12.

11 Secondary Lead Processing

12.11.1 General

Secondary lead smelters produce lead and lead alloys from lead-bearing scrap material. More
than 60 percent of all secondary lead is derived from scrap automobile batteries. Each battery contains
approximately 8.2 kg (18 lb) of lead, consisting of 40 percent lead alloys and 60 percent lead oxide.
Other raw materials used in secondary lead smelting include wheel balance weights, pipe, solder,
drosses, and lead sheathing. Lead produced by secondary smelting accounts for half of the lead
produced in the U. S. There are 42 companies operating 50 plants with individual capacities ranging
from 907 megagrams (Mg) (1,000 tons) to 109,000 Mg (120,000 tons) per year.

12.11.2 Process Description1-7

Secondary lead smelting includes 3 major operations: scrap pretreatment, smelting, and
refining. These are shown schematically in Figure 12.11-1A, Figure 12.11-1B, and Figure 12.11-1C,
respectively.

12.11.2.1 Scrap Pretreatment -

Scrap pretreatment is the partial removal of metal and nonmetal contaminants from lead-
bearing scrap and residue. Processes used for scrap pretreatment include battery breaking, crushing,
and sweating. Battery breaking is the draining and crushing of batteries, followed by manual
separation of the lead from nonmetallic materials. Lead plates, posts, and intercell connectors are
collected and stored in a pile for subsequent charging to the furnace. Oversized pieces of scrap and
residues are usually put through jaw crushers. This separated lead scrap is then sweated in a gas- or
oil-fired reverberatory or rotary furnace to separate lead from metals with higher melting points.
Rotary furnaces are usually used to process low-lead-content scrap and residue, while reverberatory
furnaces are used to process high-lead-content scrap. The partially purified lead is periodically tapped
from these furnaces for further processing in smelting furnaces or pot furnaces.

12.11.2.2 Smelting -
Smelting produces lead by melting and separating the lead from metal and nonmetallic
contaminants and by reducing oxides to elemental lead. Smelting is carried out in blast,
reverberatory, and rotary kiln furnaces. Blast furnaces produce hard or antimonial lead containing
about 10 percent antimony. Reverberatory and rotary kiln furnaces are used to produce semisoft lead
containing 3 to 4 percent antimony; however, rotary kiln furnaces are rarely used in the U. S. and will
not be discussed in detail.

In blast furnaces pretreated scrap metal, rerun slag, scrap iron, coke, recycled dross, flue dust,
and limestone are used as charge materials to the furnace. The process heat needed to melt the lead is
produced by the reaction of the charged coke with blast air that is blown into the furnace. Some of
the coke combusts to melt the charge, while the remainder reduces lead oxides to elemental lead. The
furnace is charged with combustion air at 3.4 to 5.2 kPa (0.5 to 0.75 psi) with an exhaust temperature
ranging from 650 to 730°C (1200 to 1350°F).

As the lead charge melts, limestone and iron float to the top of the molten bath and form a
flux that retards oxidation of the product lead. The molten lead flows from the furnace into a holding
pot at a nearly continuous rate. The product lead constitutes roughly 70 percent of the charge. From

10/86 (Reformatted 1/95) Metallurgical Industry 12.11-1

 Figure 12.11-1A. Process flow for typical secondary lead smelting.
(Source Classification Codes in parentheses.)

12.11-2 EMISSION FACTORS (Reformatted 1/95) 10/86

 Figure 12.11-1B. Process flow for typical secondary lead smelting.
(Source Classification Codes in parentheses.)

10/86 (Reformatted 1/95) Metallurgical Industry 12.11-3

 Figure 12.11-1C. Process flow for typical secondary lead smelting.
(Source Classification Codes in parentheses.)

12.11-4 EMISSION FACTORS (Reformatted 1/95) 10/86

the holding pot, the lead is usually cast into large ingots called pigs or sows. About 18 percent of the
charge is recovered as slag, with about 60 percent of this being a sulfurous slag called matte. Roughly
5 percent of the charge is retained for reuse, and the remaining 7 percent of the charge escapes as dust
or fume. Processing capacity of the blast furnace ranges from 18 to 73 Mg per day (20 to 80 tons per
day).

