Chapter 2

Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

2.1 Overview

This chapter describes the basic properties of ultrasonic technologies and their
associated use in various ranges of sensors in industrial applications. Physical
properties as well as the limitations of the piezoelectric devices used in ultrasonic
sensors are described here. Particularly, the usage of ultrasonic sensors in fluid
level measurement systems is discussed. Various configurations of ultrasonic
sensors used with hazardous fluids, particularly gasoline-based fuels, in the
application of level measurement have also been described in this section. In
summary, this chapter provides the detailed background to ultrasonic type sensors
and their application in dynamic environments.

2.2 Principles of Ultrasonic Sensing

2.2.1 Overview

Fundamentals of ultrasonic transducers are discussed in this section. The nature of

the ultrasound waves and their associated parameters such as ultrasound velocity
and range are described.

2.2.2 Ultrasound Waves

Ultrasound waves are similar to sound waves, where both travel through a med-
ium. Ultrasound waves consist of high-frequency sound waves that are inaudible to
human beings. The frequency of the ultrasound waves is normally above 20 kHz.
However, some creatures such as bats can hear as well as generate the high-
frequency ultrasound waves [1, 2].

J. Terzic et al., Ultrasonic Fluid Quantity Measurement 11

in Dynamic Vehicular Applications, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-00633-8_2,
 Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2013
12 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

Fig. 2.1 Sound waves

produced by a fork [3]

As the sound waves travel through the air, they produce vibration in the air
particles which changes the density and pressure of the air particles along the
direction of motion of the wave. If a sound wave is moving from left to right
through air, particles of air will be displaced both rightward and leftward as the
energy of the sound wave passes through it. If the source of the sound waves
vibrates sinusoidally, the pressure variations are also sinusoidal. Figure 2.1 illus-
trates the propagation of the sound waves produced by a fork. Patterns of high and
low pressure points will be created in the air by the vibration of the fork. These
patterns of varying pressure points can be observed using a sound wave detector [3].
Ultrasound can be thought of as analogous to ultraviolet light in that it char-
acterizes that region of acoustical phenomena which is not accessible to human
perception [4]. Some creatures such as bats, dolphins, and whales are able to hear
and generate ultrasonic waves. Figure 2.2 shows a graph of different hearing
ranges in animals and humans.

2.2.3 Sound Velocity

The sound velocity is defined by the rate of change of particle displacement with
respect to time. Sound or ultrasound waves can only be propagated in a material
medium. Different characteristics of different materials will influence the velocity
2.2 Principles of Ultrasonic Sensing 13

Fig. 2.2 Hearing range threshold in different living beings, courtesy Microsoft Encarta 2008

of the sound differently. The characteristics of the material medium have effects
on the velocity and the attenuation of ultrasound waves. The speed of sound waves
in a medium depends on the compressibility and density of the medium [5]. If the
medium is a liquid or a gas and has a bulk modulus K and density q, the speed of
sound waves in that medium or fluid is given by Cheeke and David [6]:
sffiffiffiffi
K
cfluid ¼ ð2:1Þ
q

The general expression of the speed of all mechanical waves in a given material
is expressed as [5]:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
elastic properties
v¼ ð2:2Þ
inertial properties

The speed of sound changes according to the surrounding temperature. The

speed of sound in atmosphere reaches 331.45 m/s at 0 C. The speed of sound in
terms of temperature can be determined with the following equation:
cair ðtÞ ¼ C0 þ kt ð2:3Þ
where, cair is the speed (m/s) of the sound in air,
t is the air temperature in degree Celsius, and
k is the rate at which the speed changes with respect to the temperature, which
is approximately 0.607 m/s at every change of 1 C in temperature.
Table 2.1 lists some materials and their characteristics that relate to the speed of
ultrasonic waves. The characteristic impedance factor (Ns/m3) represents the
resistance to propagation of ultrasonic sound in a given material.
14 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

Table 2.1 Sound velocity and characteristic impedance of gases and liquids [4]
Material Temperature Density Sound Characteristic
(C) (kg/m3) velocity (m/s) impedance (Ns/m3)

Gases
Air 0 1.293 331.45 429
Argon 0 1.783 319 569
Helium 0 0.178 965 172
Oxygen 0 1.429 316 452
Nitrogen 0 1.251 334 418
Ammonia 0 0.771 415 320

Liquids (106 Ns/m3)

Water 20 998 1483 1.48
Diesel oil 20 800 1250 1.0
Mercury 20 13500 1451 19.6
Methyl alcohol 20 720 1120 0.89
Ethyl alcohol 20 790 1159 0.92
Ethyl ether 20 714 1006 0.72
Glycerine 20 1228 1895 2.33
Acetone 20 794 1189 0.94
Transformer oil 20 890 1425 1.27

2.2.4 Ultrasonic Wave Generation

The generation of ultrasonic waves is similar to the generation of an audible sound

wave using a speaker. The diaphragm of the speaker is electronically driven to
move back and forth, which produces low pressure and high pressure points in the
air. For ultrasonic wave generation, the diaphragm needs to move back and forth at
a much greater rate than for an audible sound wave.
The frequency and amplitude of sound waves can be measured by measuring
the fluctuations and the pressure difference in air particles propagating sound
waves through air. The diaphragm of the microphone, shown in Fig. 2.3, produces
electrical signals which are a replica of the sound pressure experienced by the
diaphragm. The vibration of the diaphragm and the pressure on it reflects the
frequency and amplitude of the sound waves.

