Edith Cowan University

Research Online
Theses: Doctorates and Masters Theses

1998

The effect of lip-slur practice on increasing pitch

range in brasswind instrument students
Robert L. Benton
Edith Cowan University

Recommended Citation
Benton, R. L. (1998). The effect of lip-slur practice on increasing pitch range in brasswind instrument students. Retrieved from
https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/988

This Thesis is posted at Research Online.

https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/988
 
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 USE OF THESIS

The Use of Thesis statement is not included in this version of the thesis.
 THE EFFECT OF LIP-SLUR PRACTICE

ON INCREASING PITCH RANGE IN

BRASSWIND INSTRUMENT STUDENTS

by

Robert L. Benton

B. Mus. Ed.

A thesis
submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
Master of Education
at the School of Education, Edith Cowan University

Date of Submission: November 1998

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Use of a thesis ii
Abstract v
Declaration VII
Acknowledgments viii
List of tables and figures IX

Chapter

I INTRODUCTION I
Background to the study [
Brasswind performance background 2
Purpose of the study 3

II RESEARCH QUESTIONS 5
Major questions 5
Subsidiary questions 5
The null hypothesis 5
Limitations to the study 6

III DEFINITION OF TERMS 7

IV REVTEW OF THE LITERATURE II

Historical context II
Anecdotal evidence versus research 17
Facio-musculature considerations 21
Major methods 23
Summary 24

v THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 25
Reflective eclecticism 25
Structures of the discipline 27
Behaviourism 28
Bloom's taxonomy and related classifications 29
Affective domain 30
Psychomotor domain 3[
Mastery model 32
Theoretical intention 33

VI DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY 34

Design of the study 34
The experimental component 34
Analysis of the questionnaire and student practice journals
component 35
Student practice journals 36
Methodology 37

iii
 Pre~test 38
The teaching program 39
The treatment 39
The post-test 39
The student profile questionnaire 40
The data 40
Analysis of the data 40
Selection of the subjects 42
Measurement instruments 43

VII RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS 44

Analysis ofprt:~test 44
Analysis of post-test 45
Analysis of gain scores 46
The ceiling effect 48
Crosstabulations and chi-squared tests 50
Analysis of practice times 52
The effect of the average number of minutes practice per week 53
Subsidiary questions 58
The student questionnaire 58
Exploring associations and differences 59
The effect of cultural capital 59
The effect of family attitudes 60
Associations with the experimental data 60
Associations within the student questionnaire 61
Other factors 61

VIII CONCLUSIONS 63
lip-slurs and the ease of acquiring higher range 63
The role of lip-slurs in the acquisition ofthe higher register 65
Implications for the null hypothesis 65
Possible uses of lip-slurs in developing effective practice routines 66
The influence of family background factors on practice
routines and student achievement 68
Suggestions for future research 73

References 74
Bibliography 77

Appendix A - The test instruments 78

Appendix B- Data matrix used for statistical analysis 86
Appendix C- Bivariate correlations 88
Appendix D- Charts and graphs of the experimental data 99
Appendix E - The teaching program 109

iv
 ABSTRACT

Lip-slur exercises comprise part of the practice routines of many professional and

serious amateur brasswind players. There are several reasons why so many

players practise lip-slurs. One of those reasons is the belief that lip-slurs

contribute to the development of the brasswind high regi:;ter. This study argues

that while there is a vast amount of anecdotal evidence from many authors widely

deemed to be influential in the form of method books or writings that lip-slurs can

contribute to the development of the brasswind high register, there has been little

research to support this widely held belief.

This study used a matched subjects control group pre-test/post-test design to test a

researcher-designed lip-slur teaching program aimed at subjects in their second to

fifth years ofbrasswind study. The subjects were in school years eight, nine and

ten. The pre·test and post-test was a researcher-designed high register test

utilising a chromatic scale.

In order to account for family variables which might· influence the experiment, a

questionnaire was developed and various statistical procedures used to calculate

the effect of family background.

The results of this study indicated that lip-slurs play an important role in the

acquisition of the high register by brasswind students. The degree of importance

is dependent on various f3.ctors. From this study, it appears that a major factor is
v
the ceiling effect. Students who scored low to medium pre-test scores gained

greater initial benefit from the inclusion of lip-slurs in the teaching program than

those who had high pre-test scores. The students on whom the ceiling effect acted

most were those who achieved high pre-test scores.

This study concluded that low achievers can gain rapid short tenn advantage from

lip-slur practice, while for high achievers, the inclusion of lip-slurs in the daily

routine could lead slowly to long term gain.

VI
I certify that this thesis does not incorporate without acknowledgment any
material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any institution of higher
education; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any
material previously published or written by another person except where due
reference is made in the text.

Signature

~ - -'

vii
I wish to acknowledge the guidance and encouragement of my supervisor,
Associate Professor John Williamson, friend and mentor for thirty~five years. I
wish also to acknowledge the co~operation of the Principals, teachers and students
who participated in this research, and the patience and encouragement of my wife
Julie and my two children during the time of research and writing of this thesis.

--'<-
viii (i
,// / ..~·
 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table Page

Results of the pre-test 44

2 Two-sample t-test for pre-test 45

3 Results of the post-test for experimental group, control group

and total sample 45

4 Gain scores for the experimental group, control group

and total sample 46

5 Two-tailed t-test for correlated samples to test the significance

of gain for the experimental group 47

6 Two-tailed t-test for correlated samples to test the significance

of gain for the experimental group 47

7 Analysis of variance between experimental group and

control group for gain 48

8 Crosstabulation of high pre-test/low pre-test and

high gain/low gain for the total sample 51

9 Crosstabulation of high pre-test/low pre-test and

high gainllow gain for control group 51

10 Crosstabulation of high pre-test/low pre-test and

high gain/low gain for the experimental group 52

II Descriptive statistics for average weekly practice times

for the total sample, the experimental group and
the control group 53

12 T-test comparing practice times for the experimental

group and the control group 55

13 Analysis of variance between experimental group

and control group for practice minutes 56

14 Two-way analysis of variance of practice minutes for

experimental and control groups against high/low gain scores 57

ix
 I
Figure Page

1 Graph of the correlation between pre-test and gain 49

2a Results of the pre-test; totaJ population 99

2b Results of the pre-test; control group 99

2c Results of the pre-test; experimental group 100

3a Results of the post-test; total population 100

3b Results of the post-test; control group 101

3a Results of the post-test; experimental group 101

4a Gain for total population 102

,.,,

4b Gain for control group 103

4c Gain for experimental group 103

Sa Average weekly practice minutes for the experimental group 104

Sb Average weekly practice minutes for the control group 104

6 The correlation between pre-test and gain 105

7 The correlation between high/low pre-test and high/low gain 105

8 The correlation between group and practice 106

9 The correlation between high/low pre-test and practice 106

10 The correlation between pre-test and practice 107

11 The correlation between cultural capital and

family attitude to music 108

12 The correlation between cultural capital and

Students • enjoyment of listening to music 108

X
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This study is an investigation into a view held by some players of brasswind

instruments in that practising lip slurs is one method of increasing the range of the

high register. The major focus of this study relates to the physical aspects of

brasswind playing that must be acquired in order to be able to play with

.musicality, style and taste. While musicality, style and taste are important goals,

they are not the central objective of this research.

Background to the study

The desire to improve the playing skills of students has been helped by the use of

sporting metaphors and analogies in this researcher's own teaching practice. Such

analogies are used to explain various physical factors of brass playing including

skills acquisition, strength and endurance. These analogies are also useful in

explaining the need for many repetitions of a skill in order for it to become a

reflex action. As students are aware of the need for repetition and practice in a

sporting context, it is a simple step for them to accept that music performance has

similar demands. This is a powerful motivational tool which also helps students

understand concepts which are difficult to describe, taking them from a concept

they already understand to a concept which is new.

From this, it was a short step to asking whether the ideas were not only analogous,

but could also be adapted for better rehearsal techniques. The researcher's original

intention was to adapt a Myological study from the human movement field to a
1
brasswind practice purpose, and then replicate the study as a brasswind practice

routine. Further reading revealed howeve.-, that Myer Savits' unpublished thesis,

Muscle Training Techniques applicable to methods incorporating myological

principles in elementary brass embouchure training curricula, (1982), had

already examined embouchure development using myological principles,

establishing a link with the myological principles used in the study of human

movement. Savits described commonly used embouchure building practice

routines as either Isometric or Isotonic exercises. Isometric exercises included

exercises such as lcng note playing, particularly in the high register, and "long-

setting", playing a series of short, high notes. Lip slurring was described as an

Isotonic exercise. While Savits mentioned Isotonic exercises, his study

concentrated on Isometric exercises, and the results refer mainly to those types of

exercises.

Brasswind performance background

Many trumpet and trombone parts, in both the orchestral and jazz idioms require

players to play in the extreme high register above the eighth harmonic to as high

as the sixteenth or twentieth harmonic, and in rare cases, higher. This requirement

has its origins in the clarino trumpet, soprano trombone and alto trombone playing

of the Baroque period and continues for all brass instruments to the present day.

This researcher has observed that many professional and proficient amateur brass

players use lip-slurs as one means of securing the high register.

2
There are other techniques for increasing range in· the high register, such as long

setting and playing increasingly higher scales and arpeggios. Many players use a

mixture of all methods.

Savits, (1982, pp. 22-24), interviewed several hundred professional brass players

and five hundred advanced college and high school students in the USA to

investigate what methods they used to develop range and endurance. The most

commonly used method books utilised the myological principles of isotonic and

isometric exercises, and interval training.

Many professional brass players include muscle development techniques in their

practice routines, using methods developed by Maggio, Shuebruk, Gordon,

Caruso and others. In their definitive works on brass playing, both Edward

Kleinhammer (The Art of Trombone Playing, 1964) and Philip Farkas (The Art of

Brass Playing and The Art of Hom Playing, 1962) paid considerable attention to

the physical aspects of brass playing and in particular, the facial musculature

involved.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to examine the effect that a graded series of lip slurs

would have on the acquisition of the upper pitch range by brasswind students.

The intention is to investigate the extent to which practising lip-slurs would

enhance the acquisition of high notes on a brass instrument. From the data

collected during the study it was inferred that under similar conditions, using a

practice program of graded lip slurs as a supplement to their regular instruction

program, other students would be able increase their high register and make their

3
high register more secure. The lip slur program was not intended to replace the

normal teaching program, but to supplement that program. It anticipated that the

results of this study would enhance brass teachers' confidence in designing that

component of a course in brasswind study related to the acquisition of increased

pitch range.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Major Questions

1. Will a series of graded tip slurs, when included in a normal brass teaching

curriculum, enable students to more easily acquire a higher range compared to

students who do not have a series of graded lip slurs in their curriculum?

2. Do lip slurs play an important role in the acquisition of the high register by

brasswind players?

Subsidiary Questions

I. In what way/s can lip-slurs be employed in designing effective practice

routines?

2. Using evidence collected from the Student Profile questionnaire, in what ways

do Family Background factors influence practice routines and consequently,

influence student achievement?

The Noll Hypothesis

Th?1t for students who receive a series of graded lip-slurs as a supplement to a

standard brasswind teaching curriculum, there will be no observable effect on the

acquisition of higher range compared to students who do not have a graded series

of lip-slurs as a supplement to the teaching curriculum.

5
LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY

Many factors combine to create the ideal brass--wind performance. These include

artistic factors such as interpretation and style and the physical factors which

enable the performer to create the characteristic sound and technical capabilities

ofbrass-wind instruments.

Skills involved in brass-wind performance include breathing, tonguing, fingering

or slide technique and embouchure technique.

The skilful player's embouchure needs endurance, suppleness, flexibility and

strength, which can be achieved with an appropriate balance of isometric and

isotonic exercises. Isometric exercises, including long setting and long note

exercises, enable the player to develop power. Isotonic exercises increase

embouchure strength, flexibility and endurance. It is this author's contention that

increased range is greatly enhanced by embouchure muscle strength and that

isotonic exercises, specifically lip-slurring, are useful in increasing high register

range.

Although both isometric and isotonic exercises increase muscle strength, this

study will confine itself to investigating the effects of lip-slurs, an isotonic

exercise, in improving the player's high register.

6
 CHAPTER THREE

DEFINITION OF TERMS

For the purposes of this study the following terms are defined:

Ceiling effect: The ceiling effect is a source of error in the non-randomised

control group pre-test/post-test design, whereby high scorers in the pre-test have

less likelihood of gain than low pre-test scorers because they are already close to

maximum performance. Low scorers, by contrast, are not close to the maximum

and have a greater chance of exhibiting high gain scores. Burns (1994) gives a

more detailed description of the ceiling effect.

Cultural capital: For the purposes of this dissertation, cultural capital is defined

as the extent to which a family is prepared to, or is capable of, committing family

income to items of a cultural nature. Such items may include reading matter such

as books, magazines and journals, musical recordings on vinyl, compact disc or

tape, sheet music and so on. In this study, a value distinction is made, in

ascending order of preference, between ''very little", «popular", "classical" and "a

wide variety". No attempt is made to justify this order of preference. The amount

of income spent by a family on cultural capital may be the result of any

combination of attitude, priorities or financial circumstance.

7
 Embouchure:

The way in which brass players set their lips to make the buzzing sound necessary

to play brass instruments. This is formed when the Obicularis Oris muscle is

contracted. The facial muscles surrounding Obicularis Oris act in opposition to 0.

Oris, thus having the effect of stabilising the complete group of muscles involved.

This forms a hole in the lips known as the aperture, which, when viewed through

an embouchure visualiser, looks like an oboe reed. By controlling the degree of

contraction of the various muscles, the aperture can be made larger or smaller. A

larger aperture gives a slower lip vibration hence a lower note and a smaller

aperture gives fuster lip vibration hence a higher note. Because a higher note

requires a smaller aperture and balances a comparatively fast air stream, more

strength is required to maintain the sma!! shape. Farkas, (1962), and

Kleinhammer, ( 1964 ), provide detailed information on this aspect of the topic.

Interval Training:

A training program that alternates high intensity work and rest intervals to induce

a greater training effect than would occur in an uninterrupted work program.

(Savits, 1982, p. 5)

Isometric:

(a) A system of exercising in which opposing muscles are so contracted which

there is little shortening but great increase in tone of the muscle fibres involved.

(Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary, 1971).

(b) Contraction in which tension is developed but there is no change in the length

of the muscle. (Savits, 1982, p. 5)

•
 I
Isotonic:

(a) Relating to or exhibiting equal tension. (Webster's Seventh New Collegiate

Dictionary, 1971).

