ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS

JNTUK (R16 Regulation)

LAB MANUAL
(STUDENT COPY)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Prepared by

L. Surendra
Assistant professor
 INDEX

S.NO. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE NO.

USING SOFTWARE (MATLAB, COMMUNICATION TOOL BOX)

Introduction to MATLAB 1-12

1 Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation 13-17
2 AM-DSBSC Modulation And Demodulation 18-22
3 Frequency Modulation and Demodulation 23-25

USING SOFTWARE (MATLAB, SIMULINK)

Introduction to SIMULINK 26-35

4 Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation 36-38
5 DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation 39-41
6 Frequency Modulation 42-43

USING HARDWARE
7 Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation 44-50
8 Diode Detector Characteristics 51-53
9 Frequency Modulation And Demodulation 54-58
10 Balanced Modulator 59-62
11 Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis 63-67
12 Synchronous Detector 68-71
13 SSB System 72-76
14 Spectrum Analysis of AM And FM Signal Using
Spectrum Analyzer 77-79

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING SOFTWARE)

1 Pulse Width Modulation 80-81
2 Phase Locked Loop 82-86
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING HARDWARE)

3 Characteristics of Mixer 87-90

4 Phase Locked Loop 91-93
5 Squelch Circuit 94-97
6 Frequency Synthesizer 98-100

APPENDIX -A 101-104
APPENDIX -B 105-128
REFERENCES 129
Analog Communication Lab
(Software Experiments)
Simulation Using MATLAB
Analog Communication Lab
(Hardware Experiments)
Additional Experiments
(Using Software)
Additional Experiments
(Using Hardware)
APPENDIX
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB® is a high-
performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization,
and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are
expressed in familiar mathematical notation.MATLAB is an interactive system whose
basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to
solve many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector
formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a scalar
noninteractive language such as C or Fortran.

Typical uses include

Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building
To start MATLAB on a Microsoft Windows platform, select the Start -> Programs ->
MATLAB 7.0.1 -> MATLAB 7.0.1, or double-click the MATLAB shortcut icon on your
Windows desktop. The shortcut was automatically created when you installed MATLAB.
If you have trouble starting MATLAB, see troubleshooting information in the Installation
Guide for Windows.
When you start MATLAB, it displays the MATLAB desktop, a set of tools (graphical
user interfaces or GUIs) for managing files, variables, and applications associated with
MATLAB.

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The toolbar in the desktop provides easy access to frequently used operations. Position
the cursor over a button for a second or two and a tooltip appears that describes the item.

The Command Window is one of the main tools you use to enter data, run MATLAB
functions and other M-files, and display results.
Use the Help browser to search and view documentation and demonstrations for
MATLAB and all other installed MathWorks products. MATLAB automatically installs
the documentation and demos for a product when

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you install that product. The Help browser is an HTML browser integrated with the
MATLAB desktop.

To open the Help browser, click the Help button in the desktop toolbar, type
helpbrowser in the Command Window, or use the Help menu in any tool. There are two
panes:

Working with Matlab:

In MATLAB, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. Special meaning is
sometimes attached to 1-by-1 matrices, which are scalars, and to matrices with only one
row or column, which are vectors. MATLAB has other ways of storing both numeric and
nonnumeric data, but in the beginning, it is usually best to think

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of everything as a matrix. The operations in MATLAB are designed to be as natural as

possible. Where other programming languages work with numbers one at a time,
MATLAB allows you to work with entire matrices quickly and easily.

To do work in MATLAB, you type commands at the command prompt.

Often these commands will look like standard arithmetic. Or function calls similar
to many other computer languages. By doing this, you can assign sequences to
variables and then manipulate them many ways. You can even write your own
functions and programs using MATLAB's control structures. The following
sections will describe the most commonly used commands on MATLAB and give
simple examples using them.
Expressions:
Like most other programming languages, MATLAB provides mathematical
expressions, but unlike most programming languages, these expressions involve entire
matrices. The building blocks of expressions are
Variables
Numbers
Operators

Variables:
MATLAB does not require any type declarations or dimension statements. When
MATLAB encounters a new variable name, it automatically creates the variable and
allocates the appropriate amount of storage. If the variable already exists, MATLAB
changes its contents and, if necessary, allocates new storage.Variable names consist of a
letter, followed by any number of letters, digits, or underscores. MATLAB uses only the
first 31 characters of a variable name. MATLAB is case sensitive; it distinguishes
between uppercase and lowercase letters. A and a are not the same variable. To view the
matrix assigned to any variable, simply enter the variable name.

You can assign the values to variables by typing in equations. For example, if you type

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>>x=5
MATLAB creates a 1-by-1 matrix named xand stores the value 5 in its single element.
The output produced by the MATLAB x =

5
MATLAB uses ans for any expression you don't assign to a variable. For
instance, if you type
>> 5
to MATLAB, MATLAB will return
ans =
5
and assign the value 5 to the variable ans. Thus, ans will always be assigned to the most
recently calculated value you didn't assign to anything else. Numbers:

MATLAB uses conventional decimal notation, with an optional decimal point and
leading plus or minus sign, for numbers. Scientific notation uses the letter e to specify a
power-of-ten scale factor. Imaginary numbers use either i or j as a suffix. Some examples
of legal numbers are
3 -99 0.0001
9.6397238 1.60210e-20 6.02252e23
1i -3.14159j 3e5i
All numbers are stored internally using the long format specified by the IEEE
floating-point standard. Floating-point numbers have a finite precision of roughly 16
significant decimal digits and a finite range of roughly 10-308 to 10+308.

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Operators:
Expressions use familiar arithmetic operators and precedence rules.

Symbol Operation
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
\ Left division
^ Power
' Complex conjugate transpose
( ) Specify evaluation order

>>x= 1:4will return

x=
1 2 3 4
You can optionally give the colon a step size. For instance,
>>x=8:-1:5 will give
x=
8 7 6 5
and
>> x = 0:0.25: 1.25will return
x=
00.25 0.50.75 1.01.25

The colon is a subtle and powerful operator, and we'll see more uses of it later.