2.2.5 Piezoelectric Effect

Since ultrasonic waves are high-frequency waves, sensitivity of a device to detect

high-frequency waves plays an important role in ultrasonic wave detection. The
piezoelectric effect can be used to detect as well as generate ultrasonic waves.
2.2 Principles of Ultrasonic Sensing 15

Sound waves Diaphragm

v

Output signal
Microphone

Fig. 2.3 Sound detection using microphone

These days, most practical ultrasound sources are based on the piezoelectric
principle of transconduction [4]. Piezoelectric sources have the advantage of
simple construction and operation, which makes them suitable for a variety of
applications.
A piezoelectric ultrasound generator consists of a layer of piezoelectric material
with thin metal electrodes on both its sides. If an alternating electrical voltage is
applied to these electrodes, the thickness of the layer will vary according to the
variations of the electrical field [4], thus fluctuations in the air or a medium will be
produced. Alternatively, the piezoelectric effect can be reversed to detect ultra-
sonic waves and to transform waves into an electrical signal. Figure 2.4 illustrates
the piezoelectric effect, where the induced voltage is increased as the applied
pressure increases.

Applied
pressure

Piezoelectric
Induced voltage
material V

Fig. 2.4 Piezoelectric effects

16 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

2.2.6 Characteristics of Ultrasonic Waves

2.2.6.1 Overview

This section discusses some characteristics and physical factors that influence
the propagation of ultrasonic waves. Phenomena such Reflection, Refraction,
Diffraction, and Absorption of the ultrasonic wave during its propagation are
described in the following subsections.

2.2.6.2 Reflection

When a wave is traveling through one material and impinges on a boundary

between it and a second medium, part of the energy travels forward as one wave
through the second medium while a part is reflected back into the first medium,
usually with a phase change [7]. Specific acoustic impedance is the characteristic
that determines the amount of reflection and it is the product of the density and
velocity. The amplitude of the reflected wave is given as:
R1  R2
Ar ¼ ð2:4Þ
R1 þ R2
where, R1 = q1c1,
R 2 = q2 c 2 ,
q is the density of each material,
c is the speed of the source, and
Ar is the ratio between reflected and incident amplitudes.

2.2.6.3 Refraction

A wave traveling from one material into another material can experience a change
in its course. A wave at h1 in medium A can end up traveling at h2, as illustrated
below (Fig. 2.5).

Fig. 2.5 Refraction of

mechanical waves in different
media Incident ray

Refracted ray

MEDIUM 1 MEDIUM 2
2.2 Principles of Ultrasonic Sensing 17

The ratio of the two angles is proportional to the ratio of the speed in both
media, and it is given by:
sinðh1 Þ c1
¼ ð2:5Þ
sinðh2 Þ c2
The principles of refraction can cause a ray traveling at a critical angle to
disappear as total refraction. The critical angle hc can be determined by the
following equation. For liquids and solids, hc is about 15 [7].
c1
hc ¼ h1 ¼ sin1 ð2:6Þ
c2

2.2.6.4 Diffraction

Ultrasonic waves do not always propagate in a rectilinear manner. For example, a

wave passing near the edge of an object has a tendency to become bent toward and
around it. This bending of the wave, as shown in Fig. 2.6, is called diffraction.
Ultrasonic signals that would normally be received at a certain point may be
diverted by diffraction and received at some other position [7]. If the object is
small compared to the wavelength there will be no noticeable shadow behind it at
all since the sound is strongly deflected by the object [4].

2.2.6.5 Absorption

The existence of sound waves is always restricted to a material medium, the nature
and the structure of which determines the particular parameters of their propa-
gation. Ultrasonic waves may lose energy and get absorbed depending on the type
of material and distance it traveled. The loss of sound energy is caused by the fact
that any kind of matter consists of small but finite components such as atoms,

Fig. 2.6 Diffraction

phenomenon in mechanical
waves

Travelling waves
18 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

molecules, and ions, which interact with each other [4]. Sound absorption in a
plane harmonic sound wave is characterized by an exponential decrease of
amplitude with traveling distance as [4]:
^ p0 eax
pðxÞ ¼ ^ ð2:7Þ
where ^ p is the amplitude of the fluctuating sound pressure at distance x, p^0 is the
initial pressure, and the quantity a is the absorption constant. Its magnitude
depends on the kind of wave medium and on the sound frequency and is the
reciprocal of the distance along which the amplitude falls by 1e of its initial value
[4]. The attenuation constant D may be derived from the absorption constant a.
D ¼ 20a  log 10 e  8:69a dB=m ð2:8Þ

2.2.7 Ultrasonic Measurement Principles

The ultrasonic wave detection and measurement principle is primarily the reverse
operation of ultrasonic wave generation. During ultrasonic wave generation, the
transducer element (i.e., piezoelectric) is excited by applying an electrical signal
across it. But during ultrasonic wave detection, an electrical voltage signal across
the piezoelectric element is monitored. As soon as an ultrasonic wave strikes the
transducer, the piezoelectric element vibrates accordingly; thus it generates a
voltage signal across its terminals.
Figure 2.7 shows a simple configuration of an ultrasonic sensor in a level
sensing application. An ultrasonic wave reflector (obstacle) floats on the liquid
surface. A transducer is mounted at the bottom of the tank and transmits a signal. It
determines the fluid level by detecting and measuring the time-of-flight of the
reflected ultrasonic wave.

