Syntax:

 Groups of words that belong together are called constituents

 The component that determines the properties of the constituent is the
head, and the constituent can be referred to as a phrase: e.g. noun
phrase
 the instructor = NP
Det N
 call the instructor= VP
V Det N
 with some homework = PP
Prep Det N
 The structure of a phrase will consist of one or more constituents in a
certain order.
 We need lexical rules to specify which words can be used when we
rewrite constituents such as N.
 PN {Mary, George}
 N {girl, boy, dog}
 Art
 Pro
 “Verb phrases have a V, (sometimes) an NP, and (sometimes) a PP”

1. S  NP VP

2. NP  {Det N, Pro, PN}

3. VP  V (NP) (PP) (Adv)

4. PP  P NP

5. AP  A (PP)
 [John believed] that [Cathy knew] that [Mary helped George].
 The word that introduces the complement phrase
 Cathy knew that Mary helped George
 That = complementizer (C) introducing complement phrase (CP)
 The CP comes after the VP
 S NP VP
 VP V CP
 CP C S

[1] Paul likes football

[2] You can borrow my pen if you need one

[3] Paul likes football and David likes chess

Sentence [1] is a SIMPLE SENTENCE -- it contains only one clause.

Sentence [2] consists of a matrix clause You can borrow my pen if you need
one, and a subordinate clause if you need one. This is called a COMPLEX
SENTENCE. A complex sentence is defined as a sentence which contains at
least one subordinate clause.

Finally, sentence [3] consists of two clauses which are coordinated with each
other. This is a COMPOUND sentence.

By using subordination and coordination, sentences can potentially be infinitely

long, but in all cases we can analyse them as one or more clauses.

Different between phrase and clause:

A phrase is a group of words that does not consist of a subject and a verb.
Types of phrases: Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb Phrase,
Appositive phrase, Infinitive phrase, geround phrase.

Adjective phrase

An adjective phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase whose head word is an

adjective, e.g. fond of steak, very happy, quite upset about it, etc.The adjective
in an adjective phrase can initiate the phrase (e.g. fond of steak), conclude the
phrase (e.g. very happy), or appear in a medial position (e.g. quite upset about
it). The dependents of the head adjective—i.e. the other words and phrases
inside the adjective phrase—are typically adverbs or prepositional phrases, but
they can also be clauses (e.g. louder than you are). Adjectives and adjective
phrases function in two basic ways in clauses, either attributively or
predicatively. When they are attributive, they appear inside a noun phrase and
modify that noun phrase, and when they are predicative, they appear outside
the noun phrase that they modify and typically follow a linking verb

Contents

[hide]

 1 Examples
 2 Vs. adjectival phrase
 3 Tree diagrams
 4 See also
 5 Notes
 6 References

Examples

The adjective phrases are underlined in the following example sentences, the
head adjective in each of these phrases is in bold, and how the adjective phrase
is functioning—attributively or predicatively—is stated to the right of each
example.
 a. Sentences can contain tremendously long phrases. – Attributive
adjective phrase
b. This sentence is not tremendously long. – Predicative adjective
phrase
a. A player faster than you was on their team gaining weight. –
Attributive adjective phrase
b. He is faster than you. – Predicative adjective phrase
a. Sam ordered a very spicy but quite small pizza. – Attributive adjective
phrases
b. The pizza is very spicy but quite small. – Predicative adjective
phrases
a. People angry with the high prices were protesting. – Attributive
adjective phrase
b. The people are angry with the high prices. – Predicative adjective
phrase

The distinguishing characteristic of an attributive adjective phrase is that it

appears inside the noun phrase that it modifies. An interesting trait of these
phrases in English is that an attributive adjective alone generally precedes the
noun, e.g. a proud man, whereas a head-initial or head-medial adjective phrase
follows its noun, e.g. a man proud of his children.A predicative adjective
(phrase), in contrast, appears outside of the noun phrase that it modifies,
usually after a linking verb, e.g. The man is proud.

Vs. adjectival phrase

The term adjectival phrase is sometimes used instead of adjective phrase.

However, there is tendency to call a phrase an adjectival phrase in such a case
where that phrase is functioning like an adjective phrase would, but does not
contain an actual adjective. For example, in Mr Clinton is a man of wealth, the
prepositional phrase of wealth modifies a man the way an adjective would, and
it could be reworded with an adjective, e.g. Mr Clinton is a wealthy man.
Similarly, that boy is friendless (the adjective "friendless" modifies the noun
"boy") and That boy is without a friend (a prepositional phrase where "without a
friend" modifies "boy").