The reverberatory furnace used to produce semisoft lead is charged with lead scrap, metallic
battery parts, oxides, drosses, and other residues. The charge is heated directly to a temperature of
1260°C (2300°F) using natural gas, oil, or coal. The average furnace capacity is about 45 megagrams
(50 tons) per day. About 47 percent of the charge is recovered as lead product and is periodically
tapped into molds or holding pots. Forty-six percent of the charge is removed as slag and is later
processed in blast furnaces. The remaining 7 percent of the furnace charge escapes as dust or fume.

12.11.2.3 Refining -
Refining and casting the crude lead from the smelting furnaces can consist of softening,
alloying, and oxidation depending on the degree of purity or alloy type desired. These operations are
batch processes requiring from 2 hours to 3 days. These operations can be performed in reverberatory
furnaces; however, kettle-type furnaces are most commonly used. Remelting process is usually applied
to lead alloy ingots that require no further processing before casting. Kettle furnaces used for alloying,
refining, and oxidizing are usually gas- or oil-fired, and have typical capacities of 23 to
136 megagrams (25 to 150 tons) per day. Refining and alloying operating temperatures range from
320 to 700°C (600 to 1300°F). Alloying furnaces simply melt and mix ingots of lead and alloy
materials. Antimony, tin, arsenic, copper, and nickel are the most common alloying materials.

Refining furnaces are used to either remove copper and antimony for soft lead production, or
to remove arsenic, copper, and nickel for hard lead production. Sulfur may be added to the molten
lead bath to remove copper. Copper sulfide skimmed off as dross may subsequently be processed in a
blast furnace to recover residual lead. Aluminum chloride flux may be used to remove copper,
antimony, and nickel. The antimony content can be reduced to about 0.02 percent by bubbling air
through the molten lead. Residual antimony can be removed by adding sodium nitrate and sodium
hydroxide to the bath and skimming off the resulting dross. Dry drossing consists of adding sawdust
to the agitated mass of molten metal. The sawdust supplies carbon to help separate globules of lead
suspended in the dross and to reduce some of the lead oxide to elemental lead.

Oxidizing furnaces, either kettle or reverberatory units, are used to oxidize lead and to entrain
the product lead oxides in the combustion air stream for subsequent recovery in high-efficiency
baghouses.

12.11.3 Emissions And Controls1,4-5

Emission factors for controlled and uncontrolled processes and fugitive particulate are given in
Tables 12.11-1, 12.11-2, 12.11-3, and 12.11-4. Particulate emissions from most processes are based
on accumulated test data, whereas fugitive particulate emissions are based on the assumption that
5 percent of uncontrolled stack emissions are released as fugitive emissions.

Reverberatory and blast furnaces account for the vast majority of the total lead emissions from
the secondary lead industry. The relative quantities emitted from these 2 smelting processes cannot be
specified, because of a lack of complete information. Most of the remaining processes are small
emission sources with undefined emission characteristics.

10/86 (Reformatted 1/95) Metallurgical Industry 12.11-5

12.11-6

Table 12.11-1 (Metric Units). EMISSION FACTORS FOR SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSINGa

Particulateb Leadb SO2

EMISSION EMISSION EMISSION EMISSION EMISSION

FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR
Process Uncontrolled RATING Controlled RATING Uncontrolled RATING Controlled RATING Uncontrolled RATING

Sweatingc (kg/Mg charge) 16-35 E ND NA 4-8d E ND NA ND ND

(SCC 3-04-004-04)
Reverberatory smelting 162 C 0.50 C 32 C ND NA 40 C
(SCC 3-04-004-02) (87-242)e (0.26-0.77)f (17-48)g (36-44)f
Blast smelting-cupolah 153 C 1.12 C 52 C 0.15 C 27 C
(SCC 3-04-004-03) (92-207)j (0.11-2.49)k (31-70)m (0.02-0.32)n (9-55)e
EMISSION FACTORS

