Lec#12, Aircraft Characterisitcs (Compatibility Mode)

RAILWAY ENGINEERING
&
RUNWAY ENGINEERING
Basic Forces Acting on Aero-Plane
• Airplane, engine driven vehicle that can fly

through the air supported by the action of air
against its wings.
• Airplanes are heavier than air, in contrast to
vehicles such as balloons and airships which are
lighter than air.
• Airplanes have rigid wings; movable part of the
wings and tail, which make it possible to guide
their flight.
Basic Forces Acting on Aeroplane
• Modern airplanes range from ultra light
aircraft weighing not more than 46 kg to
550 metric tons.
• Land planes (operate from ground), sea
planes (operate on water), and
amphibians (can operate on both land and
sea).
• Airplane lift off using the jet thrust off their
engines or rotors (rotating wings)
Basic Forces Acting on Aeroplane
Following are the forces acting on the aero-
plane
• Lift force
• Thrust force
• Weight of the aero-plane
• Drag Force
Forces Acting on Aeroplane
LIFT FORCE
Thrust Force Drag Force
Weight
Explanation of the Forces
• Weight
– Every object on the earth has weight. Boeing 747 can
weigh up to 870,000 lbs.
• Lift
– Lift is the aerodynamic force that holds an airplane in
the air
– Upward force on the plane
– Wings alter the direction of flow of air as it passes.
– The speed of the airflow and the angle at which the
wings meet the on coming air stream also contribute
to the amount of lift generated.
– Depends upon the angle of attack of wind and the
orientation of the flaps.
Forces Contributing to Lift
• Bernoulli’s equation, a fundamental of fluid
dynamic states that as the speed of a fluid flow
increases, its pressure decreases
• Newton’s third law states that for every action

there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• To accommodate both flight regimes (fast and

high as well as slow and low), airplane wings
have movable sections called flaps.
• This effectively alters the shape of the wing,

allowing wing to turn more air and thus create
more lift.
Drag
• Drag is an aerodynamic force that resists the
motion of an object moving through a fluid.
• Airplane through air, produces friction as it

interacts with air fluid and because it must move
the air out of its way to do its work.
• A high lift wing surface, may create a great deal

of lift for an airplane, but because of its large
size, it is also creating a significant amount of
drag.
• Drag is minimized by designing sleek,

aerodynamic aero-planes, with shapes that slip
easily through the air.
Thrust
• Thrust is an aerodynamic force that must

be created by an aero-plane to overcome
the drag.
• Force that propels an airplane forward
through the air. It is provided by the
airplane’s propulsion system; either a
propeller or jet engine or combination of
the two.
Types of Aircraft Engine
According to the type of propulsion and

thrust generating medium, air craft can be
categorized into
• Piston
• Turbine
Piston Engine
• All propeller driven aircrafts run be
reciprocating engines with gasoline as fuel
are designated as piston-engine aircraft.
Turbo Prop
Aircrafts driven by turbine engines
are known as Turbo Props.
Turbo Jet
• When the thrust is directly achieved from
the turbine engines ( not through
propellers) they are known as turbo-jets.
Turbo Fan
When a fan is added to the turbo-jet

engine to increase the thrust of the
engine it is designated as Turbo Fan.
Important Definitions
• Ground Speed
– Speed of aircraft relative to ground.
• Air Speed
– Speed of aircraft wing ( air speed across the
wings)
– If the ground speed of an aircraft is 600 km/hr
and speed of the wind in opposite direction is
100 km/hr; air speed is 700 km/hr.
Super and Subsonic Aircrafts
• Reference datum for speed of aircraft is
the speed of the sound.
• Most military aircraft are super sonic
having match number more than 1
• Transport aircrafts are subsonic having
match number less than 1.
Important Definitions
• Mach Number
– Ratio between aircraft speed and speed of the sound
– Speed of the sound at -25ºC is 1138 km/hr; 0ºC is
1194 km/hr and at 30ºC is 1263 km/hr.
• Knots
– I minute of arc of earth = nautical mile~ 1.852 km
– Total nautical miles (equator) = 360*60 = 21,600
(40,000 km)
– I knot = nautical miles/ hour = 1.852 km/hr.
Characteristics of Transport Aircraft
• Type of aircraft
• Aircraft dimensions
• Turning radius
• Aircraft speed
• Maximum structural take off weight
• Wing span and total length
• Wheel base
• Number and types of engines,
• payload, revenue generating load
• Gear configuration
• Aircraft capacity
• Operating range
Gear
Location
Size of aircraft
• The center to center distance between the
two gear system is known as wheel base.
• Wheel tread is the central distance
between the main gears on either side.
• Span of the wings- decides the width of
taxiway, size of aprons and hangers
• Fuselage/ length of aircraft- decides the
widening of taxiway on curves, size of
aprons and hangers
Gear Location
Size of aircraft
• Height- decides the height of the hanger
gate and various installations at hangers
• Distance between main gears- governs
the minimum turning radius of the aircraft
• Wheel base- decides minimum taxiway
radius
• Tail width- required for size of parking and
aprons.
Radius Requirement for the Aircraft
• For establishing the path of movement of