(b) Contraction in which mu~::le shortens with varying tension while lifting a

constant load. However, owing to lever systems there is a change in resistance.

(Savits, 1982 p. 6)

Lip-slur:

The practice of slurring between the naturally occurring harmonics of a brass

instrument. The number of harmonics used may vary according to the experience

of the player or the nature of specific exercises.

Long setting:

An extension of long tone studies where the mouthpiece remains in contact with

the set embouchure for the duration of the exercise. (Savits, 1982, p.6)

Myological:

(a) From myology, the scientific study of muscles. (Webster's Seventh New

Collegiate Dictionary, 1971)

(b) Generally accepted theories concerning muscle development such as overload,

interval training and endurance and strength training regimes. (Savits, 1982, p. 7)

9
Overload principle:

Strength, endurance and muscle s1ze increase, within limits, in response to

repetitive exercise against progressively increased resistance. (Savits, 1982, p. 7)

Pitch convention for octaves: This dissertation follows the pitch convention for

octaves described in the Harvard dictionary of music whereby the pitch "c" on the

second space of the bass clef is described as c. The octave lower is described as

C, while the octaVe higher, middle c is described as l Successively higher

octaves gain successively more superscripts, thus c in the third space treble clef

becomes cii, the next octaves em, ciiii and so on. (Apel, 1970, p. 679).

10
 CHAPTER FOUR

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Extensive research into brass literature indicates that lip-slurring is a very old,

possibly ancient practice that within the European cultural context has been

passed down through successive generations of brass players and has been

accepted by them as an effective practice. However, this reviewer has found little

empirical evidence to support the view that lip-slurs are an effective method of

increasing one's ability to play in the higher register. The evidence to date

appears to be mainly anecdotal rather than research-based.

Historical Context

Brass instruments of various kinds such as the Greek salpinx, Roman buisine,

buccina and lituus, and the Jewish shofar have existed since Biblical times.

Similar instruments are still found in many Asian cultures. (Ape!, 1970, p. 109).

Like modern bugles and cavalry trumpets, they did not have valves, relying only

on the naturally occurring harmonics of the instrument to produce notes of

varying pitch. These instruments were used primarily for ceremonial and military

signalling purposes in much the same way as bugles and cavalry trumpets are used

today. The method of playing valveless instruments can reasonably be assumed

to have stayed much the same throughout history.

11
Edward Tarr (1977/88, p. 95) described the apprenticeship and examination of

prospective trumpet players during the Baroque era. Apprenticed trumpet players

had to be able to play certain military signals and show some knowledge of

clarino playing. "As today, he first learned to play in the low register, gradually

ascending higher and higher."

John Hyde was the pre-eminent slide trumpet player of Britain in the 1700's. In

1798 he wrote a method book entitled Complete Preceptor for the Tntmpet and

Bugle Hom. On the subject of embouchure Hyde advised (cited in McCann.

1989, p. 38) "draw your lips tight over the teeth; then put your tongue between

your lips and place the mouthpiece firm on the centre of your mouth, a little more

on the upper lip than the lower one." With the exception of placing the tongue

between the lips this is remarkably similar to the modem method of setting the

embouchure. On the subject of playing higher notes Hyde advised "contract your

ambesure [sic}, press your instrument harder on your lips, and strike your tongue."

McCann (1989, pp. 38- 40) wrote that the method advised by Hyde was repeated

by other authors such as J. Pashen (1825), T. Bull (1835), B.A. Burdett (1850),

John Distin (1851), Alfred Sedgwick (1873 & 1876) and Winner (1877). These

we·r~ in line with the practice favoured in the nineteenth and early twentieth

century, and advocated by Arban (1859/1907), of increasing mouthpiece pressure

to play high notes. Although mouthpiece pressme was advocated, Hyde still

recommended contracting the embouclrure as Arban later did in 1859, implying

that the muscles of the embouchure should be involved.

12
Arb an and others indicated that the range of the cornet or trumpet was two and a

half octaves from written fsharp to written ciii. But perfonnance practice in both

the Baroque era and the Twentieth Century requires trumpeters to play in extreme

high registers, unlike during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the

art of clarino playing was apparently lost.

Edward Tarr (197711988) argued that Baroque trumpeters must have used

techniques similar to modern trumpeters when he st::tted that:

In the Baroque period, when trumpeters had to play melodies in

the fourth octave of the harmonic series, they corrected the
impure partials by a change in the lip tension. Modern-day
trumpeters employ the same technique, called "lipping," in order
to correct occasional deviations in pitch - deviations however,
which are much smaller than those encountered by the Baroque
trumpet. We can therefore say that the trumpeters of the
Baroque era needed more lip strength in order to play their
instrument in tune. (p.14)

In making that statement, Tarr was comparing the demands made by

contemporary jazz and symphonic writing upon modem trumpet players with the

demands clarino playing made upon Baroque players. In doing so, Tarr

postulated that because the players from both eras faced similar problems, then the

solutions to those problems must also be similar. Physical inspection of a

Baroque trumpet mouthpiece reveals a very sharp, narrow rim, which if used with

the pressure method, would cut painfbHy into the lips. The only reasonable

technique would have to have been to use limited mouthpiece pressure, which is

the desired practice today.

13
In a discussion on lipping out of tune partials into tune, Tarr (p.89) argues that

lipping requires light mouthpiece pressure and that this is the method used by all

professional players today. He goes on to say that modem trumpet methods

emphasise light mouthpiece pressure and correct breathing. Tarr argues that

modem and Baroque embouchures have much in common. In discussing lipping

downwards, Tarr argues that the player needs a slightly puckered embouchure

with as much upper lip as possible in the mouthpiece.

In his discussion of modern trumpet technique, Tarr (p.195) pointed out that

orchestral trumpet playing has been influenced by jazz, and that modern players

have learned to play in the register ciii to ciiii and sometimes higher. Tarr claims

that this is accomplished not by the nineteenth century "smile" embouchure

advocated by Arban, Hyde and others, but by "pushing the stiffened comers

forward a bit, although allowing the lip muscles themselves to relax as far as

possible." This is the "puckered" embouchure recommended by modem authors

such as Farkas (I 96211 965), Claude Gordon (I 975/1 977) and others (Savits, 1979,

p. 88).

Arban and other authors in the nineteenth century advocated varying pitch by

varying the mouthpiece pressure using the left arm as a regulator (Arban,

1859/1907, p.5). Those same authors also claimed that the range of the comet (or

any other brass instrument as indicated by the titles of the many "preceptors" cited

by McCann) was only two and a half octaves. It is possible to argue that as

extreme range was commonly used in both the Baroque era and in the twentieth

century using the "puckered" embouchure and light mouthpiece pressure, then the

14
restricting factors in the nineteenth century were the "smile" embouchure and the

use of excessive mouthpiece pressure.

The change in ideas from the nineteenth century methods to modem methods

began during the late _eighteen hundreds. By 1886 authors such as E. Bourke, in

his ABC Instructor (clted in McCann, 1989, p. 40) had begun to advocate using

breath pressure and lip tension in combination to produce differing pitches.

McCann quotes Bourke as saying:

BY gentle compression of the lips and, blowing softly, the lower

notes are produced; and by pressing with more finnness,
contracting the lips more and blowing harder, the high notes will
be produced. The aperture between the lips is larger for lower
notes. (p. 40)

It is interesting to note that although variations in mouthpiece pressure were still

recommended, the concepts of air pressure and lip control were advised, as well as

possibly the first use of the term aperture and its relationship to pitch.

Authors Pietsch, Hofman and Kostek in the late eighteen hundreds and early

nineteen hundreds emphasised stretching the lips, attention to breathing and lip-

slurs and trills (McCann, 1989, p. 57). Their technique for slurs was to change

the vowel shape of the mouth in a way that arched the tongue to ascend and lower

it to descend. This is a very modern concept, widely accepted, and advocated by

Schlossberg who was the teacher of many first chair American trumpeters

(including Louis Davidson, author of Daily practice routines [1970], his most

famous pupil) and is still a widely influential figure, even after his death, through

15
his book Daily drills and technical studies for the trumpet ( 1959). That

Schlossberg was a pupil of Kosslek, a Russian Jew who migrated to USA in the

late eighteen hundreds, and that Schlossberg's work is still influential, is an extant

example of the passing down from one generation to the next the skills and

techniques of brass playing. Those skills were passed down both within and

across cultures. Lip-slurs and trills are part of that tradition indicating that lip

slurring and trilling have probably been passed down through many generations of

brass players. Given that modem brass players face some of the same

performance problems as ancient players, then lip slurring may have been one of

the techniques passed down from very old origins indeed.

In a personal sense this reviewer, an Australian, was a student of George Powers,

an American who was at one time the principal trombone with the Cleveland

Symphony Orchestra. Powers was a student of Arnold Jacob, principal tuba with

the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, widely recognised by brass players as one of

the most influential brass players of the twentieth century. For this reviewer, this

is a personal example of how brass thought, technique and practice has been

passed from one generation to the next, not just within a local cultural context, but

between continents, just like Kosslek immigrating from Russia and teaching

American students. It is this reviewer's personal connection with the oral history

and traditions of his art, which like all teachers, he passes on to his students.

During the nineteen twentie..; various new methods began to appear, particularly in

the USA, which advocated non-pressuie methods, correct muscle control and

buzzing of the lips. McCann (1989, p.57) cites H. A. Vander Cook in his Modern

16
Method of Comet Playing (Chicago, 1922) as advocating the correct system of

muscular contraction, controlled buzzing of the lips in all registers, particularly

without a mouthpiece, and tongue arching techniques to aid in lip-slurring.

McCann (p. 57) also cited 0. A. Peterson (The Comet, 1924) advocating playing

without mouthpiece pressure: "Try to push the lips away from the teeth a

little ... This will produce the right effect. .. Long tones, lip-slurs, consistent

practice and frequent rest are all recommended". Vander Cook and Peterson in

the nineteen twenties advocated ideas which in the late twentieth century are

virtually universally accepted. Specifically, the modern ideas were the use of

non-pressure, achieved by muscle control and the use of lip-slurs and frequent

rests to achieve that. Modem writers such as Philip Farkas (196211965), Claude

Gordon (1965/1975), Louis Davidson (1970), Carmine Caruso (1979) and others

have expressed those ideas in their various methods and treatises.

Anecdotal evidence versus research

This researcher has conducted an extensive search over a period of three years for

both dissertations on brass players' embouchures and journal articles about brass

players' embouchures. To date this researcher has found only one dissertation, by

Myer F. Savits, (1982), which discussed the use of lip-slurs as a means of

strengthening the brass player's embouchure, and one dissertation, by Roger Dane

(1983), which investigated embouchure and breathing in relation to sound

production on the trumpet. Savits' dissertation was an unpublished Doctoral

thesis titled: Muscle training techniques applicable to methods incorporating

myological principles in elementary brass embouchure training curricula. Dane's

dissertation was an unpublished doctoral thesis titled Theories on embouchure and

17
breathing: an analytical investigation into the functions for sound production on

the trumpet. By contrast there is a large number of journals containing articles

written by a wide range of authors who mention using lip-slurs as a means to

strengthen the embouchure. Many of the articles have been written by authors

previously mentioned such as Claude Gordon, Carmine Caruso, Philip Farkas and

others. Many other articles are interviews with the above authors or prominent

players. A representative sample of such journals would include The

instntmentalist, Brass hul/eti11, !ntematiollal trombone association journal,

International trumpet guildjoumal, Horn call and TUBA Journal.

From a research viewpoint these articles, written by highly acclaimed

contributors, can be considered as anecdotal evidence. Although the articles

contain views that are widely accepted, such as the views already discussed under

the heading Historical Context, they are not supported by the rigours of research;

rather they represent the body of the oral tradition of brass playing. Significantly,

as discussed in the section on historical context, the oral tradition (the currently

accepted wisdom) is prone to shifts in what is accepted as best practice. The long

running arguments on pressure playing versus non pressure playing and

mouthpiece placement which occupied much of nineteenth and twentieth century

discourse are such examples.

During the last thirty years or so, there has been a shift towards a more scientific

approach to understanding the embouchure and how it works. Farkas (pp. 25-31,

1962) included photographic studies of virtuosic players to support his discussion

on how to form a good embouchure. Edward Kleinhammer (p.24, 1963) included

18
a schematic diagram of the muscles of the lips and surrounding areas of the face

that form the embouchure in his discussion of the correct embouchure and

mouthpiece placement

John Swallow (1987) argued:

The embouchure is a highly sophisticated mechanism and our

performing efforts and instruction should treat it as such ... The
complexity of the link between the music making parts of the
anatomy and the brain deserves more ~~rious attention. Sports
medicine has contributed a great depl in the study of the
attitudinal and physical aspects of building and accomplishing
skills. I feel we should look there for support in our pursuit of
new skills and concepts. (p.I5)

Myer F. Savits (1982) based his dissertation on muscle training techniques and

myological principles. Savits investigated the use of a variety of muscle

strengthening exercises to develop the brass wind embouchure as a means of

increasing range, endurance and improving tonal quality. He argued that

performance on brass wind instruments is a muscular activity and that endurance,

range and certain aspects of tonal quality are dependent upon the development and

coordination of Obicularis Oris and its associated musculature. Savits concluded

that embouchure strength could be increased by exercises utilising the overload

principle. Those exercises may be "musical" such as long tones and lip-slurs, or

"clinical", such as statics, lip-buzzing and pedal tones.

10
Like Swallow, Savits looked to sports medicine to explain how muscle training

techniques work and how those techniques could be adapted to brass wind

practice routines.

Roger Dane (1983, p. 25) investigated theories of sound production on the

trumpet. He argued that two important considerations were proper breathing and

an efficient embouchure. Dane (pp. 24-25) argued that the subject of the

embouchure was very complicated because the details of anatomy and physiology

wer.e very complex. In doing so he quoted Weast (n.d.): "lip strength,

embouchure strength and facial strength are all considered synonymous by brass

men."

Dane concentrated his study on the use of air and mouthpiece placement, but in

doing so acknowledged the role of embouchure strength and muscular

considerations.

In his chapter on embouchure, Dane (pp. 34-44) described the function ofthe lips

and facial muscles when forming an embouchure. He described smiling lips as

fuller while stretched lips were thinner. He observed that most methods designed

for power, extreme range and endurance favour the puckered embouchure in

preference to the smile embouchure. Dane maintained that the smile embouchure

had gone out of favour during the 1920's or thereabouts.

In his discussion on the limitations of his study, Dane (p. 6) stated that there were

many elements involved in the production of sound and that his study would

20
 I
confine itself to those concerning breathing. Dane described the muscles involved

as numerous and complex, and that although much had been theorised about

muscle involvement, there had been little in the way of controlled experiment.