Flow Control:
MATLAB has several flow control constructs:
if, else, and elseif

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switch and case

for
while etc… …
if, else, and elseif:
The if statement evaluates a logical expression and executes a group of statements
when the expression is true. The optional elseif and else keywords provide for the
execution of alternate groups of statements. An end keyword, which matches the if,
terminates the last group of statements. The groups of statements are delineated by the
four keywords -- no braces or brackets are involved.

The basic command looks like if a > 0

x=a^2;
end
This command will assign x to be the value of a squared, if a is positive. Again,
note that it has to have an end to indicate which commands are actually part of the if. In
addition, you can define an else clause which is executed if the condition you gave the if
is not true. We could expand our example above to be if a>0

x = a^2;
else
x = -a^2
end
For this version, if we had already set a to be 2, then x would get the
value 4, but if a was -3, x would be -9. Note that we only need one end, which
comes after all the clauses of the if. Finally, we can expand the if to include
several possible conditions. If the first condition isn't satisfied, it looks for the
next, and so on, until it either finds an else, or finds the end. We could change
our example to get
if a>0
x = a^2;
else if a == 0

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x = i;
else
x = -a^2
end
For this command, it will see if a is positive, then if a is not positive, it will check if a is
zero, finally it will do the else clause. So, if a positive, x will be a squared, if a is 0, x will
be i, and if a is negative,
then x will be the negative of a squared. Again, note we only have a single end after all
the clauses.
For:
The for loop repeats a group of statements a fixed, predetermined number of times. A
matching end delineates the statements.
. It is functionally very similar to the for function in C. For example, typing for
i= 1:4
end
will cause MATLAB to make the variable i count from 1 to 4, and print its value
for each step. So, you would see
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
Every command must have a matching end statement to indicate which
commands should be executed several times. You can have nested for loops.
For example, typing
Form = 1:3
for n= 1:3
x(m,n)=m+n*i;
end
end
will define x to be the matrix
x=

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1.0000 + 1.0000i 1.0000 + 2.0000i 1.0000 + 3.0000i

2.0000 + 1.0000i 2.0000 + 9.0000i 2.0000 + 3.0000i
3.0000 + 1.0000i 3.0000 + 2.0000i 3.0000 + 3.0000i
The indentations in the for structure are optional, but they make it easier to figure out
what the commands are doing.
While:
The while command allows you to execute a group of commands until
some condition is no longer true. These commands appear between the while
and its matching end statement. For instance, if we want to keep squaring x until
it is greater than a million,
we would type
while x < 1000000
x = x^2;
end

Scripts and Functions:

MATLAB is a powerful programming language as well as an interactive computational
environment. Files that contain code in the MATLAB language are called M-files. You
create M-files using a text editor, then use them as you would any other MATLAB
function or command.
There are two kinds of M-files: Scripts, which do not accept input arguments or return
output arguments. They operate on data in the workspace. Functions, which can accept
input arguments and return output arguments. Internal variables are local to the function.

Scripts:
When you invoke a script, MATLAB simply executes the commands found in the file.
Scripts can operate on existing data in the workspace, or they can create new data on
which to operate. Although scripts do not return output arguments, any variables that they
create remain in the workspace, to be used in subsequent computations.

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Functions:
Functions are M-files that can accept input arguments and return output arguments. The
names of the M-file and of the function should be the same. Functions operate on
variables within their own workspace, separate from the workspace you access at the
MATLAB command prompt.

Procedure:

1. Open the MATLAB® software by double clicking its icon .

2. MATLAB® logo will appear and after few moments Command Prompt will appear.

3. Go to the File Menu and select a New M- file. (File ?New?M-file) or in the left hand
corner a blank white paper icon will be there. Click it once.

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4. A blank M- file will appear with a title ‘untitled’

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5. Now start typing your program. After completing, save the M- file with appropriate
name. Toexecute the program Press F5 or go to Debug Menu and select Run.

6. After execution output will appear in the Command window .If there is an error then
with an
alarm, type of error will appear in red color.
7. Rectify the error if any and go to Debug Menu and select Run.

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1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
A. To generate the amplitude modulated signal(AM wave) by using given message
signal and carrier signals in MATLAB software
B. To demodule the AM wave using envelope detector principle
Hardware and software requirements:
Personal computer(PC)
MATLAB Software 7.0.4
Theory:
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier voltage varies in accordance
with the instantaneous value of modulating voltage. Let the modulating voltage be
given by expression, Vm = Vmcoswmt

Where wm is angular frequency of the signal &Vm is the amplitude. Let the
carriervoltage be given by expression,
Vc = Vccoswct
On Amplitude Modulation, The instantaneous value of modulated carrier voltage is given
by,
V = V(t) coswct V(t)=Vc
+ kaVmcoswmt
V=Vc[1+ ma coswm t] coswct
Where ma is modulation index and the modulation index is defined as the ratio of
maximum amplitude of modulating signal to maximum amplitude of carrier signal.
ma= Vm / Vc
The demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the incoming
AM wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly effective
device that is well suited for the demodulation of AM wave, for which the percentage
modulation is less than 100%.Ideally, an envelop detector produces an output signal that
follows the envelop of the input signal wave form

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exactly; hence, the name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial
AM radio receivers.

