DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING

EMT 2438: POWER ELECTRONICS

Course Purpose:
To introduce students to the fundamental principles of power semiconductor devices as switches,
and their application for solid-state power conversion and control.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course students should be able to:
1) Discuss the characteristics and operating principles of various power switching devices in
terms of:-
• Their i-v characteristics
• Turn-on/off requirements
• Switching speeds (turn-on and turn-off times, operating frequencies)
• Power handling capabilities (wattage, operating voltages and currents)
• Gate/base drivers and drive requirements
• Switch power losses at turn-on and turn-off transitions
• Protection requirements (at turn-on/off) and circuits used for such protection – e.g.
snubber circuits
• Heat dissipation and cooling
2) Analyse and explain the operation of the different types of power conversion circuits under
different loading conditions, viz:-
• Rectifiers (AC to DC converters)
- Diode rectifiers under resistive, inductive (RL), RL+E (battery), highly inductive
loads
- Phase controlled (thyristor) rectifiers under resistive, inductive (RL), RL+E,
highly inductive loads
• DC choppers (DC to DC converters)
- Step down (buck) converter
- Step up (boost) converter
- Buck-boost converter
- Switch mode power supply
• Inverters (DC to AC converters)
 PWM inverter
- Half bridge
- Full bridge
3) Apply the principle of power conversion and control for motor speed control (as one
example of application)

Course Description/Content:
1) Power semiconductor devices
- Uncontrolled… Power diodes (Schottky, All purpose, Fast recovery, etc)
- Semi controlled switches …SCR thyristor, LASCR, etc.
- Fully controlled… Power transistors (power BJT, power MOSFET, IGBT) and
forced commutated thyristors (GTO, MCT, IGCT, SIT)
• Look at desirable characteristics, operating requirements (such as voltage and current
levels, switching speeds), turn-on/off requirements, triggering methods, protection
for di/dt, dv/dt at turn-on/off, power losses, comparisons, etc.
2) Power conversion circuits using switch modulation (ON/OFF) of semiconductor devices
(controlled, semicontrolled, fully controlled)
- Single-phase (including introd. to three-phase) half-wave and full wave rectifiers,
semiconverters, or half-controlled rectifiers (under various loads … R, RL,
RL+E, L→ ∞), dual converters, freewheeling diodes, source inductance effects.
- DC to DC converters (or dc choppers or SMPS).
- DC to AC converters (or inverters) …introduction only.
• Look at circuit operations, analysis (input – output relations), key waveforms for
switched circuits, etc.
• NOTE: Review of Fourier series expansion and expression of various waveforms
(square wave, quasi-square wave, half-wave rectified, full-wave rectified, etc.) is
necessary!
3) Application examples … motor control circuits (e.g. SEDC motor), PWM control, etc.

Text Books:

1) Daniel W. Hart, Power Electronics, McGraw-Hill, 2010.

2) N. Mohan and W.P. Robbins, Power Electronics – Circuits, Applications and Design, Wiley,
(Second Edition)
Other Textbooks:
1) M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics – Circuits, Devices and Applications, Prentice Hall
2) C. W. Lander, Power Electronics, Mcgraw-Hill

Examination:
- 30% continuous assessment (assignments, test, laboratory)
• At least 2 assignments, tests and lab reports.
- 70% 2-hour written exam (Five Questions, Question 1 compulsory)

Lecture: Tuesday 1100hrs – 1300hrs Practical: Monday 1400hrs – 1700hrs

Lecturer: George N. Nyakoe Office: ELB 216
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 WHAT IS POWER ELECTRONICS?

Power electronics deals with conversion and processing of electric power (energy) from one
form/level to another.

Its primary task is to process and control the flow of electric power (energy) by supplying voltages
and currents in a form that is optimally suited for user loads.

Power electronics involves:

1. Use of semiconductor devices as switches for power conversion from one type of source
to another.
2. Use of solid-state electronics for efficient control of the amount of power and energy
flow.
3. Application of control techniques in order to obtain the desired input and output
requirements of power utilization (matching the voltage and current requirements of the
load to the source).