Fig. 2.7 A simple

configuration of an ultrasonic
level sensor system
Reflector

US pulses

Transducer
2.2 Principles of Ultrasonic Sensing 19

A technique known as Interferometry can be used with an ultrasonic sensor to

determine fluid level. Interferometry consists of diagnosing the properties of two
or more waves by studying the pattern of interference created by their superpo-
sition. In interferometry, a wave of some specific shape is transmitted and then
incoming waves that have the same pattern (i.e., frequencies) are detected. The
difference between the two waves (transmitted wave and received wave) is
identified. In ultrasonic level sensing systems, the same principle of interferometry
can be applied. Figure 2.8a shows a simple circuit that can be used to generate a
pulse of an ultrasonic wave signal (shown in Fig. 2.8b). After transmitting a
pulse signal, the circuit listens for any incoming reflected echo pulse that has
similar features (i.e., frequency) as the transmitted echo. The time difference or
time-of-flight is calculated based on the times of transmission and reception of the
pulse wave.
Paulsen [8] has used the same method for detecting fluid levels as described
above, in which an ultrasonic transducer driver generates a voltage proportional to
the resonant frequency of the ultrasonic transducer. A reference voltage is then
generated and the reference voltage and the first voltage are monitored and
compared, and a surface detect signal is generated when the first voltage drops
below the reference voltage [8].

Fig. 2.8 Example of an (a) R

ultrasound interferometer Output

~ L
Transducer

(b)
Transducer voltage (output)

Distance transducer – reflector

20 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

Wang [9] also developed a system based on the principle described above. But
instead of a simple pulse, a switch-mode ultrasonic Radio Frequency (RF) burst
emission circuit was used, which is based on the optimum transient response
formed between a series resonance network of a piezoelectric crystal oscillator of
an ultrasonic transducer and an active switch device (transistor). Wang [9] has
claimed that the circuit produces a highly efficient emission of an ultrasonic RF
burst. Figure 2.9 illustrates a basic setup of the ultrasonic RF burst emission
generator designed by Wang [9]. The circuit consists of a transistor T, two diodes
D1, D2, and a load network of piezoelectric oscillator TD. The function of diodes
D1 and D2 is to form an isolating stage between the switch transistor and receiver
amplifier.
Suzuki [10] described a method of generating and receiving ultrasonic waves
using a single ultrasonic transducer. Suzuki [10] has used a negative immittance
converter in the circuitry in order to cancel components which impede the
damping characteristics of the ultrasonic transducer. This provides the benefits of
receiving an ultrasonic wave having good receiving response and sensitivity
without using any mechanical damping method [10].

2.3 Level Measurement Using Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic transducers transmit ultrasonic waves and then receive those ultrasonic
waves reflected from an object. The time delay between transmission and recep-
tion of the ultrasonic waves is used to detect the position of the object. This
technique can be used to determine the height or vertical distance of an object from
the ultrasonic sensor. Thus ultrasonic transducers can be used to determine the
height or level of fluid in a container (Fig. 2.10).
Durkee [11] described an aircraft fuel gauging and battle damage detection
system that comprises an ultrasonic transducer incorporable in the fuel tank of the
aircraft. An electrical circuit excites the ultrasonic transducer to transmit an
acoustic pulse toward the surface of fuel in the tank. Then the ultrasonic transducer
receives the ultrasonic echo pulses reflected from the fuel surface, which is then

Fig. 2.9 A typical switch-

mode ultrasonic RF burst
emission circuit [9]
2.3 Level Measurement Using Ultrasonic Sensors 21

Varying Ultrasonic
distance Transducer
between fluid
surface and
transducer

Varying fluid
level

Fig. 2.10 Fluid level measurement using ultrasonic transducer

converted from ultrasonic echo pulses to electrical echo pulses. The system uses
another electrical circuit to receive and process the electrical echo pulses from the
ultrasonic transducer. The second circuit performs fuel quantity measurements
using the electrical echo pulses and also performs battle damage detection using
the electrical compression wavefront pulses.
Koblasz et al. [12] described an ultrasound liquid level detection system for
automatically controlling the dispensing of a post-mix beverage. The design uses
microprocessor-controlled circuitry for monitoring and implementing the auto-
matic dispensing process. The microprocessor is interfaced with an ultrasonic
transducer that transmits ultrasonic waves toward the target container that needs to
be filled. It receives the reflected ultrasonic wave and then analyzes the charac-
teristics of the received wave. Then, when required, it uses the microprocessor to
implement control functions of the automatic dispensing process. The system also
has additional safeguards programmed into the microprocessor to preclude oper-
ator errors such as triggering of the dispenser system by devices other than the
container to be filled [12].
Ellinger et al. [13] described a method that determines the quantity and density
of fuels stored in aircraft fuel containers using an ultrasonic transducer. Multiple
ultrasonic sensors were used for the application. The ultrasonic sensors, including
an altitude sensor, were controlled by a computer. Each ultrasonic transducer was
supported within the stillwell by the container. Sensors in the fuel tanks were
multiplexed by two redundant synchronized processors; so that failure of a sensor
interface of one processor will not affect input to the other processor. An ultrasonic
signal was transmitted and received from the transducer within the stillwell. The
round-trip time period from sending to receiving the signal is measured. The
quantity of fuel in the container is determined from the round-trip time period and
data stored on the container volume in the central processing unit. The electrical
wiring and sensor are mounted outside of the tank, which not only makes it
22 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