aircraft on airport and determining position
of aircraft near the terminal, it is necessary
to know the movement capability of the
aircraft
• The turning radius is a function of nose
gear steering angle.
• When the radius is minimum, it produces
excessive tyre wear.
Radius Requirement for the Aircraft
• Maximum radius is critical with regards the

clearance to the adjacent buildings/ aircrafts.
• Maximum turning radii to reduce the excessive
tire wear and shearing the pavement surface.
• New aircraft has the capability to swivel the main
gears for sharp turns.
Typical Wheel Configuration of Aircraft
Components of Aircraft Weight
• Aircraft weight influences the thickness
and length of the runway.
• Operating Empty Weight
• Payload
• Zero fuel weight
• Maximum structural Landing Weight
• Maximum takeoff weight
• Maximum ramp weight
• Payload- revenue generating load
(passengers & cargo)
• OEW- operating empty weight is the

weight of the aircraft without fuel and
payload ( includes pilot, crew and empty
seats. Depends upon seating
configuration. It does not include payload
and fuel.
• ZFW- zero fuel weight above which all
additional weight must be fuel
• MTOW- maximum takeoff operating
weight- structurally the maximum
demonstrated mass at take-off for safe
flight (excludes run-up fuel and includes
OEW, fuel & payload). Longer trips
requires more fuel with less payload
• MALW- maximum allowable landing
weight is the maximum demonstrated
landing weight to keep the landing gear
intact at maximum sink rate (vertical
speed)
• MSPW maximum structural payload
weight is the maximum demonstrated
payload to be carried without stressing the
aircraft fuselage (ZFW-OEW)
• MTW- maximum taxiway weight
(maximum ramp weight) for ground
maneuvering. Usually slightly more than
MTOW (includes run-up fuel)
• DTW- desired takeoff weight is the weight
of aircraft (plus reserve), payload and
OEW to complete a given stage length
• DTW = Payload + OEW + required Fuel
Schematic Sketch for Aircraft Weight
PayLoad- Range Charts
Payload-Range
• Range- distance the aircraft can fly is called
range
• Range increases as payload decreases
• Point A: range at maximum payload, fuel tank
not completely filled.
• Point B: fuel tank completely filled. Aircraft take
off at MTOW
• Point C: maximum distance without payload
(ferry range). Take off weight less than
maximum
Payload-Range
• For the maximum structural landing
weight, path DE is followed. ( How long
the aircraft can fly with maximum structural
payload)
Limitation of Payload
• Can’t get lighter than empty operational
empty weight (OEW)
• Pavement structure designed on
maximum taxi, take-off and landing
weights. Provides upper limits
• Need fuel for reserves and trip, limited by
tank size
• What is left over is for useful pay load
Runway Orientation (Usability)
• The percentage of time during which the

use of runway is not restricted because of
cross wind component.
• Usability of the runway depends upon
metrological and topographical factors
• Cross wind component function of air
plane mass.
Runway Orientation (Analysis of
Wind)
• Provides adequate separation between
aircrafts
• Causes least interference and delays in
landing, taxing and takeoff operations
• Provide short taxi distance to end of
runways
• Provide adequate taxiways so that landing
aircrafts can exit runways as quickly as
possible
Runway Orientation (Analysis of
Wind)
• The principal traffic runway should be oriented
as closely as practical so that the cross wind is
with maximum permissible limits
• Max allowable wind not only depends on
– Size of aircraft
– Wing configuration
– Condition of pavement surface
• Guidelines are provided by ICAO for maximum
allowable cross wind under different conditions
Permissible Cross Wind
Component
• Reference Field • Maximum cross wind
Length component
– 1500 m or over – 20 knots (37 km/hr)
– 1200 m to 1499 m – 13 knots (24 km/hr)
– < 1200 mm – 10 knots (19 km/hr)

Wind Rose Diagram
• Consists of a series of concentric circles cut by
radial lines on polar co-ordinate graph paper
• Radial lines are used to scale the wind
magnitude
• Each radial line is 22.5 deg increment
• Less than 4mph is referred to as calm
• It requires information regarding the direction
and frequency of wind.
• Best orientation is the longest line on wind rose
diagram
Design Template
• Draw three equidistant parallel lines on
transparent template. The middle line is
the runway centre line and the distance
between outside lines represents the cross
wind component
• Template placed on the wind rose such
that the centre line passes through the
centre of the wind rose
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RAILWAY ENGINEERING

• Airplane, engine driven vehicle that can fly

Thrust Force Drag Force

• Newton’s third law states that for every action

• To accommodate both flight regimes (fast and

• This effectively alters the shape of the wing,

• Airplane through air, produces friction as it

• A high lift wing surface, may create a great deal

• Drag is minimized by designing sleek,

• Thrust is an aerodynamic force that must

According to the type of propulsion and

When a fan is added to the turbo-jet

• For establishing the path of movement of

• Maximum radius is critical with regards the

• OEW- operating empty weight is the

• The percentage of time during which the

– 1200 m to 1499 m – 13 knots (24 km/hr)

– < 1200 mm – 10 knots (19 km/hr)

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