• Power… deals with static and rotating power equipment for generation, transmission
and distribution of electric energy,
• Electronics… deals with solid-state devices and circuits for signal processing to meet
the desired control objective.
• Control… deals with the steady-state and dynamic characteristics of closed-loop
systems,

The power converter (also called power conditioner or switching converter or power processor)
is a connection of power switches into a topology which can rectify or invert, regulate and
control the power flow through the system.

The availability of solid state power switches, such as the silicon controlled rectifier (or thyristor) ,
GTOs, BJTs, MOSFETs, MCTs and IGBTs, has created a very rapid expansion in power electronic
applications from relatively low power control of domestic equipment to high power control of
industrial processes, and very high power control along transmission lines.

Power electronic switches are available in ratings from the general purpose, able to control, for
example, 60V at 10A, through to modules controlling 250kV at 1000A.
These switches are arranged in controller, converter and inverter circuits able to condition the
power supply into the form required by the load. The switches can be connected in series to increase
voltage handling capability, and in parallel to improve current handling.
1.2 Scope of application
• It is not possible to build computers, cell phones, automobiles, airplanes, industrial
processes, etc., without power electronics.
• Alternative energy systems such as wind generators, solar power, fuel cells (including their
integration to the utility/grid) require power electronics to function.
• Technology advances such as electric and hybrid vehicles, laptop computers, microwave
ovens, flat-panel displays, LED lighting, and hundreds of other innovations were not
possible until advances in power electronics enabled their implementation.
• Power electronics is expected to be at the heart of fundamental energy innovations as
technology advances into the future.
• Modern power transmission and control (HVDC transmission, FACTS) relies heavily on
advances in high power, fast switching power electronic devices

Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters range from mW to MW, i.e.:-.

• Less than 1W in battery operated portable equipment,

• Tens, hundreds or thousands of watts in power supplies for computers or office equipment,

• kW to MW in variable motor speed drives (industrial)

• 1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc transmission lines such as in High Voltage

DC (HVDC) transmission and Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTs).

1.3 INTER-DISCIPLINARY NATURE OF POWER ELECTRONICS

Power electronics is a subject of interdisciplinary nature. To design and build control circuitry of a
power electronic application, one needs knowledge of several areas, including:-

• Design of analogue and digital electronic circuits, to build the control circuitry.
• Microcontrollers and digital signal processors for use in sophisticated applications.
• Electrical machines…Many power electronic circuits have an electrical machine as their
load. In a.c. variable speed drives, it may be a reluctance motor, an induction motor or a
synchronous motor. In d.c. variable speed drives, it is usually a d.c shunt/series or
separately-excited d.c motor.
• Transformers…In a circuit such as an inverter, a transformer may be connected at its output
and the transformer may have to operate with a non-sinusoidal waveform at its input.
• Control theory…Many power electronic systems are operated with negative feedback. A
linear controller such as a PI controller is used in relatively simple applications, whereas a
 controller based on digital or state-variable feedback techniques is used in more
sophisticated applications.
• Computer simulation is often necessary to optimize the design of a power electronic
system. In order to simulate, knowledge of software packages such as SPICE and
MATLAB, and the know-how to model nonlinear systems may be necessary.

1.4 POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEM

A generalized power electronic system will consist of a power source (power input), input/output
filtering, one or more power /switching converter, a load (fed with the power output) and a control
unit as shown in the block diagram below:

Fig: Block diagram of a generalized power electronic system

Power input (from source)… input voltage, vi, input current, i, input VA, input power, W,
input frequency, f.
• Sources include:- utility, battery, fuel cell, solar, wind, capacitor bank/inductor
storage; DC or AC.

Power output (to loads)…output voltage, vo, output current, i, output VA, output power, W,
output frequency, f.
• Loads include:- motors, utility line, computers, equipment, etc.

Power source: could be single-phase or three-phase, a.c. or d.c. input power.