It would appear that researchers, journal contributors and major performers are all

interested in ways of developing embouchure strength as a means of improving

range, endurance and tonal quality.

Facio-musclah1re considerations

Many commentators have described the importance of the facial muscles when

forming an embouchure and playing a brass instrument, particularly those of the

lips and chin, and those used when smiling.

Philip Farkas (1962) described four steps to creating a good embouchure:

1, Make sure the upper and lower teeth are separated. That is, keep the
lower jaw down far enough that some influence is exerted towards
arching the center of the lower lip downward.
2. Arch the chin muscles down with sufficient strength to make a wide
"U" shaped indentation.
3. Avoid too wide a smile.
4. Make certain that the comers of the mouth are kept in so that the
width of the mouth is shorter than when the mcuth is smiling. (p. 39)

Dane (1983, pp.26-30) agreed with Farkas when describing the role of the cheeks,

the comers of the mouth and the chin. Like Farkas he advocated the puckered

embouchure, particularly for power, range and endurance. Stability of the jaw

alignment was achieved by proper jaw position, made possible by the nwscles of

21
the chin. Dane argued that a forward thrust jaw aligns the lips and the teeth,

counteracting any overbite present, and that this contributed to a "big, rich and

free tone".

When discussing the aperture, Dane (p.26) explained that the aperture should have

the correct size, shape and texture for any given pitch and dynamic level. He

based his description on that of Delbert Dale (1965) in which the lip and facial

muscles radiate toward the centre like the hub of a wheel.

Kleinhammer (1963, p. 25) used a very similar description in his discussion of

embouchure formation. He said that rather than use only those muscles involved

in smiling, the finest brass instrument players use the muscles completely

surrounding the aperture. He described the correctly formed aperture as oval

shaped. To illustrate the point, Kleinhammer included a diagram of an oval shape

with muscle forces pushing inwards to the centre of the aperture.

Claude Gordon (1965/1975, p.S) used a very similar diagram to Kleinhammer in

his discussion of the use of the embouchure muscles. Gordon advocated

contracting the lips toward the mouthpiece when ascending to the higher register

and relaxing the lips for the lower notes. Gordon (p. 6) advised that the muscles

of the face and lips should be trained to pull towards the mouthpiece. He

described the routines for learning this as calli sthenic routines. Gordon (p. 6) also

advocated developing the feeling of gripping the mouthpiece and training the

facial muscles to the point where correct use becomes a habit.

22
Major methods

The authors of many major methods such as Claude Gordon ( 1972), Carmine

Caruso (1979) and others have confined themselves to the physical aspects of

brass-wind playing. Invariably large proportions of their methods include lip-slur

routines or arpeggiated routines which are very similar. Savits (1982) examined

many of these methods and analysed them using myological principles. Other

methods such as those of Arban (1859/1907) and Schlossberg (1959) address a

wider range of performan~e considerations, but still include large sections on lip-

slurring and similar exercises.

The modem method of playing brass instruments, particularly those with valves,

has its origins in the early to middle eighteenth century, exemplified by the work

of Jean Baptiste Arban in his Cornel method (1859/1907). Arban's book has

several sections designed to exercise the muscles of the embouchure.

Most notable of the authors whose books confine themselves mainly to the

multitude of permutations of the lip slur idea are Richard Shuebruk's Graded lip

and tongue trainers for brass instmments (1925), Claude Gordon's Systematic

approach to daily practice (1965), and Daily trumpet routines (1972), Charles

Colin's Advanced lip jlexlhi/ities (1972), and Carmine Caruso's Musical

callisthenics for brass (1979). Savits (1982) reviewed a greater number of lesser-

23
known methods such as that written by Deutsch (1975). Well known authors

whose books include lip slurring as important sections of their methods include

Richard Macdonald's Daily exercises for trombone (1926), Max Schlossberg's

Daily dri:Js and technical studies (1959), Paul Tanner's Practice with the experts

(1962), Louis Maggio's The original Louis Maggio system (1968), Emory

Remington's Warm-up exercises (1980), and the various methods published by

Rubank Inc, to name but a few.

Summary

The sheer number of authors who include lip-slurs to strengthen embouchure and

increase range as a consequence is testament to the importance of lip-slurring.

Carmine Caruso ( 1979) even went to the extent of describing them as callisthenics

for the brass player. It would be difficult to argue that lip-slurs do not strengthen

the embouchure and thus increase range in the high register as it is accepted by

professional brass players and by major writers that they do, and yet it appears

that no-one has yet demonstrated this in a controlled study. The knowledge of the

value of lip-slurs seems to have been derived from experience with little

supporting evidence from research.

24
 CHAPTER FIVE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study was influenced by the ideas George J. Posner presented in his book

Analysing the Curriculum ( 1992). In that book Posner put forward the idea that to

stay within one paradigm excludes all possibilities not included in that paradigm.

A more useful approach is to make a considered decision to include ideas from

many paradigms if it makes the development of a particular curriculum more

relevant to the students' needs. In this study that idea was expanded to include

applying the Reflective Eclecticism approach to research as well as to curriculum

design. This study included, as part of its Reflective Eclecticism, ideas from the

following sources: Structures of the Disciplines perspective, particularly Bruner's

Spiral Curriculum model and his view of treating the student as an acolyte in the

discipline; Behaviourism; and the three domains from Bloom's Taxonomy of

Educational Objectives (1956), namely: Bloom's Cognitive Domain (1956),

Krathwohl's Affective Domain (1964); and Harrow's Psychomotor Domain

(1972).

Reflective Eclecticism

George J. Posner ( 1992) postulated:

Reflective eclecticism is based on the assumption that. much as

we would like to deny it, there is no panacea in education.
People who are looking for 'the answer· to our educational
problems are looking in vain. Different situations require
different practices. The curriculum 'cultists' make a
25
 fundamental error in assuming that they have the answer to any
problem, regardless of the particulars of the situation. What
curriculum decision-makers need is an understanding of the
myriad curriculum alternatives. But to avoid the trap of
garbage-can eclecticism, they should understand the dilemmas
that underlie each curriculum decision and be able to unpack
the tacit assumptions behind each alternative. When thl~Y can
do this, they will have gained the ability to assess critically the
alternatives and the claims their proponents make. (p. 3 and
pp.258-263)

The current researcher's experience suggested that for a given situation most

practical teachers select the most useful ideas from any paradigm. Although

Posner discusses curriculum development, this study extended the concept of

reflective eclecticism to research generally.

Normally, experimental design will attempt to isolate the independent variable

from all other variables to ensure that the measurement of the dependent variable

is solely attributable to the independent variable. Subjects used in this experiment

were drawn from Education Department of Western Australia classes, operating

within all of the influences that impinge upon aU secondary school students. It

was neither practical nor desirable to isolate the subjects from contact with their

surroundings. Therefore this study did not attempt to isolate the independent

variable from all other variables. Instead an attempt was made to identify the

variables, particularly family background factors, which may have influenced the

subjects' performances during the experimental phase, and measure the effect they

had. Within that context, where collection of data on a number of variables was

part ofthe design of the study, the eclectic concept was deemed valid.

26
Structures of the Discipline

From the practical teaching aspect and the curriculum design implied by this

study, the theoretical framework of this study owed much to the Structures of the

Disciplines perspective. This study owed much to Bruner insofar as the use of lip

slurs begins at an early stage of the brass student's playing life to be continuatly

revisited, at varying levels of complexity and difficulty, and for various reasons,

for the remainder of the performer's playing life. In this context lip~slurs are an

element of a spiral curriculum.

By conceiving that from the very first lesson the student is embarking on a

musical performance career at whatever level, be it amateur or professional, and

considering the usual nature of instrumental teaching, the student is being treated

by the teacher as an acolyte musician. As Bruner (Posner, 1992, p. 61) would

have it, «~~~Socrates and the slave boy constantly being replayed."

Bruner (Posner, 1992) said:

The prevailing notion was that if you understood the structure of

knowledge, that understanding would then permit you to go
ahead on your own; you did not need to encounter everything in
nature to know everything, but by understanding some deep
principles, you could extrapolate to the particulars as needed.
Knowing was a canny strategy whereby you could know a great
deal about a lot of things while keeping very little in mind.
(p.60)

That notion is particularly useful in demonstrating the need for "non musical"

skills in brass playing. By knowing these skills, one can know a great deal about

playing one's instrument without having to memorise every piece of music one

27
needs to play. The skills learned allow one to play any piece of music

commensurate with one's skill level. To paraphrase Bruner's words, the performer

can extrapolate the skills required (that is, deep principles) to achieve any musical

performance as needed. Of course lip slurring is but one of the many skills

required, and artistic skills such as experience in style and interpretation also

contribute to the performer's armoury, as no one skill or ability occurs in

isolation.

The main question this study aimed to answer was whether lip slurring did what

practical experience seemed to indicate, which is that lip-slurs help to increase

one's high register. If it did, then it would be shown to be one of those skills that

could be extrapolated to achieve a musical performance. It is also arguable that

by teaching lip slurs, students were being inducted into the practice routines of

professional brass players and were thus being treated as acolytes. To show that

lip slurs work would legitimise that practice as it applied to lip slurs.

Behaviourism

Posner (1992, p. 61) asserted that the Behaviourist view concerns itself not with

content, but with what students should be able to do. To this extent lip slurring is

a behaviour that develops one of the skills necessary to perform musically. To do

this, these skills must be known at the reflex level so that the brain is free to think

about the artistic facets of music such as style, phrase shaping and interpretation.

Generally, behaviourists express goals in terms of"will be able to". By contrast,

goal setting in this study was open-ended. Students progressed to the next

28
exercise when they had mastered the exercise they were currently studying and

were thus progressing at their own rate. This study merely attempted to find out

what gains students had made by the end of the study period. One of the current

worldwide movements in educational philosophy and practice is to develop

curricula, assessment and reporting systems from the perspective of student

outcomes rather than teacher inputs. This approach measures and reports what the

students are capable of achieving rather than the extent to which a student

achieved an objective. In the current educational context, this study operated

within the parameters of Student Outcomes.

Although there was no goal setting in the traditional behaviourist manner, the

grading of the exercises was behavioural. Keller's (1968) Personalised Instruction

System (Posner, 1992, p.64) devised courses that were broken down into a step-

by-step series of behaviours, each of which had to be mastered before progressing

to the next task.

In this study, the lip-slurs were graded by very small increments in difficulty,

beginning with an example a novice was most easily able to execute. By

stipulating that when the student had mastered one exercise he/she could then

move on to the next exercise, this study embodied elements of Behaviourism.

Bloom's Taxonomy and Related Classifications

Elements of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives ( 1956) were evident,

particularly the psychomotor domain, but the affective domain was also in

evidence. Additionally, there were elements of Robert Gagne's classifications,

29
particularly motor skills leading to attitudes, and of Gilbert Ryle's second type of

knowledge; "knowing how" (Posner, 1992, pp. 82-84).

Affective Domain

David Krathwohl edited the second volume of the Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives, (1964) dealing with the affective domain. The five levels of the

affective domain are:

Levell: listening to an idea,

Level2: responding to it

Level3: developing values and commitments to the idea,

Level4: developing a value system based on the idea, and

Level 5: being characterised by a value or value complex.

Assuming that lip~slurs would work, and that the perfonner would benefit from

the practice, then the values implicit in the exercise would be internalised, leading

to a desire to do the exercises. Observations of the number of brass players who

regularly, indeed enthusiastically, practised lip-slurs for the perceived benefits to

be gained provided anecdotal evidence to support that concept. That the affective

domain, being concerned with attitudes, appreciations, interests and desires, was

being developed could be demonstrated by studying the effects of lip-slur practice

on students' attitudes. The successful application of lip-slurs had the potential to

overcome the inherent boredom of the exercise. The lip-slur program had the

potential to stimulate positive attitudes through attentive listening, successful

performance, knowledge of how to make the embouchure work successfully,

interest in note production and articulation, and a desire to practise so as to

30
become a better performer. Those attributes represent levels 2 to 5 of

Krathwohl' s Taxonomy of the Affective Domain.

Psychomotor Domain

Most importantly, this study related closely to the psychomotor domain. Anita

Harrow (A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain, 1972) classified the

psychomotor domain, in a lower-order to higher-order continuum, into sax

categories~

I. reflex movements,

2. basic-fundamental movements,

3. perceptual abilities,

4. physical abilities,

5. skilled movements and

6. nondiscursive communication (eg. expressive and interpretive movements),

The lip-slur exercises operate within the first five categories, enabling (in

conjunction with many other skills) the performance of the sixth level, which is

actual musical performance, requiring all of the interpretive and stylistic demands

of an art fonn.

Reflex Movements are what John Swallow (1987, p. 13) referred to as

"instinctive". The primary aim of lip-slurring is to develop appropriate

embouchure muscle control at the reflex level so that there is never any need to

think about that during performance. Thus, lip-slurring could be one of the first

techniques a brass player learns, as it is a basic technique. In many ways, when a

31
player becomes competent at lip~slurring, he/she develops a mental picture of

what is happening to the muscles involved, leaving the player with a much higher

concept of what happens to facial muscles during embouchure manipulation.

Undoubtably, lip~slurring is both a physical ability and a skill, the acquisition of

which enables and enhances the acquisition of other abilities and skills.

Given that Robert Gagne's and Gilbert Ryle's classifications can be aligned,

although not exactly, with Bloom's taxonomy, it can be argued that lip~slurring

can be categorised by Gagne as motor skills and attitudes and by Ryle as

"knowing how" (Posner, 1992, pp. 83- 84). From Ryle's point of view, knowing

how requires practice, which is certainly true for any musical skill. Gagne argued

the importance of acquiring prerequisite capabilities before proceeding to target

skills. To some extent, the grading of the lip~slurs from very easy to more

difficult could be categorised in that way but would be more akin to Bruner's

spiral curriculum.

Mastery Model

The lip~slur exercises which form the experimental treatment followed the

mastery model. This is argued by considering that the students were required to

work at their own individual rate and that there were small graduations in skill

levels required by the lip~slur experiment. The behaviourists, including Bloom,

advocated mastery learning which required very small steps to operate effectively,

and that the students progressed at their own rate.

32
I
Theoretical Intention

The intention of this study was to utilise a diverse range of theoretical positions

incorporating a theoretical framework which focussed on reflective eclecticism, as

postulated by Posner.