intrinsically safe but also avoids the possibility of performance degradation due to
the contamination in the liquid [13].
Palmer et al. [14] described an ultrasonic sensor based liquid level sensor
system that comprises a tubular probe having a peripheral wall and suspended in a
liquid container. An ultrasonic signal is transmitted around the wall from a
transmitting transducer that is embedded in a block, which is bonded to the inner
surface of the wall, to a receiving transducer that is also embedded in the same
block. A detector circuit discriminates between the signal levels when the
ultrasonic probe is immersed outside of liquid and when the probe is immersed in
liquid, hence it provides a corresponding switched output [14].
Getman et al. [15] described a liquid level sensing system that uses the pulse
transit time technique to sense the level of liquid in a vessel. An ultrasonic
transducer is mounted above the highest permissible level in the vessel, where it
emits ultrasonic transmission pulses to the surface of the liquid and receives the
ultrasonic echo pulses reflected from the liquid surface. The level in the vessel is
established from the transit time of the ultrasonic pulses. To detect an overfill
when the ultrasonic transducer is immersed in the liquid, the decaying output
signal of the ultrasonic transducer generated by the ringing of the ultrasonic
transducer following the end of the each ultrasonic transmission pulse is analyzed.
With this arrangement, Getman et al. [15] claim that due to the better coupling of
the ultrasonic transducer to the liquid than to air, the ringing duration is shorter
when the ultrasonic transducer is covered by the liquid.
Lichte [16] described a fluid volume measurement system, where an ultrasonic
sensor is mounted at the bottom of the tank. Echo pulses are transmitted from the
sensor and travel through the fluid and reflect back, as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Fig. 2.11 An ultrasonic

sensor based volume sensing Reflected
system [16] Pulses

Transmitted
Pulses

Ultrasonic
Transducer
2.3 Level Measurement Using Ultrasonic Sensors 23

Marini et al. [17] described a method that determines the ratio of the volume of
the gas present in an enclosure containing a diphase liquid–gas mixture to the total
volume of the enclosure. The undissolved gas in the liquid is assumed to be in the
form of a layer surmounting the liquid. This method requires an extremely rapid
determination of the void coefficient. The time delay between the first frequency
and the second frequency is used to determine the form of gas in the enclosure.
Thereafter, the void coefficient is determined from the propagation velocities of
the ultrasound in the gas and the liquid and from the measured propagation time
of the ultrasonic waves. Ultrasonic waves at different frequencies are propagated
through the fluid filling the enclosure. The propagation times of the waves are
measured and the difference between these propagation times is calculated. If the
propagation times are identical, it is deduced that all the gas is in the form of a
layer surmounting the liquid. The void coefficient is determined from the propa-
gation velocities of the ultrasound in the gas and the liquid and from the measured
propagation time. If the propagation times are different, a part of the gas is in the
form of bubbles in the liquid, the void coefficient due to the gas surmounting the
liquid and the void coefficient due to the gas bubbles in the liquid are determined
separately. The total void coefficient is determined by adding the two values
obtained. The void coefficient due to the gas surmounting the liquid may be
determined by virtue of the waves reflected by the gas–liquid interface. The void
coefficient due to the gas bubbles is determined by virtue of the relationships
existing between the velocity of the ultrasound and the frequency of the waves,
according to the pressure and the void coefficient. This invention was used in the
measurement of the void coefficient in a pressurized water nuclear reactor after an
accident [17].

2.4 Ultrasonic Sensor Based Level Measurement

in Dynamic Environments

2.4.1 Overview

Any kind of sound—in contrast to electromagnetic waves—can only be

propagated in a material medium, and is strongly influenced by that medium, the
velocity of sound, as well as its attenuation, depend in a characteristic way on the
nature of the medium [4]. As described in Sect. 2.2.3, any change in temperature
will alter the velocity of the ultrasonic wave. Since the velocity of sound varies
with temperature, if the measurement system assumes the sound velocity to be
constant, such a system will produce unreliable results and measurement accuracy
will deteriorate. Apart from the temperature factor affecting fluid level measure-
ment systems, contamination could be another factor that acts as a barrier, by
reflecting the echo pulse back sooner than it should normally do, thus deceiving
the system and creating errors. This section discusses the issues of ultrasonic level
sensing in dynamic environments.
24 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