Kettle refining 0.02p C ND NA 0.006p C ND NA ND NA

(SCC 3-04-004-26)
Kettle Oxidation ≤ 20q E ND NA ND NA ND NA ND NA
(SCC 3-04-004-08)
Casting (SCC 3-04-004-09) 0.02p C ND NA 0.007p C ND NA ND NA
a Emission factor units expressed as kg of pollutant/Mg metal produced. SCC = Source Classification Code. ND = no data. NA = not
applicable.
b Particulate and lead emission factors are based on quantity of lead product produced, except as noted.
c Reference 1. Estimated from sweating furnace emissions from nonlead secondary nonferrous processing industries.
d References 3,5. Based on assumption that uncontrolled reverberatory furnace flue emissions are 23% lead.
e References 8-11.
f References 6,8-11.
g Reference 13. Uncontrolled reverberatory furnace flue emissions assumed to be 23% lead. Blast furnace emissions have lead content of
34%, based on single uncontrolled plant test.
h Blast furnace emissions are combined flue gases and associated ventilation hood streams (charging and tapping).
(Reformatted 1/95)

j References 8,11-12.
k References 6,8,11-12,14-15.
m Reference 13. Blast furnace emissions have lead content of 26%, based on single controlled plant test.
n Based on quantity of material charged to furnaces.
p Reference 13. Lead content of kettle refining emissions is 40% and of casting emissions is 36%.
q References 1-2. Essentially all product lead oxide is entrained in an air stream and subsequently recovered by baghouse with average
10/86

collection efficiency >99%. Factor represents emissions of lead oxide that escape a baghouse used to collect the lead oxide product.
Represents approximate upper limit for emissions.
10/86 (Reformatted 1/95)

Table 12.11-2 (English Units). EMISSION FACTORS FOR SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSINGa

Particulateb Leadb SO2

EMISSION EMISSION EMISSION EMISSION EMISSION

FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR FACTOR
Process Uncontrolled RATING Controlled RATING Uncontrolled RATING Controlled RATING Uncontrolled RATING

Sweatingc (kg/Mg charge) 32-70 E ND NA 7-16d E ND NA ND NA

(SCC 3-04-004-04)
Reverberatory smelting 323 C 1.01 C 65 C ND NA 80 C
(SCC 3-04-004-02) (173-483)e (0.53-1.55)f (35-97)g (71-88)f
Blast smelting-cupolah 307 C 2.24 C 104 C 0.29 C 53 C
(SCC 3-04-004-03) (184-413)j (0.22-4.88)k (64-140)m (0.03-0.64)n (18-110)e
Kettle refining 0.03p C ND NA 0.01p C ND NA ND NA
Metallurgical Industry

(SCC 3-04-004-26)
Kettle Oxidation ≤ 40p E ND NA ND NA ND NA ND NA
(SCC 3-04-004-08)
Casting (SCC 3-04-004-09) 0.04p C ND NA 0.01p C ND NA ND NA
a Emission factors expressed as lb of pollutant/ton of metal produced. SCC = Source Classification Code. ND = no data. NA = not
applicable.
b Particulate and lead emission factors are based on quantity of lead product produced, except as noted.
c Reference 1. Estimated from sweating furnace emissions from nonlead secondary nonferrous processing industries.
d References 3,5. Based on assumption that uncontrolled reverberatory furnace flue emissions are 23% lead.
e References 8-11.
f References 6,8-11.
g Reference 13. Uncontrolled reverberatory furnace flue emissions assumed to be 23% lead. Blast furnace emissions have lead content of
34%, based on single uncontrolled plant test.
h Blast furnace emissions are combined flue gases and associated ventilation hood streams (charging and tapping).
j References 8,11-12.
k References 6,8,11-12,14-15.
m Reference 13. Blast furnace emissions have lead content of 26%, based on single controlled plant test.
n Based on quantity of material charged to furnaces.
p Reference 13. Lead content of kettle refining emissions is 40% and of casting emissions is 36%.
q
12.11-7