Filter: filtering may be necessary to prevent any harmonics generated by the converter from being
fed back to the mains or being radiated into space (adherence to electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) standards). Filters are included both in the input and output of the converter.
Controller: Monitors the condition at the load, compares this with preset/reference values and then
adjusts the converter drive as necessary (feedback control system).
Power conditioner/switching converter/power processor: An arrangement of semiconductor
devices all operating in switch mode to perform the power conversion. This means that the devices
are switched from cut-off to saturation (‘off’ to ‘on’) by the application of gate, or base drive
pulses. An ideal switch would have full voltage across it when OFF and zero voltage across it when
ON.
Loads: these may include motors (desired voltage and frequency), utility line (AC at line
frequency), computers (computer power supply), Equipment (several such applications, AC/DC).
Note: The power converter includes gating/triggering circuits to generate the required gate drive
signals (e.g in thyristor switching) and base drive signals (in the case of transistors (BJTs)). Loads
may include inductance and capacitance… (students to review transient behaviour of circuits
involving inductance and capacitance)

Examples of power electronic system:

• DC voltage regulator:-

• Switch mode power supply (SMPS):-

 (Comprised of rectifiers, hf transformer, filters and a controller)

1.5 TYPES OF POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS:

Converters are generally classified into four types:-
• ac-dc converters, also called rectifiers… convert fixed a.c. power to fixed d.c. (in case of
uncontrolled rectifiers) or fixed a.c. power to variable d.c. (in case of controlled rectifiers).
• ac-ac converters, also called a.c. voltage controllers/regulators or cycloconverters
(frequency changers or magnitude controllers)
• dc-dc converters, also called d.c. choppers or switched mode power supplies (usually
unregulated to regulated or fixed to adjustable outputs).
• dc-ac converters, also called inverters…(conversion of d.c input to constant frequency
adjustable magnitude or adjustable frequency and adjustable magnitude ... sinusoidal type of
out)
[All above conversions are necessary due to need to change and/or control output magnitudes
and frequencies for different applications/load requirements]

1.6 TYPICAL POWER ELECTRONICS APPLICATION EXAMPLES:

1. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
• Mains 1 supplies the normal power to the load. Mains 2 includes an ac-dc converter that
charges the standby battery. The dc-ac converter supplies the emergency power to the load.
2. DC Power Supply

3. Variable Speed Drive (Feedback control via sensors)

4. Automotive Powering System

• The dc-dc converter steps down from 42V to 14V. The static switches distribute either 14 V
or 42 V.
5. AC Motor Drive System
• Includes a feedback control loop, gate drive circuitry, filters, 3-phase diode rectifier and a 3-
phase inverter.

6. Traction Converter System

 A 3-phase dc-ac converter drives an induction motor. The LC-filter lowers the amount of
harmonic injection.
 7. Photovoltaic (PV) System:
DC power from the PV system is converted to other d.c voltage for battery bank storage and
then further converted to a.c to supply a.c power to the a.c loads.

PV System Block Diagram (stand-alone)

1.7 WIDE APPLICATIONS OF PE:

- Power electronics is applied in almost everything around us….(Table 1-1)
 (Ref:Mohan)
1.8 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Power switching devices are the key elements (work horses) of a power converter. The commonly
used devices are:-
• Power Diodes
• Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) or Thyristors
• Gate Turn-off Thyristors (GTOs)
• Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (Power BJTs)
• Power Metal-Oxide Field-Effect Transistors (Power MOSFETs)
• Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
• Mos-Controlled Thyristors (MCTs)
• Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristor
• Several other new devices (Give me 5 examples in the next class!)
Power semiconductor devices are operated in two states:
– Fully on. i.e. switch closed...conducting state
– Fully off , i.e. switch opened…blocking state
Important note: Power switch never operates in linear mode.
 Power Switch
Switch fully OFF
Switch fully ON

PE devices can be categorized into three groups:

– Uncontrolled: Diode
– Semi-controlled: Thyristor (SCR)
– Fully controlled: Power transistors/thyristor, e.g., BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, MCT,
IGCT