Similarly, the term adjectival phrase is commonly used for any phrase in
attributive position, whether it is technically an adjective phrase, noun phrase, or
prepositional phrase. These may be more precisely distinguished as phrasal
attributives or attributive phrases. This definition is commonly used in English
style guides for writing, where the terms attributive and adjective are frequently
treated as synonyms, because attributive phrases are typically hyphenated,
whereas predicative phrases generally are not, despite both modifying a noun.

Tree diagrams

The structure of adjective phrases (and of all other phrase types) is often
represented using tree structures. There are two modern conventions for doing
this, constituency-based trees of phrase structure grammars and dependency-
based trees of dependency grammars. Both types of trees are produced here.
The following trees illustrate head-final adjective phrases, i.e. adjective phrases
that have their head adjective on the right side of the phrase:

The labels on the nodes in the trees are acronyms: A = adjective, Adv = adverb,
AP = adjective phrase, N = noun/pronoun, P = preposition, PP = prepositional
phrase. The constituency trees identify these phrases as adjective phrases by
labeling the top node with AP, and the dependency trees accomplish the same
thing by positioning the A node at the top of the tree. The following trees
illustrate the structure of head-initial adjective phrases, i.e. adjective phrases
that have their head on the left side of the phrase:

And the following trees illustrate the structure of head-medial adjective phrases:

The important aspect of these tree structures—regardless of whether one uses

constituency or dependency to show the structure of phrases—is that they are
identified as adjective phrases by the label on the top node of each tree.

Noun phrase

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A noun phrase or nominal phrase (abbreviated NP) is a phrase which has a

noun (or indefinite pronoun) as its head word, or which performs the same
grammatical function as such a phrase.[1] Noun phrases are very common
cross-linguistically, and they may be the most frequently occurring phrase type.

Noun phrases often function as verb subjects and objects, as predicative

expressions, and as the complements of prepositions. Noun phrases can be
embedded inside each other; for instance, the noun phrase some of his
constituents contains the shorter noun phrase his constituents.

In some more modern theories of grammar, noun phrases with determiners are
analyzed as having the determiner rather than the noun as their head; they are
then referred to as determiner phrases.

Contents

 1 Identifying noun phrases

 2 Status of single words as phrases
 3 Components of noun phrases
 4 Syntactic function
 5 Noun phrases with and without determiners
 6 Tree representations of noun phrases

Identifying noun phrases

Some examples of noun phrases are underlined in the sentences below. The
head noun appears in bold.

The election-year politics are annoying for many people.

Almost every sentence contains at least one noun phrase.

"Those five beautiful shiny Arkansas Black apples sitting on the chair" is
a noun phrase of which apples is the head. To test, a single pronoun can
replace the whole noun phrase, as in "They are delicious".
Current economic weakness may be a result of high energy prices.

Noun phrases can be identified by the possibility of pronoun substitution, as is

illustrated in the examples below.

a. This sentence contains two noun phrases.

b. It contains them.
a. The subject noun phrase that is present in this sentence is long.
 b. It is long.
a. Noun phrases can be embedded in other noun phrases.
b. They can be embedded in them.

A string of words that can be replaced by a single pronoun without rendering the
sentence grammatically unacceptable is a noun phrase. As to whether the
string must contain at least two words, see the following section.

Status of single words as phrases

Traditionally, a phrase is understood to contain two or more words. The

traditional progression in the size of syntactic units is word < phrase < clause,
and in this approach a single word (such as a noun or pronoun) would not be
referred to as a phrase. However, many modern schools of syntax – especially
those that have been influenced by X-bar theory – make no such
restriction.Here many single words are judged to be phrases based on a desire
for theory-internal consistency. A phrase is deemed to be a word or a
combination of words that appears in a set syntactic position, for instance in
subject position or object position.

On this understanding of phrases, the nouns and pronouns in bold in the

following sentences are noun phrases (as well as nouns or pronouns):

He saw someone.
Milk is good.
They spoke about corruption.