References 1-2. Essentially all product lead oxide is entrained in an air stream and subsequently recovered by baghouse with average
collection efficiency >99%. Factor represents emissions of lead oxide that escape a baghouse used to collect the lead oxide product.
Represents approximate upper limit for emissions.
 Table 12.11-3 (Metric Units). FUGITIVE EMISSION FACTORS FOR
SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSINGa

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: E

Operation Particulate Lead

Sweating (SCC 3-04-004-12) 0.8-1.8b 0.2-0.4cf
Smelting (SCC 3-04-004-13) 4.3-12.1 0.1-0.3d
Kettle refining (SCC 3-04-004-14) 0.001 0.0003e
Casting (SCC 3-04-004-25) 0.001 0.0004e
a
Reference 16. Based on amount of lead product except for sweating, which is based on quantity of
material charged to furnace. Fugitive emissions estimated to be 5% of uncontrolled stack emissions.
SCC= Source Classification Code.
b
Reference 1. Sweating furnace emissions estimated from nonlead secondary nonferrous processsing
industries.
c
References 3,5. Assumes 23% lead content of uncontrolled blast furnace flue emissions.
d
Reference 24.
e
Reference 13.
f
Correction based on note c, 1.8 x .23 = 0.4. (Replaced 1997 comment in table in September 2010)

Table 12.11-4 (English Units). FUGITIVE EMISSION FACTORS FOR

SECONDARY LEAD PROCESSINGa

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: E

Operation Particulate Lead

Sweating (SCC 3-04-004-12) 1.6-3.5b 0.4-0.8cf
Smelting (SCC 3-04-004-13) 8.6-24.2 0.2-0.6d
Kettle refining (SCC 3-04-004-14) 0.002 0.0006e
Casting (SCC 3-04-004-25) 0.002 0.0007e
a
Reference 16. Based on amount of lead product, except for sweating, which is based on quantity of
material charged to furnace. Fugitive emissions estimated to be 5% of uncontrolled stack emissions.
SCC = Source Classification Code.
b
Reference 1. Sweating furnace emissions estimated from nonlead secondary nonferrous processsing
industries.
c
References 3,5. Assumes 23% lead content of uncontrolled blast furnace flue emissions.
d
Reference 24.
e
Reference 13.
f
Correction based on note c, 3.5 x .23 = 0.8 (Replaced 1997 comment in table in September 2010)

12.11-8 EMISSION FACTORS (Reformatted 1/95) 10/86

 Emissions from battery breaking are mainly of sulfuric acid mist and dusts containing dirt,
battery case material, and lead compounds. Emissions from crushing are also mainly dusts.

Emissions from sweating operations are fume, dust, soot particles, and combustion products,
including sulfur dioxide (SO2). The SO2 emissions come from combustion of sulfur compounds in the
scrap and fuel. Dust particles range in size from 5 to 20 micrometers (µm) and unagglomerated lead
fumes range in size from 0.07 to 0.4 µm, with an average diameter of 0.3 µm. Particulate loadings in
the stack gas from reverberatory sweating range from 3.2 to 10.3 grams per cubic meter (1.4 to 4.5
grains per cubic foot). Baghouses are usually used to control sweating emissions, with removal
efficiencies exceeding 99 percent. The emission factors for lead sweating in Tables 12.11-1 and
12.11-2 are based on measurements at similar sweating furnaces in other secondary metal processing
industries, not on measurements at lead sweating furnaces.

