UNIT-II,PROPELLERS

PART-A
1. Is there any difference between the air flow through a propeller turbine
engine and jet engine?
Jet engine drives only compressor where as propeller turbine engine
drives compressor and propeller.
2. What is the difference between propeller propulsion and jet propulsion?
Both are forms of reaction propulsion but jet engine produces its thrust
by accelerating small amount of air at high velocity & the propeller moves
large mass of air at low velocity
3. Why do some jet engines have a double sided centrifugal compressor?
To allow air to enter the compressor by front and rear intake, and and
reduce the compressor dia.
4. What type of bearing is used to support the main bearing shaft?
Antifriction bearing are used.For front and rear the roller bearing are
used and for centre ball bearing are used.
5. Why are turbine blades with extended roots sometimes used?
To deal with high rim temp. problems.
6. Factors on which propeller reduction gear depends?
Depends upon r.p.m. of turbine driving propeller and propeller diaeter
7. What equipment is driven from the engine?
Fuel pump, oil pumps, starter, generators, an accessory gearbox,
propeller etc
8. How is the maximum r.p.m. controlled?
By governor to control fuel or by propeller control unit to control r.p.m
by regulation of fuel supply
9. What effect does altitude have on engine thrust at a constant r.p.m.?
As altitude increases the mass flow falls due to the reduced air density,
causing the thrust to decrease progressively
10. Does air temp. affect the engine performance?
In hot conditions the mass flow is reduced due to the decreased air
density ,so causing thrust to be reduced. In cold condition the mass flow is
increased due to increased air density, so causing thrust to be increased.
11. Indicate the fuel consumption obtained on a turbine engine?
On jet engines the specific consumption is usually approx. 1lb of fuel
per 1 lb thrust per hour.
12. How is the main rotating member balanced?
In the case of centrifugal compressor rotor,the out of balance is
corrected by the removal of metal from the face of the rotor disc.Final
balancing is then checked on a dynamic balancing machine and
corrected by fitting balancing plugs to screwed sockets provided in
assembly.In the case of axial compressor and turbine rotors the initial
balance is obtained by weighing the blades and selection for fitting acc
to weight.Finally out of balance can be corrected by fitting balance plus.
13. What is troubleshooting?
It is the step-by-step procedure used to determine the cause of the fault
and then select the best and quickest solution.
14. Explain overhauling?
The process of taking a part, inspecting, repairing, reassembling and
testing an entire engine.
15. Name some NDI and testing equipment.
Magnaflux, ultrasonic, dye penetrant , eddy current etc
16. How rebuilt engine differs from overhauled engine. ?
A rebuild engine must undego all the steps descried above. In addition
the parts that are used in rebuild engine must meet the same limitations
and tolerances specified for new parts by engine manuf.
17.List out the basic parts of a propeller.
Blade,Blade Back,Blade Face,Shank,Tip,Hub,Leading Edge, Trailing Edge Propeller Retaining
Nut,Blade Stations,Blade Angle (Pitch),Blade Chord.
18.Name the Forces Acting on the Propeller?
Centrifugal Force,Thrust Bending Force,Torque Bending Force
Aerodynamic Twisting Force,Centrifugal Twisting Force,Centrifugal Twisting Force
19.)Define Blade Angle.
An angle between the chord line of a propeller blade section and a plane perpendicular to the axis
of propeller rotation.
20.)Write the Overhaul Procedure of propeller.
Complete teardown and reassembly associated with major repair or maintenance. The terms
overhaul and reconditioning are synonymous for fixed pitch propellers.
21.)Define the Pitch of the propeller ?
Pitch. The theoretical distance that the propeller blade reference station would move forward if it
were moving along a helix with an angle equal to the blade section angle.
22.)Define the Pitting of the propeller ?
Pitting. Small irregularly shaped cavities from which material has been removed by erosion or
corrosion. Corrosive pitting is usually accompanied by a deposit such as rust, a corrosion byproduct,
formed by a corrosive agent on the base metal.
23.)Define the Propeller, Constant Speed?
Propeller, Constant Speed. A propeller in which a governor is used to automatically provide
constant revolutions per minute as the pilot selects the propeller pitch setting.
24.)Define the Propeller, Controllable Pitch.?
Propeller, Controllable Pitch. A propeller with blades that may be altered continuously to any
desired angle during flight.
25.)Explain Propeller De-Icers.
a. Propeller de-icing systems ensure safe propeller operation during icing conditions. Therefore, it
is important to periodically inspect de-icer or anti-ice boots to ensure they are in an airworthy condition.
Check the condition of the bond of the boot to the blade, looking for cracks and disbands. Look also for
bumps, loose spots, or wrinkles in the boot. Ensure the propeller can be moved through its entire operating
pitch range without placing any tension on wire leads or permitting them to interfere with or rub on nearby
parts. Check for propeller resistance values between the de-icer leads and ground.
b. When conducting a detailed inspection, remove the spinner. Check the wiring leads and harness
for looseness and wear. Ensure that wiring clamps are secure. Check slip rings and brushes for wear.
Electrically isolate the de-icer circuits from other aircraft wiring, and check for intermittent open circuits
by moving the de-icer straps slightly. Repairs to propeller de-icers should be made in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. If the ice protection system uses liquid-based anti-ice boots, check the
condition of the slinger-ring and the feed-tubes.
 PART -B
1.)Define Propeller of an aircraft & Explain its Parts in Detailed Answer .
PROPELLERS
The propeller converts the power output of the engine into forward thrust to move the aircraft through the air.
A propeller is essentially a “rotating wing,” or airfoil. When the aircraft engine turns the propeller, relative
motion is developed between the wing-like propeller blades and the air. As it pulls itself through the air, the
propeller carries along anything that is attached to it, within the limitations of the power developed. The faster
the propeller spins, within certain limits, the greater the resulting thrust.
Basic Propeller Parts
There are different propeller
manufacturers and many varied
designs. These designs include
the experimental multi-curved
blade for propellers. All
propellers have the same basic
parts, and terms for the parts of
one propeller are applicable to
other propellers. The basic parts
of a propeller are as follows:
 BLADE. One arm of a
propeller from the butt to
the tip. Propellers usually
have two or more blades
(Figure 8-10).
 BLADE BACK. The
surface of the blade as
seen by standing in front Figure 8-10 — NP 2000 (8) propeller blades.
of the propeller (Figures
8-10).
 BLADE FACE. The surface of the blade as seen by standing directly behind the propeller
(Figure 8-11).
 SHANK. The thickened portion of the blade near the hub of the propeller. The shank is
sometimes referred to as the root (Figure 8-10).TIP. The portion of the blade furthest from the
hub (Figure 8-10).
 HUB. The central portion of the propeller
that is fitted to the propeller shaft, securing
the blades by their roots (Figure 8-10).
 LEADING EDGE. The forward or “cutting
edge” of the blade that leads in the direction
the propeller is turning. The other edge (rear
edge) is called the TRAILING EDGE
(Figure 8-10).
 PROPELLER RETAINING NUT. The nut
that locks the propeller hub to the propeller
shaft. It is part of the propeller rather than
the engine.
Figure 8-11 — 54H60-77 (4) propeller blades.
 BLADE STATIONS. These are reference lines, usually designed as measurements, made from the hub.
These lines are numbered and locate positions on the propeller blade. They are usually designated at 6-
inch intervals. The first station is normally 12 inches from the hub. Figure 8-12 shows the blade stations
of a propeller blade.
 BLADE ANGLE (PITCH). Blade angle is the angle formed by the chord of a section of the blade and a
plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The blade angles in Figure 8-13 are representative of standard
low- and high-pitch as well as the feather angles. These angles will vary with different propeller
installations.
 BLADE CHORD. Blade chord
is the distance between the
leading and trailing edges. This
is an imaginary line extending
from the center of the leading
edge to the center of the
trailing edge. It is important for
blade balancing.
 FEATHERING. Feathering is
streamlining the propeller
blade with the relative wind.
This feature is found in most
multi-engine propeller
installations. Feathering serves
to reduce the drag caused by a
wind-milling propeller on a
dead engine and to stop
rotation that could cause
further damage (Figure 8- 13).

Figure 8-12 — Blade stations.

Figure 8-13 — Propeller blade angles.

 REVERSING. A reversing propeller allows for a negative blade angle. With a negative blade
angle, a propeller produces reverse thrust (thrust in a direction opposite to that normally produced
by the propeller in flight). Reverse thrust produces a braking action used during landing to reduce
the landing roll-out distance. It can also be used to taxi an aircraft backwards.
 Propeller Model Designation
The model designation for the propeller assembly, shown by markings on the barrel, identifies the type of
propeller. The number and letter group describes the basic model, and the number group that follows the dash
indicates the number of minor modifications.
A breakdown of the designation of the 54H60-77 propeller is as follows:
 5—Indicates the number of major changes incorporated in the propeller.
 4—Indicates the number of blades.
 H—Describes the blade shank size. (The use of a LETTER here also indicates that the blades are
made of aluminum. A NUMBER here would indicate the shank size and that the blades were made of
steel, as in model 24260.)
 60—Indicates the spline size of the propeller shaft.
 77—Indicates minor modifications made to the propeller.

2.a.)Explain the operations of Propeller in Detail.