2.4.2 Effects of Temperature Variations

As discussed earlier, the variation in the ambient temperature influences the speed of
sound. Since the variation in ambient temperature is continuous, the speed of the
ultrasonic wave should not be considered constant. In vehicular fuel tanks, the
temperature can vary from -40 to 110 C. To improve the reliability of ultrasonic
sensing systems, generally a temperature sensor is included in the system design to
adjust the speed of ultrasonic waves used in the level calculation by using Eq. (1.1),
which describes the relationship between the speed of the ultrasonic wave and
temperature.
Crayton et al. [18] described a way to determine the fuel level in a storage tank
using an ultrasonic sensor by controlling a Motorola’s 68HC05 type microcon-
troller. This system is designed to perform calculations and produce fuel level
output signals. The microprocessor is programmed to consider the effects of
temperature variations on the speed of sound. For this, a temperature sensor is
implanted in the tank that feeds temperature values into the microprocessor, which
then compensates for the effects of temperature and reduces the output error.
Crayton et al. [18] have claimed that the performance of the level sensing system
is not degraded by the effects of temperature and rugged terrain that may cause the
storage tank to tilt up to 45 in any direction [18].
Forgue [19] described a fluid level sensor that is able determine the ultrasonic
velocity for the purpose of calibration of the fluid level measurement that is
compensated for temperature, fluid composition, and other velocity affecting
factors. It generally consists of a single ultrasonic transceiver and a housing
component. The ultrasonic transceiver has a measurement section and a reference
section that are separated by an insulating section, while the housing component
has a reference element and an aperture that are located at the axial end. The
measurement section transmits ultrasonic measurement signals that pass through
the aperture and reflect off a fluid surface. The ultrasonic transceiver includes a
disk-shaped measurement section and a ring-shaped reference section. An
impedance layer is located adjacent to the ultrasonic transceiver such that ultra-
sonic signals pass through the impedance layer. The sensors signals are fed into an
electronic controller to determine a signal velocity calibrated measurement of the
fluid level that is compensated for temperature, fluid composition, and other
velocity affecting factors [19].
Combs et al. [20] described an ultrasonic liquid level measurement device used to
measure the depth of a flowing liquid in a channel using an ultrasonic transducer. An
ultrasonic burst is directed toward the channel and the reflected echo from the
surface of the liquid is returned and sensed by the transducer. The transit time of
ultrasonic transmission and echo return is indicative of the liquid level. An
adjustable discriminator is provided to specify a maximum liquid level in the
channel and a minimum liquid level, which, typically is the floor of the channel. The
maximum and minimum levels are adjustable to accommodate variable channel
configurations and transducer mounting arrangements. Automatic adjustment is
2.4 Ultrasonic Sensor Based Level Measurement in Dynamic Environments 25

provided to compensate for different cable lengths which may be used to connect the
ultrasonic transducer to the transducer driver and receiving section. Temperature
compensation is provided to accommodate changes in ultrasonic transmission
propagation through ambient air with temperature, and time variable gain amplifi-
cation is provided to compensate for geometric spreading of reflected ultrasonic
energy echo pulses and for air path absorption [20].
Durkee [21] described an ultrasonic based fluid quantity measurement system
that takes the effects of liquid temperature into consideration. The method does
this by measuring the temperature of the liquid at at least two different heights.
The method then determines the velocity of sound in the liquid at at least two
different predetermined heights. It then establishes an approximation of a velocity
of sound versus temperature profile for the liquid and determining an approxi-
mation of a velocity of sound versus height profile for each of at least two height
regions based on the temperature measurements [21].
Crayton et al. [18] described a measuring system that determines the height of
liquid contained in a storage tank. A tube is placed inside the tank which contains a
float that is buoyed on the surface of the liquid. An ultrasonic transducer is placed
inside the tube. The ultrasonic transducer emits ultrasonic pulses directed at the
float, receives the reflected ultrasonic pulses, and responsively produces an echo
signal. The float has a top portion and a bottom portion separated by a cylindrical
portion. The bottom portion including a spherical surface which receives the
ultrasonic pulses. The spherical surface has a predetermined radius which is a
function of the inside diameter of the tube, the height of the cylindrical portion of
the float, and the outside diameter of the cylindrical portion of the float. A
temperature sensor monitors the temperature of the liquid and produces a
thermometric signal in response to the liquid temperature. A microprocessor
receives the echo and thermometric signals, determines the speed of the ultrasonic
pulse traveling in the liquid, and responsively determines the liquid height [18].

2.4.3 Electromagnetic Interference

Birkett [22] has described a method of fluid level measurement that reduces the
effects of electromagnetic interference (EMI) that can adversely affect the
measurements obtained by the device. For providing better shielding from EMI,
the piezoelectric crystal and other electrical components are enclosed in a tube.
The piezoelectric device is positioned at the end of the tube so as to direct the
ultrasonic pulse along the axis of the stillwell. The interior walls of the enclosure
are provided with a metallic layer to block electromagnetic interference from the
interior space [22].
26 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

2.4.4 Effects of Contaminants and Obstacles

Puttmer et al. [23] introduced a low noise ultrasonic density sensor configuration
with high accuracy, long-term stability, and robustness by taking into account
significant effects such as: drift of the piezoceramic transducer and electronic
system; chemical, geometric, and acoustic properties of the reference material;
reduction of signal amplitude or signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) by the acoustic
reference path; and the acoustic field. The sensor consists of a transducer with a
piezoceramic disk mounted between two reference rods of quartz glass.
Additionally, a second transducer is used as an ultrasound receiver. The density is
obtained from the reflection coefficient of ultrasound at the interface between the
quartz glass rod and the liquid and the transit time of sound between this interface
and the second transducer. The reference signal is generated using the sound
radiated from the rear side of the piezoceramic disk [23].
Borenstein et al. [24] categorized different types of noise and discussed
methods for eliminating effects of each type of noise. Borenstein et al. [24]
introduced a method called error eliminating rapid ultrasonic firing (EERUF),
which combines different noise rejection techniques and optimizes them for rapid
firing. EERUF almost completely eliminates crosstalk. Its unique noise rejection
capability allows multiple mobile robots to collaborate in the same environment,
even if their ultrasonic sensors operate at the same frequencies. For each noise
category, methods are described to identify and reject the resulting errors. These
individual rejection measures were combined into one error rejection method
which was then combined with a fast firing algorithm. The resulting combination
was EERUF. The EERUF method was implemented on a mobile robot; as a result,
a mobile robot was able to traverse an obstacle course of densely spaced,
pencil-thin poles at speeds of up to 1 m/s.
Soltz [25] described an ultrasonic liquid level measurement gauge that can
determine true ultrasonic echo pulses from false parasitic pulses originating from
reflecting wall surfaces and other obstacles in the vicinity of the tank. The parasitic
pulses may be confused with the main echo pulses and can result in an erroneous
reading [25].
Durkee [26] described an ultrasonic liquid gauging systems that is generally
related to improving the detection of valid echoes under low liquid level and echo
drop out conditions to improve the accuracy of the measured liquid quantity. A
particular problem that can arise at low liquid levels is the detection of secondary
and tertiary echoes from multiple or harmonic reflections at the liquid surface of
the transmitted ultrasonic energy. The effects can cause echoes to be lost or
missed, including echoes from the surface as well as from the target.
Kumar [27] has described an ultrasonic liquid level gauging system that can
discriminate true echoes from false echoes. The device uses echo energy as a
factor to distinguish a true echo from a false echo [27].
2.5 Effects of Liquid Sloshing 27

