c s . T h i s
g i v e s hammer " l e t - o f f " a t a key l e v e l c l o s e r t o t h e b o t t o m p o s i t i o n . A s
a r e s u l t , t h e key r e a c h e s its b o t t o m p o s i t i o n c l o s e r t o , o r even b e f o r e ,
t h e s t r i n g contact.
F u r t h e r , g e n e r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t o u c h between s o f t and l o u d dyna-
mics a l s o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e s h i f t i n t i m i n g r e l a t i o n . In order t o
a c h i e v e a s o f t dynamic l e v e l , t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e hammer must be
low, i n t h e v e r y s o f t l e v e l s t h e hammer s h o u l d a l m o s t t u r n s p o n t a n e o u s l y
at t h e s t r i n g level**. T h i s r e q u i r e s a c a r e f u l c o n t r o l o f t h e f o r c e
applied by t h e p i a n i s t , which must b a r e l y overcome t h e s t a t i c f o r c e
needed t o d e p r e s s t h e k e y a n d s t i l l g i v e t h e hammer a w e l l - b a l a n c e d
impulse ( D i j k s t e r h u i s , 1965). T h i s is f e a s i b l e d u e t o t h e s e n s i t i v e
r e s p o n s e o f t h e a c t i o n , which l e t s t h e p l a y e r f e e l t h e p r e s s u r e p o i n t a t
which t h e i m p u l s e i s g i v e n . A f t e r t h i s p o i n t , t h e k e y n e e d n o t b e

* I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e u n t r a i n e d s u b j e c t r e v e a l e d a wider dynamic span

than d i d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l p i a n i s t . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e c o u l d p r o b a b l y be
attributed t o a l a c k of understanding of t h e musical usefulness of t h e
n o t e s a t t h e e x t r e m e s o f t h e dynamic r a n g e , a s r e g a r d s t h e n o n - p i a n i s t .

**The t a s k b e a r s a c e r t a i n r e s e m b l e s t o t r y i n g t o b o u n c e a t e n n i s b a l l
o f f a r a c k e t , making t h e b a l l t u r n a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e c e i l i n q .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

4. Hammer-string contact duration

a. V a r i a t i o n over t h e compass o f t h e piano

Measured hammer c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s o v e r t h e c o m p a s s o f t h e p i a n o ,
sampled b y o n e k e y p e r o c t a v e , a r e shown i n F i g . 9 a a n d 9b. For e a c h
note, t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s were measured a t t h e l o u d e s t and s o f t e s t
possible playing, respectively.
The measurements i n t h e l o u d e r dynamics showed v e r y s t a b l e dura-
t i o n s , w h i l e t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n s i n t h e s o f t e s t d y n a m i c s ( p p p ) showed a
l a r g e r v a r i a t i o n between r e p e a t e d blows. T h i s v a r i a t i o n presumably re-
f l e c t e d a d i f f i c u l t y i n o b t a i n i n g i d e n t i c a l f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t i e s upon
r e p e a t i n g a b l o w , when v e r y l o w t o u c h f o r c e s a r e u s e d ( D i j k s t e r h u i s ,
1965). T h e s e s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e hammer v e l o c i t y g i v e p r o n o u n c e d
v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n due t o t h e n o n l i n e a r hammer compli-
ance.
The s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n was found t o v a r y from about 0.5 m s i n
t h e t r e b l e t o 4 m s i n t h e b a s s , r e f e r r i n g t o a m e z z o - f o r t e l e v e l . The
r e s u l t s were i n r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t w i t h c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s r e p o r t e d
earlier ( Q u i t t e r 1958). I n t h e l o w e s t b a s s t m u l t i p l e c o n t a c t s o c c u r r e d
above t h e p i a n i s s i m o l e v e l (see P a r t 111) ( H a l l , 1987b; S u z u k i , 1 9 8 7 a ) .
P r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e n o t e Cqt when i n f l u e n c e o f hammer compliance is
excluded, g i v e a c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n o f 1.6 m s i f t h e hammer is con-
s i d e r e d l i g h t c o m p a r e d t o t h e s t r i n g , a n d 2.1 m s i f t h e hammer i s
c o n s i d e r e d h e a v y ( H a l l , 1 9 8 7 a , Eq. 40; H a l l , 1 9 8 7 b l Eq. 31). I n r e a l i -
t y , n o n e o f t h e c a s e s i s a p p l i c a b l e , a s t h e hammer mass f o r C4 i s
approximately e q u a l t o t h e s t r i n g mass. A b e t t e r p r e d i c t ion, which t a k e s
t h e a c t u a l mass r a t i o i n t o a c c o u n t , c o u l d b e r e a d a s 1.7 m s f r o m com-
p u t e r g e n e r a t e d g r a p h s ( H a l l , 1987a). An i n c l u s i o n o f t h e hammer com-
p l i a n c e would t e n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s s l i g h t l y ( H a l l ,
1987b). The measured c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s f o r C4 covered a range from 2.0
t o 2.8 m s depending on t h e dynamic l e v e l , i n r e a s o n a b l e agreement w i t h
t h e p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s . The o b s e r v e d v a l u e s a r e a l i t t l e l o n g e r t h a n t h e
p r e d i c t e d , w h i c h p r o b a b l y c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e o m i t t e d hammer
compliance.
The c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s d i d n o t change over t h e compass i n p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p e r i o d o f t h e s t r i n g (To) ( s e e Fig. 9 b ) . I n t h e
b a s s , t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t was o n l y a f r a c t i o n of a p e r i d , i n t h e middle
r e g i s t e r a b o u t a h a l f p e r i o d , and i n t h e t r e b l e s e v e r a l p e r i o d s . T h i s
change i n r e l a t i v e s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n over t h e compass has implica-
t i o n s f o r t h e number o f p r o m i n e n t p a r t i a l s i n t h e s t r i n g s p e c t r a , a s
s t r i n g modes w i t h a p e r i o d e s s e n t i a l l y s h o r t e r t h a n t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t
d u r a t i o n w i l l b e weakly e x c i t e d (Benade, 1976, Ch. 8; Hall, 1987a).
a t h e o t h e r h a n d , a s t r i n g mode f o r w h i c h t h e p e r i o d is much
l o n g e r than t h e hammer c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n w i l l be i n e f f i c i e n t l y e x c i t e d by
t h e s h o r t hammer i m p u l s e . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t d e s i g n o f t h e
STL-QPSR 1/1988 - 55 -

KEY C8

C7

C6

C5
C4

C3

c2
c1
0 1 2 3 4 5
ms
CONTACT TlME

Fig. 9. Hammer-string contact durations. The bars indicate the range in

contact duration between a blow in ff (left end) and pp (right end).
The vertical line in each bar represents a blow by a pendulum in
mezzo-forte level. Notes giving multiple contacts are marked with
an asterisk. The contact durations for these notes are given as
the time from the first onset to the last offset. Observe that for
multiple contacts, the left end of the bar corresponds to pp and
the right end to ff.
a. The contact durations expressed in absolute time. The solid
curve (T /2) represents half a period of the fundamental for the
0
corresponding notes. Symbols in unfilled bars indicate exchanged
hammers.

KEY

% o f To12
CONTACT TlME

b. The contact durations expressed as per cent of half a period

of the fundamental (To/2).
STL-QPSR 1/1988

HAMMER
VELOCITY

"0 1 2 3 4 5
13
S
CONTACT TIME

Fig. 10. Influence of dynamic level on string contact duration (C ) .

The final hammer velocity was estimated by the velocity 4
amplitude of the first pulse on the string (arbitrary units).
A touch by a pendulum (mf) is represented by an unfilled square.
a. Linear plot. The dashed lines represent the range in
contact duration covered in a comfortable dynamic span p to
ff.

HAMMER 10000
VELOCITY

rns
CONTACT TIME
b. Log-log plot, showing a power-law relation (r = .99).
STL-QPSR 1/1988

E. Conclusions
The t i m i n g i n t h e p i a n o a c t i o n w a s f o u n d t o b e d e p e n d e n t o n b o t h
r e g u l a t i o n a n d d y n a m i c l e v e l . Chang i n g t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e a f -
f e c t e d m a i n l y t h e t i m i n g r e l a t i o n between t h e key b o t t o m c o n t a c t and t h e
hammer-string c o n t a c t . C h a n g e s i n t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e l e t - o f f d i s t a n c e
a f f e c t e d m a i n l y t h e i n t e r v a l d u r i n g w h i c h t h e hammer s w i n g s f r e e l y
b e f o r e t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . An i n c r e a s e i n t h e d y n a m i c l e v e l d e c r e a s e d
t h e f r e e time f o r t h e hammer, b u t w i t h a n o r m a l r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e let-
o f f d i s t a n c e , t h e f o r c e t r a n s m i t t i n g c o n t a c t between t h e a c t i o n and t h e
hammer w a s a l w a y s f o u n d t o b e i n t e r r u p t e d b e f o r e t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g
contact.
The t i m i n g r e l a t i o n between hammer-string c o n t a c t and key bottom
c o n t a c t showed l a r g e c h a n g e s w i t h dynamic l e v e l . The o v e r a l l v a r i a t i o n
between f f a n d p p was o n t h e o r d e r o f 30 m s . I t c o u l d b e a s s u m e d t h a t
t h e s k i l l e d p i a n i s t is f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h i f t i n t i m i n g
w i t h l e v e l a n d t a k e s i t i n t o a c c o u n t when p l a y i n g . The c h a n g e s i n t h e
timing r e l a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d b y o f f s e t s i n t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e a c t i o n
were much smaller t h a n t h e o v e r a l l v a r i a t i o n w i t h l e v e l , b u t t h e y were
p r o b a b l y l a r g e enough t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p i a n i s t ' s way o f playing.
The hammer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n v a r i e d o v e r t h e compass o f t h e
i n s t r u m e n t . E x p r e s s e d i n a b s o l u t e v a l u e s , t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s were
c o n s i d e r a b l y l o n g e r i n t h e b a s s ( 4 m s ) t h a n i n t h e t r e b l e (0.5 ms).
However, i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p e r i o d o f t h e s t r i n g , t h e
c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s were s h o r t i n t h e b a s s a n d l o n g i n t h e t r e b l e , w h i c h
c o u l d b e assumed t o g i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t r i n g spec-
tra.
The dynamic l e v e l a £ f e c t e d t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s , a consequence o f
a n o n l i n e a r hammer c o m p l i a n c e . The d e p e n d e n c e w a s f o u n d t o f o l l o w a
p o w e r l a w r e l a t i o n s h i p . T y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n be-
tween p i a n o and f o r t i s s i m o i n t h e m i d d l e r e g i s t e r was on t h e o r d e r o f
+20%, a s compared t o mezzo-forte.
-
STL-QPSR 1/1988

PART 11. THE MOTION OF THE KEY AND HAMMER

A. Properties of the action

The k e y i s a t w o - a r m e d l e v e r , p i v o t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t i t s mid-
p o i n t . The l e v e r arms a r e s u r p r i s i n g l y l o n g , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 7 0 m m
( w h i t e k e y s ) . The s t r o k e o f t h e k e y i n t h e p l a y i n g e n d ( " t o u c h d e p t h " )
is 9.5 m m ( D i e t z , 1 9 6 8 ) . The t o t a l l e v e r i n g r a t i o b e t w e e n k e y a n d
hammer is s l i g h t l y less t h a n 1:5, making t h e hammer head rise approxima-
t e l y 4 5 m m f o r a f u l l key s t r o k e . However, t h e l e v e r i n g is d i v i d e d i n t o
s e v e r a l s t e p s , i n c l u d i n g t h e key, l e v e r body, and hammer, which a l l act
a s l e v e r s . The m o t i o n a t t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t b e t w e e n t h e j a c k a n d t h e
hammer r o l l e r i s r e d u c e d b y a f a c t o r 1.6:l c o m p a r e d t o t h e p l a y i n g e n d
o f t h e key, which i n c r e a s e s t h e f o r c e i n t h e j a c k c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y .
The a c t i o n i s c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d w i t h p i e c e s o f l e a d i n t h e key.
T y p i c a l l y , t h e s t a t i c f o r c e n e e d e d t o b a r e l y h o l d t h e k e y p r e s s e d down
( w i t h o u t d a m p e r ) i s a d j u s t e d t o 0.5 N b y t h e w e i g h i n g o f t h e key.
F u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n t h e d y n a m i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e a c t i o n are
g i v e n i n s e v e r a l w o r k s ( D ij k s t e r h u i s , 1 9 6 5 ; J u n g h a n n s , 1 9 8 4 ; Lieber,
1985; P f e i f f e r t 1 9 6 7 ; 1 9 7 9 ) .
From t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e p i a n i s t , t h e a c t i o n s e r v e s a s a n i n t e r -
f a c e between f i n g e r s and s t r i n g s . A s t h e key is d e p r e s s e d , t h e hammer
is l i f t e d and a c c e l e r a t e d t o w a r d s t h e s t r i n g . S h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e hammer
makes c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s t r i n g , t h e hammer is d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m k e y
c o n t r o l ( " l e t - o f f " ) . Compared t o o t h e r s t r u c k s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , e.g.,
t h e c l a v i c h o r d o r t h e d u l c i m e r , t h e p i a n i s t is i n a s e n s e g i v e n o n l y
i n d i r e c t c o n t r o l o f t h e s t r i n g e x c i t a t i o n , which c o u l d be assumed t o be
set b y t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e hammer. H o w e v e r , t h e t e c h n i q u e f o r
d e p r e s s i n g a s i n g l e k e y ( " t o u c h " ) i s g i v e n much a t t e n t i o n b y p i a n i s t s ,
who o f t e n c l a i m t h a t i m p o r t a n t s h a d i n g s i n t o n e q u a l i t y a t a g i v e n
dynamic l e v e l c a n b e a c h i e v e d by d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f touch. P i a n i s t s and
e x p e r i m e n t e r s have had c o n f l i c t i n g s t a n d p o i n t s r e g a r d i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n
f o r a l o n g time (Hart, F u l l e r , & Lusbyr 1934).