The first propellers were fixed-pitch and designed mainly to get the aircraft off the ground. The
pitch (blade angle) was small so that the engine could quickly turn over to its full rpm and use its full horsepower
for takeoff. Once an aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller of low blade angle is in the air, forward speed of the
aircraft is limited. The low blade angle allows the propeller to turn too fast to take a big enough bite of the
onrushing air. As a result, the engine must be throttled to prevent excessive over speeding. The first improvement
over the fixed-pitch propeller was the ground-adjustable-pitch type. On this type, the blade angle (pitch) could be
changed or adjusted on the ground by manually twisting the blades in the hub to the desired angle. When the
angle was increased to improve cruising conditions, takeoff conditions suffered. An aircraft taking off from the
ground with the propeller at a high blade angle position is much the same as a car set into motion in high gear.
The engine is not able toproduce full horsepower because the high blade angle loads the propeller too much to
enable it to turn over at the full rpm of the engine.
The next design was the two-position propeller. It enabled a pilot to use a low blade angle (high rpm
setting) for takeoff, climb, and necessary operational acceleration. The pilot could then change the propeller
blade angle in flight to a higher blade angle (low rpm setting) for cruise. With this propeller, full engine rpm
could be developed for takeoff. Aircraft speed could be increased at cruise with a decrease in engine power
because the high-pitch propeller takes larger bites out of the air. The two- position propeller did not, however,
produce the most efficient and economical use of engine horsepower for all of the numerous intermediate
flight conditions encountered by aircraft.
Constant-speed propellers were eventually designed to maintain a preselected rpm automatically.
Suppose the aircraft is heading into a gradual climb. The constant-speed propeller maintains the selected rpm
automatically by turning the propeller blades to a lower angle. That is, the propeller takes a smaller bite of air
when the load on the engine is increased. Now, should the aircraft assume a nose-down attitude, the propeller
blades move automatically to a higher blade angle; hence, the propeller takes a larger bite of air. In other
words, increase the load on the engine and the propeller takes a smaller bite of air. Decrease the engine load
and the propeller takes a larger bite of air. This function will keep the turboprop engine at 100-percent rpm.
On constant-speed propellers, the blade angle must be adjusted to provide the most efficient angle of
attack at all engine and aircraft speeds. The most efficient angle of attack is very small; it varies from 1 to 4
degrees positive angle. The actual blade angle necessary to maintain this small angle of attack varies with the
forward speed of the aircraft. With constantly increasing aircraft speeds and high- altitude operations, it is
necessary to have a wide range of blade angle settings. This range of settings must adapt the propeller to
conditions encountered in takeoff, climb, and cruising.
2.b.)Explain the Forces Acting on the Propeller in Detail.
One of the main requirements of any propeller is its ability to withstand severe stresses. We will discuss
these stresses, which are greatest near the hub, in the following paragraphs. Figure 8-14 shows the forces
acting on propeller blades.

Figure 8-14 — Natural forces acting upon propeller blades.

Centrifugal Force
The greatest force acting upon the propeller blade is centrifugal force. This force tends to pull the blade of a
spinning propeller out of its hub. To prevent the blades from breaking into fragments or flying off into
space, the blade is thicker near the hub. The hub is made from a strong steel forging.
Thrust Bending Force
Thrust bending force causes a rotating propeller to try to pull away from the aircraft. Because it is held back by
the hub and the load of the aircraft it is pulling, the blade tips, which are thinner and lighter than the blade
shank, bend forward. The sum of these bending forces on the blades is carried at or near the hub. Hence, the
section of the blade at the hub must be proportionately thicker. Centrifugal force counteracts thrust bending
force by its tendency to pull the blades in a straight line.
Torque Bending Force
Torque bending force is the tendency for a blade to bend backwards, throughout its length, in a direction
opposite rotation. This bending force is created by the density of the air.
Aerodynamic Twisting Force
Aerodynamic twisting force tries to rotate the blades in the hub to an increased blade angle. The point at which
this force is exerted most strongly on the chord of the airfoil is known as the center of pressure. During normal
cruise conditions, this center of pressure is nearer the leading edge of the propeller, so the force tends to rotate
the blades to a higher pitch.
Centrifugal Twisting Force
The centrifugal twisting force on the blades tends to twist them to a lower pitch angle. This occurs because
all parts of the propeller try to remain in a plane parallel to the plane of rotation.
Propeller Vibration
Sometimes, in the face of these forces, a propeller loses some of its rigidity. The result is a flutter, a type of
vibration in which the tips of the blades attempt to twist rapidly back and forth while the propeller is turning.
Fluttering causes a distinctive noise, which is nearly drowned out by the exhaust noises of the engine.
Fluttering will weaken the propeller and may result in structural failure unless detected early and corrected.
3. Write in detailed answer about propeller assemblies.
The propeller system has one primary function—increasing or decreasing pitch as required by power
lever movement. Safety features incorporated in the 54H60-77 (4-bladed) propeller system includes automatic
mechanical pitchlock, automatic negative torque control. Some of the important features incorporated in the
NP 2000 (8-bladed) propeller system include all composite blades with individual blade replacement, runs
quieter containing an active inflight balancing system, and an Electronic Propeller Control System (EPCS).

Spinners and Afterbody Assemblies

The main purpose of the front and rear spinners are to streamline the airflow around the outside of the
propeller assembly for cooling. The front and rear spinner assemblies improve the aerodynamic
characteristics of the whole propeller assembly. They enclose the dome, barrel, and oil control assemblies.
The front spinner has an air inlet in the middle of it. Cooling ram air enters to cool the dome, barrel, and oil
control assemblies. The rear spinner has electrical deicing wires to prevent ice buildup on the backside of the
propeller assembly. The propeller after-body assembly streamlines airflow into the engine air inlet. The after-
body assembly has a top and bottom half.
Hub Mounting Bulkhead Assembly and Propeller Assembly
The hub mounting bulkhead is the mounting surface for the front and rear spinner assemblies. The variable
pitch aircraft propeller (propeller assembly) has four major subassemblies. They are the barrel assembly,
the blade assembly, the dome assembly, and the pitchlock regulator assembly (Figure 8-15).

Figure 8-15 — Propeller system.

Barrel Assembly
The propeller barrel assembly serves several functions. It retains the four propeller blades and also supports
the dome assembly and the propeller control assembly. Engine torque is transmitted to the propeller by the
barrel assembly, which mounts and secures to the front of the reduction gear assembly propeller shaft.
The barrel assembly is a split type; the front and rear barrel sections are manufactured and balanced as a
matched pair. These sections are kept together throughout the service life of the propeller. The high
centrifugal blade loads are carried by the barrel shoulders and lips at each blade position.
A machined integral extension on the rear barrel half is splined internally and has seats at both ends. The
front and rear cones are beveled to match the extension seats for centering and securing the propeller on the
propeller shaft. The extension is splined externally for driving pumps in the propeller control assembly. A
propeller hub nut locks the barrel assembly to the reduction gearbox propeller shaft. The propeller hub nut
has a flange on its inboard end that butts against the front cone.
Blade Assembly
The 54H60-77 model is a broad, lightweight 4-blade propeller forged from a solid aluminum alloy or
composite, which gives it the strength necessary to obtain the high thrust capability at low aircraft speeds.
The blade butt is partially hollow to allow for installation of the blade bushing and blade balancing assembly.
Propeller balancing is discussed in the balancing section of this chapter.
The blade shank has a molded fairing that is composed of a plastic foam material covered with a nylon-
reinforced neoprene material. The heater assembly is bonded to the leading edge of the fairing. It contains the
necessary blade deicer elements to prevent ice buildup on the blade assembly. Blade heater element damage,
involving cut or broken heater wires because of weather corrosion or foreign object damage (FOD) strikes, can
be repaired if no more than four wires are damaged. If more than four wires are damaged, the heater assembly
must be replaced. The purpose of the blade fairing cuff is to streamline and direct the airflow to the engine
intake.
The NP2000 model is an all-composite 8 propeller blade system with the capability to do on-wing blade
replacement, improving aircraft reliability. It also reduces maintenance propeller man hours by half and fuel
consumption by 3 percent. Although there are other propeller blade systems in aviation, these are the two types
prominently used in today’s Navy.
Dome Assembly
The propeller dome assembly is the blade angle changing mechanism of the propeller system. The dome
assembly is mounted on the front barrel shelf and held in position by the dome retaining nut. The principal
components of this pitch-changing mechanism are the rotating cam, the stationary cam, the piston assembly,
and the low pitch stop assembly. The low pitch-stop assembly is screwed into the lever sleeve bushing at the
front of the dome.
Preformed packings are used throughout the dome assembly for internal leakage control and to seal the piston
assembly in order to separate the inboard and outboard hydraulic pressure necessary for blade movement.
Shims are used to establish the proper clearance between the rotating cam and the blade segment gears. The
dome assembly is mounted in position on the front barrel shelf. It is held in place by the dome retaining nut that
is locked in place by a special head screw.
The low pitch-stop assembly screws into the dome assembly. It sets the desired low pitch-stop blade angle. In
the flight range of operation, the low pitch-stop lever assembly prevents the propeller blade angle from going
below 13 degrees. In the ground range, extra high hydraulic fluid pressure actuates the low pitch-stop
assembly, allowing the piston to move further outboard. This turns the blades from the low pitch-stop position
towards the reverse blade angle.
Pitchlock Regulator Assembly
The propeller pitchlock regulator assembly mounts within the propeller barrel and is splined to the propeller
hub nut. The pitchlock regulator assembly directs hydraulic pressure to the outboard and inboard sides of the
dome piston. It also serves as a safety feature by preventing a decrease in blade angle by pitch-locking, under
certain conditions. Pitchlock occurs if hydraulic control pressure is lost or during an overspeed of 103 to 103.5
percent.
The pitchlock regulator assembly contains two ratchet rings that are spring loaded together, but are held apart
by hydraulic pressure. One ratchet ring is splined to the rotating cam of the dome assembly. The other ratchet
ring is splined to the propeller rear barrel half and does not rotate. If hydraulic pressure is lost, the ratchet rings
come together, and their teeth mesh to prevent a decreased blade angle. This is referred to as pitchlock, and can
only occur between approximately 15 to 60 degrees of blade angle. Pitchlock is mechanically cammed out
below 15 and above 60 degrees. When in pitchlock, the propeller operates as a fixed-pitch propeller. However,
the reverse rake of the Pitch lock ratchet teeth allows rotating of the propeller into higher blade angles for
feathering or to regain control.
Propeller Control Assembly (Integral Oil Control Assembly)
The propeller control assembly is a nonrotating integral oil control mechanism. It mounts on the rear
extension of the propeller barrel .The control assembly contains two major components—the pump housing
assembly and the valve housing assembly. The pump housing assembly contains the hydraulic reservoirs,
pumps, and valves. The valve housing assembly is where all mechanical and electrical connections
necessary for propeller operation are made. The mechanical connections include the linkages between the
engine control system and NTS. The electrical connections are for the pulse generator coil, the auxiliary
pump motor, the synchrophasing system, and the anti-icing and deicing systems.