2.5 Effects of Liquid Sloshing

2.5.1 Overview

In mobile fluid tanks such as automotive fuel tanks, acceleration will induce waves
in the storage tank. This phenomenon of fluid fluctuation is called sloshing. The
magnitude of sloshing is dependent on the value of the acceleration or deceleration
that may be caused by braking, speeding, and irregular terrain. A level measure-
ment device observing the fluid level under sloshing conditions will produce
erroneous level readings.
The sloshing phenomenon in moving rectangular tanks (e.g., automotive fuel
tanks) can be usually described by considering only two-dimensional fluid flow, if
the width of the tank is much less than its breadth [28]. The main factors
contributing to the sloshing phenomenon are the acceleration exerted on the tank,
amount of existing fluid, internal baffles, and the geometry of the tank [29, 31]. A
detailed analysis of liquid sloshing using the numerical approach for various tank
configurations has been provided in the literature [29–39].
Different designs of fluid level measurement systems have used different
techniques to compensate for the erroneous reading of liquid level due to the
effects of sloshing. This section of the literature review focuses on some level
sensing devices that attempt to operate effectively in both static and dynamic
environments.

2.5.2 Slosh Compensation by Dampening Methods

Fluid sloshing can be physically and electrically dampened to compensate for the
sloshing effects. The following diagram shows a basic geometrical dampening
method. The sensor is placed inside a vessel, where fluid can enter from the bottom
of the vessel. The fluid stored in the vessel will experience less slosh than the fluid
outside the vessel. Therefore, the fluid inside the vessel will be stable relative to
the outside level. Various methods have been investigated that generally follow a
similar principle (Fig. 2.12).

Fig. 2.12 Geometrically Dampening Capacitive

dampening the slosh waves
Vessel Sensor Tube

Stable Level

Slosh Waves
28 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

Kikuta et al. [40] described an ultrasonic level gauge that measures the level of
a test surface inside a tank. It can measure the level of a test surface even when the
distance between the test surface and the ultrasonic transceiver is very small. The
level gauge includes a guiding pipe that guides the ultrasonic wave transmitted by
an ultrasonic transceiver to the test surface, and guides the ultrasonic wave
reflected by the test surface back to the ultrasonic transceiver. The gauge is capable
of having an extended portion at the base of the guiding pipe that extends the
propagation distance of the ultrasonic wave guided by this guiding pipe. A helical
portion or a slanting portion may be provided in the guiding pipe to make the
ultrasonic wave transmitted by the ultrasonic transceiver enter the test surface in a
slanting direction. Since the ultrasonic wave making a round trip between ultra-
sonic transceiver and the liquid surface is guided by the guiding pipe, reflection of
the ultrasonic wave by any of the inner walls of the tank does not occur. As a
result, any measurement error due to the reflection by the inner walls of the tank,
other than the liquid surface, can be prevented. It can also minimize the
measurement error of the liquid level of the test surface even when the liquid is
shaken, as in a fuel tank inside a car, while the car is moving.

2.5.3 Use of Tilt Sensors

Tiltmeters or inclinometers can be used in situations where the fluid tank can
experience sloppy surfaces such as rough roads in hilly areas. Nawrocki [41]
described a method that incorporates an inclinometer into a fuel gauging device.
The level signal from the fuel level sensor can be transmitted to the fuel gauge
only when the vehicle is tilted less than a predetermined degree. To accomplish
this, a signal from the fuel sensor is passed through to the display by a micro-
processor only when the vehicle is substantially level and not accelerating or
decelerating. When the level condition is met, the signal indicative of the amount
of fuel left in the tank is stored in the microprocessor memory and displayed on the
fuel gauge, and is updated again when the vehicle reaches the next level condition.
Alternatively, a correction factor matrix stored in the memory can be applied to
the signal received from the fuel sensor to calculate a corrected signal indicative
of the amount of fuel remaining in the fuel tank. Figure 2.13 shows an overview of
the method described by Nawrocki [41].
Breed et al. [42] described a fuel level measurement system that measures the
quantity of fuel in a tank using one or more load cells or fuel level measuring
devices and other sensors to measure the pitch or roll angle of the vehicle. A
processor and algorithm, which may be a look-up table or formulae, are combined
to correct for the inaccuracies arising from the pitch and roll angles of the vehicle,
other external forces, or from variations in fuel density. This method supports a
variety of different fuel measuring transducers which by themselves give an
inaccurate measurement of the quantity of fuel in the tank, but when combined
with an empirically derived algorithm results in a highly accurate fuel quantity
2.5 Effects of Liquid Sloshing 29