PROGRAM:
AM without functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.02,10000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=5000;%frequency of carrier signal
fm=200;%frequency of message signaql
fs=40000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal
Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal
m=Am/Ac%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal
y=Ac*(1+m*sin(wm)).*sin(wc);%amplitude modulated signal
z=y.*ec; %in synchronous detection the AM signal is
multiplied with carrier signal and passed through LPF
z1=conv(z,exp(-t/0.000795));% the LPF filter response in time domain is given by exp(-
t/RC), the cut off frequency for filter should be fm=200 %F=1/(2*pi*R*C), replacing
F=200, and
%assuming R=1k ohm then C=0.795MICROFARAD
%so RC=0.000795
%we will get the demodulated signal by convolving the AM signal with LPF response

l=10000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l),em(1:l))

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xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z1(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');

Model Waveforms:

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AM with functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.2,100000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=1000;%frequency of carrier signal
fm=200;%frequency of message signal
fs=100000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal
Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal
m=Am/Ac%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal
y=ammod(em,fc,fs,0,Ac);%amplitude modulated signal
z=amdemod(y,fc,fs,0,Ac);%demodulated AM signal
l=100000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l),em(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
axis([0 0.02 -20 20])%setting axis dimensions
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');

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title('AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');

Model Waveforms:

Result:

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2. AM-DSBSC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
A. To generate the AM-DSBSC modulated signal(DSBSC wave) by using given
message signal and carrier signals in MATLAB software
B. To demodule the DSBSC wave using synchronous detector
Hardware and software requirements:
Personal computer(PC)
MATLAB Software 7.0.4
Theory:
The amplitude-modulated signal is simple to produce but has two practical
drawbacks inapplication to many real communications systems: the bandwidth of the AM
signal is twice that of the modulating signal and most of the power is transmitted in the
carrier, not in the information bearing sidebands. To overcome these problems with AM,
versions on AM have been developed. These other versions of the AM are used in
applications were bandwidth must be conserved or power used more effectively.

If the carrier could somehow be removed or reduced, the transmitted signal would
consistof two information-bearing sidebands, and the total transmitted power would be
information. When the carrier is reduced, this is called as double sideband
suppressedcarrier AM or DSB-SC. Instead of two third of the power in the carrier,
nearly all being the available power is used in sidebands.

PROGRAM:
AM-DSBSC without functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.02,100000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=10000;%frequency of carrier signal

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fm=1000;%frequency of message signaql

fs=40000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal
Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal
m=Am/Ac;%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal y=em.*ec;

z=y.*ec; %in synchronous detection the AM signal is multiplied with carrier signal and
passed through LPF
z1=conv(z,exp(-t/0.000159));% the LPF filter response in time domain is given by exp(-
t/RC), the cut off frequency for filter should be fm=200 %F=1/(2*pi*R*C), replacing
F=200, and
%assuming R=1k ohm then C=0.159MICROFARAD
%so RC=0.000159
%we will get the demodulated signal by
%convolving the AM signal with LPF response
l=100000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l/2),em(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l/2),y(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');

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title('DSBSC MODULATED SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z1(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');

Model waveforms:

AM-DSBSC with functions:

clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.02,10000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=1000;%frequency of carrier signal
fm=200;%frequency of message signal
fs=10000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal

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Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal

m=Am/Ac%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal
y=modulate(em,fc,fs,'amdsb-sc');%amplitude modulated signal
z=demod(y,fc,fs,'amdsb-sc');%demodulated AM signal
l=10000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l),em(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
axis([0 0.02 -5 5])%setting axis dimensions
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DSBSC MODULATED SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');

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Model Waveforms:

Result:
The AM-DSBSC wave is generated for the given message and carrier signals and
the message signal is recovered from the modulated wave using synchronous detector.

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3. FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
A. To generate frequency modulated signal and observe the characteristics of FM wave
using MATLAB software.
B. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal usingMATLAB software

Hardware and software requirements:

Personal computer(PC)
MATLAB Software 7.0.4

Theory:
Frequency modulation consists in varying the frequency of the carrier voltage
inaccordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating voltage.Thus the amplitude
ofthe carrier does not change due to frequency modulation. Let the modulating voltage
begiven by expression:
Vm=Vmcoswmt.
Where wmis angular frequency of the signal &Vmis the amplitude. Let the carriervoltage
be given by expression,

On frequency modulation, the instantaneous value of modulated carrier voltage is given

by,

Hence the frequency modulated carrier voltage is given by,

The modulation index is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to frequency of

modulating signal mf=d/fm where deviation d=(fmax-fmin)/2.

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FM with functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
Fs = 8000; % Sampling rate of signal
Fc = 100; % Carrier frequency
t = linspace(0,1,10000); % Sampling times
x = sin(2*pi*10*t) % Channel 1

dev = 50; % Frequency deviation in modulated signal y =

fmmod(x,Fc,Fs,dev); % Modulate both channels.
z = fmdemod(y,Fc,Fs,dev); % Demodulate both channels.

subplot(411),plot(t,x)
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(412),plot(t,sin(2*pi*Fc*t))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(413),plot(t,y)
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(414),plot(t,z)
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');

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Model waveforms:

Result:

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INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK
Introduction:
Simulink is a software package that enables you to model, simulate, and analyze
systems whose outputs change over time. Such systems are often referred to as dynamic
systems. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of a wide range of real-world
dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock absorbers, braking systems, and
many other electrical, mechanical, and thermodynamic systems. This section explains
how Simulink works.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, a user
creates a block diagram, using the Simulink model editor, that graphically depicts time-
dependent mathematical relationships among the system's inputs, states, and outputs. The
user then commands Simulink to simulate the system represented by the model from a
specified start time to a specified stop time.
In general, block and lines can be used to describe many "models of
computations." One example would be a flow chart. A flow chart consists of blocks and
lines, but one cannot describe general dynamic systems using flow chart semantics.

The term "time-based block diagram" is used to distinguish block diagrams that
describe dynamic systems from that of other forms of block diagrams. In Simulink, we
use the term block diagram (or model) to refer to a time-based block diagram unless the
context requires explicit distinction.
Simulink block diagrams define time-based relationships between signals and
state variables. The solution of a block diagram is obtained by evaluating these
relationships over time, where time starts at a user specified "start time" and ends at a
user specified "stop time." Each evaluation of these relationships is referred to as a time
step. Signals represent quantities that change over time and are defined for all points in
time between the block diagram's start and stop time. The relationships between signals
and state variables are defined by a set of equations represented by blocks. Each block
consists of a set of equations (block methods). These equations define a relationship
between the input signals,

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output signals and the state variables. Inherent in the definition of a equation is the notion
of parameters, which are the coefficients found within the equation.