Pump Housing Assembly

The pump housing assembly forms the lower parts of the propeller control assembly. The pump housing
contains five positive displacement gear-type pumps (three mechanically driven and two electrically driven).
An externally mounted alternating current (ac) electric motor drives the two common shafted auxiliary
pumps. Two hydraulic fluid sumps are contained in the pump housing assembly. One is a pressurized sump
with a capacity of 6 quarts. The other is an atmospheric sump with a capacity of 4.5 quarts. A pressure cutout
switch located in the pump housing serves to terminate the action of the auxiliary pumps. This action occurs
when the feather blade angle is reached.
The three mechanically driven gear-type pumps are the main pump, the main scavenge pump, and the
standby pump. The electrical pumps are the auxiliary scavenge pump and the feather pump. The feather
pump is used for static ground operations. It also serves to complete the feather operation in flight. An
electrical motor driven pump is needed since the output pressure of the mechanically driven pumps is reduced
in proportion to the decaying propeller rpm.
Valve Housing Assembly
The valve housing assembly is considered the brains of the propeller system. It mounts to the upper part of
the pump housing assembly, forming the propeller control assembly. The valve housing assembly is the
most complex assembly of the propeller system. Major units of the valve housing
assembly are the speed servo governor assembly, flyweights, speeder spring, pilot valve, feather valve,
feather solenoid valve, main and standby regulating valves, high-pressure relief valve, beta and speed-
setting lever assembly, alpha and beta pinion shafts, linkage support assembly, and electrical branch cable.
The two ranges of operation controlled through the valve housing assembly are the governing range and the taxi
range. The governing range is commonly called the alpha or the flight range. The taxi range is commonly called
the beta scheduling or the ground-handling range. All primary propeller operations, except for feathering and
unfeathering the propeller, are determined by the position of the pilot valve in the speed servo governor.
Hydraulic fluid for blade angle change operation is pumped from the pressurized sump by the main pump (and
standby pump if needed) to the pilot valve chamber.
Flyweights are geared to the propeller shaft. This causes their rotation to develop centrifugal force in direct
relation to the engine speed. The centrifugal force extends the flyweights outward and pushes the pilot valve
toward the increased pitch position. This movement of the pilot valve opposes the speeder-spring force, which
pushes the pilot valve toward the pitch change valve spool centers in the pitch change sleeve to block pitch
change hydraulic pressure from the propeller dome. Any change in the engine speed will change the outward
position of the flyweight. The flyweight shifts the pilot valve to direct pitch change hydraulic pressure to the
dome.
Constant-speed governing is blocked out in the ground handling range. The propeller blade angle is coordinated
with the position of the power lever. Interaction of the cams on the alpha and beta shaft controls the position of
the pilot valve in the speed servo governor. When the power lever is moved, a cam on the alpha shaft positions
the pilot valve to obtain a corresponding blade angle. As the blade pitch changes, a cam on the beta shaft
returns the pilot valve to a position that will maintain the blade pitch at the angle scheduled by the power lever.
Rigging pin holes are located on the valve housing assembly for rigging the valve housing to the propeller
assembly and power lever. Adjustments are provided to set the mechanical governor speed and the reverse and
ground handling blade angles.

4. Discuss the maintenance of propeller in an a/a system.

In today’s Navy, comprehensive and systematic means of maintaining a multi-engine propeller system is
essential. You, as an Aviation Machinist’s Mate, must know the procedures for day-to-day maintenance. You
must know the procedures for removal and installation of a propeller, rigging, adjustment, and troubleshooting
of propeller systems. You should also be familiar with the procedures for propeller balancing and leakage test
requirements. The modern-day propeller system is a complex and durable system, and, with proper
maintenance, a highly reliable aircraft system.
Inspect the blades daily for any gouges, nicks, scratches, or gross damage. If the propeller has struck any
object (static or rotating), inspect the blades carefully for damage. For example, yellow paint marks on a blade
indicate that the propeller could have possible damage from hitting a piece of support equipment .
Propeller Cleaning
If you disassemble the propeller, clean all the parts with approved cleaning solution (except the deicing brushes
and slip rings). Thoroughly dry all parts after cleaning. Vapor blasting is NOT permitted on this propeller. The
use of rags or paper for cleaning or wiping internal parts of the propeller and control assembly is NOT
permitted. The use of these materials may cause lint or minute particles to enter the hydraulic system.
Malfunctioning of parts is possible. Unused parts or parts not reassembled within a reasonable time should be
preserved with a corrosion-preventive compound.
Exact procedures for the cleaning and prevention of corrosion on propellers are found in the
applicable maintenance instructions.

Rigging and Adjustment

During the initial engine/propeller installation, or whenever a fuel control, coordinator, or linkage has been
replaced, make a complete rigging check. The final propeller control linkage rigging and valve housing
adjustment is done with the propeller installed. In most cases, when a T56 engine is ready for issue (RFI)
from an Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department (AIMD), Fleet Readiness Center (FRC) to a
squadron, the fuel-control-to-coordinator rigging has been completed.
A minimum of five rigging pins are necessary to rig and adjust the propeller control linkage and valve housing.
Refer to the appropriate technical publication for the special tool requirements. Check for freedom of
movement for both power levers and emergency shutdown handles (E-handles). There must be NO binding or
interference. Check cable tension with a tensiometer. Insert rigging pins in slots. Rig pins should go in with
slight finger pressure. Adjust control rod lengths if needed. Remove rig pins. Check rigging at max reverse,
takeoff, and flight idle by comparing coordinator readings and inserting rig pins in appropriate engine or valve
housing slots. After mechanical rigging checks agree, adjust valve housing assembly for setting blade angles
(Figure 8-18).

Figure 8-18 — Valve housing assembly (adjustments).

After all rigging has been completed, check for installation of bolts, nuts, and safety wire. Torque all bolts
and nuts and safety wire all rod ends, as required by the appropriate technical manual. At this point, you
should remove all rigging pins and install the valve housing atmospheric sump filler cap. Now complete
propeller and engine checks to test for proper operation.

Feathering Check
Depressing the feather button in the flight station causes normal feathering. This action supplies voltage to the
holding coil of the feathering switch, auxiliary pump, and feather solenoid. Hydraulic fluid positions the
propeller control feather valve to feather the propeller. When the propeller has fully feathered, pressure
buildup will operate a pressure cutout switch. The switch causes the auxiliary pump and feather solenoid to
become de-energized through a relay system. Feathering also occurs by pulling the E-handle. This action
mechanically positions the feather valve and electrically energizes the feather button holding coil to send the
propeller to feather.

Unfeathering Check
To unfeather the propeller, pull the feather button and hold in the unfeather position. This action causes the
auxiliary pump to come on. Fluid pressure flows to the decrease side of the pitch change piston in the dome.
This action unlatches the feather latches. The propeller will start to unfeather.
Upon reaching the air start pitch angle (45 to 48 degrees), the air start beta switch closes. Closing the switch
energizes the air start control relay. This relay energizes the feather valve solenoid, which sends the blades back
towards feather. The return of the blades toward feather opens the air start beta switch to reenergize the air start
relay. Now the blades are cycling around the air start blade angle to stabilize the propeller speed and engine
speed. These stabilized speeds prevent an NTS condition from occurring during an air start. The air start blade
angle for unfeathering will cut out ground unfeathering when you depress the pressure cutout override (PCO)
button. This button is usually adjacent to the feather button. Depressing the PCO button prevents the blades
from cycling around the air start switch. The PCO button allows the blades to go to a lower blade angle setting.
Increase the blade angle before trying a decrease, so the pitchlock teeth will disconnect. The pitchlock teeth
will engage upon release of the feather button. Failure to increase the blade angle will cause damage to the
pitchlock teeth.

WARNING
Stopping a decreasing blade angle during ground
operations may cause a problem. If stoppage occurs
above the low pitch stop, do NOT, under any
circumstances, attempt to decrease the blade angle any
further.
Fuel Governor, Pitchlock, and Reverse Horsepower Checks
The purpose of the fuel governor check is to be sure that the fuel control governor will limit the engine speed if
the propeller governor fails. The pitchlock check makes sure that the propeller pitchlock will engage to prevent
the propeller from going to a lower blade angle. The reverse horsepower check will ensure that the reverse
horsepower will operate normally.

NTS Check on Shutdown

With the engine running at low rpm, place the NTS/feather valve check switch in the NTS check position. Turn
the fuel/ignition switch to OFF. NTS action should develop and illuminate the NTS light. If unsuccessful,
maintenance action is necessary.
5.Explain the propeller balancing and leakage tests in detail.
Accomplish all propeller balancing in a horizontal plane using the propeller balancing kit 7A100, or its
equivalent (Figure 8-19). Before performing actual propeller assembly buildup and balancing, you must always
refer to the appropriate technical publication.

Figure 8-19 — Propeller balancing.

NOTE
The final balance check can be erroneous because of
residual hydraulic fluid in the propeller dome assembly.
You must make sure the dome assembly is completely
drained of any residual hydraulic fluid before installing the
dome assembly for the final balance check.

Preliminary and final balance has already been completed on new and overhauled propellers before they are
disassembled and shipped to an AIMD/FRC. Do not perform preliminary balance if final balance can be
obtained first.
You must obtain horizontal balancing on all propellers during assembly. Horizontal balancing must be
performed in a room free of air currents and with the propeller assembly clean and dry. The plane of the blades
must be horizontal, and the blade pitch must be set at 45 degrees.
Do not install the dome cap, low pitch stop assembly, pitchlock regulator assembly, propeller hub nut, hub
mounting bulkhead assembly, and their associated parts. These units are not included as part of the balancing
procedure. Install the dome assembly without the dome-to-barrel preformed packing and gear preload shims.
Tighten the dome retaining nut snugly past its normal locking position. Use masking tape to hold the dome
retaining nut special head screw (without its cotter pin) in place at its normal locking position.

Final Balance Check

The final balance check is obtained by adding bolts, washers, and nuts to balancing holes in the deicer contact
ring holder assembly near the outer edge. If possible, bolts, washers, and nuts should be divided equally on
each side of the deicer contact ring holder assembly. Do not disturb similar bolts, washers, and nuts, which are
painted red and already located in the balancing holes. They are used for balance of the holder assembly itself,
not the propeller. Use special bolts, washers, and nuts on the deicer contact ring holder assembly installed on
the propeller. For the plastic molded holder assembly, use no more than six AN960-10 washers on one bolt;
use no more than six NAS514P1032-16 bolts and six MS20364-1032A nuts.
Obtain final balance with the propeller assembly mounted on the horizontal balance machine, with the plane of
the blades horizontal and the dome assembly installed. The sensitivity of the balance machine must be
calibrated so that any unbalance shown by the machine may be corrected or reversed by applying a restraining
moment of 6 inch-ounces.
If final balance cannot be obtained because of the maximum limit on the number of bolts, washers, and nuts
that can be added to the deicer contact ring holder assembly, it is necessary to obtain preliminary balance
first, and then final balance. Remove the final balance bolts, washers, and nuts from the holder assembly, if
they are installed.
If final balance cannot be obtained, preliminary balance must be obtained by installing balance washers
on the blade balancing plugs of the light blades.

NOTE
The propeller must be balanced to minimize vibration
levels, ensuring longevity and service life.