Fig. 2.13 Fuel level measurement system having an inclinometer [41]

measurement system. These transducers can be weight measuring load cells,

vehicle angle measuring transducers, or fuel level measuring devices based on
either float, ultrasonic, or capacitive measurement devices.
The method described by Breed et al. [42] comprises steps of: generating an
algorithm for use on the vehicle by placing a known quantity of fuel into the tank.
It then collects reflected wave patterns from ultrasonic transducers arranged on the
bottom of the tank at discrete locations. It then compares the wave patterns from
the ultrasonic transducers reflected under various conditions from an at rest
position to a driving state over a variety of road surfaces. The wave patterns are
inputted into a neural network generating program to classify different wave
patterns [42].
Figure 2.14 shows an ultrasonic filling level sensor described by Voss [43],
which has an elongated measuring chamber that is provided with an opening at
each of its two ends. The sensor includes an ultrasonic transceiver, which is
associated with one end of the measuring chamber and the emitted sound signals
which are reflected at the surface of the liquid and at a calibrating reflector and
received by the ultrasonic transceiver, in order to determine the filling level from
the relationship between the transit times of the two signals. It is ensured that the
cross-section of the measuring chamber and the nature of a wall of the measuring
chamber are made to suit the properties of the liquid in such a way that, even in a
tilted position of the measuring chamber, the surface of the liquid forms a
meniscus which forms a reflection portion directed toward the ultrasonic trans-
ceiver. When elongated measuring chambers are used, the sound waves are
emitted by a transceiver disposed at the bottom of the measuring chamber. They
pass through the elongated measuring chamber substantially without being
reflected at the walls of the measuring chamber, to be reflected at the surface of the
liquid. Only the portion of the reflected sound signals that is reflected precisely in
its direction reaches the transceiver. Such a filling level sensor only functions
when the reflection area is directed toward the ultrasonic transceiver, that is to say
30 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

Cable duct

Ultrasonic
transceiver

Measuring
chamber

Fig. 2.14 Oil pump dipstick used in motorcycle engines [43]

extends substantially transversely to the longitudinal direction of the measuring

chamber. For this reason, the known ultrasonic filling level sensors can only be
used in a vertical position. This invention is therefore based on the object of
developing an ultrasonic filling level sensor of the generic type which is simpler in
terms of production engineering and advantageous in use [43].

2.5.4 Averaging Methods

Averaging method is another method besides the mechanical dampening that can
compensate for the sloshing effects and produce better level readings. This sta-
tistical method generally collects the past sample values and determines the future
level reading by using different calculation techniques. There have been a few
different averaging techniques applied in the past that include a simple Arithmetic
Mean, Weighted Average, and Variable Averaging Interval.

2.5.4.1 Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean or simply mean is the traditional method of averaging the level
sensor readings. The mean value of the sampled signal x = [x1, x2, x3 ,…, xn] for n
number of samples is calculated using:

1X n
meanðxÞ ¼ x ¼ xi ð2:9Þ
n i¼1

The downside of averaging is that it produces a significant error for a

momentarily large spike or an abnormal data entry in the elements of x. For
example, if a sampled signal is given as:
x ¼ ½1:21; 1:30; 1:25; 1:27; 1:23; 1:91 ð2:10Þ

1:21 þ 1:30 þ 1:25 þ 1:27 þ 1:23 þ 1:91

x ¼ ¼ 1:36 ð2:11Þ
6
2.5 Effects of Liquid Sloshing 31

1:21 þ 1:30 þ 1:25 þ 1:27 þ 1:23

x ¼ ¼ 1:25 ð2:12Þ
5
The average value obtained in the presence of an abnormal entry ‘1.91’ in
signal x is given in (2.11), which is significantly larger than the average value
when obtained without ‘1.91’ element in x (2.12).
Gazis et al. [44] described an ultrasonic liquid level gauge design, in which one
or more high-frequency ultrasonic transducers are used to measure the liquid level
of tanks containing any type of fluid. The invention relates specifically to tanks that
are subject to movement and vibration which generally makes the use of ultrasonic
echoes unreliable for obtaining accurate level measurements. A special algorithm is
used to obtain the temporal center of the distribution of echo arrival times over a
preset time interval. From this temporal center of an echo distribution, the liquid
level is readily obtained through the acoustic velocity, time, and distance rela-
tionship. An annular piezoelectric plate, independently driven at low ultrasonic
frequencies (kHz range), mounted on the tank bottom surrounds the high-frequency
ultrasonic transducer. The function of the piezoelectric plate is to send out prop-
agating ultrasonic waves (essentially longitudinal) to maintain the tank area in the
immediate region of the high-frequency transducer free from debris and sediment
deposits at the bottom of the tank thereby avoiding the uncertainty in the
measurement that is introduced by debris on the tank bottom. The device uses a
continuous or quasi-continuous signal averaging technique to present a distribution
of echo signals as a function of time from which liquid levels can be accurately
determined and monitored on a continuous or quasi-continuous basis. Several
averaging methods are described from which the temporal center of the distribution
can be determined. One or more ultrasonic transducers are firmly mounted on the
bottom of a fuel tank to transmit and receive acoustic pulses. The received echo
pulses are rectified and filtered before a channel analyzer processes it. Signal
processing is used to determine the center of the echo time. This time is then used
by a computer to obtain the level of the fluid in the tank [44].
An improved version of averaging is described by Tsuchida et al. [45]. Their
method determines the center value of the past sensor readings. The center value is
assumed to be the accurate level reading. The method repeatedly reads the amount
of fuel remaining in the fuel tank of a vehicle and then it determines a center value
from the past fuel quantity readings. A microcontroller is used to determine limit
values for the center value by a predetermined margin. A subsequent value that
exceeds the limit values is set as a new limit value. The method then determines an
average value out of the predetermined number of detected sampling values. The
method also performs the function of discriminating and eliminating any sudden
changes or abnormal values that may be caused by the sudden changes in the
attitude of the vehicle or by the acceleration to provided stable values of the
remaining fuel quantity [45].
32 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