Starting Simulink
To start Simulink, you must first start MATLAB. You can then start
Simulink in two ways:

 Click the Simulink icon on the MATLAB toolbar.

 Enter the simulink command at the MATLAB prompt.

On Microsoft Windows platforms, starting Simulink displays the Simulink

Library Browser.

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SIMULINK EDITOR:
When you open a Simulink model or library, Simulink displays the model or
library in an instance of the Simulink Editor.

Editor Components:
The Simulink Editor includes the following components.
Menu Bar

The Simulink menu bar contains commands for creating, editing, viewing,
printing, and simulating models. The menu commands apply to the model displayed in
the editor. See Creating a Model and Running Simulations for more information.

Toolbar

The toolbar allows you to execute Simulink's most frequently used Simulink
commands with a click of a mouse button. For example, to open a Simulink model, click
the open folder icon on the toolbar. Letting the mouse cursor hover over a toolbar button
or control causes a tooltip to appear. The tooltip describes the purpose of the button or
control. You can hide the toolbar by clearing the Toolbar option on the Simulink View
menu.
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Canvas

The canvas displays the model's block diagram. The canvas allows you to edit the
block diagram. You can use your system's mouse and keyboard to create and connect
blocks, selelect and move blocks, edit block labels, display block dialog boxes, and so on.
See Working with Blocks for more information.
Context Menus

Simulink displays a context-sensitive menu when you click the right mouse
button over the canvas. The contents of the menu depend on whether a block is selected.
If a block is selected, the menu displays commands that apply only to the selected block.
If no block is selected, the menu displays commands that apply to a model or library as a
whole.
Status Bar

The status bar appears only in the Windows version of the Simulink Editor. When
a simulation is running, the status bar displays the status of the simulation, including the
current simulation time and the name of the current solver. You can display or hide the
status bar by selecting or clearing the Status Bar option on the Simulink View menu.

Building a Model
This example shows you how to build a model using many of the model-building
commands and actions you will use to build your own models.
The model integrates a sine wave and displays the result along with the sine wave.
The block diagram of the model looks like this.

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To create a new model , click the New Model button on the Library Browser's
toolbar.

Simulink opens a new model window.

To create this model, you need to copy blocks into the model from the following
Simulink block libraries:
 Sources library (the Sine Wave block)

 Sinks library (the Scope block)

 Continuous library (the Integrator block)

 Signal Routing library (the Mux block)
To copy the Sine Wave block from the Library Browser, first expand the Library
Browser tree to display the blocks in the Sources library. Do this by clicking the

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Sources node to display the Sources library blocks. Finally, click the Sine Wave node to
select the Sine Wave block.
Here is how the Library Browser should look after you have done this

Now drag a copy of the Sine Wave block from the browser and drop it in the model
window.

Copy the rest of the blocks in a similar manner from their respective libraries into
the model window. You can move a block from one place in the model window to
another by dragging the block. You can move a block a short distance by selecting the
block, then pressing the arrow keys.
With all the blocks copied into the model window, the model should look
something like this.

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If you examine the blocks, you see an angle bracket on the right of the Sine Wave
block and two on the left of the Mux block. The > symbol pointing out of a block is an
output port; if the symbol points to a block, it is an input port. A signal travels out of an
output port and into an input port of another block through a connecting line. When the
blocks are connected, the port symbols disappear.

Now it's time to connect the blocks. Connect the Sine Wave block to the top input
port of the Mux block. Position the pointer over the output port on the right side of the
Sine Wave block. Notice that the cursor shape changes to crosshairs.

Hold down the mouse button and move the cursor to the top input port of the Mux
block.
Notice that the line is dashed while the mouse button is down and that the cursor shape
changes to double-lined crosshairs as it approaches the Mux block.

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Now release the mouse button. The blocks are connected. You can also connect
the line to the block by releasing the mouse button while the pointer is over the block. If
you do, the line is connected to the input port closest to the cursor's position.

If you look again at the model at the beginning of this section, you'll notice that
most of the lines connect output ports of blocks to input ports of other blocks. However,
one line connects a line to the input port of another block. This line, called a branch line,
connects the Sine Wave output to the Integrator block, and carries the same signal that
passes from the Sine Wave block to the Mux block.
Drawing a branch line is slightly different from drawing the line you just drew. To weld a
connection to an existing line, follow these steps:
1. First, position the pointer on the line between the Sine Wave and the Mux block.

2. Press and hold down the Ctrl key (or click the right mouse button).Press the
mouse button, then drag the pointer to the Integrator block's input port or over the
Integrator block itself.

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3. Release the mouse button. Simulink draws a line between the starting point and the
Integrator block's input port.

Finish making block connections. When you're done, your model should look something like this.

Controlling Execution of a Simulation

The Simulink graphical interface includes menu commands and toolbar buttons that
enable you to start, stop, and pause a simulation.
Starting a Simulation
To start execution of a model, select Start from the model editor's Simulation menu or
click the Start button on the model's toolbar.

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You can also use the keyboard shortcut, Ctrl+T, to start the simulation.
Note: A common mistake that new Simulink users make is to start a simulation while the
Simulink block library is the active window. Make sure your model window is the active window
before starting a simulation.
Simulink starts executing the model at the start time specified on the Configuration
Parameters dialog box. Execution continues until the simulation reaches the final time step
specified on the Configuration Parameters dialog box, an error occurs, or you pause or terminate
the simulation.
While the simulation is running, a progress bar at the bottom of the model window shows
how far the simulation has progressed. A Stop command replaces the Start command on the
Simulation menu. A Pause command appears on the menu and replaces the Start button on the
model toolbar.

Your computer beeps to signal the completion of the simulation.

Ending a Simulink Session
Terminate a Simulink session by closing all Simulink windows.
Terminate a MATLAB session by choosing one the File menu and Exit
MATLAB.