Reverberatory smelting furnaces emit particulate and oxides of sulfur and nitrogen. Particulate
consists of oxides, sulfides and sulfates of lead, antimony, arsenic, copper, and tin, as well as
unagglomerated lead fume. Particulate loadings range from to 16 to 50 grams per cubic meter (7 to
22 grains per cubic foot). Emissions are generally controlled with settling and cooling chambers,
followed by a baghouse. Control efficiencies generally exceed 99 percent. Wet scrubbers are
sometimes used to reduce SO2 emissions. However, because of the small particles emitted from
reverberatory furnaces, baghouses are more often used than scrubbers for particulate control.

Two chemical analyses by electron spectroscopy have shown the particulate to consist of 38 to
42 percent lead, 20 to 30 percent tin, and about 1 percent zinc.17 Particulate emissions from
reverberatory smelting furnaces are estimated to contain 20 percent lead.

Emissions from blast furnaces occur at charging doors, the slag tap, the lead well, and the
furnace stack. The emissions are combustion gases (including carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and
oxides of sulfur and nitrogen) and particulate. Emissions from the charging doors and the slag tap are
hooded and routed to the devices treating the furnace stack emissions. Blast furnace particulate is
smaller than that emitted from reverberatory furnaces and is suitable for control by scrubbers or fabric
filters downstream of coolers. Efficiencies for various control devices are shown in Table 12.11-5. In
one application, fabric filters alone captured over 99 percent of the blast furnace particulate emissions.

Particulate recovered from the uncontrolled flue emissions at 6 blast furnaces had an average
lead content of 23 percent.3,5 Particulate recovered from the uncontrolled charging and tapping hoods
at 1 blast furnace had an average lead content of 61 percent.13 Based on relative emission rates, lead
is 34 percent of uncontrolled blast furnace emissions. Controlled emissions from the same blast
furnace had lead content of 26 percent, with 33 percent from flues, and 22 percent from charging and
tapping operations.13 Particulate recovered from another blast furnace contained 80 to 85 percent lead
sulfate and lead chloride, 4 percent tin, 1 percent cadmium, 1 percent zinc, 0.5 percent antimony,
0.5 percent arsenic, and less than 1 percent organic matter.18

Kettle furnaces for melting, refining, and alloying are relatively minor emission sources. The
kettles are hooded, with fumes and dusts typically vented to baghouses and recovered at efficiencies
exceeding 99 percent. Twenty measurements of the uncontrolled particulates from kettle furnaces
showed a mass median aerodynamic particle diameter of 18.9 micrometers, with particle size ranging
from 0.05 to 150 micrometers. Three chemical analyses by electron spectroscopy showed the
composition of particulate to vary from 12 to 17 percent lead, 5 to 17 percent tin, and 0.9 to
5.7 percent zinc.16

10/86 (Reformatted 1/95) Metallurgical Industry 12.11-9

 Table 12.11-5. EFFICIENCIES OF PARTICULATE CONTROL EQUIPMENT
ASSOCIATED WITH SECONDARY LEAD SMELTING FURNACES

Control Efficiency
Control Equipment Furnace Type (%)
Fabric filtera Blast 98.4
Blast Reverberatory 99.2
Dry cyclone plus fabric filtera Blast 99.0
Wet cyclone plus fabric filterb Reverberatory 99.7
Settling chamber plus dry
cyclone plus fabric filterc Reverberatory 99.8
Venturi scrubber plus demisterd Blast 99.3
a Reference 8.
b Reference 9.
c Reference 10.
d Reference 14.

Emissions from oxidizing furnaces are economically recovered with baghouses. The
particulates are mostly lead oxide, but they also contain amounts of lead and other metals. The oxides
range in size from 0.2 to 0.5 µm. Controlled emissions have been estimated to be 0.1 kilograms per
megagram (0.2 pounds per ton) of lead product, based on a 99 percent efficient baghouse.

References For Section 12.11.

1. William M. Coltharp, et al., Multimedia Environmental Assessment Of The Secondary

Nonferrous Metal Industry (Draft), Contract No. 68-02-1319, Radian Corporation, Austin, TX,
June 1976.

2. H. Nack, et al., Development Of An Approach To Identification Of Emerging Technology And

Demonstration Opportunities, EPA-650/2-74-048, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, OH, May 1974.