The words in bold are called phrases since they appear in the syntactic
positions where multiple-word phrases (i.e. traditional phrases) can appear.
This practice takes the constellation to be primitive rather than the words
themselves. The word he, for instance, functions as a pronoun, but within the
sentence it also functions as a noun phrase. The phrase structure grammars of
the Chomskyan tradition (government and binding theory and the minimalist
program) are primary examples of theories that apply this understanding of
phrases. Other grammars, for instance dependency grammars, are likely to
reject this approach to phrases, since they take the words themselves to be
primitive. For them, phrases must contain two or more words.

Components of noun phrases

A typical noun phrase consists of a noun (the head of the phrase) together with
zero or more dependents of various types. (These dependents, since they
modify a noun, are called adnominal.) The chief types of these dependents are:

 determiners, such as the, this, my, some, Jane's

 attributive adjectives, such as large, beautiful, sweeter
 adjective phrases and participial phrases, such as extremely large, hard
as nails, made of wood, sitting on the step
 noun adjuncts, such as college in the noun phrase a college student
  nouns in certain oblique cases, in languages which have them, such as
German des Mannes ("of the man"; genitive form)
 prepositional phrases, such as in the drawing room, of his aunt
 adnominal adverbs and adverbials, such as (over) there in the noun
phrase the man (over) there
 relative clauses, such as which we noticed
 other clauses serving as complements to the noun, such as that God
exists in the noun phrase the belief that God exists
 infinitive phrases, such as to sing well and to beat in the noun phrases a
desire to sing well and the man to beat

The allowability, form and position of these elements depend on the syntax of
the language in question. In English, determiners, adjectives (and some
adjective phrases) and noun modifiers precede the head noun, whereas the
heavier units – phrases and clauses – generally follow it. This is part of a strong
tendency in English to place heavier constituents to the right, making English
more of a head-initial language. Head-final languages (e.g. Japanese and
Turkish) are more likely to place all modifiers before the head noun. Other
languages, such as French, often place even single-word adjectives after the
noun.

Noun phrases can take different forms than that described above, for example
when the head is a pronoun rather than a noun, or when elements are linked
with a coordinating conjunction such as and, or, but. For more information about
the structure of noun phrases in English, see English grammar § Noun phrases.

Syntactic function

Noun phrases typically bear argument functions. That is, the syntactic functions
that they fulfill are those of the arguments of the main clause predicate,
particularly those of subject, object and predicative expression. They also
function as arguments in such constructs as participial phrases and
prepositional phrases. For example:

For us the news is a concern. - the news is the subject argument

Have you heard the news? - the news is the object argument
That is the news. - the news is the predicative expression following the
copula is
They are talking about the news. - the news is the argument in the
prepositional phrase about the news
The man reading the news is very tall. - the news is the object argument
in the participial phrase reading the news

Sometimes a noun phrase can also function as an adjunct of the main clause
predicate, thus taking on an adverbial function, e.g.

Most days I read the newspaper.

She has been studying all night.

Noun phrases with and without determiners

In some languages, including English, noun phrases are required to be
"completed" with a determiner in many contexts, and thus a distinction is made
in syntactic analysis between phrases that have received their required
determiner (such as the big house), and those in which the determiner is lacking
(such as big house).

The situation is complicated by the fact that in some contexts a noun phrase
may nonetheless be used without a determiner (as in I like big houses); in this
case the phrase may be described as having a "null determiner". (Situations in
which this is possible depend on the rules of the language in question; for
English, see English articles.)

In the original X-bar theory, the two respective types of entity are called noun
phrase (NP) and N-bar (N, N′). Thus in the sentence Here is the big house, both
house and big house are N-bars, while the big house is a noun phrase. In the
sentence I like big houses, both houses and big houses are N-bars, but big
houses also functions as a noun phrase (in this case without an explicit
determiner).

In some modern theories of syntax, however, what are called "noun phrases"
above are no longer considered to be headed by a noun, but by the determiner
(which may be null), and they are thus called determiner phrases (DP) instead
of noun phrases. (In some accounts that take this approach, the constituent
lacking the determiner – that called N-bar above – may be referred to as a noun
phrase.)

This analysis of noun phrases is widely referred to as the DP hypothesis. It has

been the preferred analysis of noun phrases in the minimalist program from its
start (since the early 1990s), though the arguments in its favor tend to be
theory-internal. By taking the determiner, a function word, to be head over the
noun, a structure is established that is analogous to the structure of the finite
clause, with a complementizer. Apart from the minimalist program, however, the
DP hypothesis is rejected by most other modern theories of syntax and
grammar, in part because these theories lack the relevant functional
categories.[4] Dependency grammars, for instance, almost all assume the
traditional NP analysis of noun phrases.