Some examples of power Switches:

IGCT (INSULATED
GATE
COMMUTATED
THYRISTOR)

Power Diodes (GENERAL IGBT (INSULATED GATE

PURPOSE/FAST RECOVERY) BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR)

1.9 ISSUES REQUIRING ATTENTION:

When designing circuits for power conversion, the following decisions need to be made:-
 Type of converter topology to select in order to perform the required conversion.
 Type of semiconductor devices needed to perform the switching functions (with the required
turn-on and turn-off speeds/frequencies, and power handling capabilities).
 Choice of the base/gate-drive circuitry and the interface between the low-level electronics
and the high-power switching converters.
 Choice of the base/gate drive strategy to obtain the desired input and output requirements.
 Choice of the feedback-loop control and the type of control implementation: analog and/or
digital.
 How to deal with the losses involved and the necessary device protection and heat removal
provisions.

1.10 DEVICE USAGE CONSIDERATIONS:

There are two general modes in which devices are operated:
 1. Linear (analogue)
2. Switched mode

The switched mode of operation is preferred due to:

• Zero power losses (for ideal devices) when switch is open
∆V = High , Iload = 0 ⇒ Loss = 0
• Zero power losses (for ideal devices) when switch is closed
∆V ≈ 0 , Iload = High ⇒ Loss ≈ 0
⇒ Handles high power with high efficiency (advantage)

The ideal power switch:

• Used for analysis of a converter to understand the basic operation of the converter circuit
without considering details of the device operation.
• In the design stage, real (practical) devices must be specified and selected (non-ideal
properties have to be considered!)

Desirable properties of (a near) ideal switch:

High on-state current ⇒ • High power handling capability
High blocking voltage • Handles inductive loads
Low on-state and switching ⇒ • Small heat sink
losses • High efficiency
High speed switching ⇒ • High control bandwidth
Easy to turn on/off ⇒ • Simple control circuitry
Low drive power
Low cost

Ideal vs. Practical power switch

Ideal switch Practical switch
Block arbitrarily large forward and reverse Finite blocking voltage with small
voltage with zero current flow when off current flow during turn-off
Conduct arbitrarily large currents with zero Finite current flow and appreciable
voltage drop when on voltage drop during turn-on (e.g. 2-3V
for IGBT)
Switch from on to off or vice versa Requires finite time to reach maximum
instantaneously when triggered voltage and current. Requires time to
turn on and off.
Very small power required from control In general voltage driven devices (IGBT,
source to trigger the switch MOSFET) require small power for
triggering.
GTO requires substantial amount of
current to turn off.
 EMT 2438 POWER ELECTRONICS

Assignment 1:

Explore the various power electronic devices (list the different types/families).
1. List the desirable characteristics of the electronic devices for use as controllable power
switches
2. Compare the switching devices in terms of:-
a. Operating power ranges (voltages, currents and power handling capabilities).
b. Switching speeds (frequencies).
c. Reverse recovery characteristics (where applicable).
d. Turn-ON/OFF requirements.
e. Protection against overvoltages/overcurrents and high rates of change of voltage and
current (dv/dt, di/dt) (at turn-ON/OFF)…which circuits are used for this?
f. Triggering and drive requirements and the circuits used…gate drive, base drive?
g. Switch power losses/heat dissipation/cooling of devices?
h. Difference of power devices with their signal level counterparts….in terms of
structure and i-v characteristics (if any)?

Note: This assignment topic (covering learning outcome number 1) will not be discussed in class!
Use of the devices in circuit analysis (bearing in mind their characteristics and switching
requirements) will be covered in the next lecture…starting from rectifiers (diode and phase
controlled) under various loads….(Ref: Hart Chapters 3 & 4; with use of concepts covered in
Chapter 2…average values, rms values, Fourier series, etc.)

References:
1. Hart (Chapter 1)
2. Mohan (Chapter 2)

Due Date: 05/03/2018