33
 CHAPTER SIX

DESIGN OF THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The study was designed with two components, the first an experiment using a

Control G;oup and an Experimental Group, and the second, analyses of a

questionnaire and student Practice Journals. The experimental component was

used to examine the effect of the treatment, that is, the effect of a lip-slurring

program in a brasswind instrumental curriculum. The questionnaire and Practice

Journals were used to determine the effect, if any, which variables external to the

treatment had on the results of the experiment. All of the collected data were

expressed in the form of numbers in an interval scale, ordinal scale or nominal

scale as appropriate and entered into a data matrix, which was then used to

calculate statistics for the necessary comparisons. In order to avoid researcher

bias, two highly qualified and competent teachers employed by the Education

Department of Western Australia performed the teaching phase of the experiment.

The Experimental Component

The experimental phase used the Pre-test and Post-test Comparison design.

Subjects were chosen for the Control Group and the Experimental Group using

the Matched Subjects design to control variables caused by individual

performance experience, instrument played, school attended and by which teacher

they were taught.

34
The experimental phase of the study was conducted in three stages. The first

stage was a pre-test to detennine the students' abilities at the beginning of the

experiment, the second stage was the teaching program and the third stage was the

post-test to determine the students' abilities at the conclusion of the experiment.

Progress was calculated by subtracting pre-test from post-test, resulting in a gain

score for each student.

The pre-test and post-test were administered to students in both the Control Group

and the Experimental Group, and gain scores were calculated for the students in

both groups.

Each of the teachers taught their normal teaching curriculum to the students in

each of their groups. The lip-slur program was added only to the curriculum of

those students in each teacher's Experimental Group. Although the two teachers

had their own personalised teaching methods, the teaching of the lip-slur program

was the same for each teacher's Group. In this way, the effect of the lip-slurs was

measured, not the effectiveness of the teacher's individual teaching styles.

Analysis of the Questionnaire and Student Practice Journals Component

The Student Profile Questionnaire was similar to an attitude survey in that it asked

students to respond according to how they perceived the answers to questions

about family attitudes, values and behaviours. Infonnation about families would

have been difficult to obtain, and may have aroused objections on privacy and

ethica1 grounds. The questions asked probed the variables that researcher's

35
experience identified as more likely to influence the results of the experiment. As

the students were capable of accurately indicating their perceptions of the

described situations, these were used as a useful indicator of family influences on

the students' performances.

Students were required to respond to questions using a four point Likert scale for

questions requiring a descriptive answer, or a yes/no answer for questions with

only two possible answers. A four-point scale was used to avoid receiving a large

number of ''unsure" or "don't know" answers, thus committing the respondents to

relatively positive or negative answers. The questions were grouped into

categories. Those results were then converted into scores on interval, ordinal or

nominal scales as appropriate, for use in detennining associations with the

experiment results, practice times and between questionnaire categories.

Student Practice Journals

The amount of practice done by each student was identified as a variable that

might have influenced the results of the experiment. Practice Journals were used

to collect this information.

The normal procedure for all instrumental teachers employed by the Education

Department of Western Australia is to monitor students' home practice using a

Practice Journal. This is a publication designed by the School Of Instrumental

Music, the body which administers the instrut" ....ntal teaching program for EDWA,

and is issued to every student in the EDW A instrumental music program. The

practice records contained in the Practice Journal of each student in the study were

36
used to calculate the weekly average number of minutes of practice for each

student. This number was entered into the data matrix and used to determine

associations with questionnaire categories and with experiment data.

Ensuring that each student did exactly the same amount of practice per week

would have been an impossible task. Moreover, it would have been undesirable to

restrict the more motivated students to a minimum amount of practice. It was

more desirable to monitor the amount of practice done by each student and then

calculate mean and standard deviation for the Control Group and Experimental

Group to determine whether or not practice was a significant variable, and then

interpret the results of the experiment accordingly. Two~tailed t~test was used to

test the significance of the comparison of the Practice times between the

Experimental and Control groups. Further comparison was made by calculating

an Analysis of Variance between the Experimental Group and the Control Group

for practice times. To test if a ceiling effect was caused by differences in practice

times, a two-way Analysis of Variance of practice minutes was calculated for

Experimental and Control Groups against High/Low Gain scores. By using

Practice as a link, the effect practice had on the experiment results would also

prove useful in comparisons with questionnaire categories to determine the effect

the variables identified in the questionnaire had on the experiment results.

Methodology

At the beginning of Second Semester, 1997, the Principals of the two schools

involved were contacted to obtain permission to conduct the experiment. One

Principal was very enthusiastic for the experiment to go ahead while the other had

37
 I
some reservations concerning the intrusion of the experiment into the students'

study time. As a result of this, the initial design of the experiment was modified.

Initially, the experiment was to include an Embouchure Rating Scale devised by

Edward Paul Sandor, (1983) requiring videotaped evidence that would

subsequently have been rated by a panel of experts. That result would then have

been compared with the gain scores and used as a calibrating device for further

analysis and possibly as a tool for assessing the validity of the experiment design.

In meeting the wish of the Principal that the experiment make a minimal intrusion

into the school routine, it was decided to omit this part of the experiment.

Parent permission agreements were then distributed to the parents of the intended

subjects for signature and collection. There was a one hundred percent

agreement.

The experiment began during week five of second semester. Week five was

chosen because it was the week after a major band festival that required the

students' and teachers' full attention during the preceding months. The

experiment concluded during week eighteen, with two weeks semester break

between weeks ten and eleven. Thus the experiment occupied a total of fourteen

teaching weeks over a sixteen week period.

Pre-test

During week five, all students were given the Pre~test usmg the researcher

designed High Register Test. (See Appendix A, pp. 76 -79)

38
The Teaching Program

From week five to week eighteen, the students were taught the instructional

program. The Control Group was taught the normal instructional program for that

teacher, while the Experimental Group was taught the normal program, with the

inclusion of the graded series of lip-slurs added to the warm-up phase of the

lessons, and included as part of the home practice routine.

The Treatment

The Experimental Group had the lip-slur program added to the warm-up phase of

their lessons and to their home practice routines. The lip-slurs were in a finely

graded sequence from simple to more difficult and more complex. The exercises

were grouped into lipbuilders titled Lip builder 1 through to Lipbuilder 6.

Students progressed to the next exercise when they could competently play the

previous exercise. In that way, the exercises were self-pacing, with the students

progressing at their own rates.

The Post~test

During week eighteen, the students were given the Post-test, using the same High

Register Test as the Pre-test. Because the High Register Test was open-ended,

student progress was able to be determined, expressed as a Gain score.

39
The Student Profile Questionnaire

At the conclusion of the post-test, the students were given the Student Profile

Questionnaire to complete. The conclusion of testing was chosen as the time for

completing the questionnaire because the students had performed at concerts

during the preceding week, requiring many weeks of preparation and rehearsal,

and therefore this was the most convenient time for both the students and the

teachers.

The Data

The data were collected as they became available. During week five the names of

the students were entered into a data matrix by group (Control Group or

Experimental Group) and each was assigned an identification code for

confidentiality. The results of the Pre-test were entered into the data matrix.

During week eighteen the results of the Post-test were collected and entered into

the data matrix. The results of the questionnaire were collected, analysed,

grouped into categories and entered into the data matrix during the following

weeks,

Analysis of the Data

The results of the experiment were entered into the data matrix under the headings

Pre-test; Hi/Lo Pre-test; Post-test; Gain; Hi/lo Gain, Practice Times and HilLa

Practice Times. Mean and standard deviation for each of these were calculated

for the total population, the Control Group and the Experimental Group. Graphs

and charts were constructed to show mean and standard deviation for each.

40
Comparisons were made using correlation calculations, with significance levels of

P<O.OS being accepted. To further test the correlations, a series of t-tests and

Analyses of Variation were calculated with significance levels of P<O.OS being

set. Variable SD's were pooled in tests of differences.

To test the ceiling effect, a crosstabulation using High Pre-test, Low Pre-test,

High Gain and Low Gain was constructed and a Chi-Squared test calculated,

setting a significance level ofP<O.OS.

Questionnaire data were entered into the data matrix under the categories Cultural

Capital; Family Attitude to Music; Family Attitude to the Instrument; Family

Attitude to Practice; Negative Reason 1; Negative Reason 2; Negative Reason 3;

Family Members who play an Instrument; Learning an Instrument Out of Schoo~

Student Enjoyment of Listening to Music Rating and Ranking of Instrument

Choice. Negative Reasons 1,2 and 3 refer to reasons why the family did not like

home practice. A Bivariate Correlation was calculated giving a correlation for

every item in the data matrix with every other item. Interval data were compared

using Pearson's r. Bi-polar and Bi-modal data were compared using Spearman's

rho and Kendall's tau. That information was used to determine what relationships

existed within the data, and what if any variables influenced the results of the

experiment. Correlations were deemed significant at a two-tailed t-test level t<

0.05.

All of the data were analysed.

41
Selection of the subjects

Two highly competent teachers were assigned the task of teaching the

experimental phase of the study. One of the teachers specialised in high brass

(trumpets) and the other specialised in low brass (trombone, euphonium and tuba).

Students in the study group comprised the total of those teachers' brasswind

student populations in years eight, nine and ten, a total of forty-four students. The

two study groups, that is, the Control Group and the Experimental Group, were

matched so that an equal number of students from each instrument family were in

each of the two groups. An equal number of students from each of the year

groups learning each of the instruments was in the Control Group and the

Experimental Group. There were twenty-two students in each group giving a total

population of forty-four students.

Although the two teachers each taught at different number of students, their

respective student populations were divided evenly between the Control Group

and the Experimental Group. For each of the schools involved, an equal number

of students were in the Control and Experiment Group. In this way the influences

of teacher differences and school environment were taken into account. This

enabled the Control Group and the Experimental Group to be as evenly mat';hed

as possible.

42
Measurement instruments

Two measurement instruments were used in the study. In addition, the students'

Practice Journals were used to monitor and collect information on the average

number of minutes of practice per week done by each student.

For both the Pre-test and the Post-test, the researcher designed High Register Test

was used. (See Appendix A, pp. 76 - 79). This test measured the number of

semitones above second line G for trumpet (or the equivalent harmonic for the

other instruments) the student was capable of playing. For consistency and

objectivity, any sound at the highest pitch was accepted, regardless of tonal

quality. The number of semitones was recorded and then entered into a data

matrix. These two scores were then used to calculate a gain score for each

student. A number of statistical calculations were then possible.

The second measurement instrument used was the researcher designed Student

Questionnaire (See Appendix A, pp. 80 - 82), which was used to assess family

background information. Various statistical calculations were used to measure the

effect that those variables might have had on the study, rather than try to isolate

the experiment from those variables. The information collected included

information on the family investment in cultural capital, attitude to music, attitude

to home practice and attitude to the student's instrument. Student information

collected included the student's enjoyment of listening to music, whether they

learned another instrument outside of school hours, and whether the instrument

learned at school was the student's first, second or third choice.

43
 CHAPTER SEVEN

RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSES

DATA ANALYSES

Analysis of Pre-test

At the beginning of the study period the total sample of 44 students was given the

High Register Test. To perform the test, each student played an open-ended

chromatic scale beginning on second line G for trumpet, or the equivalent

harmonic for the student's instrument, in semibreves, at crotchet= 80, until each

individual student played the highest note of which s/he was capable. This was to

determine the highest note that each student could play. In order to enhance

objectivity, the test administrator made no judgement as to the quality of the

highest note. The number of semitones played above second line G, or the

equivalent for each instrument, was recorded by the observer. This was the pre-

test score for each student. Each student's score was recorded by the observer and

then entered in the data matrix.

Table I
Results qf the pre~test.
Experimental group Control group Total sample
n=22 n=22 n=44
Range 12- 22 10-29 10-29

Mean 17.36 17.0 17.18

S.D. 3.33 4.68 4.02

44
To test for significant differences between the Experimental and Control groups, a

two-sample !-test was calculated. The result wast= 0.30, P= 0.77 at df= 42.

Table 2
Two-sample /-test for pre-te~'l.
n Mean S.D. S.E. Mean

Experimental Group 22 17.36 3.33 0.71

Control Group 22 17.0 4.68 1.0

T 0.30 p 0.77 df 42

The two-sample t-test suggested that there was no significant difference in the

results of the Pre-test between the Experimental Group and the Control Group.

This indicated that Experimental Group and the Control Group were equivalent.

Analysis of Post-test

At the conclusion of the sixteen-week study period, each of the students

completed the Post-test, their scores recorded and then entered into the data

matrix. The High Register Test as used for both the Pre-test and the Post-test.

Table 3
Results qf the post-testfor experimental group, control group and total sample.
Experimental Group Control Group Total Sample
n=22 n=22 n=44
Range 12- 24 13 - 27 12 -27

Mean 18.18 18.36 18.27

S.D. 3.14 4.10 3.61

45
The results indicated that by the end of the study period the Control Group had

higher Post-test scores than the Experimental Group, suggesting that they had

performed better.

Analysis of Gain Scores

Gain scores were calculated to measure the progress of both groups by the end of

the study period. Gain was calculated by subtracting Pre-test from Post-test. The

resulting scores were expressed as either zero, negative or positive values and

entered into the data matrix. From these results the range, mean and standard

deviation of Gain was calculated for the Experimental Group, the Control Group

and the Total Sample.

Table 4
Gain scores/or the experimental group, control group and total sample.
Experimental Group Control Group Total Sample
n~22 n~22 n~44

Range -4-+4 -3-+8 -4-+8

Mean 0.82 1.36 1.09

S.D. 1.82 2.57 2.22

Initial results indicated that the Control Group performed better than the

Experimental Group in Pre~test, Post~test and Gain scores, suggesting that the lip-

slur treatment had not made any significant difference to the results of the

Experimental Group.

Two-tailed t-tests confirmed that that although both groups gained significantly,

the Control Group gained more. (see Tables 5 and 6)

46
Table 5
Two--tailed /-test for correlated samples to test the significance of gain for the
experimental group.
n Mean S.D. SEMean t P value

Gain 22 0.818 1.816 0.387 2.11 0.05

Table 6
Two-tailed t-test for correlated samples to test the significance of gain for the
control
n Mean S.D. SEMean t P value

Gain 22 1.364 2.574 0.549 2.49 0.02

The Experimental Group's t score of 2.11 was significant at P = 0.05, indicating

the group's gain was significant. However the Control Group's t score of 2.49

was significance at P = 0.02. The Experimental Group's Mean Gain was 0.818

while the Control Group's Mean Gain was greater at 1.364. These results

indicated that both the Control Group and the Experimental Group made

significant gains.

To further test the Gain score results, an Analysis of Variance on Experimental

Gain vs Control Gain was calculated. The ANOVA indicated that a previously

hidden factor might h:.:;:ve affected the results.