3. J. M. Zoller, et al., A Method Of Characterization And Quantification Of Fugitive Lead

Emissions From Secondary Lead Smelters, Ferroalloy Plants And Gray Iron Foundries
(Revised), EPA-450/3-78-003 (Revised), U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, NC, August 1978.

4. Air Pollution Engineering Manual, Second Edition, AP-40, U. S. Environmental Protection

Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1973. Out of Print.

5. Control Techniques For Lead Air Emissions, EPA-450/2-77-012, U. S. Environmental

Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, January 1978.

12.11-10 EMISSION FACTORS (Reformatted 1/95) 10/86

6. Background Information For Proposed New Source Performance Standards, Volumes I And II:
Secondary Lead Smelters And Refineries, APTD-1352a and b, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 1973.

7. J. W. Watson and K. J. Brooks, A Review Of Standards Of Performance For New Stationary

Source—Secondary Lead Smelters, Contract No. 68-02-2526, Mitre Corporation, McLean, VA,
January 1979.

8. John E. Williamson, et al., A Study Of Five Source Tests On Emissions From Secondary Lead
Smelters, County Of Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District, Los Angeles, CA,
February 1972.

9. Emission Test No. 72-CI-8, Office Of Air Quality Planning And Standards,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, July 1972.

10. Emission Test No. 72-CI-7, Office Of Air Quality Planning And Standards,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, August 1972.

11. A. E. Vandergrift, et al., Particulate Pollutant Systems Study, Volume I: Mass Emissions,
APTD-0743, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, May 1971.

12. Emission Test No. 71-CI-34, Office Of Air Quality Planning And Standards,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, July 1972.

13. Emission And Emission Controls At A Secondary Lead Smelter (Draft), Contract
No. 68-03-2807, Radian Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC, January 1981.

14. Emission Test No. 71-CI-33, Office Of Air Quality Planning And Standards,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, August 1972.

15. Secondary Lead Plant Stack Emission Sampling At General Battery Corporation, Reading,
Pennsylvania, Contract No. 68-02-0230, Battelle Institute, Columbus, OH, July 1972.

16. Technical Guidance For Control Of Industrial Process Fugitive Particulate Emissions,
EPA-450/3-77-010, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,
March 1977.

17. E. I. Hartt, An Evaluation Of Continuous Particulate Monitors At A Secondary Lead Smelter,

M. S. Report No. O. R. -16, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Date Unknown.

18. J. E. Howes, et al., Evaluation Of Stationary Source Particulate Measurement Methods,

Volume V: Secondary Lead Smelters, Contract No. 68-02-0609, Battelle Laboratories,
Columbus, OH, January 1979.

19. Silver Valley/Bunker Hill Smelter Environmental Investigation (Interim Report), Contract
No. 68-02-1343, Pedco, Inc., Cincinnati, OH, February 1975.

10/86 (Reformatted 1/95) Metallurgical Industry 12.11-11

20. Rives, G. D. and A. J. Miles, Control Of Arsenic Emissions From The Secondary Lead Smelting
Industry, Technical Document, Prepared Under EPA Contract No. 68-02-3816, Office Of Air
Quality Planning And Standards, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, NC, May 1985.
21. W. D. Woodbury, Minerals Yearbook, United States Department Of The Interior, Bureau of
Mines, 1989.

22. R. J. Isherwood, et al., The Impact Of Existing And Proposed Regulations Upon The Domestic
Lead Industry. NTIS, PBE9121743. 1988.

23. F. Hall, et al., Inspection And Operating And Maintenance Guidelines For Secondary Lead
Smelter Air Pollution Control, Pedco-Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, OH, 1984.

24. Quantification of Fugitive Lead Emissions from Smelter and Oxide Plant Sources for GNB
Inc., preformed by Lake Engineering, Inc., Atlanta, GA, April 1992.

12.11-12 EMISSION FACTORS (Reformatted 1/95) 10/86