With the propeller suspended on the balancing stand, you should place the balance washers on the shanks of
the light blades next to the outboard electric contact rings (Figure 8-20). Preliminary balance has been
obtained when the propeller shows no tendency to tilt, or when tilting may be stopped or reversed by the
addition of the lightest balance washer to one or more blades on the light side of the propeller.
After you have determined the number of washers to install, remove the propeller from the balancing stand.
Disassemble the propeller until the light blades have been removed. Install the required washers on the blade
balance plugs. Reassemble and reinstall the propeller on the balancing stand. Recheck the preliminary balance
and obtain the final balance check, as previously described.
After you obtain final balance, remove the special head screw taped on the dome assembly. Remove the dome
assembly from the propeller, using care not to disturb the 45-degree setting of the rotating cam. Remove the
balancing arbor from the propeller.
Remove the propeller from the balancing stand. Remove the deicer contact ring assembly and the packing seal
ring with its preformed packing. The propeller must be reassembled prior to performing the external and
internal hydraulic leakage test.
 Figure 8-20 — Propeller suspended for
balancing.

External and Internal Hydraulic Leakage Test

Before you begin the propeller test, first verify that the propeller test equipment has been inspected, serviced,
and properly assembled. This must be done prior to the installation of the propeller. Install the propeller on
the test equipment in accordance with the appropriate technical publication before beginning the hydraulic
leakage test.
After the hydraulic fluid is warmed up, exercise the propeller between the high and the low blade angles
several times to purge air from both the test equipment and propeller system. Purging will avoid erratic
operation during the external and internal leakage tests.

CAUTION
Attempting to initiate a decrease in propeller blade angle
when the propeller is in a range from about 60 degrees to
15 degrees may cause the pitchlock to engage or cause
damage to the ratchet teeth. If it becomes necessary to
stop in this range, first increase the blade angle to above
the pitchlock range, and then proceed to a decreased
blade angle.
External Leakage Test
The test equipment used to supply the various pressures and flow requirements is the hydraulic propeller test
stand GS1221. With the test stand maintaining 150 pounds per square inch (psi), cycle the propeller blades
between a low blade angle and a high blade angle until a total of eight cycles are completed. No external
leakage is permissible during the cycling.
If internal leakage occurs at the junction of the barrel half seals and the blade packings, eliminate the leakage
by separating the barrel halves and adding zinc chromate putty, MIL-P-8116, to the junction. You must control
the amount and location of the putty to prevent it from getting into the barrel cavity. Leakage from the blade
bores can be eliminated by replacing the blade preformed packing. The complete external leakage test must be
rerun after any external leakage corrective work has been completed.

Internal Flow And Leakage Test

The internal flow and leakage tests are designed to ensure the proper internal operation of the propeller
system. The test equipment will supply the various hydraulic pressures to the inboard and outboard side of
the dome piston, surge valve, and pitchlock mechanism, ensuring smooth blade angle movement to the
reverse and feather blade angles.
If internal flow and leakage requirements are not in compliance with the appropriate technical publication,
you must disassemble the propeller and inspect all visible packings for damage and/or proper location. All
internal flow and leakage tests must be completed before you can issue the propeller to an operating activity.

6.Expalin the Feathering & Unfeathering System of Propeller in an a/c System.

Feathering : For some basic model consists of a feathering pump, reservoir, a feathering time-delay switch,
and a propeller feathering light. The propeller is feathered by moving the control in the cockpit against the
low speed stop. This causes the pilot vave lift rod in the governor to hold the pilot valve in the decrease
r.p.m. position regardless of the action of the governor flyweights. This causes the propeller blades to rotate
through high pitch to the feathering position.

Some model is initiated by depressing the feathering button. This action, auxiliary pump, feather
solinoid, which positions the feathering valve to tranfer oil to feathering the propeller. When the propeller
has been fully feathered, oil pressure will buildup and operate a pressure cutout switch which will cause the
auxiliary pump stop. Feathering may be also be accomplished by pulling the engine emergency shutdown
handle or switch to the shutdown position.
 Unfeathering : Some model is accomblished by holding the feathering buttn switch in the out position for
about 2 second . This creates an artificial underspeed condition at the governor and causes high-pressure oil
from the feathering pump to be directed to the rear of the propeller piston. As soon as the piston has moved
inward a short distance, the blades will have sufficient angle to start rotation of the engine. When this occurs
, the un-feathering switch can be released and the governor will resume control of the propeller.

7. Operation Principles of single & Double acting propeller in detail.

Principle Operation of Single Acting Propeller:
The pitch changing mechanism of hydromatic propeller is a mechanical-hydraulic system in which hydraulic
forces acting upon a piston are transformed into mechanical forces acting upon the blades.

Piston movement causes rotation of cam which incorporates a bevel gear (Hamilton Standard Propeller) . The oil
forces which act upon the piston are controled by the governor

Single Acting Propeller: The governor directs its pump output against the inboard side of piston only, A
single acting propeller uses a single acting governor. This type of propeller makes use of three forces during
constant speed operation , the blades centrifugal twisting moment and this force tends at all times to move the
blades toward low pitch , oil at engine pressure applied against the outboard side of the propeller piston and this
force to supplement the centrifugal twisting moment toward the low pitch during constant speed operation., and
oil from governor pressure applied against the inboard side of the piston . The oil pressure from governor was
boosted from the engine oil supply by governor pump and the force is controlled by metering the high pressure
oil to or draining it from the inboard side of the propeller piston which balances centrifugal twisting moment and
oil at the engine pressure.

Double Acting Propeller: The governor directs its output either side of the piston as the operating condition
required. Double acting propeller uses double acting governor. This type of propeller , the governor pump output
oil is directed by the governor to either side of the propeller piston.
 Principle Operation of Double Acting :
Overspeed Condition : When the engine speed increases above the r.p.m. for which the governor is set . Oil
supply is boosted in pressure by thr engine driven propeller governor , is directed against the inboard side of the
propeller piston. The piston and the attached rollers move outboard. As the piston moves outboard , cam and
rollers move the propeller blades toward a higher angle , which inturn, decreases the engine r.p.m.
Underspeed Condition : When the engine speed drops below the r.p.m. for which the governor is set. Force
at flyweight is decrease and permit speeder spring to lower pilot valve, thereby open the oil passage allow the oil
from inboard side of piston to drain through the governor. As the oil from inboard side is drained , engine oil
from engine flows through the propeller shaft into the outboard piston end. With the aid of blade centrifugal
twisting moment, The engine oil from outboard moves the piston inboard. The piston motion is transmitted
through the cam and rollers . Thus, the blades move to lower angle.
8.Classif ication of pr opellers in brief ly.

fig 6 - 4 cross section of a propeller. An a (alpha) denotes angle of attack of airfoil sections

Propellers may be classified as to whether the blade pitch is fixed or variable. The demands on the propeller
differ according to circumstances. For example, in takeoffs and climbs more power is needed, and this can best
be provided by low pitch. For speed at cruising altitude, high pitch will do the best job. A fixed-pitch propeller is
a compromise.

Fixed pitch propellers

The propeller is made in one piece. Only one pitch setting is possible and is usually two blades propeller and is
often made of wood or metal.

Wooden Propellers: propellers were used almost exclusively on personal and business aircraft prior to World
War II .A wood propeller is not cut from a solid block but is built up of a number of separate layers of carefully
selected .any types of wood have been used in making propellers, but the most satisfactory are yellow birch,
sugar maple, black cherry, and black walnut. The use of lamination of wood will reduce the tendency for
propeller to warp. For standard one-piece wood propellers, from five to nine separate wood laminations about 3/4
in. thick are used.

Metal Propellers: During 1940, solid steel propellers were made for military use. Modern propellers are
fabricated from high-strength , heat-treated, aluminium alloy by forging a single bar of aluminium alloy to the
required shape. Metal propellers is now extensively used in the construction of propellers for all type of aircraft.
The general appearance of the metal propeller is similar to the wood propeller, except that the sections are
generally thinner.

Va riab le pitch p rop ellers

There are two types of variable-pitch propellers adjustable and controllable. The adjustable propeller's pitch can
be changed only by a mechanic to serve a particular purpose-speed or power.

The variable pitch propeller permits pilots to change pitch to more ideally fit their requirements at the moment. In
different aircraft, this is done by electrical or hydraulic means.

Two-position: A propeller which can have its pitch changed from one position to one other angle by the pilot
while in flight.

Controllable pitch: The pilot can change the pitch of the propeller in flight or while operating the engine by
mean of a pitch changing mechanism that may be operated by hydraulically.
Constant speed propellers

In modern aircraft, it is done automatically, and the propellers are referred to as constant-speed propellers. As
power requirements vary, the pitch automatically changes, keeping the engine and the propeller operating at a
constant rpm. If the rpm rate increases, as in a dive, a governor on the hydraulic system changes the blade pitch
to a higher angle. This acts as a brake on the crankshaft. If the rpm rate decreases, as in a climb, the blade pitch is
lowered and the crankshaft rpm can increase. The constant-speed propeller thus ensures that the pitch is always
set at the most efficient angle so that the engine can run at a desired constant rpm regardless of altitude or
forward speed.

Constant-speed propellers may have a full-feathering capability. Feathering means to turn the blade
approximately parallel with the line of flight, thus equalizing the pressure on the face and back of the blade and
stopping the propeller. Feathering is necessary if for some reason the propeller is not being driven by the engine
and is wind-milling, a situation that can damage the engine and increase drag on the aircraft.

Some controllable-pitch and constant-speed propellers also are capable of being reversed. This is done by
rotating the blades to a negative or reverse pitch. Reversible propellers push air forward, reducing the required
landing distance as well as reducing wear on tires and brakes.

Beta Control: A propeller which allows the manual repositioning of the propeller blade angle beyond the normal
low pitch stop. Used most often in taxiing, where thrust is manually controlled by adjusting blade angle with the
power lever.
 9. Propeller theory in detail:

The forces. Propeller blades are constructed using aerofoil sections to produce an aerodynamic force, in a similar
manner to a wing. Consequently the blades are subject to the same aerodynamics – induced drag, parasite drag,
wingtip vortices, lift/drag ratios at varying aoa, pressure distribution changing with aoa etc. There is a difference
in application because, in flight, the propeller has rotational velocity added to the translational [forward] velocity
thus the flight path of any blade section is a spiral – a helical flight path.