47
Table 7
Analysis of variance between experimental group and control group for gain
df Sum of Mean F P
Squares Squared
Gain 3.27 3.27 0.66 0.42

Error 42 208.36 4.96

Total 43 211.64

At 0.66, the F score indicates that the differences amongst scores within each of

the groups are similar to the differences between the scores for each group. This

indicates that both groups were similar. The significance level of P = 0.42

indicated that the difference in Gain score between the groups was not significant.

The Ceiling Effect

According to Bums (1994, p. 128), one of the possible effects that may result

from the Pre-test and Post-test Comparison design, where gain is measured, is the

ceiling effect. The ceiling effect operates on subjects who have high initial scores.

It means that subjects with high pre-test scores were unlikely to exhibit much

improvement during the study period. By contrast subjects with low pre-test

scores were more likely to exhibit progress during the study period.

To detect if a ceiling effect was operating, the Correlation between Pre-test and

Gain was calculated, accepting a two-tailed significance level of 0.05. The

Pearson Correlation was r = -0.47 at a significance level of t = 0.001.

48
Figure 1
Graph of the correlation between Pre-test and Gain.

"
"
",-

Pre-test "
"
"
"_, _, _, _,
' ' ' ' • •
Gain

The negative correlation between Pre-test scores and Gain scores suggested that a

ceiling effect was operating. Students who could already play high notes at the

beginning of the study benefited less from the lip-slur program than students who

could not play high notes the beginning of the study. Given the design of the

study, and that the study was only sixteen weeks in duration, that was a

predictable result.

To find out if there was a difference between the negative correlations for the

control group and the experimental group, the correlation between Pre-test and

Gain was calculated for each group. The correlation for the Experimental Group

was r = -0.443 at a significance level of t = 0.039, while the correlation for the

Control Group was r = -0.486 at a significance level of t = 0.022. However, the

Control Group appeared to have a slightly more significant result than the

Experimental Group. To test the results further, it was decided to calculate

Crosstabulations and Chi-Squared tests for Total Sample, Experimental Group

49
and Control Group in order to discover what, if any, relationships existed within

each group.

Crosstabulations and Chi-Squared Tests

Crosstabulations were used to determine any correlations between high pre-test

scores, low pre-test scores, high gain scores and low gain scores. Scores for Pre-

test and Gain were categorised as higher than or lower than their respective

medians. The results for each of the groups were then compared.

The Chi-square test was used to determine the level of significance for the

associations. First, Gain score categories (High/Low) were tested against Pre-test

categories (High/Low) for each group.

The crosstabulation for the Total Sample (table 8) revealed a negative correlatiiJn

with a strong association of low Pre-test with high Gain sores and high Pre-test

with low Gain scores. Chi-Square was 9.031. This was statistically significant (x2

~ 9.031, df~ 2, p ~ 0.003).

50
Table 8
Crosstabulation of high pre-test/low pre-test and high gainl/ow gain for the total
sample.

Low gain High gain Total

Low pre-test Count 7 14 21

Expected Count 11.9 9. I

High Pre-test Count 18 5 23

Expected Count 13. I 9.9

Total Count 25 19 44

Crosstabulation for the Control Group (Table 9) revealed no significant

associations. However, taken alone, the Experimental Group (Table 10) revealed

the same strong associations as the total sample. The association for the

Experimental Group was significant. High Pre·test scores were associated with

lower Gain scores. Students who scored low Pre-test scores made higher gains on

the Post-test (X2 = 6.60, df= 2, P = 0.01 ).

Table 9
Crosstabulalion of high pre-test/low pre-test and high ~uinl/ow gain for the
control group.

Low gain High gain Total

Low pre-test Count 4 6 10

Expected Count 5.9 4. I

High Pre-test Count 9 3 12

Expected Count 7. I 4.9

Total Count 13 9 22

51
Table 10
Crosstabulation of high pre·testllow pre-test and high gain/low gain for the
experimental group.

Low gain High gain Total

Low pre-test Count 3 8 11

Expected Count 6.0 5.0

High Pre-test Count 9 2 11

Expected Count 6.0 5.0

Total Count 12 10 22

The results of the Crosstabulation and Chi-square calculations indicated that there

was a strong ceiling effect. Compared to students who scored low in the Pre-test,

students who were already able to play high notes made small gains during the

sixteen-week study period. Further, the results implied that while the association

between High/Low Pre-test and High/Low Gain for the control group was not

significant, the association for the experimental group was significant and

therefore probably caused by the lip-slur treatment.

Analysis of Practice Times

Of the variables that may have influenced the study, students individual practice

times were considered the most likely. Students' individual practice times were

collected in order to calculate the effect that variations in practice times may have

had on the results of the experiment. Inspection of the student practice journals

revealed a wide range in the number of average weekly practice minutes. with one

student doing no practice during the experimental period, which was later verified

by his teacher. Average weekly practice times for the Tota1 Sample ranged from

52
 zero to 250 minutes per wetk with a mean of 142.27 minutes and a SD of 55.90

minutes. Average weekly practice times for the Experimental Group ranged from

90 minutes to 220 minutes with a mean of 161.82 and a SD of 37.37, while the

Control Group's practice ranged from zero to 250 minutes with a mean of 122.73

and a SD of 68.42.

Table II
Descriptive statistics for average weekly practice times for the total sample, the
experimental group and the control group.

n Minimum Maximum Mean Std

Deviation
Total 44 0 250 142.27 55,90
Sample
Experimental 22 90 220 161.82 37.37
Group
Control 22 0 250 122.73 64.82
Grou

The effect of the average number of minutes practice per week

The results showed that the experimental group did significantly more practice

than the control group. For the control group there was a very even distribution

about the mean for average weekly practice minutes. The resulting graph (See

Appendix D, p.101) for control group practice times showed that the distribution

was normal and was as one would have expected to find if there was no particular

influence acting on that population.

Inspection of the graph of practice times for the experimental group (See

Appendix D, p.IOI) revealed a different picture. The mean was thirty nine

minutes higher than the mean for the control group, while the lowest experimental

53
I
group practice time was only 22 minutes lower than the control group mean. At

37.37, the standard deviation for the experimental group was almost half that for

the control group at 64.82. This suggested that there was a much greater

consistency of practice times within the experimental group, even though the

control group had both the minimum and maximum times. The graphs showed

that the experimental group consistently totalled much longer practice times than

the control group. Looking at the distribution about the mean of practice timt)S

further reinforced that position. The graph was negatively skewed which meant

that more students achieverl practice times higher than the mean than those who

achieved less than the mean. By contrast, inspection of the control group graph

showed that the number of students who totalled a greater number of practice

minutes than the mean was similar to those who totalled less. The results

suggested that there was an influence acting on the experimental group that was

not acting on the control group. Because of the design of the study, it was

possible to infer that the influence was the lip-slur treatment.

There was a correlation between Practice Time and both pre-test and Post-test

results. The correlation with Pre-test was a moderate 0.63 at a 0.000 significance

level and a moderate correlation with Post-test of 0.58 at a 0.000 significance

level. This suggested that students who practised more had higher Pre-test and

Post-test scores than students who practised less. regardless of which group they

belonged.

There were negligible negative correlations between practice times and Gain and

scores. The correlation with Gain was r = -0.14 at a significance level of p =

54
 0.36. This meant that the amount of practice done by the students was not a factor

in the amount of gain achieved by them. When looked at in conjunction with the

correlations between Practice and both Pre-test and Post-test, it suggested that

students who practised the most not only had the highest test scores but also had

the lowest gain scores. That result indicated that those were the students upon

whom the ceiling effect acted most strongly. This helped reinforce the suggestion

that it was the inclusion of lip-slurs in the practice routine, not a factor such as the

amount of practice done by the students, that was responsible for the gain by low

Pre-test scorers in the experimental group.

To test the correlations, further statistical analyses were undertaken. A Tw<r

Sample t-test was performed to test the significance of the practice results.

Table 12
T-test comparing practice times for the experimental group and the control group.

n Mean Std S.E. Mean

Deviation
Experimental 22 161.8 37.4 8.0
Group
Control Group 22 122.7 64.8 14

t = 2.45 p = 0.0.012 df=42

Pooled SD 52.9

The result confirmed that the Experimental Group practiced significantly more

than the Control Group. Analysis of Variance was used to further test the

significance of that result.

55
Table 13
Analysis of variance between experimental group and control group for practice
minutes.

df Sum of Squares Mean Squared F p

Practice I 16809 16809 6.01 0.02

Error 42 117564 2799

Total 43 134373

The F score showed that the variance between the groups was 6. 0 l times greater

than the variances within the groups which is a significant difference between the

groups, at P = 0.019. That result suggested that the Ceiling effect might have

been due to the Experimental Group doing more practice.

Even though the Experimental Group had significantly greater practice times, both

groups had significant improvement in their high register scores. To test if

Practice caused the significant Gain scores, a Two-way Analysis of Variance was

calculated comparing variance between high and low Gain scores against practice

minutes for both the Experimental and Control groups.

56
Table 14
Two-way analysis of variance of practice minutes for experimental and control
groups against high/low gain scores.

df Sum of Mean F p
Squares Squared
Group 16809.091 16809.091 6.296 <0.05

HilLa Gain I 706.722 706.722 0.265

Interaction 2054.991 2054.991 0.770

43 114801.923 2669.812

44

The F score of 6.296 for the variance between groups meant that the variance

between the groups was 6.296 times greater than the variance within each group,

confirming that there was a significant difference in practice times between the

Experimental and Control groups. The F score of 0.265 for the variance between

and within levels of Gain suggested that there was little difference in practice

between levels of Gain. Students in the Experimental Group who had low Gain

scores practised at the same levels as students in the Control Group who had low

Gain scores. Conversely, students in the Experimental Group who had high Gain

scores practised at the same levels as students in the Control Group who had high

Gain scores.

The Interaction calculation tested whether there was an association between

different amounts of practice and high or low gain. That is, was high gain

associated with high practice levels and vice versa, or high g · n with low practice

and vice versa? The F score of 0.770 suggested that there was no significant

interaction. These Analyses of Variance confirmed that there was no association

57
between high practice times and low or high Gain, or low practice times and low

or high Gain. A chi-squared analysis revealed the same result. The ANOVAs

confirmed that practice was not a variable that influenced the gain scores.

Because the foregoing Analyses of Variance confirmed that practice times were

not a variable influencing Gain scores, and because both the Experimetal and

Control groups had improved significantly in range of pitch, it appeared more

likely that the lip-slur treatment caused increased practice by the Experimental

Group and that for high achievers in the Experimental Group, the gains caused by

the lip-slur treatment were modified by the ceiling effect far more intensively than

for the Control Group.

SUBSIDIARY QUESTIONS

The Student Questionnaire

It was not possible to isolate the subjects from all other variables that may have

influenced the results. Instead, as many variables as possible were identified and

an attempt made to account for those. This was accomplished in the form of a

Student Questionnaire designed to assess the families' cultural capital and

attitudes to music. The subjects were asked to respond to thirty-two questions

which were then grouped into eleven categories. Those categories were; Cultural

Capital, Family Attitude to Music, Family Attitude to the Student's Instrument,

Family Attitude to Home Practice, three reasons why the family does not like

home practice, how many family members play a musical instrument, the

student's self rating of how much they enjoy listening to music, and whether a

58
 brass instrument was the student's first, second or third choice. The results of the

questionnaires were entered into the data matrix for analysis.

Exploring Associations and Differences

Explorations of the data were made using Bivariate Correlations, where every

variable in the Student Questionnaire was correlated with every variable in the

data matrix. Correlations for interval data were made using Pearson's r.

Kendall's tau and Spearman's rho were calculated for bmh

bi-polar and bi-modal data.

The Effect of Cultural Capital

Cultural Capital explored the student's rating of how much family income was

expended on acquiring books, magazines, sheet music and other music books,

compact discs, records or tapes. This rating could be interpreted as either how

prepared the family was to spend money on cultural items (a value judgement) or

how much family money was available to spend on cultural items (a socio~

economic factor). The correlations showed that there were no significant

associations with any of the data from the experiment and no association with

how much practice the students did. There was a moderate correlation with the

Family Attitude to Music (r ~ 0.42 at P ~ 0.007) and a low correlation with the

Student's Enjoyment (of listening to music) Rating. (r ~ 0.31, P ~ 0.05). (See

Appendix D, p.105)

-.

59

•
The Effect of Family Attitudes

The family attitudes measured included Family Attitude to Music, Family

Attitude to (the student's) Instrument and Family Attitude to (home) Practice. If

there was a negative attitude to home practice, the students were asked to respond

with a yes or no answer to Negative Reason 1 (noise), Negative Reason 2

(disturbance to the family routine) or Negative Reason 3 (disturbance to the sleep

of any family member).

Associations with the Experimental Data

The Family Attitude to Practice was found to have low correlations with Pre-test,

Post-test and Practice. The correlation with Pre-test was r = 0.4, P = 0.01 and

with Post-test; r = 0.31, P = 0.05. The correlation between Family Attitude to

Practice and Practice was low at r = 0.37 with P = 0.02.

The Family Attitude to Instrument was found to have a low correlation with

Practice: r = 0.33, P = 0.04, while the Family Attitude to Music had no

associations with any of the experiment data.

The analyses showed that family attitudes caused no effect upon the experimental

phase of the study. There were low correlations with Practice, but as practice was

found to not influence the effect of the lip-slur treatment, then family attitudes

also had no effect. Family Attitude to Practice had low correlations with Pre-test

and Post-test, and with Practice. The analysis of Practice showed that students

who practise more achieved higher results, but were also the students upon whom

the ceiling effect acted most strongly. It was, then, possible to detect a trend that

60
the low correlations with family attitudes indicated that students from families

who had a positive attitude practised more and achieved higher results. Also in

this experiment, they were the students subject to the ceiling effect.

Associations within the Student Questionnaire

Family attitudes were found to have associations with cultural capital, and

whether or not the student enjoyed listening to music. The Family Attitude to

Practice had a strong negative correlation with Negative Reason 1 (noise);

r = w0,84, P = 0.00. (Kendall and Spearman calculations gave the same result).

From this it appeared that families do not object to the extra noise created by

horne practice. The Family Attitude to Practice had a low negative correlation

with disturbance to the family routine; r = -0.33, P = 0.04. This indicated that

families had very little objection to the disturbance to the family routine caused by

horne practice.

There was a low correlation between noise and disturbance to the sleep of any

family member; r = 0.33, P =0.04.