B. Scope o f measurements
The measurements aimed a t a description o f t y p i c a l key and hammer
m o t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t dynamic l e v e l s . Also, d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t o u c h , a s
s e l e c t e d a n d p e r f o r m e d b y a p r o f e s s i o n a l p i a n i s t , were i n c l u d e d i n
o r d e r t o e l u c i d a t e t h e g e n e r a l e f f e c t s o f t o u c h o n k e y a n d hammer mo-
t i o n s . The a c c e l e r a t i n g f o r c e on t h e hammer up t o hammer release ( " l e t -
o f f " ) , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g hammer m o t i o n , a t t r a c t e d s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t .
These measurements o f f e r e d a p o s s i b i l i t y o f s t u d y i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
t o u c h on t h e hammer's f r e e motion i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t .
A p e r c e p t u a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t o u c h was, however, n o t
c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y . A s s t r o n g o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e hammer w e r e
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

observed b o t h b e f o r e and af t e r t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t , t h e eigenmodes of

t h e hammer w e r e a l s o examined.

C. Measurement methods
I
1. Key and hammer p o s i t i o n
The k e y a n d t h e hammer m o t i o n s were r e g i s t e r e d u s i n g a n o p t i c a l
method. A p o s i t i o n s e n s i t i v e p h o t o d e t e c t o r * was u t i l i z e d , i n which t h e
p o s i t i o n o f a l i g h t s p o t on t h e d e t e c t o r a r e a is c o n v e r t e d i n t o a
v o l t a g e . Two l i g h t s o u r c e s c o n s i s t i n g o f s u p e r - i n t e n s e l i g h t e m i t t i n g
d i o d e s (LED) were a t t a c h e d t o t h e k e y a n d hammer , r e s p e c t i v e l y . On t h e
key, t h e LED was m o u n t e d i n a p l a s t i c s u p p o r t (mass 3 g ) , f a s t e n e d t o
t h e key w i t h s y n t h e t i c wax. On t h e hammer, t h e LED was mounted on t o p
o f a l i g h t wooden s t i c k ( l e n g t h 1 6 0 m m , mass 1.5 g ) , g l u e d t o t h e s i d e
o f t h e hammer h e a d , a n d r u n n i n g b e t w e e n t h e s t r i n g t r i p l e t s . A d i r e c t
mounting o f t h e LED o n t h e hammer h e a d was n o t p o s s i b l e , a s t h e i r o n
frame a n d s t r i n g s w o u l d h i d e m o s t o f i t s p a t h . The i n c r e a s e i n moving
mass o f t h e key and hammer r e s p e c t i v e l y , due t o t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e LEDs
and mounting a c c e s s o r i e s , was r e l a t i v e l y small a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15%.
The l e n g t h o f t h e d e t e c t o r area was 1 0 mm. The m o t i o n s o f t h e k e y
and t h e hammer were r e p r o d u c e d w i t h i n t h i s r a n g e b y mounting t h e d e t e c -
t o r s i n t h e f i l m p l a n e o f t w o r e f l e x cameras. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t had t h e
a d v a n t a g e o f a n e a s y f o c u s s i n g o f t h e p a t h o f t h e LED o n t h e d e t e c t o r ,
s i m p l y b y l o o k i n g i n t h e v i e w - f i n d e r . The k e y a n d t h e hammer m o t i o n s
were r e g i s t e r e d as viewed from t h e s i d e o f t h e p i a n o , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
the direction of the strings.
Experiments were a l s o made w i t h a f i x e d l i g h t s o u r c e and a p i e c e o f
r e f l e c t i n g t a p e a t t a c h e d t o t h e moving p a r t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s ar-
rangement was n o t s u c c e s s f u l . The amount o f r e f l e c t e d l i g h t w a s t o o
l o w t o make t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l v i s i b l e above t h e d e t e c t o r n o i s e .
The l i n e a r i t y o f t h e p o s i t i o n m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m s w a s r e a d i l y
checked b y l o w e r i n g t h e k s y i n w e l l - c o n t r o l l e d s t e p s w i t h t h e a i d o f a
micrometer screw. The p o s i t i o n o f t h e hammer was r e a d on t h e s t i c k on a
l e v e l w i t h t h e s t r i n g s . The d e v i a t i o n f r o m l i n e a r i t y was l e s s t h a n 5%
f o r b o t h key and hammer p o s i t i o n s .
I n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e optimum l i n e a r i t y , t h e t o t a l amount o f l i g h t on
t h e d e t e c t o r area s h o u l d b e k e p t c o n s t a n t . T h i s c o n d i t i o n c a n b e d i f -
ficult t o secure for large variations i n the position of the l i g h t
source a s i n t h e s e experiments. However, i f n e c e s s a r y , t h e o u t p u t
s i g n a l c a n be n o r m a l i z e d w i t h respect t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n
o f t h e d e t e c t o r area b y d i v i d i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s i g n a l with a signal

* S i T e k l L l O , S i T e k L a b o r a t o r i e s , P.O. Box 2 6 1 , S-433 2 5 Partille,

Sweden.
STL-QPSR 1/1988

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t o t a l amount o f r e c e i v e d l i g h t . P r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i -
ments i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e improvement i n l i n e a r i t y by t h i s t e c h n i q u e was
r a t h e r small, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t o t a l amount o f l i g h t on t h e d e t e c t o r was
approximately c o n s t a n t . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e n o r m a l i z a t i o n c o u l d b e
o m i t t e d , a n d t h e s u p p o r t i n g e l e c t r o n i c s w a s r e d u c e d t o a minimum
d u r i n g t h e measurements.
A d i s t o r t i o n e r r o r was i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e measurements a s t h e play-
i n g e n d o f t h e k e y a n d t h e hammer h e a d b o t h f o l l o w e d c i r c u l a r a r c s ,
w h i l e t h e d e t e c t o r s r e g i s t e r e d t h e motion a l o n g a s t r a i g h t l i n e between
t h e e n d p o i n t s o f t h e s e arcs. H o w e v e r , d u e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l
a n g l e s o f t h e k e y a n d t h e hammer m o t i o n s , t h i s e r r o r was s m a l l . The
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e d i s t a n c e s a c t u a l l y t r a v e l l e d and t h o s e measured,
were l e s s t h a n 0.5%.

2. Key a n d hammer v e l o c i t y
The v e l o c i t i e s o f t h e key and t h e hammer were o b t a i n e d by d i f f e r -
e n t i a t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n s i g n a l s i n RC-networks w i t h a time c o n s t a n t o f 4
m s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a n upper f r e q u e n c y l i m i t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 Hz.
The o p t i c a l measuring s y s t e m d e s c r i b e d above was compared w i t h an
e l e c t r o d y n a m i c method a p p l i e d i n earlier s t u d i e s ( Askenfel t & J a n s s o n ,
1982; J a n s s o n , 1973). The e l e c t r o d y n a m i c method measured t h e key v e l o -
c i t y w i t h t h e a i d o f a f l a t c o i l m o u n t e d o n t h e key. The c o i l moved
i n a m a g n e t i c f i e l d i n t h e a i r - g a p o f an i r o n - a r m a t u r e r e s t i n g on t h e
n e i g h b o r i n g keys. The induced v o l t a g e was used a s a n e s t i m a t e o f t h e key
velocity*. Comparisons w i t h t h e o p t i c a l method r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e meth-
ods sometimes gave d i f f e r i n g r e s u l t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r a t t h e extreme
p o s i t i o n s o f t h e key t r a v e l . P r o b a b l y , t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s were c a u s e d by
a n inhomogeneous m a g n e t i c f i e l d . The e l e c t r o d y n a m i c method o f measuring
key v e l o c i t y was n o t used f o r a n y measurements i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Experiments w i t h t h e e l e c t r o d y n a m i c method were a l s o made i n o r d e r
t o measure t h e hammer v e l o c i t y i n t h e i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y o f t n e s t r i n g .
A t h i n c o p p e r wire was a t t a c h e d around t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e hammer head
i n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e s t r i n g s , making s u r e t h a t t h e wire p a s s e d between
t h e s t r i n g s a t t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . During t h e l a s t millimeters o f t h e
hammer's p a t h b e f o r e s t r i k i n g t h e s t r i n g , t h e p a r t o f t h e wire on t o p o f
t h e hammer head p a s s e d a m a g n e t i c f i e l d which induced a v o l t a g e , propor-
t i o n a l t o t h e hammer v e l o c i t y . The m a g n e t f i e l d w a s s u p p l i e d b y t w o
magnets mounted i n a h o r s e s h o e a r m a t u r e , which r e s t e d on t h e a d j a c e n t
s t r i n g s . The same magnet was a l s o used i n measuring t h e s t r i n g v e l o c i t y
(see P a r t 111).

* The same p r i n c i p l e h a s a l s o b e e n u s e d b y N. F l e t c h e r & S. T h w a i t e s

(1981).
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

A comparison w i t h t h e o p t i c a l method of measuring t h e hammer motion

showed a c l o s e a g r e e m e n t (see P a r t 111). The e l e c t r o d y n a m i c method
o f f e r s a p r a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e o p t i c a l method, i f o n l y t h e f i n a l
hammer v e l o c i t y i s t o b e measured. However, a s o n l y t h e v e r y l a s t p a r t
of t h e hammer motion can be observed w i t h t h i s method, it w a s n o t used
f o r any measurements i n t h i s study*.

3. Key and hammer a c c e l e r a t i o n

The a c c e l e r a t i o n a t d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s on t h e key and t h e hammer
w a s m e a s u r e d b y means o f a m i n i a t u r e a c c e l e r o m e t e r ( B & K 4374). The
i n c r e a s e i n m a s s d u e t o t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r w a s s m a l l (0.65 g ) , i n t h e
middle r e g i s t e r (C4) a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8%of t h e e f f e c t i v e hammer mass.

4. Contact f o r c e
The compression f o r c e i n t h e j a c k was measured by means o f a pie-
z o e l e c t r i c film**. A p i e z o e l e c t r i c f i l m is a t h i n p l a s t i c f o i l which is
s e n s i t i v e t o a n a p p l i e d m e c h a n i c a l s t r a i n . The r e s u l t i n g d e f o r m a t i o n
causes a change i n t h e s u r f a c e c h a r g e d e n s i t y which g i v e s rise t o a
v o l t a g e between t h e s u r f a c e s . The f i l m can b e c u t t o any d e s i r e d shape
and connected by t h e copper f o i l w i t h conductive adhesive. The s u r f a c e
c h a r g e s w i l l decay w i t h a time c o n s t a n t determined by t h e c a p a c i t a n c e o f I
t h e f i l m and t h e i n p u t r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e connected e l e c t r o n i c s . Typic-
a l l y , a r a t h e r s h o r t t i m e c o n s t a n t o f t h e magnitude 1-4 m s was achieved,
depending on t h e s i z e o f t h e p i e c e o f f o i l used.
A n a r r o w h o l e was d r i l l e d from t h e t o p o f t h e j a c k , and t h e j a c k
was c u t a t a b o u t 5 m m f r o m t h e t o p . A p i e c e o f p i e z o e l e c t r i c f i l m was
p u t i n t h e j o i n t b e f o r e t h e j a c k was g l u e d t o g e t h e r and r e i n f o r c e d w i t h
a p i e c e o f piano wire through t h e holes. The c o n t a c t f o r c e between t h e
j a c k and r o l l e r was a l s o measured i n d i r e c t l y by monitoring t h e bending
of t h e jack. Due t o t h e f r i c t i o n i n t h e s l i d i n g motion between j a c k and

* An even s i m p l e r method o f measuring t h e f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t y is used

commercially ( B o s e n d o r f e r 290-SE). A s l o t t e d v a n e i s mounted on t h e
hammer shank, c l o s e t o a hammer head. When t h e vane p a s s e s an i n f r a r e d
light r a y of a photodetector, immediately before s t r i k i n g a s t r i n g , a
p u l s e sequence is g e n e r a t e d which i n d i c a t e s t h e f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t y .
A s i m i l a r method w a s u s e d b y H a r t & a l . ( 1 9 3 4 ) more t h a n 5 0 y e a r s a g o ,
however, i n t h a t s t u d y t h e e n t i r e hammer t r a v e l w a s d i s p l a y e d on a
photographic f i l m .

**KYNAR P i e z o f i l m , t h i c k n e s s 28 p.mt P e n n w a l t C0rp.t 9 0 0 F i r s t Avenue,

King o f P r e u s s i a t PA 1 9 4 0 6 , USA.
 STL-QPSR 1/ 1988

r o l l e r ! a h i g h c o n t a c t f o r c e w a s assumed t o be r e f l e c t e d a s an i n c r e a s e
t h e bending o f t h e jack. The b e n d i n g was d e t e c t e d b y s t r a i n g a u g e s
g l u e d t o t h e f r o n t and b a c k s i d e s o f t h e jack.