The diagram at left represents a blade section in flight and rotating around the shaft axis. Because of the different
application it doesn't serve much purpose to express the resultant aerodynamic force as we would for a wing,
with the components acting perpendicular (lift) and parallel (drag) to that flight path, as in the upper figure. So
we represent the aerodynamic force component acting forward and aligned with the aircraft's longitudinal axis as
the thrust force, and that component acting parallel to the direction of rotation as the propeller torque force.

As you see in the lower figure the component of the lift acting in the rotational plane has now been added to the
drag to produce the 'propeller torque force' vector. The remaining forward acting portion of lift is then the thrust.
That is why propeller efficiency is usually no greater than 80 – 85%, not all the lift can be used as thrust and the
propeller torque force consumes quite a bit of the shaft horse power. The propeller torque and the engine torque
will be in balance when the engine is operating at constant rpm in flight.

There are other forces acting on the blades during flight, turning moments that tend to twist the blades and
centrifugal force for example. The air inflow at the face of the propeller disc also affects propeller dynamics.

Blade angle and pitch

Although all parts of the propeller, from the hub to the blade tips, have the same forward velocity, the rotational
velocity – and thus the helical path of any blade station – will depend on its distance from the hub centre.
Consequently, unless adjusted, the angle of attack, will vary along the length of the blade. Propellers operate
most efficiently when the aoa at each blade station is consistent (and, for propeller efficiency, that giving the best
lift drag ratio) over most of the blade, so a twist is built into the blades to achieve a more or less uniform aoa.
The blade angle is the angle the chord line of the aerofoil makes with the propeller's rotational plane and is
expressed in degrees. Because of the twist the blade angle will vary throughout its length so normally the
standard blade angle is measured at the blade station 75% of the distance from the hub centre to the blade tip. The
angle between the aerofoil chord line and the helical flight path (the relative airflow) at the blade station is, of
course, the angle of attack and the angle between the helical flight path and the rotational plane is the angle of
advance or helix angle. The aoa and helix angle vary with rotational and forward velocity.

The basic dimensions of propellers for light aircraft are usually stated in the form of number of blades, diameter
and pitch with the latter values given in inches. e.g. 3 blade 64" × 38". The pitch referred to is the geometric pitch
which is calculated, for any blade station but usually the 75% radius position, thus:

Geometric pitch = the circumference (2 π r) of the propeller disc at the blade station multiplied by the tangent of
the blade angle. Thus it is the distance the propeller – and aircraft – would advance during one revolution of the
propeller if the blade section followed a path extrapolated along the blade angle.
e.g. For a blade station 24 inches from the hub centre [0.75r] and a 14° blade angle, the circumference = 2 × 3.14
× 24 = 150 inches and tangent 14° = 0.25. Thus the geometric pitch is 150 × 0.25 = 38 inches. Propellers are
usually designed so that all blade stations have much the same geometric pitch.

Designers may establish the ideal pitch of a propeller which is the theoretical advance per revolution which
would cause the blade aerofoil to be at the zero lift aoa; thus it would generate no thrust and, ignoring drag, is the
theoretical maximum achievable aircraft speed.
The velocity that the propeller imparts to the air flowing through its disc is the slipstream and slip used to be
described as the difference between the velocity of the air behind the propeller ( i.e. accelerated by the propeller)
and that of the aircraft. Nowadays slip has several interpretations, most being aerodynamically unsatisfactory, but
you might consider it to be the difference, expressed as a percentage, between the ideal pitch and the advance per
revolution when the the propeller is working at maximum efficiency in conversion of engine power to thrust
power. Slip in itself is not a measure of propeller efficiency; as stated previously propeller efficiency is the ratio
of the thrust power (thrust × aircraft velocity) output to the engine power input.

Pit ch and velocity

The performance of aircraft fitted with fixed pitch or ground adjustable propellers is very much dependent on the
chosen blade angle. Fixed pitch propellers limit the rpm developed by the engine at low forward velocity, such as
occurs during the take-off ground roll and may also allow the engine rpm to exceed red-line maximum when the
load on the engine is reduced, such as occurs in a shallow dive. Fixed pitch propellers operate at best efficiency at
one combination of shaft power and airspeed. Blade angle is usually chosen to produce maximum performance at
a particular flight condition, for example:
• Vy climb i.e. a climb propeller
• Vc cruise i.e. a cruise propeller
• High speed.
The climb propeller is usually chosen when the aircraft normally operates from a restricted airfield or in high
density altitude conditions. The climb propeller will produce maximum efficiency at full throttle around the best
rate of climb airspeed and will perform fairly well at take-off, but during the initial take-off acceleration even the
climb propeller may restrict the engine rpm to less than 75% power. The cruise propeller will achieve maximum
efficiency at 75% power at airspeeds around the design cruising speed but aircraft take-off and climb
performance will not be the optimum. The cruise propeller usually has a little more pitch than the standard
propeller fitted to the aircraft. A high speed propeller might be fitted when the aircraft is intended to be operating
at, or above, rated power for short periods – in speed competition for example.

A constant speed propeller allows the engine to develop maximum rated power and rpm during the ground roll
and to develop full power throughout its normal rpm range. With a constant speed propeller the pilot controls
inlet manifold air pressure [MAP] with the throttle lever and the engine rpm with the rpm control lever or
knob/switches. The pilot has several combinations of rpm/MAP to achieve a particular power setting. For
example, in one particular aircraft, the recommended combinations for 65% power at sea level are 2100 rpm + 26
inches Hg MAP or 2200 + 25 inches or 2300 + 24 inches or 2400 + 23 inches. So you can use low rpm and high
MAP or high rpm and low MAP to achieve exactly the same power output. The low rpm / high MAP
combination probably gives more efficient cylinder charging and better combustion plus less friction. The high
MAP also acts as a cushion in the cylinders, reducing engine stress. MAP is usually measured in inches of
mercury [Hg] rather than hectopascals.

10.)Propeller Balancing & Its Types.

This section describes only the general issues and types of propeller balancing. It is not intended to
provide instructions for maintenance personnel to perform static or dynamic propeller balancing.
a. Unbalance. (1) Propellers can become unbalanced during operation from mishandling, wear, damage and a
variety of other causes. In some instances, the process of moving an aircraft by pushing or pulling on the
propeller blades has bent or unseated the blades to an out-of-track condition or damages the blade preload
system. Propeller wear and damage - and the repair of that damage - are also contributors to propeller imbalance.
Unauthorized or improper repair of propeller spinners has also been identified as a cause of propeller imbalance.
(2) Unbalance results when the mass of the propeller is not symmetrical around the center of rotation. When the
mass is unsymmetrical, a radial force and/or out-of-plane moment couple is formed. Static and common dynamic
balance procedures only correct the radial force unbalance by adding an equal force in the opposite direction with
balance weights. Only trained, specially equipped, and authorized maintenance personnel should accomplish the
dynamic balance procedures.
b. Balancing Difficulties. Propellers that cannot be balanced or propellers that are difficult to balance on the
aircraft using approved dynamic balancing procedures may have latent problems that should be investigated.
Loose components, loose flange bolts, fractured components, such as hubs or blades, or blades that are out-of-
track or angle, are some of the more likely problems that will cause balancing difficulties. These are problems
that need to be addressed prior to further flight. c. Balancing Methods. There are two methods of propeller
balancing - static balancing and dynamic balancing. Neither method can replace the other because they are used
for different purposes.
(1) Static Balancing. A propeller can be statically balanced only by removing it from the aircraft and evaluating
the balance on a special fixture. Only appropriately certificated persons or organizations may adjust propeller
static balance. Static balance weights are added to or removed from the propeller to correct the measured
imbalance, or material from the blades is removed by special grinding techniques.
(2) Dynamic Balancing. Certain models of propellers may be dynamically balanced in place on the aircraft.
Dynamic balancing of a propeller is done to provide for the lowest level of vibration in its operating range.
Although the propeller is the focal point of the balancing procedure, it is the combination of the engine, engine
mounting system, and the propeller assembly that combine to provide the level of vibration.
(a) When balance weights are added or removed from the propeller assembly, it is to reduce the level of
vibration produced by the engine, engine mounting system, and the propeller as an operating assembly
(b) When a propeller that has been balanced as part of a particular engine and engine mount system is
removed from that assembly, it cannot be assumed that the dynamic balance would remain the same for another
engine or engine mounting system.
(c) For aircraft or propeller manufacturers that provide procedures for dynamic balancing of the propeller
in their maintenance manuals or instructions for continued airworthiness, propeller balancing is not considered a
major airframe alteration.
(d) When approved aircraft or propeller manufacturer’s procedures are not available, there are other
acceptable dynamic propeller balancing procedures. These include, but are not limited to the Chadwick-Helmuth
Publication No. AW-9511-2, entitled “The Smooth Propeller”, and ACES Publication No. 100-OM-01, entitled
“ACES Systems Guide to Propeller Balancing”. Dynamic balancing of propellers using FAA-approved or -
accepted dynamic propeller balancing procedures is not considered a major propeller repair unless the propeller
static balance weights are altered or when using the Chadwick-Helmuth or ACES type documents on propeller
installations of 500 horsepower or more.
(e) Install a placard on the propeller hub or bulkhead stating that the propeller has been dynamically
balanced and the assembly of the power train rotating components is an indexed assembly. An entry will be made
in the logbook with the date, engine hours, final balance vibration, location of the dynamic balance weights,
signature and certificate number of the maintenance person.
(f) Remove any tape that is installed on the blades to conduct the dynamic balancing procedure upon
completion of the balancing procedure. The tape has been known to trap moisture causing corrosion and
subsequent blade failure. Dynamic balancing is done on wing and is not to be confused with static balancing.
Static balancing is performed by the manufacturer or an appropriately rated repair station .