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4. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

Aim:
To generate amplitude modulated wave using simulink and demodulate the
modulated wave.
Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
Simulink
Theory:
Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal
m(t).The standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is defined by

 
S T AC 1  K A MT COS2πF C T 

Where K A is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

Basically amplitude modulated signal is generated by product
modulator.The inputs to the product modulator are message signal and carrier signal.
Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message signal from the carrier
so that it may be processed at the receiver. For that purpose various methods are used like
diode detector method, product detector method, filter detector etc. The same has been
implemented on simulink model. Low pass filter has been implemented to extract the
carrier from the modulated signal. Low pass filter (LPF), filters out the high frequency
component and allows the low frequency component to pass. Since the carrier signal is of
relatively much higher frequency than that of message signal, carrier signal is attenuated
while the message signal is received at the receiver.

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Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New model

4. Select the sine wave as message signal and set the input voltage signal to 5Vp-p
and signal frequency to 500Hz
5. Again select the signal generator then sine wave. Give the name as Carrier signal.
Set the carrier voltage 8Vp-p,frequency 1KHz
6. Select constant from commonly used block of simulink
7. Select Add, Product Blocks from Math Operations
8. All the above blocks connect as per the diagram shown to get the Amplitude
modulation signal. observe the output in scope
9. For demodulation select Analog Filter Design block from Filter Designs Library
Links of Simulink
10. Connect the filter output to the scope and observe the results

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Model Waveform:

Results:

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5. DSB-SC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
To generate DSB-SC Modulated wave using simulink and demodulate the modulated
signal
Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
SIMULINK
Theory:
In the double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) modulation, unlike
AM, the wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, a great percentage of power that is
dedicated to it is distributed between the sidebands, which imply an increase of the cover
in DSB-SC, compared to AM, for the same power used. The DSB-SC modulator output
as follows

The coherent DSB-SC requires a synchronized local oscillator and works on

following
principle.

A low pass filter filters out the message signal from above.

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Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New model

4. Select the sine wave as message signal and set the input voltage signal to 5Vp-p
and signal frequency to 500Hz
5. Again select the signal generator then sine wave. Give the name as Carrier signal.
Set the carrier voltage 8Vp-p,frequency 1KHz
6. Select Product Block from Math Operations
7. All the above blocks connect as per the diagram shown to get the Amplitude
modulation signal. observe the output in scope
8. For demodulation select Analog Filter Design block from Filter Designs Library
Links of Simulink
9. Connect the filter output to the scope and observe the results

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Model waveform:

Result:

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6. Frequency Modulation
Aim:
To generate frequency modulated signal using communication block set of
SIMULINK

Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
SIMULINK

Theory:
In Frequency Modulation (FM), the amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave was
modulated in AM, this time the instantaneous frequency of a sinusoidal carrier wave will
be modified proportionally to the variation of amplitude of the message signal.

The FM signal is expressed as

  A
S T C COS 2πF C  β SIN 2πF M T 

Where AC is amplitude of the carrier signal, FC is the carrier frequency

β is the modulation index of the FM wave

Circuit diagram:

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Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New model

4. Select FM modulator from Communication Block set of Simulink Library

Browser
5. Observe FM modulated output in scope

Model waveform:

Results:

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1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

Aim:
1. To generate amplitude modulated wave and determine the percentage
modulation.
2. To Demodulate the modulated wave using envelope detector.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor(BC 107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Diode(0A79) Max Current 35mA 1
Resistors 1K , 2K , 6.8K , 10K 1 each
Capacitor 0.01µF 1
Inductor 130mH 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Function Generator 1MHz 2
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:
Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier wave
c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal m(t).The standard
form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is defined by

 
S T AC 1  K A MT COS2πF C T 

Where K A is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

The demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the
incoming AM wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly effective
device that is well suited for the demodulation of AM wave, for which the percentage modulation
is less than 100%.Ideally, an envelop detector produces an

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output signal that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form exactly; hence, the name.
Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial AM radio receivers.
( EMAX − EMIN )
The Modulation Index is defined as, m =
(E + EMIN )
MAX

Where Emax and Emin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated
wave.

Circuit Diagrams:
For modulation:

Fig.1. AM modulator

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For demodulation:

Fig.2. AM demodulator
Procedure:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.
2. Switch on + 12 volts VCC supply.
3. Apply sinusoidal signal of 1 KHz frequency and amplitude 2 Vp-p as modulating signal, and
carrier signal of frequency 11 KHz and amplitude 15 Vp-p.
4. Now slowly increase the amplitude of the modulating signal up to 7V and note down values
of Emax and Emin.
5. Calculate modulation index using equation
6. Repeat step 5 by varying frequency of the modulating signal.
7. Plot the graphs: Modulation index vs Amplitude & Frequency

8. Find the value of R from F M 

1 taking C = 0.01µF
2πRC
9. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.2.
10. Feed the AM wave to the demodulator circuit and observe the output
11. Note down frequency and amplitude of the demodulated output waveform.
12. Draw the demodulated wave form .,m=1

Observation Table:
Table 1: fm= fc = Ac=
%m
S.No. Vm(Volts) Emax(volts) Emin (Volts) m
(m x100)
1
2
3

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Table 2: Am= fc = Ac=

%m
S.No.fm(KHz) Emax(volts) Emin(Volts) m
(m x100)
1
2
3

Model Waveforms and graphs:

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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.

Result:

Inferences:

Questions:

1. What is the effect of Am and Ac on Amplitude modulated Signal?

2. What is the resonant frequency of the tank circuit?
3. What is the roll of the diode in demodulator circuit?

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2. Diode Detector Characteristics

Aim:
To demodulate the modulated wave and to observe the characteristics of diode detector.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Diode(0A79) Max Current 35mA 1
Resistor 10K 1
Capacitor 0.1µF 1
CRO 20MHz 1
AM/FM Generator 0.1MHz-110MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:
The AM signal is applied to a basic half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of diode and
resistor. The diode conducts when the positive half of the AM signals occur. During the negative
half cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through it. As a result, the voltage
across resistor is a series of positive pulses whose amplitude varies with the modulating signal.
To recover the original modulating signal a capacitor is connected across resistor. Its value is
critical to good performance. The result is that the carrier is absent there by leaving the original
modulating signal.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1. Diode detector

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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as per Fig.1.
2. Set the input amplitude modulated wave from AM generator.
3. Observe the modulating signal changes by varying the amplitudes of the AM signal.