D. Measurements and r e s u l t s
The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e measurements b e g i n s w i t h r e g i s t r a t i o n s o f
t y p i c a l m o t i o n s o f t h e key and t h e hamrner a t t h r e e dynamic l e v e l s (p-m-
f). T h e n , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t o u c h o n t h e k e y a n d hammer m o t i o n s i s
examined. T h e r e a f t e r , t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g f o r c e o n t h e hammer w i l l b e
c o n s i d e r e d , f o l l o w e d b y r e g i s t r a t i o n s o f t h e v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e hammer
s h a n k d u r i n g t h e hammer's t r a v e l t o w a r d s t h e s t r i n g . The s e c t i o n c l o s e s
w i t h modal a n a l y s i s o f a p i a n o hammer.

1. Key and hammer motion.

a. I n f l u e n c e o f dynamic l e v e l
The motion o f t h e key was d i f f e r e n t depending on t h e dynamic l e v e l
(see F i g . 11). A t o u c h a t s o f t d y n a m i c s , r e q u i r i n g a s l o w k e y m o t i o n ,
could b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a " p r e s s i n g " o f t h e keyr w h i l e t h e motion a t
l o u d d y n a m i c s is b e t t e r d e s c r i b e d as a "blow", w i t h s t r o n g o s c i l l a t i o n s
n o r m a l l y s u p e r i m p o s e d on t h e key motion.
The d e p r e s s i n g o f t h e k e y f r o m r e s t t o b o t t o m p o s i t i o n (9.5 m m )
t y p i c a l l y l a s t e d 160 m s a t t h e p i a n o l e v e l r a t mezzo-forte 80 m s r and a t
f o r t e 2 5 m s . The k e y a c c e l e r a t e d t o a f i n a l v e l o c i t y o f 0.1, 0.4, a n d
0.6 m / s l r e s p e c t i v e l y . The s h o r t e s t key d o w n - t r a v e l l i n g time o b s e r v e d i n
t h e e x p e r i m e n t s was 1 6 m s , i n which a maximum key v e l o c i t y o f 1 m / s w a s
reached .
The m o t i o n o f t h e hammer ( h a m m e r - s t r i n g d i s t a n c e , 4 7 mm) l a s t z d
a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same time a s t h e motion o f t h e key ( c f . P a r t I). Due
t o t h e l e v e r i n g i n t h e a c t i o n , t h e hammer v e l o c i t i e s are much h i g h e r
t h a n t h e k e y v e l o c i t i e s (see F i g . 1 2 ) . T y p i c a l f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t i e s
a t piano! mezzo-forte! a n d f o r t e were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1, 2, a n d 5 n / s I
r e s p e c t i v e l y , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a s p a n o f 1 4 dB. Upon r e t u r n , t h e hammer
w a s checked a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s depending on i t s i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y .

b. I n f l u e n c e o f touch.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e m o t i o n s o f t h e hammer and key d u e
t o p r i n c i p a l l y d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t o u c h c o u l d b e o b s e r v e d ( s e e Fig. 13a-
dl.

(a) A " s t a c c a t o - t o u c h " , w i t h a s l i g h t l y b e n t f i n g e r s t a r t i n g some

distance above t h e key, a l w a y s gave a key v e l o c i t y c u r v e w i t h two
maxima s e p a r a t e d by a r e t a r d a t i o n . T h i s s l o w o s c i l l a t i o n a t a b o u t
40 - 50 Hz c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d t o a r e s o n a n c e i n t h e s y s t e m ham-
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

20 ms/DIV
KEY I I I I I I I I I

VELOCITY
m/s -
0 -

0- -
0.25 - -

0.50 - -

KEY
POSITION
mm -

8- -

20 ms/DlV
KEY I I I i I I I 1 I

VELOCITY
m /s
-
0 -

KEY -
POSITION
mm -

12 I I I I I I I I I

Fig. 11. Typical registrations of key position and velocity at three

dynamics (piano, mezzo-forte, forte), C4. The horizontal
line indicates the bottom position of the key*.

* All presented curves in this study are traced from the original charts.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

20 ms/DIV
HAMMER 6 I I I I I I I I I

VELOCITY
m/s
t
HAMMER 4 8 -
POSIT1ON
mm 36 -

24 - -

HAMMER
VELOCITY
m/s

HAMMER
POSITION
mm
CHECK LEVEL
STRING CONTACT
KEY BOTTOM

Fig. 12. Typical registrations of hammer position and velocity at three

dynamics (piano, mezzo-forte, forte), C4. The horizontal line
indicates the level of the string. Hammer-string and key bottom
contact signals are included for reference in the forte-example.
The registrations do not correspond to the key registrations in
Fig. 11.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

20 ms/DIV
KEY I I I I I I I 1 I

VELOCITY
m /s
I"STACCATO"/ -

POSITION \
mm 4

Fig. 13. Influence of different types of touch on the key motion, mezzo-
forte, C 4 . The four cases represent:
a. a "staccato-touch" with the finger starting its motion
some distance above the key.
b. a "legato-touch" with the finger initially resting on
the key.

KEY
VELOCITY
m /s

KEY 0
POSIT1ON
mm 4

c. an unnaturally strained touch with the finger and hand

strained.
d. a blow with a pendulum.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

mer-action-hand, probably supported by a f l e x i n g mode of t h e hammer

shank, d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n .

(b) A "legato-touch" w i t h t h e f i n g e r r e s t i n g on t h e k e y f r o m t h e
beginning d i s p l a y e d a s m o o t h m o t i o n w i t h s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g k e y
velocity.

(c) An u n n a t u r a l touch w i t h t h e f i n g e r and hand s t r a i n e d i n a s t r a i g h t

l i n e gave a v e l o c i t y c u r v e d i v i d e d i n two parts. I n t h i s touch, an
i n i t i a l s t e e p i n c r e a s e u p t o maximum v e l o c i t y w a s f o l l o w e d b y a
c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y throughout t h e remaining part o f t h e t r a v e l .

(d) A touch by a pendulum performed somewhere i n between t h e n o r m a l l y

r e l a x e d a n d t h e s t r a i n e d t o u c h . The pendulum w a s u s e d a s a r e f e r -
ence touch w i t h r e g a r d t o dynamic l e v e l i n s e v e r a l o f t h e e x p e r i -
ments.

Two examples of s i m u l t a n e o u s r e g i s t r a t i o n s o f key and hammer velo-

c i t i e s a r e shown i n Fig. 14. I n t h e "staccato-touch", t h e i n i t i a l peak
i n key v e l o c i t y seemed t o correspond t o a compression of t h e f e l t p a r t s
and p r o b a b l y a l s o o f t h e f i n g e r t i p . An i n i t i a l b e n d i n g o f t h e hammer
shank is probably a l s o i n t r o d u c e d , a s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d later. The main
a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e hammer d i d n o t b e g i n u n t i l t h e s e c o n d p e a k i n t h e
key v e l o c i t y developed. The key v e l o c i t y c u r v e showed a s t r a n g e c o u r s e
during i t s f i n a l p a r t , p o s s i b l y c a u s e d by a sudden s t r a i n i n g o f t h e
player's f i n g e r .
I n t h e " l e g a t o " - t o u c h , b o t h t h e k e y a n d t h e hammer v e l o c i t y i n -
c r e a s e d continuously. A s l o w e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e hammer v e l o c i t y t h a n i n
t h e key v e l o c i t y d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p a r t of t h e blow c o u l d be observed,
probably a l s o caused by a compression of t h e f e l t . The moment of retar-
d a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e key b o t t o m c o n t a c t w a s r e a c h e d b e f o r e t h e
estimated s t r i n g c o n t a c t , i n accordance w i t h t h e r e s u l t s d i s c u s s e d i n
P a r t I.
The a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e hammer showed i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s de-
pending on t h e t y p e o f t o u c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e
p i a n i s t c o u l d s e t t h e f i n a l v e l o c i t y o f t h e hammer b y d e l i v e r i n g t h e
main a c c e l e r a t i o n d u r i n g d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e k e y t r a v e l . Three
examples o f such " touch-prof i l e s " , r e s u l t i n g i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same
f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t i e s , are d i s p l a y e d i n Fig. 15a-15c. The f o l l o w i n g
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e a c h t y p e o f t o u c h a r e c o m p i l e d f r o m t h e p i a n i s t ' s own
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f what he was doing, t h e experimenter's o b s e r v a t i o n s , and
t h e measurements i n Fig. 15.

( a ) A t o u c h i n which o n l y t h e m i d d l e f i n g e r was i n v o l v e d , w h i l e t h e
hand and the forearm w e r e h e l d still. The a c c e l e r a t i o n w a s smoothly
STL-QPSR 1/1988

HAMMER 6
VELOCITY
m/s 4-
I
"STACCATO" .f)

I
I
I

KEY 0
VELOCITY
m/s 0.3

Fig. 14. Simultaneous registrations of key and hammer

velocities for two types of touch ("staccato"
mezzo-f orte , "legato" forte ) , C4. The solid
vertical line indicates the estimated moment
of string contact, and the dashed line indi-
cates the moment when the key starts to move.
STL-QPSR 1/1988

10 rns/DIV
HAMMER I

1
I I I I I I I I

ACCELERATION

HAMMER
VELOCITY

Fig. 15. I n f l u e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t o u c h on hammer a c c e l e r a t i o n and

v e l o c i t y , mezzo f o r t e , B ( a r b i t r a r y u n i t s ) . The t i m e c o n s t a n t
3
i n i n t e g r a t i o n was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0 m s . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e a c -
c e l e r o m e t e r i s marked w i t h a t r i a n g l e .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

increased d u r i n g more t h a n h a l f o f t h e t r a v e l t i m e , f o l l o w e d b y a
s h o r t r e l a x a t i o n a n d a f i n a l " l e t - g o " . The hammer v e l o c i t y i n -
creased s m o o t h l y up t o t h e r e l a x a t i o n , a f t e r which it remained
approximately c o n s t a n t .

(b) A t o u c h p e r f o r m e d by l e t t i n g t h e arm f a l l w h i l e keeping t h e f i n g e r

relaxed. A s t r o n g i m p u l s e w a s g i v e n a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e touch.
The hammer v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y u p t o a h i g h v a l u e w h i c h
remained r o u g h l y c o n s t a n t u n t i l t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . A s l o w o s c i l l a -
t i o n was s u p e r i m p o s e d on t h e hammer motion.
i
(c) A f a s t t o u c h i n w h i c h t h e f o r e a r m and hand g a v e a r a p i d i n i t i a l
i m p u l s e , a f t e r which t h e f i n g e r was withdrawn ( " s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r "
I
" b i t e " ) . The e n t i r e t o u c h l a s t e d o n l y 20 m s . The hammer was s e t i n
rapid, strong o s c i l l a t i o n s , r e s u l t i n g i n a f a s t a c c e l e r a t i o n to
maximum v e l o c i t y . The r a p i d o s c i l l a t i o n w a s s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e
velocity curve.

The p i a n i s t who performed t h e n o t e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

i n t o u c h a s l a r g e , which a l s o w a s v e r i f i e d by t h e measurements o f t h e
hammer motion ( s e e Fig. 15). However, i n an i n f o r m a l comparison by t h e
e x p e r i m e n t e r , t h e p e r c e i v e d d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e sounding n o t e s were
s u b t l e . The s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h s e e m e d t o b e p r e s e n t may w e l l b e
a t t r i b u t e d t o s l i g h t l e v e l d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e n o t e s .