11. Types of propeller damage in detail.

Many types of damage cause propellers to fail or become unairworthy. FAA data on propeller failures
indicates that the majority of failures occur in the blade at the tip region, usually within several inches from
the tip and often due to a crack initiator such as a pit, nick, or gouge. However, a blade failure can occur along
any portion of a blade, including the mid-blade, shank, and hub, particularly when nicks, scratches, corrosion,
and cracks are present. Therefore, during propeller inspection and routine maintenance, it is important to
inspect the entire blade. The severity of the damage determines the type of repairs required.

a. Corrosion. One of the principal causes of loss of airworthiness in propellers is corrosion. External
corrosion on metal blades, hubs, and other components poses a serious problem. Internal corrosion may exist
where moisture may collect in internal cavities such as hubs, blade clamps, and pitch control mechanisms.
This threatens propeller structural integrity and performance without being noticed. The overhaul calendar
time periods for propellers are established so that the propeller can be disassembled to inspect internal
surfaces. Moreover, corrosion acts continuously, regardless of the actual time in operation. Corrosion on metal
propeller components can be classified into three distinct types.
(1) Surface Corrosion. The loss of surface metal due to chemical or electro-chemical action with visible
oxidation products usually having a contrasting color and texture to the base metal. Surface corrosion,
generally results when the corrosion protection on a metal surface has been removed by erosion or by
polishing. Therefore, removing paint and corrosion protection, such as when polishing blades, is not
recommended.
(2) Pitting. Pits consist of visible corrosion cavities extending inward from the metal surface. They can
grow on the surface, under decals, or under improperly installed de-ice boots. Pitting can appear to be
relatively minor - 0.010 inches deep - and still cause major problems since the pits could be a precursor to the
initiation of cracks .
(3) Intergranular Corrosion. Occurs in grain boundaries. The presence of intergranular corrosion may be
the result of the continued presence of moisture such as under a decal, in a fastener hole, or where the anodize
and paint protective barriers have been lost.
a.)Exfoliation is a form of intergranular corrosion that occurs more often in forgings or rolled sheets, and
less often in castings. Exfoliation is sometimes visible as metal flaking and cracks on a blade leading edge.
Exfoliation on the Blade Leading Edge.
b. Face, Leading Edge, or Twist Misalignment. When propeller blades are bent, twisted, or cocked, they
will not be properly aligned with each other in operation. This will cause vibration and may cause a loss of
thrust. The level of vibration can be severe and depending on the severity of the misalignment, could lead to
catastrophic failure .
c. Nick. A sharp, notch-like displacement of metal usually found on leading and trailing edges. All nicks
are potential crack starters
d. Erosion. The loss of material from blade surface by the action of small particles such as sand or water
and is usually present on the leading edge close to the tip. This damage destroys the blades’ corrosion
protection, which might lead to blade failure Blade Nick Erosion on a Metal Blade.
e. Scratches, Gouges, Cuts, and Scoring. These terms describing surface damage are found.
f. Cracks. When found anywhere in a propeller, cracks are cause for its immediate removal and detailed
inspection. Cracks in propellers will grow over time, perhaps very rapidly, and eventually lead to failure Nick.
g. Dents. Dents can be harmful, depending on their size, location, and configuration. Dents cause local
stress risers around their perimeter and at the bottom under the surface. Removing material should repair
dents. Filling dents with any material such as auto body compound does nothing to correct the stress riser and
is not approved. Failure may occur.
h. Lightning Strike. A lightning strike on a metal blade may be indicated by a small burned and melted
area on the blade, a trail of small pits along the blade.However, the damage from a lightning strike may be
severe, affecting the strength of the blade material itself, damaging blade bearings or other internal
components. Lightning always creates residual magnetism in steel parts. Inspection for damage from a
reported lightning strike may require specialized equipment, like a gauss meter, to check for magnetism in
steel components, and should be accomplished by an appropriately rated propeller repair station. A lightning
strike on a composite blade may be indicated by small burnt areas on the composite where the lightning may
have attached or exited .Composite blades may suffer other damage as well. Refer to the propeller
manufacturer’s maintenance manual for diagnosis and corrective action. Lightning Strike on a Metal Blade
Strong Lightning Strike on a Composite Blade Tip Lightning Strike on a Composite Surface.
i. Overspeed. A propeller may have been exposed to an overspeed condition and give no indication of the
event. However, the event may have severely damaged the propeller due to the dramatic increase in
centrifugal loads. If the propeller is suspected of having been operated in an overspeed condition, it should be
removed and sent to a propeller repair station to be inspected for elongation of boltholes, dimension changes,
or other signs of stress in accordance with the appropriate manufacturer’s maintenance instructions.
Sometimes excessive tolerances in engine or propeller governor settings can permit overspeed conditions into
restricted rotational speed ranges without the knowledge of the operator.
j. Foreign Object Strike. A foreign object strike can include a broad spectrum of damage, from no visible
damage, to a small nick, to severe ground impact damage. A conservative approach in evaluating the damage
is required because of the possibility that there may be hidden damage that is not readily apparent during a
superficial, visual inspection .Refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance instructions for damage limitations.
Propeller Blade Struck by a Foreign Object.

k. Fire Damage or Heat Damage. On rare occasions, propellers have been exposed to fire or heat damage
such as a hangar or engine fire. In the event of such an incident, an inspection is required before further flight.
Such parts are normally retired. If there is any indication or suspicion that aluminum propeller parts have been
exposed to high temperatures (in excess of 200 °F (93 °C)), then the parts must be assumed to be unairworthy,
unless it can be proven that there have been no adverse affects from the incident. Composite propeller blades
may have a lower temperature threshold for potential damage
 UNIT-III,JET ENGINES
PART- A
1.)Name the events during which special inspections are carried out in gas turbine engine.
Events which may cause the engine to require special inspections are foreign object
ingestion, bird ingestion, ice ingestion, over limit operation (temperature and rpm),
excessive “G” loads and any other event that could cause internal and external engine
damage.
2.)What is twin spool axial compressor?
A dual compressor jet engine utilizes two separate compressors, each with its own driving
turbine. This type of engine is called a “twin spool” or “split compressor” engine
3.)Write the two main methods of measuring and correcting any unbalance of gas turbine
engine.
The two main methods of measuring and correcting unbalance are
single plane (static) balancing and two plane (dynamic) balancing.
4.)Explain the term “condition monitoring”
Aviation maintenance and operations groups are continually striving to improve the
service reliability of their gas turbine engines and, at the same time, reduce the operating costs.
One tool which can aid both of these efforts is engine performance monitoring.
5.)Define ‘online maintenance’.
work that is required to maintain an engine and its systems in an air worthy condition
while it is installed in an aircraft is called on line maintenance.
6.)List the different types of fuel spray nozzles.
1. Simplex nozzle
2. Variable port nozzle
3. Duplex nozzle
4. Spill type nozzle
5. Air spray nozzle
7.)Describe gas-turbine starter.

Gas turbine starter is used for some jet engines and it is completely self contained. It has
its own fuel and ignition system, starting system, (electric or hydraulic) a self contained oil
system. This type of starter is economical to operate and provides high power output for a
comparatively low weight.
8.)State the methods of balancing of Gas-turbine components

The two main methods of measuring and correcting unbalance are single plane (static)
balancing and two plane (dynamic) balancing.
9.)Compare a gas-turbine igniter plug with a spark plug.
Design and configuration of igniter plug and spark plug are different.
Since igniter plug is designed to operate at a lower surrounding pressure than is a spark
plug, the spark gaps in an igniter are greater.
 Spark discharge of an igniter causes much more rapid erosion of the electrodes than the spark
provided by the spark plug.

10.)At what engine speed does the starter system disengage in a jet engine?
The starter is coupled to the engine through a reduction gear and ratchet mechanism or
clutch, which automatically disengages after the engine has reached a self-sustaining speed.

11.)What is the purpose of compressor wash?

purpose of compressor wash is to remove the baked-on salt, dirt, or other types of
contamination deposits. Because during engine operations the deposits accumulate on engine
compressor and turbine blades and deteriorating the engine performance.

12.)Describe the purpose of trend analysis.

Trend analysis involves the recording and analysis of gas-turbine engine performance and
certain mechanical parameters over a period of time.
The primary aim of trend analysis is to provide a means of detecting significant changes in
the performance parameters resulting from changes in the mechanical condition of the
engine.

13.)What is “hung start” or “false” start?

If the engine fails to accelerate properly or does not reach the idle rpm position, the
starting attempt is called a false start or a hung start.

14.)Enumerate the operational checks to ensure that a gas turbine engine is in satisfactory
operating condition.
To ensure that a gas turbine engine is in satisfactory operating condition, engine and aircraft
manufacturers specify certain operational checks to be routinely performed. They are
Dry motoring check
Wet motoring check
Power assurance check
Idle check.

15.)What is the purpose of bell mouth air inlet being used in test stand?

The operation of an engine on a test stand is usually accomplished with a bell mouth
air inlet. The purpose of this type of inlet is to eliminate any loss of air pressure at the
compressor inlet.

16.)What is scheduled maintenance?

Scheduled maintenance includes the periodic recurring inspections that must be carried out in
accordance with the engine section of the aircraft maintenance schedule. Usually calculated in
aircraft flying hours.
17.)What is the function of the exhaust nozzle?

The function of the exhaust nozzle is to control the velocity and temperature of the
exhaust gases. When a convergent nozzle is used, the velocity of the gas is increased and the
thrust is in line with the engine.

18.)Enumerate the techniques required for Non routine inspections.

The techniques required for Non routine inspections are

 Visual inspection
 Inspection with lights
 Use of magnifying glass
 Applications of fluorescent or dyepenetrants
 Use of bores cope or video scope
 Use of radiography.

19.)Define “trouble shooting.

Trouble shooting is the step by step procedure used to determine the cause of a given fault
and then select the best and quickest solution. When trouble shooting, the technician must
evaluate the performance of the engine by comparing data on how the engine should operate and
how it is currently operating.

20.)What are the three major sections of a gas turbine engine?

A gas turbine engine has three major sections, an air compressor, a combustion section,
and a turbine section.

21.)What is the purpose of turbine?

The purpose of the turbine is to extract kinetic energy from the high velocity gases leaving the
combustion section of the engine. The energy is converted to shaft horse power for the purpose
of driving the compressor.

22.)What is the function of the diffuser in gas turbine engine?

The function of the diffuser is to reduce the velocity of the air. As the velocity of the air
decreases, its static pressure increases. As the static pressure increases, the ram pressure
decreases. The diffuser is the point of highest pressure within the engine.

23.)Enumerate the instruments used for Non- routine inspection of gas- turbine engine.

a. Borescope or video scope

b. Fiberscope
c. Electronic imaging
24.)What action to be taken when an engine has been operated with no oil pressure for more than
two minutes?

When an engine has been operated with no oil pressure for more than two minutes the
engine must be removed for overhaul.

25.)What is “hot start”?

During the starting of a gas turbine engine, the EGT (exhaust gas temperature) exceeds
the prescribed safe limit, the engine is said to have had a hot start.

PART-B

1. Explain the procedure of carrying out “A” check inspection performed on

gas Turbine engine after 100 hrs operation.
A typical airline may designate standard service operations and inspections by such names as
“No. 1 service, No. 2 service, “A” check, “B” check

“No. 1 service: It is performed by station personnel each time the airplane lands or
after several landings. The service will include correction of critical log items as well as
regular service (fuel and resupply), and a walk around inspection.