Other Factors

The Choice of Instrument rating was the only other category with associations

with any other factor. Students were asked whether the instrument they learned at

school was their tirst, second or third choice. Choice of Instrument had low

correlations with Pre-test (r = 0.36, P = 0.02) and whether students learned

another instrument outside of school hours (Spearman r = -0.38, P = 0.02)

61
The analysis of the Student Questionnaire indicated that family background

factors had no discernible influence on the results of the experiment data.

62
 CHAPTER EIGHT

CONCLUSIONS

Lip-slurs and the Ease of Acquiring Higher Range

The evidence collected by this study suggested that for some students, the

inclusion of lip-slurs in the teaching curriculum and practice routine did help in

increasing their high register range. The students for whom this was most useful

were those who, at the beginning of the experimental period, had low to medium

ranges.

Negative associations between pre-test and Gain suggested that a ceiling effect

was present, that is, that it was difficult for high achievers to increase their range

during the experimental period. Savits (1982, p. 18), when describing

embouchure fitness, stated: "Generally the greatest gains in fitness occur in

individuals with the lowest. level of fitness",

The design of this study recognised the possibility that a ceiling effect may

operate. It may be that if the experimental period had been longer, high achievers

would have achieved a greater increase in the range of their gain scores.

Inspection of the correlation between Pre-test scores and Gain indicated that a

ceiling effect operated on high achievers across the total sample. The negative

63
association between Pre-test scores and Gain confirmed the chi-squared test

across the total sample. (Table 8, p.SO)

However, chi-Square tests indicated that for the control group (Table 9, p. 50), the

ceiling effect was negligible, while for the experimental group (Table 10, p. 51)

there was a significant ceiling effect that suggested that there was a variable

influencing the results of the Experimental Group.

Correlation and Analysis of Variance calculations for the category Practice

indicated that high achievers, no matter to which group they belonged, practised

more than low achievers. High achieving students also had the least Gain scores,

especially in the Experimental Group. Therefore the amount of practice done by

students was not the reason why low initial achievers had the greatest Gain scores.

Because of this, and the design of the experiment, it would appear that the

experimental treatment was the factor influencing the results for the experimental

group. It is therefore possible to say that while the increase in pitch range for the

control group was significant and nonnally distributed, the iri.clusion of lip-slurs

into the brasswind curriculum for the experimental group helped, on the one hand,

some students to increase pitch range significantly, notably those students who did

not have secure high registers at the beginning of the experimental period, yet on

the other hand, created an intense ceiling effect for high achievers, evidenced by

the skewed distribution of gain scores.

Taking into account the concept of a ceiling effect, it may be concluded that the

addition of lip-slurs to the curriculum may help increase pitch range, but that it

64
would take longer than the time frame of this experiment for improved results to

be measured, particularly for high achievers.

The Role of Lip-slurs in the Acquisition of the Higher Register

This study leads to the conclusion that lip-slurs played an important role in the

acquisition of the high register by high school brasswind students. The degree of

importance is dependent on various factors. From this study, it appears that one

major factor is the ceiling effect. This knowledge may be used in two ways.

First, it appears that low achieving students can gain rapid initial benefit from the

inclusion of lip-slurs. Therefore it would be an effective way of solving a range

problem for an inexperienced student, say, when there is a range difficulty in a

band part. In this context, lip-slurs could be used as a «quick fix" in a band or

performance context. The result would be entirely dependent on how close the

students were to their individual ceiling at that time.

Secondly, if it were true that the ceiling effect includes the possibility that high

achievers might benefit over a longer period of time, then lip-slurs might be used

as part of a longer-term strategy for developing the high register.

Implications for the null hypothesis

The Null Hypothesis postulated that for students who received a series of graded

lip-slurs as a supplement to a standard brasswind teaching curriculum, there

would be no observable effect on the acquisition of higher range compared to

65
students who did not have a graded series of lip-slurs as a supplement to the

teaching curriculum.

The conclusions of this study strongly infer that a ceiling effect influenced the rate

of acquisition of high register gain for high achievers in both the control group

and the experimental group. Furthermore, analysis of that ceiling effect suggested

that initial low achievers gained greater improvement over a i>ven time than high

achievers. Because the results suggested that the control group performed in a

normal fashion, and that for the experimental group, increased gain for low

achievers was due to the inclusion of lip-slurs, there was an observable effect

caused by the inclusion of lip-slurs in the teaching curriculum. Therefore the null

hypothesis was disproved.

Possible uses of lip-slurs in developing effective practice routines

Studies such as those done by Savits (1982) indicate that lip-slurs are an isotonic

exercise, and that isotonic exercises develop strength, flexibility and endurance.

Various journal articles written by such authors as Toshio Nemoto (Bra:;s Bulletin

no. 91-111/1995) reinforce that opinion. Every brass teaching method and

published practice routine found during an extensive literature search included lip-

slurs or arpeggiated routines similar to lip-slurs, also reinforcing that opinion.

Why did the Experimental Group do more practice than the Control Group? One

reason could have been that it was due to the Hawthorne Effect, whereby a group

66
which receives special attention, such as being part of an experiment, performs at

a higher rate regardless of any change in working circumstances.

Because both groups had signed consent forms, and therefore knew that they were

part of an experiment, then a second explanation may be more valid. One of the

implications of Krathwohl's Five Levels of the Affective Domain is that when a

person recognises a benefit from a practice, then that becomes internalised as a

value, leading to a desire to do that practice. It could be that one of the effects of

the lip~slur treatment was to motivate the Experimental Group to do more practice

than they would otherwise have done. It was important to explore that idea

further to determine if increased motivation to practice, for which ever reason,

caused the ceiling effect rather than the tip-slur treatment.

The two teachers who conducted the experimental phase of the study reported that

according to their observations, the better players did not increase range by much,

but that their sound opened up and flexibility became much improved.

Keeping the above comments in mind, lip~slurs would be useful as part of a

balanced practice routine. As part of a long-term strategy, they would help in

developing the physical strength needed to play in the high register, as well as in

developing the flexibility needed to execute arpeggiated passages or passages

containing large intervals, and in developing the endurance needed by the brass

player.

67
Savits (1982) titled his dissertation: Muscle Training Techniques Applicable to

Methods Incorporating Myological Principles in Elementary Brass Embouchure

Training Curricula. In his dissertation he described the need for both isometric

and isotonic exercises in a balanced curriculum. Savits' elementary method

(Teacher Workbook, p.88) however, was devised mainly using long setting, which

is an isometric method. lt is the view of this researcher that a combination of

Savits' long setting, with the graded series of lip-slurs developed in this study,

would provide for high school brasswind students an ideal balance of strength

building exercises with endurance and flexibility exercises.

The influence of family background factors on practice routines and student

achievement

This study found that the students who practised the most had the highest Pre~test

score (r ~ 0.626, p ~ 0.00) and Post-test score (r ~ 0.581, p~ 0.00} regardless of

whether they were in the control group or the experimental group. From that

result it would be reasonable to assert that the amount of practice a student does

contributes to his/her achievement, and therefore that the factors that influence the

amount of practice done by a student also influence that student's achievement.

The data collected showed that family background factors did not play as big a

part in home practice routines as might have been expected.

Factors such as the amount of cultural capital in the household or whether other

members of the family were musicians did not show any significant correlations.

Of more importance was the family's attitude to home practice and their attitude

towards the instrument played. Those results tend to reinforce anecdotal evidence

68
observed by the researcher and gleaned by the researcher from conversations with

colleagues.

The data collected suggested that cultural capital was not a factor in how much

practice was done by a student, or on the student's achievement as measured by

Pre-test, Post-test and Gain scores. The amount of cultural capital, that is, the

amount of income the family is prepared to expend on items of a cultural nature

such as books, magazines, compact discs, sheet music and musical instruments,

may be an indication not only of family attitudes, but also of economic

circumstance.

The cultural capital data suggest that the students comprising this study came

from similar socio-economic backgrounds. If this is so, and if cultural capital is

not a factor in students' success, then the data collected by the student

questionnaire may help support the belief held by some music teachers that socio-

economic background is not a determinant of musical success. Cultural capital,

and possibly socio-economic circumstance, did not affect the results of this study.

Thirty-two out of forty four students in this study came from families where other

members of the family played a musical instrument. This correlates with a study

by Beverley Pascoe (1995, p.l28) where she found that when parents or siblings

played a musical instrument, then the student was more likely to elect to study

music at high school. Pascoe's study did not comment on the relative success of

the students. This study did not show any correlation between the amount of

practice done by students and whether or not other members of the family played

69
musical instruments. It is likely that where other members of the family play a

musical instrument there is a greater chance that a student will choose to play an

instrument, but it does not necessarily follow that this is also a predictor of that

student's achievement, at least not achievement as measured by this study. It

would be interesting to compare student achievement with whether other family

members play an instrument, using a much more comprehensive definition of

achievement. This could form part of a study into factors that could be used as

predictors of musical success.

It was found was that the family's attitude towards the student's instrument was of

some significance. One of the problems perceived by teachers of brass

instruments is that parents often discourage students from learning brass

instruments, particularly those whose children are offered large brass instruments

such as tubas and euphoniums. Often it also appears to teachers that parents

discourage students from playing brass instruments because they are seen by some

parents as loud and awkward to transport. Sometimes it seems that parents just

don't like the instrument for some other reason.

This study found that the family's attitude to the instrument did not have a

correlation with test scores or gain scores, but it did have a positive correlation

with the amount of practice done by the students. Although the family's attitude

to the instrument did not affect the gain scores ·Of the students and thus did not

affect the experiment, it did appear to have an effect on the amount of practice

done by the students and therefore on the overall performance of the students.

This is similar to conclusions reached by Pascoe (1995, p. 129) who found that

70
students were more likely to learn a musical instrument where there was a high

degree of parental encouragement.

This current study found that if the student's family had a positive attitude to the

instrument played, then the student was more likely to practice that instrument and

was therefore more likely to achieve.

The family attitude to home practice correlated positively with Pre-test scores (r =

0.40, p~O.Oll) and mildly with Post-test scores (r ~ 0.371, p ~ 0.51)), and with

the amount of practice done by the students. This shows a connection between

family attitude to practice the amount of practice done by the student and the

student's overall achievement. This is generally in line with Pascoe's conclusions

about the importance of parental support. It shows that where there is family

support for home practice, students are more likely to practice and therefore more

likely to achieve.

The data collected in the student questionnaire were intended to discover whether

any variables impinged upon the reliability and validity of the experiment.

Because the family background data were similar for both the control group and

the experimental group, we can be confident that the control group and the

experimental group were evenly matched, thus increasing confidence in the

reliabiHty of t~e resulting data. Furthermore, the data collected by the

questionnaire suggested that family background factors did not impinge upon the

experiment in any way that would compromise reliability or validity. The data

from the student questionnaire were intrinsically interesting and could form the

71
basis for further study into student motivation, predictors of student success, and

into.factors affecting student retention rates.

72
Suggestions for future research

The literature search revealed that although there is an abundance of writings on

the subject of embouchure improvement in journals and magazines, there is little

research. Further readings suggest that the fields of human movement and sports

medicine may be useful in providing ideas for research into skills acquisition for

musicians. Savits ( 1982) work could be used as a guide to books which contain

isometric and isotonic exercises. It would then be possible to replicate studies in

sports medicine, but replacing sports routines with musical routines. That may

reveal further information on more effective and more efficient practice routines.

Using a combination of isometric routines similar to those developed by Savits

and the lip~slur routines developed for this study, a student version of

Callisthenics for brass could be developed and tested.

The student questionnaire developed for this study could be expanded and further

developed to yield more information about students and their family environment.

Using this information questionnaires could be developed to predict the student's

likelihood of success or of dropping out. In the current economic climate of

diminishing education budgets, such information could maximise the allocation

and effectiveness of educational resources .

..
73
 REFERENCES

Apel, Willi. (1970). Han1ard dictionary of music. London: Heinemann.

Arban, Jean Baptiste. (1858/1907). Famous methodfor cornet. London: Boosey

and Hawkes.

Bloom, B.S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification

of educational goals, handbook 1: cognitive domain. New York: McGraw~
Hill.

Burns, Robert B. (1991, znd edition 1994)./ntroductionto research methods.

Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.

Caruso, Carmine. (1979). Musica/cal/isthenicsforbrass. New York: Alamo

Publications.

Colin, Charles. (1972). Tmmpet advanced lipjlexibilittes. New York: Charles

Colin.

Colin, Charles. (1972). Lipjlexibi/itiesfor trombone or bass clef baritone. New

York: Charles Colin.

Dane, Roger. (1983). Theories on embouchure and breathing: An analytical

investigation into the functions for sound production on the trumpet.
Unpublished masters dissertation, University of Louisville, Louisville.

Davidson, Louis. (1970). Daily practice routines. Rochester, NewYork: Wind

Music Inc.

Farkas, Philip. (1962). 71ie art qfbrass playing. Rochester, New York: Wind
Music Inc.

Gouse, Charles F. (1970). Leam to play the tmmpet book one. California: Alfred
Publishing Co. Inc.

Gouse, Charles F. (1970a). Learn to play the tn1mpet hook two. California:
Alfred Publishing Co. Inc.

Gouse, Charles F. (1970b). Learn to play the trombone/baritone book two.

California: Alfred Publishing Co. Inc.

Gouse, Charles F. (1970c). Learn to play the french hom book two. California:
Alfred Publishing Co. Inc.

Gouse, Charles F. (1970d). Learn to play the tuba book two. California: Alfred
Publishing Co. Inc.
74
Gordon, Claude. (1965). Daily trumpet routines. New York: Carl Fischer Inc.

Gordon, Claude. (1965a). Systematic Approach to Daily Practice. New York:

Carl Fischer Inc.

Gower,W.M. and Voxman, H. (1941). Advanced methodfor cornet or tntmpet,·

val. I. Miami, Florida: Rubank, Inc.

Gower,W.M. and Vox:man, H. (1941a). Advanced methodfor trombone or

baritone; vol. I. Miami, Florida: Rubank, Inc.

Gower,W.M. and Voxman, H. (194Ib). Advancedmethodfortuba; vol.1.

Miami, Florida: Rubank, Inc.

Gower,W.M. and Vox:man, H (1954). Advanced methodfor cornet or tntmpet;

val. II. Miami, Florida: Rubank, Inc.

Gower,W.M. and Vox:man, H. (1954a). Advanced methodfor trombone or

baritone,· val. 11. Miami, Florida: Rubank, Inc.

Gower,W.M. and Voxman, H. (1954b). Advanced methodfor tuba; vol. /1.

Miami, Florida: Rubank, Inc.

Harrow, Anita. (1972). A Taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York;

David McKay

Hunsberger, Donald. (1980). The Remington warm-up studies. Athens, OH.,

USA: Accura Music.