2. Force t r a n s m i s s i o n
The f o r c e t r a n s m i s s i o n from key t o hammer is i n t e r r u p t e d a t some
p o i n t d u r i n g t h e hammer m o t i o n d u e t o t h e r e t r e a t o f t h e j a c k a t l e t -
o f f . The t i m i n g p a t t e r n f o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l o n / o f f c o n t a c t between j a c k
and r o l l e r h a s been d i s c u s s e d above ( s e e P a r t I ) / b u t t h e s e measurements
g i v e l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e t r a r l s m i t t z d f o r c e . The i
moment when t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g f o r c e e f f e c t i v e l y ceases w a s e s t i m a t e d i n
a n e x p e r i m e n t , i n which t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e hammer and t h e compres-
s i o n f o r c e i n t h e j a c k were m e a s u r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . An e x a m p l e o f a
registration of these signals, together with contact signals i n the
a c t i o n d u r i n g a "legato-touch" w i t h t h e f i n g e r i n i t i a l l y r e s t i n g on t h e
key, is s h o w n i n F i g . 1 6 a .
The f i g u r e shows t h a t t h e hammer a c c e l e r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d s m o o t h l y up
t o a b o u t 5 m s b e f o r e t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t , a f t e r which t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n
r a p i d l y d r o p p e d and changed i n t o a r e t a r d a t i o n . A c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e
c o n t a c t s i g n a l s shows t h a t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s t a r t e d t o d r o p a s soon a s
t h e t a i l end o f t h e j a c k reached t h e escapement d o l l y , and t h e j a c k
s t a r t e d t o r e t r e a t from t h e r o l l e r . T h i s p o i n t could, consequently, be
c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a "turning-off" point f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e f o r c e transmis-
s i o n from k e y t o hammer for t h i s t y p e of t o u c h , a l t h o u g h t h e j a c k
I
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

HAMMER
4CCELERATION
-
m
s 75
0
-75 - -
JACK
FORCE - -

- I
-
L JACK- DOLLY
1 I I I I I I 1 I

Fig. 16. b. "Staccato-touch", mezzo-forte. The upper two acceleration

curves are examples obtained with slightly different types of
touch. Also, for the curve at the top, the let-off was adjusted
to a long condition (cf. Fig. 6). The dashed lines indicate the
moment of contact between jack and escapement dolly.
STL-QPSR 1/1988

t i o n a t a b o u t 40-50 Hz, a s w e l l a s a more r a p i d o s c i l l a t i o n ( " r i p p l e " )

i n t h e frequency range 300-400 Hz* ( s e e Fig. 17.)
A f e w e x p e r i m e n t s were c o n d u c t e d on n o r m a l a n d p r e p a r e d p i a n o
hammers, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n o r d e r t o s t u d y t h e cause o f t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s
(cf. Fig. 18).
One of t h e hammers was p e r t u r b e d w i t h t h e hammer i n p o s i t i o n i n t h e
piano. Adding a w e i g h t ( 5 g ) t o t h e hammer h e a d (8.5 g ) l o w e r e d t h e
frequency o f t h e slow v i b r a t i o n (-20%) w i t h o u t changing t h e frequency of
t h e r i p p l e . The r a p i d o s c i l l a t i o n s were s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by a s m a l l
weight on t h e hammer s h a n k a t a b o u t o n e t h i r d o f t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e
hammer head t o t h e r o l l e r . By using two p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y mounted a c c e l e -
r o m e t e r s on t h e hammer h e a d ( s e e Fig. 1 9 ) , i t w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e
r i p p l e m a i n l y i n v o l v e d a h o r i z o n t a l o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e hammer head i n
t h e s t r i n g d i r e c t i o n , whereas t h e slow o s c i l l a t i o n o c c u r r e d mainly i n
the v e r t i c a l direction. I
A v e r y r i g i d hammer shank w a s prepared by g l u i n g an aluminium s t r i p
i n a groove made i n t h e shank. The moving hammer mass was i n c r e a s e d o n l y 1
3% b y t h i s p r e p a r a t i o n . W i t h t h i s hammer, t h e r i p p l e w a s n o l o n g e r
observed, w h i l e t h e slow o s c i l l a t i o n s remained unchanged.
I n a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t , one hammer w a s removed from t h e p i a n o and
t h e hammer f l a n g e was r i g i d l y clamped i n a v i c e . The hammer r o l l e r was
s u p p o r t e d on a r i g i d s u r f a c e , w h i l e a f i n g e r r e s t e d l i g h t l y on t o p o f
t h e b a s e o f t h e shank. T h i s arrangement was used a s a rough approxima-
t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e hammer a c c e l e r a t i o n . I n t h i s e x p e r i -
ment, an o s c i l l a t i o n frequency of approximately 50 Hz was observed, b o t h
f o r t h e n o r m a l hammer a n d t h e hammer w i t h t h e r i g i d shank. When t h e
r o l l e r w a s r e m o v e d , a n d t h e hammer i n s t e a d was s u p p o r t e d on a h a r d
wedge, t h e same o s c i l l a t i n g frequency was observed, b u t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s
were much more pronounced. When t h e hammer s h a n k was r i g i d l y c l a m p e d
behind t h e r o l l e r , t h e o s c i l l a t i n g f r e q u e n c y r o s e t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70
Hz.
This series o f o b s e r v a t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s l o w o s c i l l a t i o n s
resembled a v i b r a t i o n o f t h e hammer s h a n k a s a r i g i d b a r w i t h a mass
l o a d a t t h e f r e e e n d , w h i l e t h e r a p i d o s c i l l a t i o n s ( " r i p p l e " ) would
correspond t o a h i g h e r mode b e n d i n g o f t h e shank. The f l e x i n g i n t h e
low-frequency mode o c c u r r e d mainly a t t h e j u n c t i o n between t h e s l i m p a r t
o f t h e shank and t h e s t i f f p a r t a t t h e base. T h i s p a r t is a l s o weakened
by t h e groove i n which t h e wooden r o l l e r c o r e is glued. I n s e v e r a l c a s e s
i t w a s observed t h a t t h e g l u e j o i n t was cracked on t h e s i d e t o w a r d s t h e
hammer head.

* A s i m i l a r motion h a s been observed i n an u p r i g h t p i a n o ( B o u t i l l o n ,

1988) .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

HAMMER I I

ACCELERATION -
lizi6q -

-
m

1
s2 0 - -

-150

CONTACT
I I I I 1 I I

Fig. 17. Comparison of the acceleration at the hammer head for two grand
pianos (staccato, forte) (Steinway & Sons, Model B 443001, Ham-
burg, 1975 and Grotrian-Steinweg grand piano, Model 200 A 125,
52314, Braunschweig, 1926). The position of the accelerometer
is marked with a triangle. The curve at the bottom corresponds
to a hammer with a slightly loose hammer head.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

-
/
/

-.. n 0

HAMMER SHANK

1 / 1
\
oJ
F i g . 18. Side and top views of a piano hammer,
C4
.

HAMMER
ACCELERATION

F i g . 19. Acceleration in the hammer head measured in the vertical and

horizontal directions ("staccato1', mf C 4 ) (Grotrian-Steinweg
grand piano, Model 200 A 125, Braunschweig). The positions of
the accelerometers are marked with triangles.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

The two o s c i l l a t i n g components were a l w a y s observed i n t h e motion

of t h e hammer head f o r t o u c h e s w i t h a s u d d e n a t t a c k . I f t h e f i n g e r was
r e l a x e d , b o t h c o m p o n e n t s were a l s o o b s e r v e d i n t h e k e y m o t i o n , i n
p a r t i c u l a r t h e slow o s c i l l a t i o n .

b. "Ripple" mode
The boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e bending o f t h e shank were a l i t t l e
complicated a s t h e s h a n k c o u l d r o t a t e a r o u n d t h e a x i s i n t h e hammer
f l a n g e , b u t i t w a s d i s t u r b e d i n its downward motion a t t h e r o l l e r by t h e
jack. However, i t c o u l d b e a s s u m e d t h a t a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e f l e x i n g
o c c u r r e d i n t h e l o n g , s l i m p a r t of t h e shank between t h e r o l l e r and t h e
hammer head w i t h a r o u g h l y c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n ( d i a m e t e r 6 m m ) . The
boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h i s mode c o u l d t h u s b e c o n s i d e r e d a s approxi-
mately c l a m p e d a t t h e b a s e o f t h e s h a n k a n d s u p p o r t e d a t t h e o u t e r e n d
due t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d mass of t h e hammer head. The p r e d i c t e d frequency
f o r t h e l o w e s t mode w i t h t h e s e boundary c o n d i t i o n s is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 380
HZ, which g i v e s s u p p o r t t o t h e above assumptions.
The l o w - f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e hammers i n Fig. 1 7 were
r a t h e r c l o s e i n frequency, whereas t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e "rippleN-modes
d i f f e r e d b y a b o u t 20%. The hammer w i t h t h e l o w e r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e
"rippleN-mode b e l o n g e d t o t h e p i a n o t h a t w a s r a t e d a s f a r s u p e r i o r o f
t h e two. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e r i p p l e f r e q u e n c y of t h i s hammer ( p i a n o B,
310 Hz) w a s c l o s e r t o t h e f u n d s m e n t a l o f t h e s t r i n g ( C 4 , 262 Hz) t h a n
t h e r i p p l e f r e q u e n c y f o r t h e o t h e r hammer ( p i a n o A, 380 Hz). A l t h o u g h
more s t r o n g l y e x c i t e d a t t h e beginning o f t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n , t h e r i p p l e
decayed b e f o r e s t r i n g c o n t a c t i n t h i s l a t t e r instrument.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , t h e piano maker s o r t s t h e hammer shanks according t o
t h e i r t a p t o n e s b e f o r e g l u i n g t h e hammer h e a d s t o t h e s h a n k s . S h a n k s
with high t a p t o n e s a r e used i n t h e t r e b l e , w h i l e s h a n k s w i t h low t a p
tones a r e used i n t h e bass. Shanks w i t h v e r y low t a p t o n e s a r e d i s -
carded. According t o s k i l l e d p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n s , t h e q u a l i t y o f e s p e c i a l -
l y t h e t r e b l e n o t e s is s i g n i f i c a n t l y changed depending on t h e p r o p e r t i e s
o f t h e hammer shank ( p e r s o n a l communication, Nor& & Carlsson).
T h i s r u l e o f s o r t i n g t h e hammer s h a n k s w a s v e r i f i e d f o r a f e w
sampled hammers o f o n e o f t h e p i a n o s . A b a s s hammer ( C 2 , p i a n o B)
e x h i b i t e d a s l i g h t l y l o w e r "ripplew-frequency (-15%) compared t o t h e C4-
hammer, w h i l e a t r e b l e hammer (C8, p i a n o B) showed a much h i g h e r r i p p l e
frequency ( + 8 0 % ) .
The i n f l u e n c e o f a l o o s e hammer h e a d is a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig.
17. Such a d e f e c t is recognized among piano t e c h n i c i a n s as a n o t o r i o u s
cause o f poor t o n e q u a l i t y . A comparison w i t h t h e c o r r e c t l y g l u e d
hammer head s h o w s t h a t t h e " r i p p l e " d i d n o t d e v e l o p , e i t h e r b e f o r e o r
- a f t e r s t r i n g c o n t a c t , i f t h e hammer h e a d w a s n o t r i g i d l y j o i n e d w i t h
- t h e shank.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

c. Modal a n a l y s i s
The p r o p e r t i e s o f a p i a n o hammer w e r e f u r t h e r s t u d i e d b y modal
a n a l y s i s . The hammer f l a n g e was clamped i n a v i c e and t h e shank w a s h e l d
i n h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n by a r i g i d s u p p o r t under t h e r o l l e r , i n accord-
ance w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t s d e s c r i b e d above. A s mentioned, t h e s e arrange-
ments c o u l d b e a s s u m e d t o c o r r e s p o n d r a t h e r c l o s e l y t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s
d u r i n g t h e upward a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e hammer b e f o r e r e l e a s e o f t h e jack.
The s h a n k w a s d r i v e n b y a n e l e c t r o d y n a m i c s y s t e m , w i t h a s m a l l
magnet f a s t e n e d t o t h e s h a n k a n d a c o i l i n a f i x e d s u p p o r t . The v i b r a -
t i o n s a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s on t h e hammer were measured by an a c c e l e r o -
meter. The hammer f e l t was removed a n d r e p l a c e d b y a p i e c e o f c o p p e r
p l a t e w i t h t h e same mass a s t h e f e l t (4.5 g ) i n o r d e r t o make i t p o s s i -
b l e t o f a s t e n t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r on t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e hammer head.
The p l a t e was f o l d e d and g l u e d t o t h e wooden hammer c o r e a t a p o s i t i o n
which gave t h e same p o i n t o f g r a v i t y a s w i t h t h e f e l t .
I t t u r n e d o u t t o b e d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n c l e a r modes i n t h e a n a l -
y s i s , probably due t o low Q-factors and t h e loading o f t h e hammer shank
by t h e a c c e l e r o m e t e r . However, t h e a n a l y s i s showed modes a t t h e follow-
ing approximate f r e q u e n c i e s (see Fig. 20) :

400 Hz bending of shank and hammer head

1000 Hz bending o f shankl hammer head n o t moving
1600 Hz v i b r a t i o n o f t h e check t a i l

The modal a n a l y s i s supported t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e e a r l i e r e x p e r i m e n t s

w i t h t h e hammer. The mode a t 1 0 0 0 Hz c o r r e s p o n d s r a t h e r c l o s e l y i n
frequency t o a p r e d i c t e d s e c o n d mode w i t h c l a m p e d - s u p p o r t e d b o u n d a r y
c o n d i t i o n s . The l o w - f r e q u e n c y mode a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 Hz d i s c u s s e d
p r e v i o u s l y w a s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e o f t h e modal a n a l -
y s i s . The bouncing frequency o f t h e hammer, when it was dropped on t h e
r o l l e r a g a i n s t a r i g i d s u p p o r t , w a s much l o w e r t h a n t h e l o w e s t mode
frequency, which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e hamrner was measured under approxi-
mately " f r e e " c o n d i t i o n s .

d. I n f l u e n c e of touch
An i n f l u e n c e of t h e hammer modes on t h e s t r i n g e x c i t a t i o n can n o t
b e excluded. A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n s , hammer modes c o u l d b e
e x c i t e d d u r i n g t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n f o r c e r t a i n t y p e s of touch, and a l w a y s
a t t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . A t y p i c a l e x a m p l e i s g i v e n i n Fig. 1 6 b l w h e r e
the slow o s c i l l a t i o n can be observed during t h e e n t i r e a c c e l e r a t i o n ,
along w i t h t h e high-frequency component. The r e g i s t r a t i o n s i n Figs. 15
and 16b a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c moment of hammer-string c o n t a c t
r e l a t i v e t o t h e c y c l e s o f haminer o s c i l l a t i o n s c o u l d b e i n f l u e n c e d b y
touch.
I
STL-QPSR 1/1988