For illustrations of different analyses of noun phrases depending on whether the

DP hypothesis is rejected or accepted, see the next section.

Tree representations of noun phrases[edit]

The representation of noun phrases using parse trees depends on the basic
approach to syntactic structure adopted. The layered trees of many phrase
structure grammars grant noun phrases an intricate structure that
acknowledges a hierarchy of functional projections. Dependency grammars, in
contrast, since the basic architecture of dependency places a major limitation
on the amount of structure that the theory can assume, produce simple,
relatively flat structures for noun phrases.
The representation also depends on whether the noun or the determiner is
taken to be the head of the phrase (see the discussion of the DP hypothesis in
the previous section).

Below are some possible trees for the two noun phrases the big house and big
houses (as in the sentences Here is the big house and I like big houses).

1. Phrase-structure trees, first using the original X-bar theory, then using the
modern DP approach:

NP NP | DP DP
/ \ | | / \ |
det N' N' | det NP NP
| / \ / \ | | / \ / \
the adj N' adj N' | the adj NP adj NP
| | | | | | | | |
big N big N | big N big N
| | | | |
house houses | house houses

2. Dependency trees, first using the traditional NP approach, then using the DP
approach:

house houses | the (null)

/ / / | \ \
/ / big | house houses
the big | / /
| big big

The following trees represent a more complex phrase. For simplicity, only
dependency-based trees are given.[5]

The first tree is based on the traditional assumption that nouns, rather than
determiners, are the heads of phrases.
The head noun picture has the four dependents the, old, of Fred, and that I
found in the drawer. The tree shows how the lighter dependents appear as pre-
dependents (preceding their head) and the heavier ones as post-dependents
(following their head).

The second tree assumes the DP hypothesis, namely that determiners rather
than nouns serve as phrase heads.

The determiner the is now depicted as the head of the entire phrase, thus
making the phrase a determiner phrase. Note that there is still a noun phrase
present (old picture of Fred that I found in the drawer) but this phrase is below
the determiner.

- She wrote an interesting story. (as a noun : object)

- One of my friends has gone to America (as a noun: subject)

- The girl in the white shirt won the competition. (as adjective modifying the
noun)

- He gave me a cup full of tea (as adjective modifying the noun: cup)

- She came back in a short while (as adverb modifying the verb)

- He welcomed the guests in a cordial way (as adverb modifying the verb)

A clause is a group of words which consists of a subject and a verb. It can be

simple or compound (main or independent clause- subordinate or dependant
clause)

Dependent clauses have three types: noun clause, Adjective Clause and
Adverb Clause.
A noun clause normally works as subject or object.

An adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun. It mostly starts with relative

pronouns such as “that, who, whom…)

It can be restrictive and non-restrictive:

Restrictive clause modifies a noun by giving information about it as well as by

specifying it (defining)

The nonrestrictive clause modifies a noun only by giving information but do not
specify it.

An adverb clause mostly uses the following subordinating conjunctions:

- Time: when, whenever, since, until, after, before, while, as, by the time, as
soon as…

- Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that…

- Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though

- Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing/provided that, in
case.

An adpositional phrase, in linguistics, is a syntactic category that includes

prepositional phrases, postpositional phrases, and circumpositional phrases.[1]
Adpositional phrases contain an adposition (preposition, postposition, or
circumposition) as head and usually a complement such as a noun phrase.
Language syntax treats adpositional phrases as units that act as arguments or
adjuncts. Prepositional and postpositional phrases differ by the order of the
words used. Languages that are primarily head-initial such as English
predominantly use prepositional phrases whereas head-final languages
predominantly employ postpositional phrases. Many languages have both
types, as well as circumpositional phrases.

Types[edit]

There are three types of adpositional phrases: prepositional phrases,

postpositional phrases, and circumpositional phrases.

Prepositional phrases[edit]

The underlined phrases in the following sentences are examples of

prepositional phrases in English. The prepositions are in bold:

a. She walked around his desk.

b. Ryan could see her in the room.
c. David walked on top of the building.
d. They walked up the stairs.
 e. Philip ate in the kitchen.
f. Charlotte walked inside the house.
g. As a black man, I find that offensive.