4. Note down the Amplitude of the demodulated wave.

5. Plot a graph between Emax Vs Detector wave amplitude as shown in Fig.2

Sample readings:
TABLE 1: Reading of diode detector
Detector O/P
S.No. Emax(mV) Emin (mV)
(mV)

1
2
3
4
5

Model Graphs:

Fig.2. Characteristics of Diode detector

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Result:

Inferences:

Questions:
1. Classify Amplitude modulation detector or demodulators.
2. Why envelope detector is most popular in commercial receiver circuits?

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3. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation

Aim:
a. To generate frequency modulated signal and determine the modulation index and
bandwidth for various values of amplitude and frequency of modulating signal.

b. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal using FM detector.

Apparatus required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Operating voltage –Max-24 Volts
IC 566 1
Operating current-Max.12.5 mA
Power dissipation – 750mW 1
IC 8038
Supply voltage - ±18V or 36V total
Power dissipation -1400mw 1
IC 565
Supply voltage - ±12V
15 K , 10 K , 1.8 K , 1,2,1
Resistors
39 K , 560 2,2
470 pF, 0.1µF 2,1
Capacitors
100pF , 0.001µF 1,1 each
CRO 100MHz 1
Function Generator 1MHz 2
Regulated Power Supply 0-30 v, 1A 1

Theory:
The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, is called “Frequency Modulation”. The FM
signal is expressed as

  A
S T C COS 2πF C  β SIN 2πF M T 

Where AC is amplitude of the carrier signal, F C is the carrier frequency

β is the modulation index of the FM wave

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Circuit Diagrams:

Fig.1. FM Modulator Using IC 566

By using IC 8038:

Fig.2. FM Modulator Circuit

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Fig.3. FM Demodulator Circuit

Procedure:
Modulation:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.2( Fig.1 for IC 566)
2. Without giving modulating signal observe the carrier signal at pin no.2 (at pin no.3 for IC
566). Measure amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal. To obtain carrier signal of
desired frequency, find value of R from f = 1/ (2ΠRC) taking C=100pF.
3. Apply the sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency 4KHz and amplitude 3Vp-p at
pin no.7. ( pin no.5 for IC 566)
Now slowly increase the amplitude of modulating signal and measure fmin and maximum
frequency deviation ∆f at each step. Evaluate the modulating index (mf = β) using ∆f / fm
where ∆f = |fc - fmin|. Calculate Band width. BW = 2 (β + 1)fm = 2(∆f + fm)

4. Repeat step 4 by varying frequency of the modulating signal.

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Demodulation:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram shown in Fig.3
2. Check the functioning of PLL (IC 565) by giving square wave to input and observing
the output
3. Frequency of input signal is varied till input and output are locked.
4. Now modulated signal is fed as input and observe the demodulated signal (output) on
CRO.
5. Draw the demodulated wave form.

Observation Table:

Table: 1 fc =

S.No. fm(KHz) Tmax (µsec) fmin(KHz) f(KHz) β BW (KHz)

1
2

Table 2: fm = fc =
S.No. Am (Volts) T (µsec) fmin(KHz) ∆f (KHz) β BW(KHZ)
01
02

Model Waveforms:

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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. observations should be done carefully

Result:

Inferences:

Questions:
1. Effect of the modulation index on FM signal?

2. In commercial FM broadcasting, what is highest value of frequency deviation and audio

frequency to be transmitted?

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4. Balanced Modulator
Aim:
To generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Wide frequency response up to 100 MHz
IC 1496 1
Internal power dissipation – 500mw(MAX)
6.8K 1
Resistors 10 K , 3.9 K 2 each
1K ,51 K 3 each
Capacitors 0.1 µF 4
Variable Resistor
0-50K
(Linear Pot) 1
CRO 100MHz 1

Function Generator 1MHz 2

Regulated Power Supply 0-30 v, 1A 1

Theory:
Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal. A balanced modulator
consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced configuration so as to
suppress the carrier wave. The two modulators are identical except the reversal of sign of the
modulating signal applied to them.

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1. Balanced Modulator Circuit

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.
2. An Carrier signal of 1Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 83 KHz is applied as carrier to pin
no.10.
3. An AF signal of 0.5Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 5 KHz is given as message signal
to pin no.1.
4. Observe the DSB-SC waveform at pin no.12.

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Observation Table:
Signal AMPLITUDE (Volts) Frequency (Hz)
Message signal
Carrier signal
DSB-SC Signal

Model Waveforms:

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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply
2. Observations should be done carefully

Results:

Inferences:

Questions:
1. What is the efficiency of the DSB-SC modulating system?
2. What are the applications of balanced modulator?
3. What is the effect of amplitude of message on DSB-Sc signal?

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5. Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis

Aim:
I) To observe the effects of pre-emphasis on given input signal. ii) To
observe the effects of De-emphasis on given input signal.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor (BC 107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistors 10 K , 7.5 K , 6.8 K 1 each
10 nF 1
Capacitors
0.1 µF 2

CRO 20MHZ 1

Function Generator 1MHZ 1

Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:
The noise has a effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on the lower ones.
Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and correspondingly cut
at the receiver, an improvement in noise immunity could be expected, there by increasing the
SNR ratio. This boosting of the higher modulating frequencies at the transmitter is known as pre-
emphasis and the compensation at the receiver is called de-emphasis.

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Circuit Diagrams:
For Pre-emphasis:

Fig.1. Pre-emphasis circuit

For De-emphasis:

Fig.2. De-emphasis circuit

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.

2. Apply the sinusoidal signal of amplitude 20mV as input signal to pre emphasis circuit.

3. Then by increasing the input signal frequency from 500Hz to 20KHz, observe the output
voltage (vo) and calculate gain (20 log (vo/vi).
4. Plot the graph between gain Vs frequency.