“No. 2 service: Review of the flight log and cabin log, check of engine oil quantity, visual
inspection of the engine with cowls open.

“A” check: It is performed after approximately 100hrs of operation. Inspection and service
related to the engine are as follows.

1. Fill oil tanks and enter the quarts added for each engine in the inspection records.
2. Service the constant- speed drive as required.
3. Check engine inlet, cowling, and pylon for damage, irregularities, and leakage.
4. Inspect the engine exhaust section for damage using a strong inspection light and
note the condition of rear turbine.
5. Check the thrust- reverser ejector and reverser buckets for security and damage.

6. Check the reverser system, with ejectors extended, for cracks, buckling, and
damage.
 PERIODIC INSPECTIONS

Periodic inspections are required after a given number of operation hours, flight cycles, or a
combination of both. These inspections are classified as routine, minor, or major. Scheduling of
inspections is established by the operator of the aircraft.

OVER SPEED INSPECTION

2. Explain over speed inspection for a typical high- bypass fan engine
Over speed inspection for a typical high-bypass fan engine is primarily concerned with rotating
assemblies. Manufacturer specifies the following inspections if the fan has been operated at speed from
116 to 120 percent rpm.

1. Check the fan rotor for freedom of rotation.

2. Check the first-stage fan shroud for excessive rub.
3. Inspect the low pressure compressor with a borescope.
4. Inspect the inlet and exhaust nozzles for particles.
5. Inspect all four stages of the LPT with a borescope for blade and vane damage. Inspect the
fourth stage blades through the exhaust nozzle.
6. If the fan speed has exceeded120percent, the fan rotor, fan mid shaft, and LPT rotor must be
removed, disassembled, and inspected in accordance with instructions.
7. If the core- engine rotor (high pressure compressor, high pressure turbine) has been
operated at speeds from 107 to 108.5 percent, the following inspections are to be carried
out.
a. Inspect the exhaust nozzle for particles.

b. Inspect the core compressor with a borescope for blade and vane damage.
c. Inspect the HPT with a borescope for blade damage.
8. If the core engine rotor has been operated above 108.5 percent, the engine must be
removed, disassembled, and inspected according to instruction.

3. State and explain in detail about the instruments used during Non routine
inspections.
During the operation of the gas turbine engine, various events may occur which cause the engine to
require immediate special inspection to determine whether the engine has been damaged and what
corrective actions must be taken. Among some of the events which require special inspections are
foreign object injection, bird ingestion, ice ingestion, over limit operation (temperature and rpm),
excessive “G” loads, and any other event that could cause internal and external engine damage.
 Instruments used for Non routine ispenctions
a. Borescope
b. Fiberscope
c. Electronic imaging

BORESCOPE
The borescope was used for examining the insides of cylinder bores on reciprocating engine and is
now extensively used on turbine engines. The borescope is a rigid instrument that may be
compared with a small periscope. At the one end is an eye piece with one or more lenses attached
to the light carrying tube. At the end of the tube are a mirror, a lens, and strong light.

The tube is inserted through engine borescope ports located in the engine case at points necessary
to allow for examination of all critical areas inside the engine. The ports are normally closed.

When the borescope inspections are to be performed, the technician should identify the plugs which
are removed to be sure that they are reinstalled in the same ports.

FIBERSCOPE
A variation of the rigid borescope is the fiberscope. The flexible fiberscope has a controllable bending
section near the tip so that the observer can direct the scope after it has been inserted into an engine
inspection port. The bending action allows the fiberscope to scan the area inside the engine once
inside the port. Many times it is necessary to inspect around the corners inside the engine when no
inspection entry port is available to allow a direct line of sight.

ELECTRONIC IMAGING
A new imaging technique, Electronic imaging, is able to produce sharp, true-color, magnified
images that can be seen on a video monitor. One such system is the video- probe 2000.

A video imaging system includes an inspection probe, a video processor, and a video monitor for
displaying the image. The system uses a tiny charged- coupled device (CCD) sensor in the tip of the
probe. The CCD sensor acts like a miniature TV camera to transmit the image electronically to a video
monitor.

First light is transmitted to the inspection area, either by light emitting diodes or by fiber –optic light
guides. A fixed focus lens in the tip of the probe gathers reflected light from the area and directs it to
the surface of the CCD sensor. The signal then travels down the length of the probe through
amplifiers. The video processor receives the signal, digitizes it, assembles it, and outputs it directly to
a video monitor, video tape recorder.

4.Discuss about condition monitoring of the engine on ground and at altitude.

Aviation maintenance and operations groups are continually striving to improve the
of the gas turbine engines and, at the same time reduce operating cost by monitoring engine
performance through trend analysis.
Trend analysis involves the recording and analysis of gas turbine engine performance and
certain mechanical parameters over a period of time. The primary aim of trend analysis is to
provide a means of detecting significant changes in the performance parameters resulting from
changes in mechanical condition of the engine
 A gas turbine engine operates with various performance parameters at steady
state condition. Once the initial relationships have been established for the various parameters, a
specific change will not vary significantly from this calibration unless some external force affects it.
Thus, abnormal performance of an engine will be indicated by parameter relationships deviating from
the norm.
Data collection methods will vary depending on whether the data are collected
or by an onboard computer. Data should be collected at regular intervals. Variable loads extracted from
the engine, such as generator, hydraulic, air conditioning, and bleed air, will have an effect on trend
accuracy. To minimize these effects, each time a set of reading is taken, with regard to altitude and
power. To reduce fluctuations in the data, ensure that the engine parameters are stabilized before taking
the data readings.
Condition monitoring devices are designed to give an indication of any engine
deterioration at the earliest possible stage. This facilitates quick diagnosis which can be followed by
either further monitoring or immediate action on the problem. Condition monitoring devices and
equipment can be categorized into the areas of flight recorders and ground indicators.

5. How is the balancing of gas turbine engine carried out? Explain.

Because of the high rotational speed, any unbalance in the main rotating assembly of a gas turbine
engine is capable of producing vibrations and stresses which increase as the square of the rotational
speed. Therefore very accurate balancing of the rotating assembly is necessary.
The two main methods of measuring and correcting unbalance are single plane (static) balancing
and two plane (dynamic) balancing. Single plane balancing is used when the unbalance is in one plane
only, that is, the unbalance goes centrally through the component at 90° to the axis. The single plane
method is appropriate for component such as individual compressors and turbine discs. For compressor
assemblies and turbine rotor assemblies possessing appreciable actual length, unbalance may be present
at many positions along the axis. Therefore two plane balancing may be required.

6.)Explain in brief the routine operation checks performed to ensure the gas turbine engine
is in satisfactory operating condition.
Or
6.)Explain the following operational checks in gas turbine engine.
To ensure that a gas turbine engine is in satisfactory operating condition, engine and aircraft
manufacturers specify certain operational checks to be routinely performed by maintenance personnel.
The particular types of checks and the procedures to be followed vary, depending on the type of engine
and aircraft involved.

DRY MOTORING CHECKS

The dry motoring check is required during or after inspection or maintenance to ensure that the engine
rotates freely, that instrumentation function properly, starter operation meets speed requirements for
successful starts. This check is also used to prime and leak checks the lubrication system when
maintenance has required replacement of system components.
PROCEDURE:

1. Ascertain that all conditions required prior to a normal start are met.
2. Position engine controls and switches as follows:

1. Ignition, OFF
2. Fuel shutoff lever, OFF
3. Throttle, Idle
4. Fuel Booster Pump, ON
3. Energize the starter and motor the engine as long as necessary to check instruments for
positive indications of engine rotation and oil pressure.
4. De-energize the starter and make the following checks during coast down:
(a)Listen for unusual noises. Check for roughness.
(b) Inspect the lubricating system lines, fittings and accessories for leakage.
(c)Check the oil level in the oil tank.
WET MOTORING CHECK
It is necessary to check the operation of fuel system components after removal and replacement or
to perform a de preservation of the fuel system.

PROCEDURE:

1. Position engine controls and switches as follows:

1. Ignition, OFF
2. Fuel shutoff lever, OFF
3. Throttle, Idle
4. Fuel Booster Pump, ON
2. Energize the starter.
3. when core engine speed(N2) reaches 10 percent, move the fuel shutoff lever to ON and check
for oil pressure indication.

4. Continue motoring the engine until the fuel flow is 500-600 lb/h or for a maximum of 60s.
Observe the starter operating limits.

5. Move the fuel shutoff lever to OFF and continue motoring the engine for at least 30 s to clear
the fuel from the combustion chamber . check to see that fuel flow drops to zero.

5. De-energize the starter and, during coast down, check for unusual noises.
6. Inspect the fuel system lines, fittings and accessories for leakage.
7. Check the concentric fuel shroud for leakage. No leakage is
permitted.
 8. Inspect the lubrication system for leakage.
9.
Check the oil level in the oil tank.
IDLE CHECK

The idle check consists of checking for proper engine operation as evidenced by leak free
connections, normal operating noise, and correct indications on engine related instruments. Engine drain
lines must be disconnected from drain cans to check for leakage.

PROCEDURE

1. Start the engine according to approved procedure.

2. Stabilize the engine at the ground idle.
3. Check fan speed (N1), Core engine speed (N2), Oil pressure, and exhaust gas temperature
(EGT) should be within the proper ranges according to the ground idle speed chart and engine
specifications.
4. Visually inspect fuel, lubrication, and pneumatic lines, fittings and accessories for leakage.

5. De-energize flight idle solenoid. During operations above ground idle, do not exceed the
open cowling limitations imposed by the airframe manufacturer.
6. Stabilize at flight idle and check the same parameters checked for ground idle. See that they
are within the limitations set forth on the flight idle speed charts.

POWER ASSURANCE CHECK

The power assurance check is performed to make sure that the engine will achieve takeoff power
on a hot day without exceeding rpm and temperature limitations. During the tests the engine is not used
to supply power for any aircraft systems (Electric, Hydraulic or other). The engine is tested at 50% and,
75%, and maximum power.

During the power assurance check EGT must be observed constantly to avoid the possibility of
over temperature. If the EGT approach maximum allowable, the throttle must be retarded sufficiently to
hold the EGT within limits.

PROCEDURE

1. Set the engine power at nominal N2 speed as indicated on the appropriate chart for the total air
temperature (TAT).
2. Four minutes after the throttle lever is set, record the average readings of TAT, N 1 speed, N2
speed, EGT, EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio) and fuel flow (Wf)
3. Using N1 (where N1= Target N1- observed N1) as a correction factor,
adjust readings according to the parameter adjustments set forth in the operations manual.