Prepositional phrases have a preposition as the central element of the phrase,

i.e. as the head of the phrase. The remaining part of the phrase is usually
followed by modifiers such as a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause. It's
sometimes called the prepositional complement. The object of the preposition
will often have more than one modifier.

The object of a prepositional phrase is to function as an adjective or adverb.

Postpositional phrases[edit]

Postpositional elements are frequent in head-final languages such as Basque,

Estonian, Finnish, Georgian, Korean, Japanese, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali and Tamil.
The word or other morpheme that corresponds to an English preposition occurs
after its complement, hence the name postposition. The following examples are
from Japanese, where the case markers perform a role similar to that of
adpositions:

a. ..mise ni
store to = 'to the store'
b. ..ie kara
house from = 'from the house'
c. ..hashi de
chopsticks with = 'with chopsticks'

And from Finnish, where the case endings perform a role similar to that of
adpositions:

a. ..kauppaan
store.to = 'to the store'
b. ..talosta
house.from = 'from the house'
c. ..puikoilla
chopsticks.with = 'with chopsticks'

While English is generally seen as lacking postpositions entirely, there are a

couple of words that one can in fact view as postpositions, e.g. the crisis two
years ago, sleep the whole night through. Since a phrase like two years ago
distributes just like a prepositional phrase, one can argue that ago should be
classified as a postposition, as opposed to as an adjective or adverb.

Circumpositional phrases

Circumpositional phrases involve both a preposition and a postposition,

whereby the complement appears between the two. Circumpositions are
common in Pashto and Kurdish. English has at least one circumpositional
construction, e.g.
 a. From now on, he won't help.

German has more of them, e.g.

b. Von mir aus kannst du das machen.

From me out can you that do = 'As far as I'm concerned, you can do it.'
c. Um der Freundschaft willen sollst du es machen.
around the friendship sake should you it do = 'For the sake of friendship,
you should do it.'

Represention

Like with all other types of phrases, theories of syntax render the syntactic
structure of adpositional phrases using trees. The trees that follow represent
adpositional phrases according to two modern conventions for rendering
sentence structure, first in terms of the constituency relation of phrase structure
grammars and then in terms of the dependency relation of dependency
grammars. The following labels are used on the nodes in the trees: Adv =
adverb, N = nominal (noun or pronoun), P = preposition/postposition, and PP =
pre/postpositional phrase:[2]

These phrases are identified as prepositional phrases by the placement of PP

at the top of the constituency trees and of P at the top of the dependency trees.
English also has a number of two-part prepositional phrases, i.e. phrases that
can be viewed as containing two prepositions, e.g.

Assuming that ago in English is indeed a postposition as suggested above, a

typical ago-phrase would receive the following structural analyses:
The analysis of circumpositional phrases is not so clear, since it is not obvious
which of the two adpositions should be viewed as the head of the phrase.
However, the following analyses are more in line with the fact that English is
primarily a head-initial language:

Distribution[edit]

The distribution of prepositional phrases in English can be characterized in

terms of heads and dependents. Prepositional phrases typically appear as
postdependents of nouns, adjectives, and finite and non-finite verbs, although
they can also appear as predependents of finite verbs, for instance when they
initiate clauses. For ease of presentation, just dependency trees are now
employed to illustrate these points. The following trees show prepositional
phrases as postdependents of nouns and adjectives:

And the following trees show prepositional phrases as postdependents of non-

finite verbs and as predependents of finite verbs:
Attempts to position a prepositional phrase in front of its head noun, adjective,
or non-finite verb are bad, e.g.

a. his departure on Tuesday

b. *his on Tuesday departure
a. proud of his grade
b. *of his grade proud
a. He is leaving on Tuesday.
b. *He is on Tuesday leaving.

The b-examples demonstrate that prepositional phrases in English prefer to

appear as postdependents of their heads. The fact, however, that they can at
times appear as a predependent of their head (as in the finite clauses above) is
curious.