Kagrice, Vern. Ed. International trombone association journal. Denton, Texas:

The International Trombone Association.

Kleinhammer, Edward. (1964). The Art of Trombone Playing. Evanston, Illinois:

SummyBirchard Inc.

Krathwohl, D.R. (Ed.) (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook 2:

affective domain. New York: David McKay.

Maggio, Louis. (n.d./1968). The original Louis Maggio system. Revised Carlton
Macbeth. North Hollywood, California: Macbeth.

McCann, John Lawrence. (1989). A history of trumpet and cornet pedagogy in

the United States, 1840-1942. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North
Western University School of Music, Evanston, Illinois.

McDonald, Richard. (1926). Daily exercises for trombone. London: Boosey and
Hawkes.

75
I
Pascoe, Beverley. (1995) The influence ofprimary school music programmes on
student choice ofmusic shtdies in lower secondary schools. Unpublished
rr..:sters dissertation, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia.

Posner George J. (1992). Analysing the curriculum. New York: Me GrawHill

Inc.

Sandor, Edwa.-d Paul. (1983). The effects of two brass pedagogy strategies o11the
deve/opmentqf auditory discrimination skills. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Ohio State University. Ohio.

Savits, Myer F. (1982). A1uscle training techniques applicable to methods

incorporating myological principles in elementary brass embouchure
training curri::ula. Unpublished doctoraJ dissertation, New York University
(0146). New York.

Schlossberg, Max. (1937/1965) Daily drills a11d technical studies. New York: M.
Baron& Co.

Shuebruk, Richard. ( 1925). Graded lip and tongue Trainers for brass
instruments. New York: Carl Fischer.

Sparks, George Ed. ( 1990). The Effect of self evaluation on musical achievement,
attentiveness and attitudes of elementary school instmmental students.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University and
Agricultural and Mechanical College, Louisiana.

Swallow, John. (1987, August). Concepts of brass embouchure development. The

instrumentalist. Northfield, Ill: Instrumentalist Company. pp. 12-15.

Tarr, Edward. (1977). The trumpet. (S.E. Plank and E. Tarrtrans. 1988).
London: B.T.Batsford Ltd.

Tanner, Paul. (1962). Practice with the experts. New York: Leeds Music
Corporation

Webster's Sevelllh New Collegiate Dictionary. (1971 ). Springfield

Massachusetts, USA: G. & C. Merriam Company.

76
 BffiLIOGRAPHY

Brass bulletin: international magazine for brass players. Bulle, Switzerland:

Brass Bulletin.

Burns Robert B. (1994). Research Methods. Melbourne: Longman Cheshire,

Canadian musician. St Catherines, On. Canada: Norris Whitney.

Communications Inc.

Computer music journal. Cambridge MA: MIT. Press.

Council for research into music education bulletin. Urbana, Ill: University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign school of music.

Gay, L. R. (1985). Educational e!!aluation and measurement. Columbus, Ohio:

Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co.

The horn call. Kalamazoo, Michigan: The International Horn Society.

ITA Journal. Dallas Texas: The International Trombone Association.

lTG Journal. Tallahassee, Florida: The International Trumpet guild.

Medical problems ofperforming artists. Philadelphia PA: Hanley and Belfus inc.

Olsen, Gerald B., Ed. Dialogue in instrumental music education. Madison, WI:
University of Wisconsin.

Porter, Maurice M. (1967). The embouchure. London: Boosey and Hawkes.

The instrumentalist. Northfield, Ill: Instrumentalist Company.

Skei, Allan. Woodwind, brass and percussion. New York: New York-Garland.

TUBA Journal. Eau Claire, Wisconson: Tubist's Universal Brotherhood

Association.

Weerts, Dr. R., Ed. NACWPJ Journal. (National Association of College Winds
and Percussion Instructors). Kirksville Missouri: Simpson Publishing
Company.

77
 APPENDIX A

THE TEST INSTRUMENTS

78
 HIGH REGISTER TEST

Play each note for four counts. Pause and breathe between each note. Play sucessively
higher until the student can play no higher. Attempt the note of failure three times.
If the note can be played, no matter how insecurely, proceed to the next note until the last
note cannot be played after three attempts. The number beneath the last note played
is the student's score.

79
I
HIGH REGISTER TEST

HORN
Play each note for four counts. Pause and breathe between each note. Play sucessively
higher until the student can play no higher. Attempt the note of failure three times.
If the note can be played, no matter how insecurely, proceed to the next note until the last
note cannot be played after three attempts. The number beneath the note of failure
is the student's test score.

~~··~~#o~~~o~~~ft~
1
o~~
2 3 4
.~5 II

6
!In
7
0

~ ..
13
lfll
14 15 "16

~" II
21 22

80
 HIGH REGISTER TEST

TROMBONE/EUPHONIUM
Play each note for four counts. Pause and breathe between each note. Play sucessively
higher until the student can play no higher. Attempt the note of failure three times.
If the note can be played, no matter how insecurely, proceed to the next note until the last
note cannot be played after three attempts. The number beneath the last note played
is the student's test score.
=
2 3 4

o.

#o. #<>
.0.

"
~-- ~ ---J-5

0.
- #o 0 0

lq, ·s 9 0

#o. 0

1'? 21 --22 II

81
 HIGH REGISTER TEST

EEb Tuba
Play each note for four counts. Pause and breathe between each note. Play sucessively
higher until the student can play no higher. Attempt the note of failure three times.
If the note can be played, no matter how insecurely, proceed to the next note until the last
note cannot be played after three attempts. The number beneath the last note played
is the student's test score.

!@ II

2 3 4

@itkj;-o D ... §:u

5 6

w&g· fO
"=
---'11 ~
~

...
t
0

AA,; .,.. ~B

ll. ~ q<> A

~-r ~
._., 0

bo 0

~ 2
21

82
 STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Music at my Home

Please fill out this questionnaire. It will allow you to describe to the mus1c
teacher what type of musical environment you think exists at your home. Your
answers to this questionnaire are strictly confidentiaL

1. Tick which best describes the number of CDs, tapes and records in your house.

0-10 [ l 11 -20 [ l 21-30[] 3!+ [ l

2. Tick the word which best describes the variety of types of music on CDs, tapes
and records at home:

none[ ] small [ ] wide [ ] extensive [ ]

3. Tick the word which best describes how often your parents/guardians listen to
music of any description:

never [ ] seldom[ ] frequently[ ] very often[ ]

4. Tick the answer that best describes the type of music your parents/guardians
listen to.
a) A wide variety of music [ ]
b) Mainly classical music [ ]
c) Mainly popular music [ ]
d) Very little [ ]

5. Tick the answer which best describes the type of music your sisters/brothers
listen to.
a) A wide variety Of music [ ]
b) Mainly classical music [ ]
c) Mainly popular music [ ]
d) Very little [ ]

83
6. Tick the word which best describes how many books or magazines are in your
house.

none[ ] few[ ] many[ ] very many[ ]

7. Tick the word which best describes how many music books, including sheet
music, are in your house.

none[ ] few[ ] many[ ] very many[ ]

8. Tick the answer that best describes your parent's/guardian's reaction to the
following statements:

a) My parents like my instrument.

not at all[ ] a little[ ] a lot[ ] very much[ ]

b) My parents like the sound of my instrument.

not at all[ ] a little[ ] a lot[ ] very' much[ ]

c) My parents like to hear music played in the house

not at all[ ] a little[ ] a lot[ ] very much[ ]

d) My parents are prepared to transport my instrument to school when

necessary.

never[ ] sometimes[ ] often[ ] always[ ]

9. Tick the answer that best describes your brother's or sister's reaction to the
following statements:

a) My brothers and/or sisters like my instrument.

not at all[ ] a little[ ] a lot[ ] very much[ ]

b) My brothers and/or sisters· !ike the sound of my instrument.

not at all[ ] a little[ ] a lot[ ] very much[ ]

10. Does your family complain about your home p·ractice?

yes[ ] no[ ]

84
11. lf yes, tick the appropriate the reason/s:
a) [ ] Noise.
b) [ ] Disturbs the family routine.
c) [ ] Disturbs the sleep of one or more members of the family.

12. Tick which member/s of your family plays a musical instrument at home:
a) [ ] My father
b) [ ] My mother
c) [ ] My sister
d) [ ] My brother
e) [ ] Other. State: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

13. Do you learn a musical instrument outside of school?

yes[ ] no[ ]

For questions 14 and 15, tick the best answer.

14. I enjoy listening to music.

never[ ] sometimes[ ] often[ ] always[ ]

15. To play a brass instrument is my:

1st choice[ ] 2nd choice[ ] 3rd choice[ ]

85
 APPENDIXB

THE DATA MATRIX USED FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

86
Table 6: The data matrix usedfor statistical analyses.

Hi Lo 190 1 0 1 1

~ 17 Hi 15 ! +2 _o 190 14 9 19 1 0 0 1 0 1 3 3
[E 18 co 21 I + Hi 180 15 ~ 1 0 0 0 1 0 4 3
E 21 H Hi 150 1 0 1 4
E9 i Lo_
i +
_Q +3 i 12
Lo
19 +1 i 114o0+-7111;+-~77.11:3<+-7-+1-7
oo--+-;o~"""oo--1-'H--=-+o--=--+---=-4
17 Lo
19 +2 _o 1150 14 7 19 1 0 0 0 1
13 Lo
14 +1 Hi 1100 14 10 14 1 0 0 0 1
19 Hi
19 _o 190 11 8 1 1 0 0 4 3_
IE16 20+ Lo 1410 1 0 4 3
24 I +: _o
_o 16 +2 Hi 16 12 12 1 0 1 4 3
Hi 7 -1 _Q 12 7 20 1 0 1 0 3
IE2C6_o 8+2Hil1201510200 0 10 3
~13_o 6+3Hi90108141 0 0 0 2
IE2219Hi190Lol18016 10 0 3 3
I C1 3 _o + Lo 3!
_o +• Hi
lo -2 _o 12 12 0 0 2
Hi 19 i +8 Hi 0 15 5 6 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
' 29 ~ 1 -2 Lo 230 16 12 14 1 0 0 0 4 0 4 3
;e 20 i +1 Lo 1130 13 6 16 1 0 0 0 4 1 3 3
:78 i -3Lo0

i+ _Q 0 1
I +1 _o 9 12 0 0 0 3 3
f*;;-;;t--:;;;:-J-+_o:--t--Oc;-4+1-:-::-t 15=+-e=-+"'=11·4~,-+--:o=-+7-1-
+1-7'0-G '-""""" 1~0c-t-2=-+7-f-'4C+-:=--13
1·Lo71+3 120161214 o o o 1 4 3
14 1• Lo 18 I +4 H 190 14 10 2: 0 0 3
C 1: Lo 4 .c':: Lo 80
13 .o +: Hi

I +1 _o 8 1 0 0 4 3
IC21I21H I+2Hi110 9 1 0 01 4 3
C22l1£.CJ...:..::- CO-'-=LL:::...L..:o1=.~-60..:.:...~-=.
He.::.::.-'--" 10._1:.::....~-
8-'-" 1. _::__._.:....~.0-"00--'-'3'-'-.:....1.--'-'
4--'3"--'

87
 APPENDIXC

BIVARIATE CORRELATIONS

The following tables were calculated using Pearson's r, which assumes interval

scales. Where data was Bi-polar or Bi-modal Kendall's tau and Spearman's rho,

which are accurate for ordinal and serial scales, were calculated. There were

some changes in the values of the correlations, but associations of significance

remained and no new associations of significance were revealed.

88
 Correlations
,,

' '
'

!JrOUP hlllo pretest pretest ...£!!51 test

group Pearson Correlation 1.000 .046 -.046 .025
Slg. (2-talled) .769 .768 .870
N 44 44 44 44
hlllo pretest Pearson Correlation .046 1.000 .754 .659"
Slg. (2-talled) .769 .000 .000
N 44 44 44 44
pretest Pearson Correlation -.046 .754" 1.000 .836"
S!g. (2-talled) .768 .000 .000
N 44 44 44 44
post test Pearson Correlation .025 .659 .836 1.000
Slg. (2-talled) .870 .000 .000
N 44 44 44 44
gain Pearson Correlation .063 -.361" -.473° .062
Slg. (2-talled) .686 .016 .001 .688
N 44 44 44 44
hlllo gain ' Pearson Correlation -.046 -.453" -.329" .036
Slg. (2-talled) .767 .002 .029 .815
N 44 44 44 44
,,
PRACTICE Pearson Correlation -.354" .336" .626. .581
S!g. (2-talled) .019 .026 .000 .000
N 44 44 44 44
CUL TURA~.CAPITAL Pearson Correlation .080 -.015 .071 .018
Slg. (2-talled) .625 .929 .663 .913
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlation -.223 .079 .243 .140
INSTRUMENT Slg, (2-talled) .167 .630 .131 .389
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlatlon .114 -.168 .147 .054
MUSIC Slg. (2-talled) .484 ,300 ,364 ,,., 1
N 40 I 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlation -.100 .250 ,399" .311
PRACTICE Slg. (2-1alled) .539 .120 .011 .051
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 1 Pearson Correlation -.025 -.125 -.305 -.220
Slg. (2-talled) .878 .442 .056 .172
' N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 2 Pearson Correlation .081 .095 -.090 .025
Slg. (2-talled) .620 .560 .580 .877
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 3 Pearson Correlatlon -.109 .095 -.090 -.029
Slg. (2-talled) .502 .560 .580 .857
N • 40 40 40 40,
NUMBER OF MUSICIANS Pearson Correlatlon .241 .023 .225 .160
IN FAMILY Slg. (2-talled) .134 .886 .163 .323
N 40 40 40 40
INSTRUMENT LEARNED Pearson Correlatlon -.143 -.102 -.126 -.124
OUT OF SCHOOL Slg. (2-tailed) .378 .531 .439 .446
N 40 40 40 40

89
 Correlations

group hVI!U!retest pretest ~!test

.
STUDENTS ENJOYMENT Pearson Correlation .181 .000 .199 .170
RATING Slg. (2-tafled) .264 1.000 .218 .296
N 40 40 40
CHOICE OF
INSTRUMENT RANKING
Pearson Correlation
Slg. (2-talled)
-,057
.727
"
.175
.281
.362"
.022
.282
.078
N 40 40 40 40

>:·-·
,,
_'1)

·-·-.

--<_!--

-"
-,_,-.
---,,
...
-.·.-

_,_
\ ,,
\,\

..

~~-
.-."
"--·:
-- ,-· ..,;
'./-

!'' ,, .. -
•
' _,------
/,_,,·;,
·:·.·".