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5. Repeat above steps 2 to 4 for de-emphasis circuit (shown in Fig.2). by applying the
sinusoidal signal of 5V as input signal

Sample readings:
Table1: Pre-emphasis Vi =
Frequency(KHz) Vo(mV) Gain in dB(20 log Vo/Vi)
0.5
1
2
4
5
6
7
10
15

Table2: De-emphasis Vi =
Frequency(KHz) Vo(Volts) Gain in dB(20 log Vo/Vi)
0.150
1
2
3
5

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Graphs:

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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observation should be done carefully
Result:

Inferences:

Questions:
1. What is the value of time constant used in commercial pre-emphasis
circuit?
2. For which modulated signals pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits are used.

3. On what parameters fc depends?

4. Explain the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis characteristics?

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6. Synchronous Detector
Aim:
To demodulate the DSB-SC signal.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Maximum voltage - 30 V
IC 1496 1
power dissipation – 500 mw
100 ,6.8 K , , 22 K 1 each
3.9 K 2
Resistors
4.7 K 4
1K 3
0.0047 µF 3
Capacitors
1 µF 3

Theory:
The message signal m(t) is recovered from a DSB-SC wave s(t) by first multiplying s(t)
with locally generated carrier wave and then low-pass filtering as shown in the block diagram in
Fig.1
It is assumed that the local oscillator output in the detector is exactly coherent or
synchronized, in both frequency and phase; with the carrier wave c(t) used to generate s(t).This
method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous detection.

Fig.1. Block diagram of synchronous detector

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig.2 Synchronous detector Circuit

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.2
2. Apply the RF signal of frequency 83 KHz at pin no.1.
3. Apply modulated (DSB-SC) signal at pin no.8.
4. Observe the synchronous detector output at the pin no.12 on the oscilloscope (CRO).

Observation Table:
Signal Amplitude (V) Frequency(KHz)
Carrier signal 1 83
Output signal 0.5 4

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Model Wave Forms:

Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply
2. Observations should be done carefully

Result:

Inferences:

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Questions:
1. Write the applications of synchronous detector?
2. What are the drawbacks of synchronous detector?
3. What is the Effect of Carrier signal on output signal?

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7. SSB System
Aim:
To generate the SSB modulated wave.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications Quantity
Component/Equipment
SSB system trainer board --- 1

CRO 30MHz 1

Theory:
An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective band
pass filter. This filter selects either the upper or the lower sideband. Hence transmission
bandwidth can be cut by half if one sideband is entirely suppressed. This leads to single-sideband
modulation (SSB). In SSB modulation bandwidth saving is accompanied by a considerable
increase in equipment complexity.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1 Single Side Band system

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Procedure:
1. Switch on the trainer and measure the output of the regulated power supply i.e., ±12V and -
8V.
2. Observe the output of the RF generator using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the
RF generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct output. The
output frequency is 100 KHz and the amplitude is ≥ 0.2VPP. (Potentiometers are provided to
vary the output amplitude).

3. Observe the output of the AF generator, using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the AF
generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct output. A switch
is provided to select the required frequency (2 KHz, 4KHz or 6 KHz). AGC potentiometer is
provided to adjust the gain of the oscillator (or to set the output to good shape). The oscillator
output has amplitude ≅ 10VPP. This amplitude can be varied using the potentiometers
provided.
4. Measure and record the RF signal frequency using frequency counter. (or CRO).
5. Set the amplitudes of the RF signals to 0.1 Vp-p and connect direct signal to one balanced
modulator and 90o phase shift signal to another balanced modulator.
6. Select the required frequency (2KHz, 4KHz or 6KHz) of the AF generator with the

help of switch and adjust the AGC potentiometer until the output amplitude is ≅ 10 VPP
(when amplitude controls are in maximum condition).
7. Measure and record the AF signal frequency using frequency counter (or CRO).
8. Set the AF signal amplitudes to 8 Vp-p using amplitude control and connect to the balanced
modulators.
9. Observe the outputs of both the balanced modulators simultaneously using Dual trace
oscilloscope and adjust the balance control until desired output wave forms (DSB-SC).

10. To get SSB lower side band signal, connect balanced modulator output (DSB_SC) signals to
subtract or.
11. Measure and record the SSB signal frequency.
12. Calculate theoretical frequency of SSB (LSB) and compare it with the practical value.

LSB frequency = RF frequency – AF frequency

13. To get SSB upper side band signal, connect the output of the balanced modulator to the
summer circuit.

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14. Measure and record the SSB upper side band signal frequency.
15. Calculate theoretical value of the SSB(USB) frequency and compare it with practical value.
USB frequency = RF frequency + AF frequency

Observations:

Signal Amplitude (volts) Frequency (KHz)

Message signal
Carrier signal
SSB (LSB)
SSB (USB)

Model Waveforms:

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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.

Results:

Inferences:

Question:
1. What are difficulties in practical implementation of SSB-C system?
2. Why SSB-SC is not used in broadcasting?

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8. Spectrum Analysis of AM and FM Signal Using

Spectrum Analyzer
Aim:
To observe the spectrum of AM and FM signals and obtain the power levels in dBm
of fundamental frequency components by using spectrum Analyzer.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the Component/Equipment Specifications Quantity
Spectrum analyzer LPT-2250 Spectrum analyzer 1

AM/FM generator 0.1MHz-110MHz 1

CRO 30MHz 1

Theory:
A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT with frequency
on the horizontal axis and amplitude on the vertical axis. Displayed as vertical lines against these
coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the input signal in composed. The height
represents the absolute magnitude, and horizontal location represents the frequency. This
instrument provide a display of the frequency spectrum over a given frequency band.