Fig. 20. A p p r o x i m a t e hammer mode s h a p e s a n d f r e q u e n c i e s . T.he l o w e s t

mode was n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e modal a n a l y s i s , b u t i n f e r r e d
from p e r t u r b a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

According t o a t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e l l i n g ( S u z u k i , 1 9 3 7 b ) r t h e t i m e
h i s t o r y o f t h e c o n t a c t f o r c e between t h e hammer-string c h a n g e s s i g n i f i-
c a n t l y i f a n i n i t i a l d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e hammer s h a n k is i n t r o d u c e d . T h i s
may i m p l y a p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e p i a n i s t t o i n f l u e n c e t h e e x c i t a t i o n o f
t h e s t r i n g t h r o u g h t o u c h , even though t h e m e c h a n i c a l c o n t a c t between t h e
key a n d t h e hammer i s b r o k e n b e f o r e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . F u r t h e r , t h e mode
f r e q u e n c i e s , e x c e p t t h e l o w e s t , are h i g h e n o q h t o a l l o w o n e o r s e v e r a l
v i b r a t i o n p e r i o d s d u r i n g t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t , w h i c h a l s o may h a v e a n
i n f l u e n c e on t h e hammer-string i n t e r a c t ion.
Interestingly, t h e manufacturer o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t used i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t s e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e v o i c i n g o f t h e hammer ( s e t t i n g t h e
s t i f f n e s s o f t h e hammer f e l t b y n e e d l i n g ) , s h o u l d b e made s u c h t h a t a
hard, drop-shaped c o r e is p r e s e r v e d i n t h e u p p e r , s t r i k i n g p a r t o f t h e
hammer, s u r r o u n d e d b y s e c t o r s w i t h l e s s r e s i l i e n c y ( D i e t z , 1 9 6 8 b ) .
P o s s i b l y , t h i s e m p i r i c a l l y m o t i v a t e d m e t h o d o f o p t i m i z i n g t h e hammer
p r o p e r t i e s may have some c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e hammer
a t t h e s t r i n g c o n t a c t . I t is m o r e p l a u s i b l e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e c o m -
mended m e t h o d o f v o i c i n g h a s m o r e r e l e v a n c e f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e d e s i r e d
n o n l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e hammer c o m p l i a n c e ( d i s c u s s e d i n P a r t
111).
Although i t may seem t h a t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e hammer o f f e r a
possibility f o r t h e p l a y e r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s , and, 1
hence, t h e t o n e q u a l i t y b y " t o u c h " , t h e q u e s t i o n i s b y n o m e a n s y e t
answered. I n a c l a s s i c a l s t u d y ( H a r t & a l . , 1 9 3 4 ) , i t w a s s h o w n t h a t
t h e sound p r e s s u r e waveform o f n o t e s p l a y e d by a c o n c e r t p i a n i s t c o u l d
n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e waveform produced by a t o u c h w i t h a mech-
a n i c a l pendulum, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t i e s were i d e n t i -
cal. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e hammer s h a n k was f i t t e d w i t h a r a t h e r l a r g e
p i e c e o f s t i f f c a r d b o a r d " f i r m l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e hammer shank", which
may have e l i m i n a t e d a n y i n f l u e n c e from t h e hammer s h a n k o s c i l l a t i o n s .
P r o b a b l y , t h e s i i j n i f i c a n c e o f "touch" i n v o l v e s s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , o f
which t h e i n i t i a l " t h u m p " i n t h e k e y b e d a n d t h e i r o n f r a m e c o u l d b e
assumed t o b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t ( R e i n h o l d t , J a n s s o n , & A s k e n f e l t , 1 9 ~ 3 7 ;
Conklin, 1997). A recognized piano manufacturer pays g r e a t a t t e n t i o n
t o t h e r e s o n a n c e s i n t h e key bed, which u n d o u b t e d l y are e x c i t e d d i f r e r -
e n t l y depending on t h e motion o f t h e key.
The e x p r e s s i o n " t o u c h " i s p r o b a b l y a l s o o f t e n u s e d a s a g e n e r a l
term f o r s e v e r a l q u a l i t i e s i n p l a y i n g b e s i d e s o f c h a r a c t e r i z i n g a s i n g l e
note a t a g i v e n dynamic l e v e l . Other q u a l i t i e s probably covered by t h e
term "touch" are t h e t i m i n g r e l a t i o n between a melody l i n e and accompa-
niment, t h e o v e r l a p o f n o t e s , a n d t h e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h a n d t i m i n g
between t h e n o t e s i n a c h o r d , f a c t o r s which have been shown t o s e p a r a t e
t h e s k i l l e d p i a n i s t from t h e a m a t e u r (Vernon, 1937; P a l m e r , 1997).
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

PART 111. STRING VIBRATIONS

A. P u l s e propagation on a s t r i n g
The o b s e r v e d m o t i o n o f a p i a n o s t r i n g d e p e n d s on t h e e x c i t a t i o n
function, t h e p o i n t o f e x c i t a t i o n , and t h e p o i n t o f o b s e r v a t i o n , c f .
Fig. 21. T h e r e f o r e , t h i s s e c t i o n is s t a r t e d w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l overview
o f p u l s e propagation on s t r i n g s . An understanding o f p u l s e propagation
is n e c e s s a r y t o b e a b l e t o i n t e r p r e t t h e m e a s u r e m e n t r e s u l t s , i.e., t o
be a b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e e x c i t a t i o n f u n c t i o n from t h e r e f l e c t e d p u l s e s
and f r o m t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e x c i t a t i o n a n d o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s . I n t h e
followingr t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f p u l s e p r o p a g a t i o n is d i s c u s s e d f o r a n
i d e a l s t r i n g , s t r e t c h e d between two s u p p o r t s ( b r i d g e and a g r a f f e ) and
e x c i t e d by a hammer d u r i n g a f i n i t e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n .
An i d e a l s t r i n g , s t r u c k a t a p o i n t ( t h e e x c i t a t i o n p o i n t ) , i s
d i s p l a c e d t o a c o n s t a n t v a l u e b r a c k e t e d b y t w o s l o p e s , y l ( c t - x ) moving
i n t h e + x - d i r e c t i o n and y 2 ( c t + x ) i n t h e -x-direction ( c f . K i n s l e r , Frey,
Coppens, & S a n d e r s , 1982; c f . Morse, 1 9 4 8 ) . The s l o p e s a r e s p r e a d i n g
a p a r t w i t h t h e same propagation v e l o c i t y c and undisturbed waveforms.
The t w o s l o p e s a r e m i r r o r - s y m m e t r i c ( i n t h e y - a x i s ) a n d t h u s 1
~ ~ ( c t + x ) = y ~ ( c t + and,
x) s h o r t l y a f ter t h e blow, t h e t r a n s v e r s a l s t r i n g
displacement y i n p o s i t i o n x a t t i m e t can b e w r i t t e n a s :

The t r a n s v e r s a l s t r i n g velocity equals t h e t i m e d e r i v a t i v e of the

d i s p l a c e m e n t , i.e.,

It c o n s i s t s o f t h e two v e l o c i t y p u l s e s vl(ct-x) and v l ( c t + x ) spreading

a p a r t from t h e e x c i t a t i o n p o i n t w i t h t h e p r o p a g a t i o n v e l o c i t y C I c f .
Fig. 21.
A f t e r some d e l a y , At=xg/ct t h e p u l s e vl(ct-x) p a s s e s t h e obser-
v a t i o n p o i n t (B) , and a d e t e c t o r can r e c o r d t h e u n d i s t u r b e d waveform.
The p u l s e p r o p a g a t e s t o t h e s u p p o r t ( t h e b r i d g e ) , w h e r e i t is
r e f l e c t e d . A t a p e r f e c t l y r i g i d s u p p o r t t h e r e is no motion ( v i b r a t i o n
displacement o r v e l o c i t y ) a n d , t h u s , t h e sum o f i n c o m i n g a n d r e f l e c t e d
p u l s e s m u s t b e z e r o . T h i s means t h a t t h e r e f l e c t e d p u l s e m u s t b e a
p e r f e c t c o p y o f t h e i n c o m i n g wave b u t w i t h c h a n g e o f s i g n , i.e.,
-vl ( c t + x ) . The r e f l e c t e d p u l s e p r o p a g a t e s i n t h e - x - d i r e c t i o n , passes
the observation point again with a f u r t h e r delay, At=2(L-xg)/c. At
t h e s e c o n d s u p p o r t ( t h e a g r a f f e ) t h e p u l s e i s r e f l e c t e d o n c e more. I f
p e r f e c t l y r i g i d , a s t h e f i r s t s u p p o r t , t h e r e f l e c t e d p u l s e is i n v e r t e d
once more b u t o t h e r w i s e u n d i s t u r b e d , i.e., t h e o r i g i n a l p u l s e v l ( c t - x )
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

is obtained. The p u l s e p r o p a g a t e s past t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t , a t which

t h e o r i g i n a l u n d i s t u r b e d p u l s e i s d e t e c t e d a s e c o n d t i m e . The time
between t h e r e p e t i t i o n s , t h e p e r i o d t i m e , is T=2L/c.
The i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p u l s e v l ( c t + x ) p r o p a g a t e s i n t h e -x-direct i o n
and is r e f l e c t e d i n a similar manner a t t h e a g r a f f e , t h e b r i d g e , and s o
on. When t h e two p u l s e s meet, t h e y are superimposed and form a complex
waveform. The t i m e t a b l e f o r p u l s e s p a s s i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t is
g i v e n by t h e p r o p a g a t i o n d i s t a n c e d i v i d e d by t h e propagat ion v e l o c i t y .
The impedance o f t h e p i a n o b r i d g e is high compared t o t h e charac-
t e r i s t i c i m p e d a n c e o f a s t r i n g (Wogram, 1 9 8 1 ) , a n d t h e b r i d g e c a n be
regarded a s r i g i d . For t h e r i g i d b r i d g e , t h e small s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s
g i v e a dynamical f o r c e Fbridge a c t i n g on t h e b r i d g e :

where T d e n o t e s t h e s t r i n g t e n s i o n . Eq. 3 i s v a l i d i n g e n e r a l ( y l ( c t - x )
can r e p r e s e n t a n y wave s h a p e ) . Thus, i t is shown t h a t t h e d y n a m i c a l
f o r c e e x e r t e d by t h e s t r i n g on t h e b r i d g e e q u a l s 2T/c ( t w i c e t h e charac-
teristic impedance) m u l t i p l i e d by t h e v e l o c i t y p u l s e a r r i v i n g t o t h e
bridge. A s a m e a s u r e m e n t t h e v e l o c i t y a t a p o i n t o f t h e s t r i n g g i v e s
d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e dynamic f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e b r i d g e , an i n f o r -
mative parameter f o r t h e r a d i a t e d sound.
The h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n a n d c o n t a c t l e n g t h are n o t
infinitely short. Therefore, it should i n p r i n c i p l e be expected t h a t
when h a l f a p e r i o d t i m e o r h a l f a wavelength of t h e s t r i n g p a r t i a l s a r e
s h o r t e r t h a n t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n and c o n t a c t l e n g t h , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e n
t h i s p a r t i a l and h i g h e r a r e weakly e x c i t e d (Hall, 1987a; Benade, 1976).
I f t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n exceeds t h e round t r i p time from t h e hammer
t o t h e a g r a f f e , t h e r e t u r n i n g p u l s e w i l l s e e t h e hammer a s a n o n r i g i d
support. The i n c o m i n g p u l s e i s p a r t l y p r o p a g a t i n g p a s t t h e hammer,
p a r t l y t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e hammer, and p a r t l y r e f l e c t e d . The a m p l i t u d e s
and p h a s e s b e t w e e n t h e f o u r p u l s e s a r e s e t b y t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
hammer and t h e s t r i n g . The incoming p u l s e w i l l t r y t o throw t h e hammer
o f f t h e s t r i n g . The r e f l e c t e d p u l s e r e t u r n s a f t e r a new r o u n d t r i p a n d
t h e procedure is r e p e a t e d , as suggested by Benade (1976).
The v i b r a t i o n s o f a s t r i n g c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f
i t s modes. A t a node, a s t r i n g mode can n e i t h e r b e d r i v e n nor observed,
i.e., w e s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a r t i a l s t o b e week o r non-
e x i s t e n t . The p a r t i a l number N o f t h e n o n e x c i t e d s t r i n g r e s o n a n c e , a n d
t h e corresponding p a r t i a l frequency f N can e a s i l y b e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e
nodal p o s i t i o n b y Eq. 4:

N = (l/a) and f N = ( l / a ) ( c / 2 L ) , (Eq. 4 )

where a=(lS/L)t ls is t h e d i s t a n c e from s u p p o r t t o e x c i t a t i o n and obser-