2.5.4.2 Weighted Average

Weighted average is similar to the simple averaging method, except that there are
additional weights (w) assigned to each element in the sample signal x = [x1, x2,
x3,…,xn]. In the absence of the weights, all data elements in x contribute equally to
the final average value. But, with the usage of the additional weights (w), the final
average can be controlled. If all the weights are equal, then the weighted mean is the
same as the arithmetic mean. The weighted average of a signal x = [x1, x2, x3,…,xn]
and the weights w = [w1,w2,w3, …,wn] for n number of sampled points can be
calculated using:
Pn
w i xi
Wmean ðxÞ ¼ x ¼ Pi¼1 n ; wi [ 0 ð2:13Þ
i¼1 wi

2.5.4.3 Variable Averaging Interval

In the variable averaging method, raw sensor readings are averaged at different
time intervals depending on the state or motion of the vehicle. During static
conditions, when the vehicle is stationary or when the vehicle is operating at a low
speed, the averaging time is reduced to a small interval to quickly update the
sensor readings by assuming that there will be negligible slosh. During the
dynamic conditions, the averaging period is increased for averaging the sensor
readings over a longer period of time. Normally, a speed sensor is used to
determine the running state of the vehicle.
Kobayashi et al. [46] described a sensor that uses digital signals as opposed to
analog signals to determine the fluid volume in a fuel storage tank. The digital fuel
volume measuring system can indicate the amount of fuel within a fuel tank
precisely in the unit of 1.0 or 0.1 l. The volume detection signals are simply
averaged during a relatively short averaging time period at regular measuring
cycles when the vehicle is being refueled, and further weight-averaged or moving-
averaged at regular measuring cycles when the vehicle is running. Therefore, fuel
volume can be indicated quickly at a short response speed when the vehicle is
being refueled and additionally fluctuations in the fuel volume reading can be
minimized when the vehicle is running. Further, the system discloses the method
of detecting the state where the vehicle is being refueled on the basis of the fact
that the difference between at least one of the current data signal indicative of fuel
volume and at least one of the preceding data signal indicative of fuel volume
exceeds a predetermined value [46].
Guertler et al. [47] described a process that determines the quantity of a liquid
contained in a largely closed system. The liquid fluctuations in a dynamic or a
moving vehicle can produce erroneous results. These fluctuations can be calcu-
lated out as the result of the predetermined dependence of the liquid level and
therefore of the amount of fluid from the driving condition and, in addition, can be
2.5 Effects of Liquid Sloshing 33

statistically averaged out because of the continuous obtaining of measuring values.

This permits the reliable determination of the fluid quantity whose level fluctuates
as a function of the driving condition by way of level measurements not only when
the vehicle is stopped and the engine is switched-off, but also in the continuous
driving operation.
Kobayashi et al. [48] utilize the information about the various different states of
the vehicle, such as ignition ON–OFF, idle state, and up and down speeding. The
fuel level readings are averaged over time intervals which vary according to
whether the liquid level of the fuel in the tank is stable or unstable. A fuel quantity
is calculated and displayed according to the averaged value. The stable or unstable
condition of the fuel level is discriminated in accordance with vehicle speed, the
‘‘on’’ or ‘‘off’’ position of an ignition switch. Accordingly, when the fuel level is
unstable, the signal value is averaged over a time interval which is longer than that
used when the fuel level is stable so that the response of display to variation of the
fuel level is improved [48].

2.6 Summary

A detailed investigation of ultrasonic sensing technology described in this chapter

reveals the fact that ultrasonic technology is increasingly being used in a broad
range of applications due to its nonmechanical and contactless nature; robustness
in harsh environments; its ability to work with a wide range of chemical sub-
stances; compact and flexible size; longer functional life; and lower manufacturing
cost.
Even though the uses of ultrasonic sensing technology in fluid level measure-
ment systems has produced satisfactory outcomes in a broad range of applications,
the literature review has highlighted some of the weaknesses of ultrasonic sensing
technology in relation to its accuracy in level measurement particularly in dynamic
environments. Level sensing in dynamic environments is characterized by three
factors:
• Slosh
• Temperature variation
• Contamination (obstacles and dust)
Solutions to each of these three above mentioned factors have been reviewed in
this chapter. However, all these solutions entail either higher production cost
because of the requirement for additional sensors, or they provide only marginal
improvement in terms of accuracy compared to current systems [46–48].
To provide a practical and compact solution to the above mentioned problems
pertaining to the inaccuracy of ultrasonic level sensing systems in dynamic
environments, an intelligent ultrasonic sensor system is to be developed for fluid
level sensing with the incorporation of a Support Vector Machine (SMV) based
signal characterization and classification methodology.
34 2 Ultrasonic Sensing Technology

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