Function

More often than not, a given adpositional phrase is an adjunct in the clause or
noun phrase that it appears. These phrases can also, however, function as
arguments, in which case they are known as oblique:

a. She ran under him. - Adjunct at the clause level

b. The man from China was enjoying his noodles. - Adjunct in a noun
phrase.
c. He gave money to the cause. - Oblique argument at the clause level
d. She argued with him. - Oblique Argument at the clause level
e. A student of physics attended. - Argument in a noun phrase

Particles

A prepositional phrase should not be confused with a sequence formed by the

particle and the direct object of a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs often consist of a
verb and a particle, whereby the particle is mistakenly interpreted to be a
preposition, e.g.

a. He turned on the light. - on is a particle, not a preposition

b. He turned it on. - Shifting identifies on as a particle
a. She made up a story. - up is a particle, not a preposition
b. She made it up. - Shifting identifies up as a particle
 a. They put off the party. - off is a particle, not a preposition
b. They put it off. - Shifting identifies off as a particle.

Particles are identified by shifting, i.e. the particle can switch places with the
object when the object is a pronoun. Prepositions cannot do this, i.e. they
cannot switch positions with their complement, e.g. He is relying on Susan vs.
*He is relying her on.

Adverbial clause

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb; that is,

the entire clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. As with all
clauses, it contains a subject and predicate, although the subject as well as the
(predicate) verb may sometimes be omitted and implied (see below).

An adverbial clause is commonly, but not always, fronted by a subordinate

conjunction—sometimes called an eye of the tiger word. (In the examples below
the adverbial clause is italicized and the subordinate conjunction is bolded.)

 Mary, the aspiring actress, became upset as soon as she saw the
casting list.

(subject: she; predicate: saw the casting list; the clause modifies the verb
became)

 Peter Paul, the drama teacher, met with Mary after she came to the next
class.''

(explicit subject: she; predicate: came to the next class.; predicate (verb):
came; the clause modifies the verb met;)

 He talked carefully in order to appear fair.

 He talked carefully in order .. [that 'he'] appear fair.

(implied subject, he, is omitted; predicate (verb): appear; the clause

modifies the adverb carefully)

 The little boy preferred fierce dinosaurs, as [was] T rex.

(subject of the clause: T rex; predicate of the clause: [was], implied; the
clause modifies the adjective fierce.)

According to Sidney Greenbaum and Randolph Quirk, adverbial clauses

function mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts, which parts also perform in a sentence
as adverbial phrases or as adverbial prepositional phrases (Greenbaum and
Quirk,1990). Unlike clauses, phrases do not contain a subject and predicate;
they are contrasted here:
  We left the convention the day before.

(adverbial phrase; contains no subject or predicate)

 We left before the speeches.

(adverbial prepositional phrase; contains no subject or predicate—and no

verb (action) is implied)

 We left after the speeches ended.

(adverbial clause; contains subject and predicate)

 We left after the speeches.

or, (".. after the speeches [ended]")

(adverbial clause; contains subject and predicate, but the verb 'ended' is
omitted and implied)

Types

Adverbial clauses are divided into several groups according to the actions or
senses of their conjunctions:

Type of Common
Function Example
clause conjunctions

Conjunctions
answering the
Her goldfish
question "when?",
died when she
such as: when, before,
These clauses: was young.
after, since, while, as,
as long as, till, until,
Say when He came after
etc.;
something happens night had fallen.
time
by referring to a
or the paired
period or point of We barely had
(correlative)
time, or to another gotten there
conjunctions:
event. when mighty
hardly...when,
Casey struck
scarcely...when,
out.
barely...when, no
sooner...than[1]

Talk about a If they lose

possible or weight during
condition if, unless, lest counterfactual an illness, they
situation and its soon regain it
consequences. afterwards.
 They had to
take some of
Indicate the
in order to, so that, in his land so that
purpose purpose of an
order that they could
action.
extend the
churchyard.

I couldn't feel
anger against
because, since, as, Indicate the reason
reason him because I
given for something.
liked him too
much.

Make two I used to read a

statements, one of lot although I
although, though,
concession which contrasts with don't get much
while
the other or makes time for books
it seem surprising. now.

Answering the
question "where?": Talk about the He said he was
place where, wherever, location or position happy where he
anywhere, of something. was.
everywhere, etc.

Johan can
speak English
State comparison of as fluently as
comparison as...as, than, as a skill, size or his teacher.
amount, etc.
She is a better
cook than I.

I was never
Talk about
Answering the allowed to do
someone's behavior
manner question, "how"?: as, things as I
or the way
like, the way wanted to do
something is done.
them.

My suitcase
Indicate the had become so
results so...that, such...that result(s) of an act or damaged that
event. the lid would
not stay closed.