STL-QPSR 1/1988

0.1 V s / m 2 ) a t a s p e c i f i c o b s e r v a t i o n p o s i t i o n a l o n g t h e s t r i n g . The
string motion i n t h e magnetic f i e l d induced a v o l t a g e over t h e s t r i n g
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s t r i n g v e l o c i t y a t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e magnet. High
a m p l i f i c a t i o n w a s n e e d e d , s i n c e t h e i n d u c e d v o l t a g e was much r e d u c e d
(peak v a l u e s o f m i c r o v o l t s ) by t h e a l m o s t p e r f e c t s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g o f
t h e i r o n f r a m e i n t h e p i a n o . The s t r i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t was o b t a i n e d b y
i n t e g r a t i n g t h e v e l o c i t y s i g n a l i n a n RC-network ( t i m e c o n s t a n t 4 m s ,
corresponding t o a l o w f r e q u e n c y l i m i t o f 4 0 Hz). For t h e n o t e s f i t t e d
w i t h s t r i n g t r i p l e t s , t h e middle s t r i n g was used f o r t h e measurements
and t h e two o u t e r s t r i n g s w e r e l e f t f r e e t o v i b r a t e . Experiments showed
no i n f l u e n c e f r o m t h e v i b r a t i o n s o f t h e o u t e r s t r i n g s on t h e v e l o c i t y
s i g n a l o f t h e middle s t r i n g .
Comparison of v i b r a t i o n d e t e c t i o n w i t h t h e o p t i c a l system e a r l i e r
d e s c r i b e d , P a r t I1, showed minor d i f f e r e n c e s t o t h e magnetic method. The
magnetic d e t e c t i o n w a s s i m p l e r t o u s e a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e u s e d i n t h e
experiments. However, t h e w i d t h of t h e magnetic f i e l d caused an averag-
ing o f t h e v e l o c i t y o v e r t h e s t r i n g s e g m e n t c o v e r e d b y t h e f i e l d . T h i s
averaging should g i v e a minimum i n t h e s t r i n g spectrum f o r high p a r t i a l s
w i t h a wavelength e q u a l t o t h e f i e l d width.
For t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f s t r i n g w a v e f o r m s a n d s p e c t r a , a n FFT-
a n a l y z e r w a s u s e d (HP 3562 Dynamic S i g n a l A n a l y s e r ) . S p e c t r a were
p l o t t e d f o r a v e r a g e s o f 0-80 m s and 35-115 m s . The s p e c t r a showed minor
d i f f e r e n c e s a t h i g h e s t p a r t i a l s . T h e r e f o r e , i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e
spectrum envelope a s f u n c t i o n o f t i m e is s l o w l y changing and t h a t spec-
t r a of t h e f i r s t 80 m s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and i n s e n s i t i v e t o unavoidable
small t i m e s h i f t s i n t h e analysis.

D. Measurements and r e s u l t s

1. Typical s t r i n g waveforms
Typical s t r i n g waveforms f o r a n o t e i n t h e middle r e g i s t e r (C4) a r e
shown i n Fig. 22. The d i s p l a c e m e n t waveform a s m e a s u r e d a t t h e b r i d g e
s i d e , shows a p o s i t i v e i n i t i a l s l o p e , a broad maximum, a n e g a t i v e s l o p e ,
a c o n s t a n t l e v e l , a n e g a t i v e s l o p e , and a minimum; t h e r e a f t e r , a min-
imum, a maximumr a minimum, a n d a c o n s t a n t l e v e l f o l l o w . The v e l o c i t y
waveform shows a s t e e p i n i t i a l p o s i t i v e s l o p e , a maximum followed by a
less s t e e p n e g a t i v e s l o p e , a broad minimum, and a c o n s t a n t z e r o l e v e l .
The d i s p l a c e m e n t waveform m e a s u r e d on t h e a g r a f f e s i d e s h o w s i n
l a r g e t h e same c o u r s e a s t h a t m e a s u r e d on t h e b r i d g e s i d e . O n l y t h e
p o s i t i v e displacement pulse looks q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . It c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l
minor wiggles. The v e l o c i t y waveform shows i n i t i a l l y s e v e r a l peaks and
d i p s f o l l o w e d by a c o n s t a n t z e r o l e v e l ; t h e r e a f t e r a s h a r p minimum, and
a broad maximum w i t h w i g g l e s , and a c o n s t a n t z e r o l e v e l .
The hammer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n e x t e n d s from t h e s t a r t o f t h e
initial slope t o the f i r s t almost constant zero l e v e l for a l l four
curves presented. A f t e r t h e c o n t a c t h a s ceased, t h e waveforms r e p e a t
themselves p e r i o d i c a l l y . The h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y
l o n g e r t h a n t h e round t r i p t i m e hammer-agraf fe.
The s t r i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t a m p l i t u d e o f C4 is t y p i c a l l y 0.2, 0.8, and
2 m m a t p , m f , a n d f , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e l o c i t i e s a r e
0.3, 1.5 a n d 5 m / s .

a. D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e s t r i n g waveforms
The a n a l y s i s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y
c u r v e s are t h e most s u i t a b l e f o r i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e t i m i n g o f t h e e v e n t s ,
a s t h e e v e n t s are most c l e a r l y shown here. By comparing t h e e v e n t s w i t h
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l t i m e t a b l e , i t is c o n t r o l l e d t h a t t h e e v e n t s a r e c o r -
r e c t l y u n d e r s t o o d and t h e c o n t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n is p o i n t e d o u t .
The p e r i o d t i m e i s e a s i l y r e a d i n v e l o c i t y w a v e f o r m s a s t h e d i s -
t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d maxima o r t h e p r e c e d i n g z e r o c r o s -
sings. T h i s g i v e s a n a c c u r a t e c a l i b r a t i o n o f t h e d i a g r a m i n p e r i o d
t i m e T ( t h u s measured T p r e d i c t s t h e measured fundamental frequency
w i t h i n 1%).
The d i s t a n c e f r o m hammer t o e i t h e r o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s ( 4 0
mrn) g i v e s a d e l a y r e l a t i v e t o t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t o f
40 .T/(2 .664)=0.030T (0.03T m a r k e d i n t h e F i g . 2 2 ) .
During t h e hammer-string , c o n t a c t t h e s t r i n g i s t e m p o r a r i l y d i v i d e d
i n t o two p a r t s , one s h o r t (hammer-agraffe) and one long (hammer-bridge).
Looking a t t h e c u r v e r e c o r d e d a t t h e a g r a f f e s i d e , t h e f o l l o w i n g c a n b e
observed. The f i r s t p u l s e p a s s i n g t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t is r e f l e c t e d a t
t h e a g r a f f e and s h o u l d p a s s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t o n c e more a t
2(82-40)T/(2-664)=0.063Tlw h i c h is c l o s e t o t h e maximum a t 0.07T i n t h e
f i g u r e . T h e r e a f t e r , a p u l s e t r a i n f o l l o w s w i t h 3.5 c l e a r p e r i o d s and a n
i n c r e a s e t o t h e z e r o l e v e l . The f r e q u e n c y o f t h e 3.5 p e r i o d s i s 8.1/TI
which a g r e e s w i t h t h e p r e d i c t e d 2 . 6 6 4 / ( 2 . 8 2 . T ) = 8 . 1 0 / T . The a v e r a g e
l e v e l d u r i n g t h e p u l s e t r a i n i s n o t c o n s t a n t . 'The n e g a t i v e p e a k s g a v e
f o u r p u s h e s t o t h e hammer d u r i n g t h e c o n t a c t t i m e . The s i n u s o i d a l
v i b r a t i o n s are h e a v i l y damped a f t e r t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t c e a s e s .
There i s a l e a k a g e o f t h e a g r a f f e - h a m m e r p u l s e s i n t h e e n d o f t h e
contact t i m e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r i o d s t h e p u l s e s s p a c e d T/8.1 a p a r t
c a n a l s o be f o u n d .
Looking a t t h e r e c o r d e d v e l o c i t y c u r v e a t t h e b r i d g e s i d e t h e
f o l l o w i n g i s f o u n d . The hammer may n o t a c t a s a r i g i d s u p p o r t . T h e r e -
f o r e , t h e f i r s t p u l s e f r o m t h e hammer r e f l e c t e d a t t h e a g r a f f e a n d
p a r t l y p a s s i n g t h e hammer w i l l b e superimposed on t h e f i r s t p u l s e coming
d i r x t l y from t h e hammer. The time d e l a y between t h e t w o p u l s e s l i m i t s
t h e ~ u a r a n t e e d ,u n d i s t u r b e d d u r a t i o n o f t h e e x c i t a t i o n p u l s e . T h i s
d u r a t i o n TF e q u a l s 2 . 8 2 . T / 6 6 4 = 0 . 1 2 3 T a n d h a s b e e n p l o t t e d i n F i g . 22.
The " u n d i s t u r b e d " v e l o c i t y w a v e f o r m o n t h e b r i d g e s i d e s h o w s a s t e e p
u p h i l l s l o p e and a marked maximum f o l l o w e d by a f a i r l y s t e e p d o w n h i l l
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

3. I n i t i a l p u l s e and f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t y
Earlier, it was shown t h a t t h e h e i g h t of t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p u l s e
is n o t d i s t u r b e d b y i n t e r f e r e n c e o f o t h e r p u l s e s . I t c a n b e e x p e c t e d
t h a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p u l s e should be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
t h e f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t y ( H a l l , 1 9 8 7 b ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f i n a l hammer
v e l o c i t y ( c f . P a r t 11) a n d t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e h e i g h t s were m e a s u r e d f o r
d i f f e r e n t dynamic l e v e l s , which showed a c l o s e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y between
t h e " o p t i c a l " and " e l e c t r o d y n a m i c " measures and t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e
h e i g h t , see Fig. 23. The a m p l i t u d e o f t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p u l s e c a n
t h u s b e u s e d a s a n e s t i m a t e o f t h e f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t y . T h i s method
was e a s i e r t o u s e t h a n t h e o p t i c a l a n d e l e c t r o d y n a m i c m e t h o d s . The
o p t i c a l method t u r n e d o u t t o be a l i t t l e awkward, needing a troublesome
f i t t i n g o f a s t i c k t o t h e hammer ( w o r k i n g w i t h t h e hammer i n p o s i t i o n
under t h e s t r i n g s ) , r e p e a t e d c a l i b r a t i o n , and dimmed l i g h t . The e l e c -
trodynamic method demands p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e hammer.

4. S t r i n g waveform and s p e c t r a
a. D i f f e r e n t s t r i n g s w i t h o r i g i n a l hammers
The s t r i n g waveforms and t h e corresponding s p e c t r a e x h i b i t charac-
t e r i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s o v e r t h e compass o f t h e piano, due t o d i f f e r e n c e s
in t h e e x c i t a t i o n . Factors influencing t h e spectrum envelope a r e t h e
r a t i o hammer t o s t r i n g mass, t h e hammer compliancel t h e s t r i n g s t i f f -
n e s s , t h e hammer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n , and t h e hammer w i d t h (Hall &
A s k e n f e l t , 1988). T y p i c a l e x a m p l e s o f t h e w a v e f o r m s a n d s p e c t r a i n
d i f f e r e n t r a n g e s (C2, C4, a n d C7) a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 24.
I n t h e b a s s (C2) , t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n i s s h o r t
compared t o h a l f a f u n d a m e n t a l p e r i o d ( T / 5 i n t h e Fig. 24, c f . P a r t I ) .
I n t h e m i d d l e r e g i s t e r ( C 4 ) , i t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f a p e r i o d a n d i n
t h e t r e b l e r a n g e (C7), it may b e s e v e r a l periods. A s a consequence, t h i s
g i v e s a waveform i n t h e b a s s , i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l o u t g o i n g a n d
r e f l e c t e d p u l s e s can b e c l e a r l y seen. In t h e middle r e g i s t e r , t h e p u l s e s
c o u l d still be i d e n t i f i e d , whereas i n t h e t r e b l e , t h e waveform r e s e m b l e s
o f a s t a n d i n g wave.
The C4-note shows t h e waveform p r e v i o u s l y discussed. The waveform
o f t h e b a s s n o t e (C2) d i s p l a y s a f i r s t p o s i t i v e p u l s e , w h i c h i n c l u d e s
most of t h e f u l l c o n t a c t t i m e . I t is followed by a broad n e g a t i v e p u l s e ,
a z e r o l e v e l , and t h e r e f l e c t e d pulses. I n t h e n e g a t i v e s l o p e and i n t h e
n e g a t i v e p u l s e , t h e r e a r e t w o l o c a l maxima. The r e f l e c t e d p u l s e f r o m
t h e b r i d g e is p r e c e d e d b y a h i g k f r e q u e n c y c o m p o n e n t w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
amplitude. T h i s is t h e r e s u l t o f d i s p e r s i o n , i.e., t h e h i g h e r frequen-
c i e s propagate w i t h t h e h i g h e r v e l o c i t y caused by t h e s t i f f n e s s o f t h e
s t r i n g (Podlesack & Lee, 1988). The measured waveforms showed t h a t t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t was 1 / 3 o f t h e s t r i n g l e n g t h f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e
s t r i n g . Measured agraffe-hammer d i s t a n c e was 1/8.6 of t h e s t r i n g length.
STL-QPSR 1/1988

FINAL HAMMER VELOCITY

Fig. 23. Final hammer velocities as measured by the

optical method (circles and full line adap-
ted by the least mean square method), and
the electrodynamic (triangles and broken
line) method vs first string pulse ampli-
tude (arbitrary units).
STL-QPSR 1/1988