":f:
·-:i. .~ ...
'- ~---

-.- ~' - - .•. _. ·./.•. -._,.-

-
-. :;·_--

f.<.-.:·'
90
 Correlations

,.,
~
I
¥, ~
"""""'
. ..
I .080
I"'"" Slg. (2-talled) .767 .019
N 6:: 6::

. . .
I -.361" -.453' .336' -.015
Slg. (2-talled) .D16 .002 .026 .929
N
__.,. 40
I"'""I
'
Slg. (2-talled)
N
Slg. (2-talled)
I
. '::
.001

-.062
-.329·

.036
.626'

-'~~
.581'
.071
.663
40
.018

0~~

. -i-
N 6::
·::
! o•lo .• I 1.000 -.141 -.108
Slg. (2-talled)
N 44 ·':: 5~;

..
.732' _1.000 -.003 -.123
Slg. (2-talled) .000 .986 .448
N 4;
" 40

.
PRACTICE I -.141 -.003 1.000 .110
~lg. (2-talled) .363 .986 .498
4; 40

~lg. (2-talled)
I --:.ioa -.123" --:110 1.000

5~; "':~
~ MON'UUOIU I -.190 -.091
·=~
.331'
40
.245
.1!~
Slg. (2-lalled) .240 .578 .037
N 40 40 40
:.:~y AT I UUCTO I -.192 .118 .157 .420'
Slg. (2-talled)
N
.235
40
.467
40
.332
40
a~;
1 ~=~[ ITUDE fO -.264 -.202 .371'
-;:~
~lg. (2-talled)
1~~ 2:~ ':~ 40
.235 .202 -.224 -.044
~lg. (2-talled)
2:~
.788
.1:: 1:: 40
'2 P"ffi'" I .189 -.053 -.195 .093
Slg. (2-talled)
N
.242
40
.7:~ .227
40
.568
40
NEGAII
" P"ffiOO
S!g. (2-talled)
N
I .278
.082
40
.139
.392
40
.029
.859
40
-.074

6:~
IN FAMILY
p""'" I -.207 -.113 .165 .252

2~~ "':~
Slg. (2-tal1ed) .116
N 3:: 40
I --:120 .021 .137 .137
16ur6' ~lg. (2-lalled)
"':~ 8:: ·~: .3:~

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91
 Correlations

"
•'
STUDENTS ENJOYMENT Pearson Correlation
DIFFERENCE
-.141
'"'
difference
-.118
PRACTICE
,-.012
CULTURAL
CAPITAL
.312
RATING . Slg. (2-talled) .384 .467 .942 .050
N 40 40 40 40
CHOICE OF Pearson Correlation -.174 -.093 .293 -.055
INSTRUMENT RANKING Slg. (2-talled) .282 .569 .066 .736
N 40 40 40 40

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 Correlations

FAMILY
FAMILY FAMILY ATTITUDE
ATIITUDETO ATIITUDE TO NEGATIVE
INSTRUMENT TO MUSIC PRACTICE REASON 1
group Pearson Correlation -.223 .114 -.100 -.025
Sfg. (2-talfed) .167 .484 .539 .878
N 40 40
hVIo pretest Pearson Correlation
Slg. (2-talled)
"
.o79
.630
"
-.168
>OO
.250
.120
-.125
.442
N 40 40 40 40
pretest Pearson Correlation .243 .147 .399* -.305
Slg. (2-talled) .131 .364 .011 .OS<l
N 40 40 40 40
post test Pearson Correlation .140 .054 .311 -.220
Slg. (2-talled) .389 .741 .051 .172
N 40 40 40 40
gain Pearson Correlation -.190 -.192 -.264 .235
Slg. (2-talled) .240 .235 .100 .145
N 40 40 40 40
hUio gain Pearson Correlation -.091 .118 -.202 202
Sfg. (2-talled) .578 .467 .211 .211
N 40 40 40 40
PRACTICE Pearson Correlation .331" .157 .371* -.224
Slg. (2-talled) .037 .332 .018 .165
N 40 40 40 40
CULTURAL CAPITAL Pearson Correlation .245 .420" -.102 -.044
Slg. (2-talled) .128 .007 .530 .788
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILYATIITUDE TO Pearson Correlation 1.000 .121 .189 -.243
INSTRUMENT Slg. (2-talled) .458 .242 .131
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATIITUDE TO Pearson Correlation .121 1.000 .161 -.084
MUSIC
.4:~
Slg. (2-talled) .322 .606
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlation .189 .161 1.000 -.844"
PRACTICE Slg. (2-talled) .242 .322 .000
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 1 Pearson Correlation -.243 -.084 -.8j14 1.000
Slg. (2-talled) .131 .606 .000
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 2 Pearson Correlation -.277 -.425" -.332" .095
Slg. (2-talled) .083 .006 .036 .S<lO
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 3 Pearson Correlation -.331" -.251 -.095 .332*
Slg. (2-talled) .037 .118 .S<lO .036
N 40 40 40 40
NUMBER OF MUSICIANS Pearson Correlation .053 -.009 .000 -.117
IN FAMILY Slg. (2-talled) .746 .956 1.000 .471
N 40 40 40 40
INSTRUMENT LEARNED Pearson Correlation .128 -.293 .026 -.026
OUT OF SCHOOL Slg. (2-lalled) .430 .066 .876 .876
N (,, 40 40 40 40

"

93
 COrrelations

FAMILY
FAMILY FAMILY ATIITUDE
ATIITUDETO ATIITUDE TO NEGATIVE
INSTRUMENT TO MUSIC PRACTICE REASON 1
STUDENTS ENJOYMENT Pearson correlallon .310 .348. -.035 .035
RATING sJg. (2-ta//ed) .051 .028 .828 .628
N 40 40 40 40
CHOICE OF Pearson Correlalfon .188 .263 .022 -.022
INSTRUMENT RANKING Slg. (2-talled) .246 .101 .894 .894
N 40 40 40 40
.

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94
 Correlations

INSTRUMENT
NUMBER OF LEARNED
NEGATIVE NEGATIVE MUSICIANS OUT OF
REASON2 REASON 3 IN FAMILY SCHOOL
group Pearson Correlation .081 -.109 .241 -.143
Slg. (2-talled) .620 .502 .134 .378
;: N 40 40 40 40
hlllo pretest , Pearson Correlation .095 .095 .rm -.102
Slg. (2-talled) .560 .560 .686 .531
N 40 40 40 40
pretest Pearson Correlation -.090 -.090 .225 -.126
stg. (2-talled) .580 .580 .163 .439
N 40 40 ·10 40
post test Pearson Correlation .025 -.029 .11)0 -.124
Slg. (2-talled) .877 .857 .3l:3 .446
N 40 40 ;jo 40
gain Pearson Correlation .189 .278 -.207 .120
Slg. (2-talled) .242 .082 .201 .462
N 40 40 40 40
hlllo gain Pearson correlation -.053 :_!,.139 -.113 .021
Slg. (2-talled) .746 q.392 .486 .699
N 40 // 40 40 40
PRACTICE Pearson correlation -.195 .029 .165 .137
Slg. (2-talled) .227' ' .859 .309 .401
N 40 40 40 40
CULTURAL CAPITAL Pearson Correlation .093 -.074 .252 .137
Slg, (2-talled) .568 .652 .116 ,398
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlation -.277 -,331* .053 .128
INSTRUMENT Slg. (2-tailed) .083 ,037 .746 .430
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlation -.425' -.251 -.009 -.293
MUSIC Slg. (2-ta\led) .006 .118 .956 .066
N 40 40 40 40
FAMILY ATTITUDE TO Pearson Correlation -.332' -.095 .000 .026
PRACTICE Slg. (2-ta\led) .036 .560 1.000 .876
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 1 Pearson Conelatlon ,095 .332* -.117 -.026
Slg. (2-la\led) ,560 ,036 .471 .876
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 2 Pearson Correlation 1.000 .279 -.100 ,155
Slg. (2-tailed) .081 .538 ,.; .340
N 40 40 40 40
NEGATIVE'. REASON 3 Pearson Correlation .279 1.000 -.278 .155
Slg. (2-talled) .081 .082 .340
N 40 40 40 40
NUMBER OF MUSICIANS Pearson Correlat!on -.100 -.278 1.000 .240
IN FAMILY Slg. (2-talled) ,538 ,082 .137
N 40 40 40 40
INSTRUMENT LEARNED Pearson Correlation .155 .155 .240 1.000
OUT OF SCHOOL Slg. (2-ta\led) ,340
_.,
.340 .137 ,•
N 40 40 40 40

,_,

95
 Correlations

INSTRUMENT
NUMBER OF LEARNED
NEGATIVE NEGATIVE MUSICIANS OUT OF
REASON 2 REASON 3 IN FAMILY SCHOOL
STUDENTS ENJOYMENT Pearson Correlation -.047 -.182 -.025 -.232
RATING Slg. (2-talled) .773 .262 .676 .151
N 40 40 40 40
CHOICE OF Pearson Correlation -.323· -.158 -.072 -.392*
INSTRUMENT RANKING Slg. (2-tatled) .042 .332 .660 .012
N 40 40 40 40

96
 Correlations

STUDENTS CHOICE OF
ENJOYMENT INSTRUMENT
RATING RANKING
group Pearson Correlation .181 -.057
Sig. (2-talled) .264 .727
N 40 40
hlllo pretest Pearson Correlation .000 .175
Slg. (2-ta!led) 1.000 .281
N 40 40
pretest Pearson Correlation •199 .362•
Slg. (2-talled) .218 .022
N 40 40
post test Pe<.rson Correlation .170 .282
Slg. (2-talled) .296 .078
N 40 40
gain Pearson Correlation -.141 -.174
Slg. (2-tal!ed) .384 .282
N 40 40
hlllo gain Pearnon Correlatlor: -.118 -.093
Slg. (2-tal!ed) .467 .569
N 40 40
PRACTICE Pearnon Correlation -.012 .293
Slg. (2-talled) .942 .066
N 40 40
CULTURAL CAPITAL Pearson Correlation .312 -.055
Slg. (2-talled) .050 .736
N 40 40
FAMILY ATIITUDE TO Pearson Correlation .310 .168
INSTRUMENT Slg. (2-talled) .051 .246
N 40 40
FAMILY ATIITUOE TO Pearson Correlation .348. .263
MUSIC Slg. (2-talled) .028 .101
N 40 40
FAMILYATIITUOETO Pearnon Correlation -.035 .022
PRACTICE Slg. (2-talled) .828 .894
N 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 1 Pearnon Correlation .035 -.022
Slg. (2-talted) .828 .694
N 40 40
NEGATIVE REASON 2 Pearnon Correlation -.047 -.323.
Slg. (2-talled) .773 .042
N 40 40:
NEGATIVE REASON 3 Pearson Correlation -.182 -.158
Slg. (2-talled) .262 .332
N 40 40
NUMBER OF MUSICIANS Pearson Correlation -.025 -.072
IN FAMILY Slg. (2-talled) .878 .660
N 40 40
INSTR!.JMENT LEARNED Pearson Correlation -.232 -.392.
OUT OF SCHOOL Slg. (2-talled) .151 .012
N 40 40

97
 Correlations

STUDENTS CHOICE OF
ENJOYMENT INSTRUMENT
RATING RANKING
STUDENTS ENJOYMENT Pearson Correlation 1.000 .204
RATING Sig. (2-ta!led) .206
N 40 40
Ct-IOICEOF Pearson Correlation .204 1.000
INSTRUMENT RANKING Slg. (2-talled) .206
N 40 40
•. Correlation Is s!gnltlcant at the 0.05 revet (2-talled).
••. Correlation Is signliic::ant at the 0,01 level (2-talled).

98
 APPENDIXD

CHARTS AND GRAPHS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Figure 2a
Results of the pre-test; total population.

"
"
"
8
Frequency Std. Dev = 4.02
8
Mean= 17.2
N = 44
•
'
0

Pretest

Figure 2b
Results of the pre-test,· control group.

Std Dev: 4.66

Mean=17.0
Frequency N = 22

Pretest
Figure 2c
Results of the pre-test; experiment group.

Std oev"' 3.33

Mean " 17.4
N:: 22
Frequency

Pretest

Figure 3a
Results of the post-test,· iota/ population.

Frequency Std Dev"' 3.61

Mean= 16.3
N:::44

12. 14. 16. 18. 20. 22. 24. 26. 28.

Postest

100
Figure Jb
Results of the post.test; control grm1p.

Sid Dev=4.10
Mean= 8.4
Frequency N = 22

Postest

Figure 3c
Results of the post-test; experiment group.

Frequency StdOev=3.14
Mean= 18.2
N =22

Postest

101
Figure 4a
Gain for total population, control group and experiment group.

G'<N

102
Figure 4b
Gain for control group.

Sid Dev = 2.5i

Mean=1.4
N =22
Frequency

Gain

Figure 4c
Gain for experiment group.

Sid Dev: 1.80

Mean=1.1
N = 22
Frequency

Gain

103
Figure Sa
Average weekly practice minutes for the experimental group.

Minutes

Practice

Figure Sb
Average weekly practice minutes for the control group.

Minutes

25.0 75.0 125.0 175.0 225.0

Practice

104
Figure 6
The correlation between pre~test and gain.

",

"
Prelesl "
"
"
"
"·• ., ., ·' 0
' ' • ' •
Galn

Figure 7
The correlation between high/low pre~test and high/low gain.

1.8,---------------,

1.6

1.5
Hino Pretest
1.4

1.3

1.'.~-c:=-------------::;-;;!
lo anerence hi dfferenee
Hi/lo Gain

105
Figure 8
The correlation between group and practice.

1ro,-------------------------------.

1tl0

150
Minutes

140

'"'
1W~--:------------------------~
experiment gnu; control group
Group

Figure 9
The correlation between hil/o pre-test and practice.

170,--------------------,
160

150
Minutes

140

130

120~~------------------------------~~
lo pretest hi pretest
Hi/lo Pretest

106
Figure 10
The correlalion between pre-lest and praclice.

Pretest

60 80 100 1:!0 140 160 190 200 220 250

Practice

107
 Figure II
The correlation between cultural capital and family attih1de to music.

"
"
Family attitude
To music "
'
'
'
" " " "
Cultural Capital

Figure 12
The correlation between cultural capital and students' enjoyment of listening to
music.

4.0

3.8

3.6

3.4

3.2
Students' enjoyment of
Listening to music 3.0

"
2.6

2.4
10 11 12 13 14 15 18

Cultural Capital

108

•
 APPENDIX E

THE TEACHING PROGRAM

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