4.
Before a hot engine is shut down it should be operated at ground idle speed for about 3
minutes to permit temperature reduction and stabilization. As soon as the engine is shut
down the EGT gauge should be observed to see that EGT start decrease. If the EGT does not decrease,
 an internal fire is indicated, and the engine should be dry motored at once to blow out the fire.After the
engine is shut down, technician should listen for unusual noises in the engine such as scraping, grinding,
bumping and squealing.

7.Explain the special inspection carried out after the gas turbine engine experienced the
snags of “Foreign object damage” and ‘Blade damage’
Foreign object damage to a gas-turbine engine may consist of anything
from small nicks and scratches to complete disablement or destruction of the engine. The flight crew of
an aircraft may or may not aware that FOD has occurred during a flight. If damage is substantial,
however, it will be indicated by vibration and by changes in the engine’s operating parameters.

When FOD has occurred, the inspections required depend on the nature of
the foreign objects. If an external inspection indicates substantial damage to the fan section or to the inlet
guide vanes, the engine must be removed and overhauled. If the damage to the forward section of the
engine is slight, a boroscope inspection of the interior of the engine is necessary. Damage to vanes, fan
blades, compressor blades can be repaired if it does not exceed the limits specified by the manufacturer.
If the engine operates normally after repairs are made, it can be placed back in service.

FAN BLADE SHINGLING

Fan blade shingling is the overlapping of the midspan shrouds of the fan blades. Shingling will take
place, when the blades of a rotating fan encounter resistance which forces them sideways an appreciable
distance.

Shingling can be caused by engine stall, bird strike, FOD, or engine over speed, in which case the fan
must be inspected at both the upper and lower surfaces of the midspan shrouds for chafing, scoring, and
other damage adjacent to the interlock surfaces. All blades that are overlapped or show indications of
overlapping must be removed and inspected according to manual. No cracks are permitted in the fan
blades. Blade tips are examined for curl, and the lightening holes are checked for cracks and deformation.

Inspection of the abradable material for damage due to rubbing of fan blade tips and inspects the fan
speed sensor head for damage due to blade contact.
CONNECTING RODS
What are the checks and inspections carried out on a connecting rod during overhaul?

The inspection and repair of connecting rods include

1. Visual inspection
2. Checking of alignment
3. Re- bushing
4. Replacement of bearings
 VISUAL INSPECTION

Visual inspection should be done with magnifying glass or bench microscope. A rod which is
bent or twisted should be rejected. Inspect all surfaces of the rod for cracks, corrosion, pitting, galling or
other damages. Evidence of any galling is sufficient reason to reject the complete rod assembly.

CHECKING ALIGNMENT

Check bushings that have been replaced to determine if the bushing and rod bores are square and
parallel to each other. The alignment can be checked several ways. One method which requires a push fit
arbor, a surface plate, and two parallel blocks of equal height.

To measure the squareness, or twist insert the arbors into the rod bores. Place the parallel blocks
on a surface plate. Place the ends of the arbors on the parallel blocks. Check the clearance at the points
where the arbors rest on the blocks, using a thickness gauge. This clearance, divided by the separation of
blocks in inches will give the twist per inch of the length.
To determine the bushing or bearing parallelism (convergence), insert the arbors in the rod
bores. Measure the distance between arbors on each side of the connecting rod at points that are
equidistance from the rod centre line. For exact parallelism distance checked on both the sides should be the
same. Consult the manufacturer’s table of limits for the amount of misalignment permitted.

Other inspections and operations must be performed to be referred from the manufacturer’s
overhaul manual.

8.)What are line maintenance and heavy maintenance? Explain in detail about
maintenance practices.
The scope of line maintenance consists of removal and installation of external components and
engine accessories as well as hot section inspection. Much of the work considered to be line maintenance
is removal and replacement of malfunctioning line replaceable units (LRU).

HEAVY MAINTENANCE

Heavy maintenance consists of removal, installation and repair of components considered beyond the
capabilities of the line maintenance facility. Heavy maintenance procedures require considerable
equipment and engine knowledge. Heavy maintenance normally performed at an overhaul facility.

MAINTENANCE PRECAUTIONS

1. The ignition system is potentially lethal, therefore any work done on the high energy ignition
units, the igniter plugs or the harness must be disconnected and at least 1 min allow to elapse
before the high tension lead is disconnected.
2. Before carrying out work on electrical system, make sure that the system is safe, by switching off
the power or by tripping and tagging the appropriate circuit breakers.
3. When the oil system is replenished, care must be taken so that no oil is spilled. If any oil is
accidentally spilled, clean it off immediately.
 4. Before inspecting the air intake or the exhaust system, make sure that there is no possibility of the
starter system being operated or the ignition system being energized.
5. After any repair, adjustment, or component change, ensure that no loose items have been left
inside the air intake and exhaust system.
6. Observe fire safety precautions at all times when procedures involve the use of fuels or similar
combustibles.

9.Explain the working principle of operation of gas Turbine engine.

The basic operation of the gas turbine or turbo jet engine is relatively simple. Air is brought into
the front of the turbine engine and compressed. Fuel is mixed with this air and burned and the heated
exhausted gases rush out the back of the engine. The parts of the turbo jet engine work together to change
fuel energy to energy of motion to cause the greatest thrust.

A turbine engine has major 3 sections such as:

1. Air compressor
2. Combustion section
3. Turbine section
The engine may also be divided into cold section and hot section. The front part of the engine contains
the air compressor which is the cold section. The Combustion and the turbine sections make up the hot
section of the engine.

The compressor packs several tons of air into the combustion chamber every minute and works
somewhat like a series of fans. The fuel is forced into the combustion chamber through nozzles, a spark
provides ignition, and the mixture burns, creating hot exhaust gases. These gases expand and are ejected
from the rear of the engine. As the gases leave, they spin a turbine which is located behind the
combustion chamber. By means of an interconnecting shaft, the rotating turbine is connected to and turns
the compressor, completing the cycle.

After rushing by the turbine, the hot gases continue to expand and blast out through the exhaust
nozzle with a high velocity, creating the force which propels a jet aircraft.

10.)Enumerate the various starters used for starting the gas turbine engines and explain in
detail the operation of any one of them
Starters for gas turbine engines may be classified as Air turbine starters, Electric starters, and Fuel
Air (F/A) combustion starters.

ELECTRIC STARTERS

The comparatively small gas turbine engines (6000lbs of thrust) are equipped with heavy duty
electric starters or starter generators. These are simply electric motors or motor generator units which
produce very high starting torque because of the large amounts of electric power they consume.
 The electric starter is coupled to the engine through a reduction gear and a ratchet mechanism or
clutch, which automatically disengages after the engine has reached a self sustaining speed.

The electric supply, which may be of a high or low voltage, is passed through a system of relays
and resistances to allow the full voltage to be build up progressively as the starter gain speed. The electric
supply also provides the power for the operation of the ignition system. The electric supply is
automatically cancelled when the starter load is reduced, either the engine has started satisfactorily or the
time cycle is completed.

AIR TURBINE STARTERS

This type of starters requires a high volume air supply, which is provided by a ground starter unit,
a compressed air bottle on the airplane, an auxiliary power unit on the aircraft, or compressed bleed air
from other engines on the aircraft.

The low pressure air turbine starter is designed to operate with a high volume, low pressure air
supply, usually obtained from an external turbo compressor unit mounted on a ground service cart or
from the airplanes low pressure air supply. The supply must produce a pressure of about 35 psig and a
flow of more than 100 lbs/min.

The starter is light weight turbine air motor equipped with a rotating assembly, a reduction gear
system, a splined output shaft, a cut out switch mechanism, an over speed switch scroll assembly and a
gear housing.

The low pressure air introduced into the scroll through a 3” duct. From the scroll, air passes
through nozzles vanes to the outer rim of the turbine wheel. Since this is an inward flow turbine design
the air expands radially inward toward the centre of the wheel and is then expelled through the exducer.
The exhausted air passes through the screen and out to the atmosphere. The expansion of air from a
pressure about 35 psig to atmospheric pressure imparts energy to the turbine wheel, causing it to reach a
speed of about 55,000 rpm. This low torque high speed is converted to a high torque low speed by means
of the 23.2: 1 reduction gearing.

COMBUSTION STARTERS

The two types of combustion starters are the gas turbine starters, and the cartridge type starters.

A gas turbine starter is completely self-contained. It has its own fuel and ignition system, its own
starting system (usually electric or hydraulic) and a self contained oil system. This type of starter
provides a high power output for a low weight.

The starter consists of a small, compact gas turbine engine, having a turbine driven centrifugal
compressor, a reverse flow combustion system and a mechanically independent free power turbine. The
free power turbine connected to the main engine via a two stage reduction gear, an automatic clutch and
output shaft.

When the starting cycle is initiated the gas turbine starter is rotated by its own starter motor until
it reaches a self sustaining speed at which point the starting and ignition systems automatically switch off.
Then the acceleration continues up to a control speed of 60,000 rpm. When it is accelerating, the exhaust
gas is being directed via nozzle guide vanes, on to the free power turbine to drive the main engine. Once
the main engine reaches a self sustaining speed, a cut out switch operates and shut down the gas turbine
starter. As the starter runs down, the clutch automatically disengages from the output shaft and the main
engine accelerates up to idling rpm under its own power.

11.)Explain the various checks and alignment in crankshaft during overhaul.

1. Inspect all surfaces of the shaft for cracks.

2. Check the bearing surfaces for galling, scoring or other damage.
3. Check oil transfer tubes for tightness.
4. Carry out visual inspection and Non destructive testing such as magnetic particle testing or
radiography.
5. Check the crankshaft for straightness.

PROCEDURE

a. Place the crank shaft in ‘v’ blocks supported at the locations specified in the applicable engine
overhaul manual.
b. Using a surface plate and a dial indicator to measure the run out.
c. Crank shaft run out or bending is checked by mounting the shaft on ‘v’ blocks placed on a level
surface plate and rotating the shaft while reading the run out on the dial gauge.
d. Crank shaft run out should be checked at the centre main journals while the shaft is supported at
the thrust and rear journals.
e. It should also be checked at the propeller flange or at the front propeller bearing seat.
f. If the total indicator reading exceeds the dimensions given in the manufacturer’s table and limits,
the shaft must not be reused.
g. A bent crankshaft should not be straightened. Any attempt to do so will result in rupture of the
nitride surface of the bearing journals.
h. Measure the outside diameter of the crankshaft main and rod bearing journals and compare the
reading with the table of limits.