For a t r e b l e t o n e C7 (2093 Hz), a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t waveform is found. The

waveform i s s i n u s o i d a l a n d t h e z e r o c r o s s i n g s a r e a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y
similar d i s t a n c e s . The f i r s t p u l s e i s t h e w i d e s t ( m o r e t h a n h a l f a
p e r i o d , c f . P a r t I ) a n d w i t h t h e l o w e s t a m p l i t u d e . The l o n g hammer-
s t r i n g c o n t a c t - t i m e means t h a t t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s are i n i t i a l l y
damped by t h e hammer. A f t e r t h e f i r s t crest f o l l o w s h i g h e r and e q u a l l y
h i g h p u l s e s . The d i s t a n c e from hammer t o c a p o d a s t r o b a r is s m a l l .
The s p e c t r a show s l o w l y d e s c e n d i n g e n v e l o p e s w i t h r e g u l a r l y s p a c e d
minima r e f l e c t i n g t h e p o i n t s o f e x c i t a t i o n ( t h e hammer) and o b s e r v a t i o n
( t h e magnet). For C4t t h e f i r s t minimum a t t h e 4 t h p a r t i a l c o r r e s p o n d s
t o t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t a t 1/4 s t r i n g l e n g t h from t h e a g r a f f e ( e s t i -
mated f r o m t h e v e l o c i t y w a v e g i v e 0.24). The s e c o n d minimum a t t h e 8 t h
t o 9 t h p a r t i a l c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e hammer-agraffe d i s t a n c e (635/80=7.9)
and t o t h a t o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t . For h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s , minima are
found a t m u l t i p l e s o f f o u r times t h e f u n d a m e n t a l . The m a x i m a f o r m a n
e n v e l o p e d r o p p i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 dB t o 6 kHz ( a t t h e 23rd p a r t i a l ) .
The s p e c t r u m o f C2 g i v e s a n e n v e l o p e d e c r e a s i n g 5 0 dB t o 5 kHz
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e 8 0 t h p a r t i a l ) . A minimum is f o u n d a t e v e r y 3 r d p a r -
t i a l , which c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e d i s t a n c e from a g r a f f e t o o b s e r v a t i o n
p o i n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e agraffe-hammer d i s t a n c e (L/8.6) c o r r e s p o n d s t o
minima e v e r y 9 t h p a r t i a l .
For C7, t h e s p e c t r u m e n v e l o p e h a s d e c r e a s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 35 dB a t
9 kHz ( t h e 4 t h p a r t i a l ) . Only t h i s o f t h e t h r e e n o t e s h a s t h e fundament-
a l a s t h e s t r o n g e s t p a r t i a l . The weak 3 r d p a r t i a l i m p l i e s t h a t t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t was a t a t h i r d o f t h e s t r i n g l e n g t h .
The e n v e l o p e d e c r e a s e s ( n e g l e c t i n g t h e z e r o s f r o m t h e e x c i t a t i o n
and o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s ) w i t h a b o u t 1 5 dB f o r t h e f i r s t o c t a v e o f C7. For
C4, t h e r e is a 1 5 dB d e c r e a s e f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e o c t a v e s a n d f o r C2,
t h e 1 5 dB d e c r e a s e is found between f o u r and f i v e o c t a v e s . The d e c r e a s e s
i n d i c a t e s u b s t a n t i a l i n £ l u e n c e f r o m a n o t h e r e x c i t a t i o n mechanism t h a n
t h a t o f t h e i d e a l l y s t r u c k s t r i n g ( c f . H a l l & A s k e n f e l t , 1988).
A s mentioned earlier, t h e width o f t h e magnetic f i e l d p r e d i c t s a
minimum i n t h e o b s e r v e d s p c t r a . However, t h i s minimum o c c u r s a t h i g h e r
f r e q u e n c i e s ( f o r C2, C4, a n d C7 a t 10.7, 24.51 a n d 28.5 kHz1 r e s p e c t i v e -
l y ) t h a n t h e upper f r e q u e n c y l i m i t s f o r t h e spectra g i v e n above.
The s p e c t r a l p r o p e r t i e s can be summarized i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way. The
upper f r e q u e n c y f o r e n e r g y i n t h e s p e c t r a i n c r e a s e s from b a s s t o t r e b l e .
Assuming a n " a u d i b l e " r a n g e o f 50-60 dB, t h e s p e c t r u m o f t h e b a s s n o t e
(C2) i s l i m i t e d t o 5 kHz ( a b o u t 6 0 p a r t i a l s ) , t h e m i d d l e r e g i s t e r n o t e
(C4) t o 8 kHz ( a b o u t 1 5 p a r t i a l s ) , a n d t h e t r e b l e n o t e ( C 7 ) s p e c t r u m
r e a c h e s above 1 0 kHz. The s p e c t r u m o f C7 e x c e e d s t h e f r e q u e n c y r a n g e o f
a n a l y s i s ( 1 0 kHz). The e n v e l o p e h a s d e c r e a s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 dB a t 9
kHz ( a t t h e 4 t h p a r t i a l ) . A l l e x a m p l e s r e f e r t o m e z z o - f o r t e l e v e l s .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

4uu
STRING
VELOCITY 200

Fig. 2 4 . String velocities (arbitrary units), hammer-string

contact durations, and spectra for tones C7 (2093
Hz), C4 ( 2 6 2 Hz), and C2 ( 6 5 . 4 Hz) played mf by
pendulum, observation point on the bridge side (B).
STL-QPSR 1/1988

0 2 6 8 10 kHz

Fig. 24.
STL-QPSR 1/1988

b. D i f f e r e n t hammers on t h e same s t r i n g
The i n £ l u e n c e o f t h e hammer p r o p e r t i e s (mass and compliance) on t h e
s p e c t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a n o t e w a s s t u d i e d b y e x c h a n g i n g hammers.
The C4-key was f i t t e d w i t h a C7-, a C4-, and a C2-hammer, i n s u c c e s s i o n ,
and t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s , w a v e f o r m s , a n d s p e c t r a were
measured, see Fig. 25. The p o i n t e d , h a r d e r t r e b l e hammer gave a s h o r t e r
c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n , a waveform w i t h a steeper i n i t i a l s l o p e , a n extended
z e r o l e v e l , a n d a much r i c h e r s p e c t r u m c o m p a r e d t o t h a t o f t h e C4-
hammer. The b r o a d , s o £ t b a s s hammer g a v e a l o n g e r c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n , a
smoother w a v e f o r m w i t h l e s s s t e e p i n i t i a l s l o p e , a s l i g h t l y s h o r t e n e d
zero l e v e l , and a spectrum w i t h weaker hig k f r e q u e n c y p a r t i a l s . Note,
t h a t t h e hammer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s v a r y l i t t l e compared t o t h o s e
measured w i t h t h e hammers on t h e i r o r i g i n a l s t r i n g s , c f . Fig. 24. The
fundamental l e v e l s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same ( 5 dB lower f o r t h e C7-
hammer). The p a r t i a l l e v e l a t 3 kHz is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 dB l o w e r w i t h
t h e C2-hammer, and t h e C7-hammer gave a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 dB h i g h e r l e v e l
above 4 kHz. The h i g h - f r e q u e n c y l i m i t s are a s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s f o r t h e
hammers a n d o r i g i n a l s t r i n g s , i.e., 5 kHz f o r t h e C2-hammer a n d a 30 dB
d r o p f r o m 2 t o 1 0 kHz f o r t h e C7-hammer ( c f . F i g s 24 a n d 25).
The s p e c t r a l e n v e l o p e s seem t o a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n b e set by t h e
hammer p r o p e r t i e s . The h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s a r e s e t b y t h e
hammer and s t r i n g p r o p e r t i e s i n combination and were a t t h e most a minor
factor i n shaping t h e s p e c t r a i n t h i s experiment. This s u p p o r t s t h e
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a n o n l i n e a r i t y is one o f t h e main f a c t o r s o f t h e hammer-
s t r i n g i n t e r a c t i o n ( c f . Hall & A s k e n f e l t , 1 9 8 8 ) . A p p a r e n t l y , t h e p i a n o
manufacturers' s c a l i n g o f hammer p r o p e r t i e s is o f c r i t i c a l importance t o
a c h i e v e t h e r i g h t p i a n o sound o v e r t h e e n t i r e compass o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t .

c. I n f l u e n c e o f hammer v o i c i n g
The s p e c t r a l c o n t e n t o f a n o t e c a n b e c h a n g e d b y a d j u s t i n g t h e
compliance o f t h e hammer. The p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n t h e r e b y u s e s n e e d l e s and
s o f t e n s t h e hammer f e l t , he " v o i c e s " t h e hammer. The v o i c i n g i s a
d e l i c a t e a d j u s t m e n t which i n v o l v e s a n a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e e f f e c t i v e corn-
p l i a n c e w i t h i n 5 t o 1 0 %o f t h e d e s i r e d v a l u e ( H a l l & A s k e n f e l t , 1 9 8 8 ) .
A n e x a m p l e o f t h e e f f e c t s o f v o i c i n g a hammer is g i v e n i n Fig. 26. A
C4-hammer was v o i c e d i n s e v e r a l s t e p s from "a l i t t l e t o o hard" t o "much
t o o s o £t " ( " r u i n e d " ) .
I n s h o r t , t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e o f t h e waveform w a s l o w e r e d a n d i t s
s l o p e less s t e e p w i t h t h e s o f t e n i n g o f t h e hammer. In the spectra, the
p a r t i a l s above 2 kHz become c o n s i d e r a b l y weaker. The d i f f e r e n c e between
"normal" a n d " a l i t t l e t o o h a r d " o r "much t o o s o £ t " i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5
dB above 2 kHz, which is a r a t h e r small l e v e l s h i f t . Nonetheless, t h i s
s h i f t is p e r c e i v e d as a l a r g e change i n t o n a l q u a l i t y .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

d. Dynamic l e v e l and spectrum

The p i a n i s t ' s v a r i a t i o n o f t h e d y n a m i c l e v e l a l s o c h a n g e s t h e
p a r t i a l c o n t e n t o f t h e spectrum. Due t o t h e n o n l i n e a r p r o p e r t i e s of t h e
hammer, t h e p i a n i s t s have a t t h e i r c o n t r o l a hammer which changes from
hard t o s o f t d e p e n d i n g on t h e d y n a m i c l e v e l (see Fig. 27) ( H a l l &
A s k e n f e l t , 1 9 8 3 ) . T h i s p r o p e r t y o f t h e hammer is r e f l e c t e d i n t h e
waveforms f o r t h e t h r e e dynamics. With a h a r d e r touch, t h e f i r s t p u l s e
becomes n o t o n l y h i g h e r b u t a l s o more peaked and compressed i n t i m e . The
changes are consequences o f t h e h i g h e r peak f o r c e and t h e s h o r t e r ham-
mer-string c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n , i n d u c e d b y t h e p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c r e a s i n g
hammer compliance.
By c o m p a r i n g t h e w a v e f o r m s i n Fig. 27 i t is e a s i l y s e e n t h a t t h e
f o r t e waveform i s n o t o n l y t h e a m p l i f i e d m e z z o - f o r t e v e r s i o n . I n t h e
s p e c t r a , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e q u i t e c l e a r . C a l c u l a t e d t o t a l power f o r t h e
t h r e e c a s e s g i v e s t h e r e l a t i v e l e v e l s 0 dB ( f o r t e ) , -10 dB (mezzo-
f o r t e ) / a n d -16 dB ( p i a n o ) , w h i c h c l o s e l y a g r e e t o t h e r e l a t i v e l e v e l s
o f t h e fundamental. The s p e c t r a l power can a l s o be e s t i m a t e d by means o f
t h e a m p l i t u d e of t h e f i r s t v e l o c i t y pulse. C a l c u l a t i o n s show t h a t t h e
s h i f t i n power is o v e r e s t i m a t e d by t h i s method from piano t o mezzo-forte
w i t h 1 dB and from p i a n o t o f o r t e w i t h 3 dB.
A t 3 kHz/ t h e l e v e l i n mezzo-forte h a s dropped a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 dB
compared t o f o r t e and i n p i a n o an a d d i t i o n a l 1 5 dB. The upper frequency
l i m i t s f o r l e v e l s h i f t s t o 6 0 dB c o m p a r e d t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c a n b e
e s t i m a t e d t o 3 , 6 , a n d 1 0 kHz, r e s p e c t i v e l y : The number o f p r o m i n e n t
p a r t i a l s i n c r e a s e s from 9 a t piano, t o about 20 a t mezzo-forte and more
t h a n 30 a t f o r t e .
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e s p e c t r a l changes, c o n t r o l l e d by
t h e p l a y e r v i a t h e dynamic l e v e l , are about t h r e e times l a r g e r than t h e
changes caused by v o i c i n g ( 1 5 dB compared t o 5 dB). The s p e c t r a l changes
a r e even l a r g e r t h a n f o r t h e s h i f t s of hammers (Fig. 25). T h i s coupling
between " g a i n " a n d " t r e b l e " c o n t r o l s a r e n o t a f e a t u r e u n i q u e t o t h e
piano. I t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a r e d b e t w e e n a l m o s t a l l t r a d i t i o n a l
instruments.

e. S t r i n g and b r i d g e s p e c t r a
The s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s g i v e t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o f t h e soundboard. The
motion of t h e b r i d g e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e t e r m i n a t i n g impedance t h a t t h e
s t r i n g " s e e s " a t t h e b r i d g e . The s o u n d b o a r d i m p e d a n c e is much h i g h e r
than t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i m p e d a n c e o f t h e s t r i n g , t y p i c a l l y 8 k g / s f o r
t h e s t r i n g t r i p l e t compared t o 1000 kg/s f o r t h e b r i d q e w i t h sound board
(Wogramr 1 9 8 1 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b r i d g e c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s a n a l m o s t
r i g i d s u p p o r t and t h e s t r i n g p u l s e s a s u n d i s t u r b e d a f t e r t h e r e f l e x i o n .
Measured s p e c t r a of t h e s t r i n g v e l o c i t y p u l s e s and b r i d g e v e l o c i t y
a r e c l o s e l y t h e same, which f u r t h e r s u p p o r t s t h e i n f o r m a t i v e v a l u e o f
t h e s t r i n g v e l o c i t y ( s e e Fig. 28). There is, however, a tendency t h a t an
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

1.6 ms/DIV
150 I I
STRING
VELOCITY 75 - -

0
-
r

Fig. 25. String velocities (arbitrary units), -hammer-string

contact durations, and spectra for tone C4 played
mf with C7, C4, and C2 hammers by the pendulum.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

15 dB

0 2 4 6 8 10 kHz

Fig. 2 5 .
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

STRING Is0
VELOCITY 75

0
-

kHz

Fig. 26. S t r i n g v e l o c i t i e s and s p e c t r a f o r t o n e C4 p l a y e d mf

w i t h C4 hammer i n d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f v o i c i n g ( f u l l
l i n e - " t o o h a r d " , broken l i n e - "normal", and t h i n
l i n e - " r u i n e d " ) p l a y e d by a pendulum ( m f ) .
STL-QPSR 1/1988

i n c r e a s e of t h e dynamic l e v e l i n c r e a s e s t h e high-frequency c o n t e n t o f i n
t h e b r i d g e s p e c t r u m s l i g h t l y more t h a n t h e s t r i n g s p e c t r u m . P o s s i b l y ,
t h i s could be caused by a n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t due t o t h e s l i g h t l y curved
shape o f t h e b r i d g e s i d e t o w a r d s t h e v i b r a t i n g l e n g t h o f t h e s t r i n g .

5. Hammer-string contact

a. 4 r a f f e p u l s e s and hammer r e t a r d a t i o n
I n t h e middle and treble r a n g e s , t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s were about
h a l f a p e r i o d o r more. The d i s t a n c e hammer-agraffe g i v e s a much s h o r t e r
round t r i p t i m e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1/8) t h a n h a l f a p e r i o d . Thus, s e v e r a l
a g r a f f e p u l s e s w i l l be r e f l e c t e d b y t h e hammer i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
s t r i n g ( c f . Fig. 2 2 ) . T h e s e r e p e a t e d p u l s e s on t h e s h o r t s t r i n g p a r t
between hammer a n d a g r a f f e t r y t o p u s h away t h e hammer. The e n e r g y
t r a n s f e r b e t w e e n hammer a n d s t r i n g is n o t i n s t a n t a n e o u s . The hammer
moves w i t h t h e s t r i n g a n d e n e r g y i s t r a n s f e r r e d f i r s t f r o m hammer t o
s t r i n g a n d i n t h e e n d , some e n e r g y i s u s e d t o t h r o w t h e hammer o f f t h e
s t r i n g ( c f . B o u t i l l o n , 1988; H a l l & A s k e n f e l t , 1988; Suzuki, 1987). An
example o f t h i s p r o c e s s is g i v e n i n Fig. 29. The hammer t y p i c a l l y
r e c e i v e s f o u r such "push-pulses" b e f o r e it is r e l e a s e d from t h e s t r i n g .
A d o u b l i n g o f t h e hammer m a s s b y a s m a l l w e i g h t e x t e n d e d t h e c o n t a c t
d u r a t i o n and i n c r e a s e d t h e number o f push p u l s e s t o about s i x .

b. Nultiple contacts
I n t h e b a s s t t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n becomes r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t compared
t o t h e p e r i o d t i m e , a n d t h e hammer may l o o s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s t r i n g
w i t h o u t t h e h e l p f r o m r e t u r n i n g p u l s e s on t h e s t r i n g . I t h a s b e e n p r e -
d i c t e d t h a t t h i s c a n o c c u r a t s o f t b l o w s i n t h e b a s s ( H a l l , 1987b). I n
such a c a s e , i t may o c c u r t h a t a r e t u r n i n g p u l s e w i l l " c a t c h up" w i t h
t h e hammer and make renewed c o n t a c t . T h i s phenomenon was observed i n t h e
low b a s s ( C l ) a b o v e t h e p p - l e v e l , s e e Fig. 30. The v e l o c i t y c u r v e s h o w s
t h a t as t h e f i r s t i n v e r t e d p u l s e r e t u r n s from t h e a g r a f f e , t h e d i s p l a c e -
ment o f t h e s t r i n g d e c r e a s e s f a s t e r than t h e hammer is moving down and
t h i s c a u s e s t h e m u l t i p l e c o n t a c t . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o n is i n agreement w i t h
t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o b t a i n e d by computer s i m u l a t i o n s (Suzuki , 1987).

6. S t r i n g motion and dampers

When t h e k e y i s r e l e a s e d , t h e d a m p e r w i l l f a l l down on t h e s t r i n g
and s t o p t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s . A s t h e damper h a s a l i m i t e d m a s s , i t
cannot s t o p t h e v i b r a t i o n s momentarily. The damping of t h e s t r i n g s were
s t u d i e d by measuring t h e s t r i n g v e l o c i t y and t h e damper m o t i o n s ( a c c e l e -
r a t i o n ) . The m e a s u r e m e n t s were made f o r a bass n o t e ( C 2 ) l a m i d d l e
r e g i s t e r n o t e C4, a n d a t r e b l e n o t e (C6).
The measurements showed t h a t t h e damping is f a i r l y i n e f f i c i e n t i n
t h e bass. The s t r i n g s shake t h e dampers v i v i d l y and it t a k e s approxima-
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

STRING 600
VELOCITY 300

Fig. 27. S t r i n g v e l o c i t i e s ( a r b i t r a r y u n i t s ) and s p e c t r a

f o r t o n e C 4 p l a y e d p , mf, and f w i t h o r i g i n a l
C4 hammer.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

15 d B

0 2 4 6 8 10 kHz

Fig. 27.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

0 2 4 6 8 10 kHz

Fig. 28. Measured s p e c t r a o f s t r i n g v e l o c i t y ( b r o a d l i n e s )

and b r i d g e v e l o c i t y ( t h i n l i n e s ) a t t h r e e dynamic
l e v e l s ( C ) . The s p e c t r a have been s h i f t e d t o t h e
same l e v e f o f t h e second p a r t i a l s . The s t r i n g
s p e c t r a a r e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e influence of d e t e c t o r
position.
 STL-QPSR 1/1988

HAMMER
ACCELERATION

STRING
DISPLACEMENT
mm
1

STRING
CONTACT

Fig. 29. Hammer-string interaction: hammer acceleration,

string displacement and hammer-
string contact duration ( C 4 ) .
STL-QPSR 1/1988

STRING CONTACT DURATION

L Ill>/ U I V

STRING I

Fig. 30. Hammer-string interaction: hammer-string contact durations

(Cl) played pp to f f (top), and hammer acceleration, string
displacement (arbitrary units), and hammer-string contact
time played f, observation point coindicing with the hammer-
string contact point (bottom).
STL-QPSR 1/1988

t e l y 200 m s b e f o r e t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s h a v e s e t t l e d . For t h e m i d d l e
range n o t e , t h e damping t i m e is c o n s i d e r a b l e , a t l e a s t 100 m s . I n t h e
t r e b l e , t h e d a m p e r i s more e f f i c i e n t ; t h e damping t i m e is a b o u t 4 0 m s
only. I n t h e h i g h e s t t r e b l e , t h e s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n decay is s o f a s t t h a t
a l l m a n u f a c t u r e r s have found i t unnecessary t o provide t h e s t r i n g s w i t h
dampers. The s t r i n g s ' own decay is f a s t enough. I t is mainly d e t e r m i n e d
by t h e a d m i t t a n c e o f t h e sound board ( H a l l & A s k e n f e l t , 1988).

D. Conclusions
I n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e hammer-string c o n t a c t ,
t h e i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p u l s e o f t r a n s v e r s a l s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s , and t h e
spectrum o f s t r i n g v i b r a t i o n s h a v e b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d . I t is f o u n d t h a t
t h e c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n d i m i n i s h e s , t h e i n i t i a l p u l s e becomes h i g h e r and
narrower I and t h e high-frequency components become s t r o n g e r w i t h h a r d e r
touch. It was found t h a t t h e dynamic l e v e l o f playing gave t h e s t r o n g e s t
i n f l u e n c e , l a r g e s h i f t s o f hammer p r o p e r t i e s (by exchanging "normal" t o
b a s s a n d t r e b l e h a m m e r s ) g a v e l e s s , a n d t h e v o i c i n g o f a hammer t h e
least i n f l u e n c e . The spectrum envelopes seem t o b e set p r i m a r i l y by t h e
h m r p r o p e r t i e s , w i d t h , and/or compliance and n o t t h e c o n t a c t dura-
t i o n . The i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y p u l s e a m p l i t u d e g i v e s a l s o a measure of t h e
f i n a l hammer v e l o c i t y .

Summary
I n t h i s s t u d y , i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s of t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s of sound
production i n t h e g r a n d p i a n o have been i n v e s t i g a t e d . I n a f i r s t s e c -
t i o n , t h e t i m i n g i n t h e p i a n o a c t i o n was s t u d i e d . I m p o r t a n t t i m i n g
p r o p e r t i e s included were t h e r e l a t i o n between key-bottom c o n t a c t and
hammer-string c o n t a c t and t h e " f r e e " time o f t h e hammer's motion b e f o r e
it s t r i k e s t h e s t r i n g . Both t h e s e t i m i n g p r o p e r t i e s were found t o b e
l a r g e l y dependent on t h e r e g u l a t i o n and t h e dynamic l e v e l . The hammer-
s t r i n g c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n was nonuni f o r m l y s c a l e d over t h e p i a n o compass
i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e fundamental p e r i o d of t h e s t r i n g s . The c o n t a c t dura-
t i o n s a l s o changed s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h dynamic l e v e l , an e f f e c t due t o
t h e n o n l i n e a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e f e l t hammers.
I n a s e c o n d s e c t i o n , t h e m o t i o n o f t h e k e y a n d t h e hammer was
studied a t d i f f e r e n t d y n a m i c s and using d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f "touch".
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n k e y a n d hammer m o t i o n c o u l d b e o b s e r v e d
depending on t h e t y p e o f t o u c h . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a r a p i d o s c i l l a t i o n o f
t h e hammer head s u p e r i m p o s e d on a l o w f r e q u e n c y o s c i l l a t i o n c o u l d b e
observed d u r i n g t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e hammer. T h e s e t w o c o m p o n e n t s
w e r e a t t r i b u t e d t o r e s o n a n c e s i n t h e hammer. I t was concluded t h a t t h e
oscillations offered a hypothetical possibility for the pianist t o
i n f l u e n c e t h e s t r i n g e x c i t a t i o n by touch.
I n a t h i r d s e c t i o n , s t r i n g motion was analyzed. The s t r i n g motion
was f o u n d t o b e o f a p u l s e c h a r a c t e r i n t h e b a s s a n d m i d d l e r e g i s t e r ,
STL-QPSR 1/1988

depending o n s h o r t h a m m e r - s t r i n q c o n t a c t d u r a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
fundamental p e r i o d o f t h e s t r i n g . D u r i n g t h e h a m m e r - s t r i n g c o n t a c t , a
f a s t p u l s e t r a i n w a s o b s e r v e d on t h e s h o r t s t r i n g segment b e t w e e n t h e
hammer a n d t h e a g r a f f e , w h i c h g a v e r e p e a t e d i m p u l s e s o n t h e hammer,
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e moment o f hammer release. T y p i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e
s t r i n g waveform and s p e c t r a o v e r t h e compass o f t h e p i a n o w e r e p r e s e n t e d
showing a n i n c r e a s e i n e x c i t a t i o n o f h i g h-frequency p a r t i a l s t o w a r d s
t h e t r e b l e . The i n f l u e n c e o f changing t h e hammer mass and a d j u s t i n g t h e
hammer c o m p l i a n c e ( " v o i c i n g " ) was i n v e s t i g a t e d . It was shown t h a t t h e s e
s p e c t r a l d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e smaller t h a n t h e d i f f e r e n c e s evoked b y t h e
p i a n i s t i n changing t h e dynamic l e v e l .

A c knowledgmen ts
The a u t h o r s are i n d e b t e d t o Hans Nor& and Conny C a r l s s o n o f The
Swedish Radio Company f o r p a t i e n t s h a r i n g o f t h e i r e x p e r t i s e o f p i a n o s
and p i a n o r e g u l a t i o n s . The k i n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f p i a n o t e c h n i c i a n s
Mats F e r n e r a n d J o n a s Asp, a n d p i a n i s t s E l i s a b e t h v o n W a l d s t e i n a n d
Ove L u n d i n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t s i s g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged. S p e c i a l
t h a n k s a r e d u e t o The Swedish Radio Company f o r g e n e r o u s l y p u t t i n g o n e
o f t h e i r grand pianos a t our d i s p o s a l f o r t h e experiments.
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