Block diagram:

Fig.1 Block Diagram of Spectrum Analyzer

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Procedure:
1. AM signal is given to the spectrum analyzer.
2. Adjust the zero marker to carrier frequency and measure spectrum of AM.
3. For different values of fc and fm, observe the spectrum of AM.
4. Now remove AM signal and give FM signal to the spectrum analyzer.
5. Adjust the zero marker to carrier frequency and observe spectrum of FM.
6. Plot the spectrums of FM and AM.
Observation Table:
Table1: Readings for AM signal
S.No. fc (MHz) fm (KHz) (fm+ fc ) (MHz) (fc - fm) (MHz)
1
Table2: Readings for FM signal
S.No. fc (MHz) fm (KHz) (fm+ fc ) (MHz) (fc - fm) (MHz)
1

Model Graphs:

Fig.2 AM spectrum

Fig. 3 FM spectrum

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Precautions:
1. Check the probe connections.
2. Observations should be done carefully

Inferences:

Results:

Questions:
1. Distinguish between CRO and Spectrum analyzer?
2. What are the functions of span/div control and reference level control?

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1. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Aim:
To write a MATLAB program to simulate the PWM wavefor the given message
signal
Hardware and software requirements:
Personal computer(PC)
MATLAB Software 7.0.4

Theory:
Pulse width modulation (PWM) encodes a signal into periodic pulses of equal
magnitude but varying width. The width of a pulse at a given point in time is proportional
to the amplitude of the message signal at that time. For example, the large value of the
message yields a narrow pulse.
To implement the PWM, the message signal is compared with the sawtooth
carrier. When the message signal is greater than the carrier, the comparator output
becomes highand vice versa; the heights and lows can be represented by +1 or-1
respectively.The comparator output will be the pulse width modulated signal.

Program:
%PWM wave generation
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.001:2;
s=sawtooth(2*pi*10*t+pi);
m=0.75*sin(2*pi*1*t);
n=length(s);
for i=1:n
if (m(i)>=s(i))
pwm(i)=0;

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elseif (m(i)<=s(i))
pwm(i)=1;
end
end
subplot(211),plot(t,m,'-r',t,s,'-b');axis([0 2 -1.5 1.5]);
title('message signal with sawtoothcoparison')
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('voltage(V)');
subplot(212),plot(t,pwm,'-k')
axis([0 2 -0.5 1.5]);
title('PWM wave');
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('voltage(V)');

Model Waveforms:

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2. PHASE LOCKED LOOP

Aim:
To write the MATLAB program to simulate the operation of PLL circuit.

Hardware and software requirements:

Personal computer(PC)
MATLAB Software 7.0.4

Theory:
Phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback loop which locks two waveforms with same
frequency but shifted in phase. The fundamental use of this loop is in comparing
frequencies of two waveforms and then adjusting the frequency of the waveform in the
loop to equal the input waveform frequency. A block diagram of the PLL is shown in
Figure 1. The heart of the PLL is a phase comparator which along with a voltage
controlled oscillator (VCO), a filter and an amplifier forms the loop.

Figure 1: Basic Phase-Locked Loop

If the two frequencies are different the output of the phase comparator varies and changes
the input to the VCO to make its output frequency equal to the input waveform
frequency. The locking of the two frequencies is a nonlinear process but linear
approximation can be used to analyse PLL dynamics. In getting the PLL to lock the
proper selection of the filter is essential and it needs some attention. If the filter design is
understood from control theory point-of-view then

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the design becomes quite simple. In this short note we will discuss only the fundamentals
of the PLL and how you can use nonlinear simulation and linearised approximation to get
a better understanding of the PLL.

Program:
clc;
closeall;
clearall;
reg1 =0;
reg2 =0;
reg3 = 0;
eta =sqrt(2)/2;
theta =2*pi*1/100;
Kp = [(4*eta*theta)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
Ki = [(4*theta^2)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
d_phi_1 = 1/20;
n_data = 100;
for nn =1:n_data
phi1= reg1 +d_phi_1;
phi1_reg(nn) = phi1;
s1 =exp(j*2*pi*reg1);
s2 =exp(j*2*pi*reg2);
s1_reg(nn) =s1;
s2_reg(nn) =s2;
t =s1*conj(s2);
phi_error =atan(imag(t)/real(t))/(2*pi);
phi_error_reg(nn) = phi_error;
sum1 =Kp*phi_error + phi_error*Ki+reg3;
reg1_reg(nn) =reg1;
reg2_reg(nn) = reg2;
reg1 =phi1;

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reg2=reg2+sum1;
reg3 =reg3+phi_error*Ki;
phi2_reg(nn) =reg2;
end
figure(1)
plot(phi1_reg);
holdon
plot(phi2_reg,'r');
holdoff;
gridon;
title('phase plot');
xlabel('Samples');
ylabel('Phase');
figure(2)
plot(phi_error_reg);
title('phase Error of phase detector');
gridon;
xlabel('samples(n)');
ylabel('Phase error(degrees)');
figure(3)
plot(real(s1_reg));
holdon;
plot(real(s2_reg),'r');
holdoff;
gridon;
title('Input signal & Output signal of VCO');
xlabel('Samples');
ylabel('Amplitude');
axis([0 n_data -1.1 1.1]);

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Input &Output Signals Of VCO:

Phase plot:

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Phase error of phase detector:

Result:

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3. Characteristics of Mixer
Aim:
To obtain the characteristics of a mixer circuit.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistors (BC 107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistors 1 K , 6.8 K, 10K 1 each
Capacitor 0.01µF 1
Inductor 1mH 1
CRO 20MHZ 1
Function Generator 1MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30v, 1A 1

Theory:
The mixer is a nonlinear device having two sets of input terminals and one set of output
terminals. Mixer will have several frequencies present in its output, including the difference
between the two input frequencies and other harmonic components.

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Circuit Diagram:

FIG.1. Mixer Circuit

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1. Assume C=0.1µF
1
and calculate value of L1 using f= where f=7KHz 2π
L1C1
2. Apply the input signals at the appropriate terminals in the circuit.
3. Note down the frequency of the output signal, which is same as difference frequency of given
signals.

Observation Table:
Signal Amplitude (Volts) Frequency(KHz)
Input signal1
Input signal 2
Output signal

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Waveforms:

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Precautions:
1.Check the connections before giving the supply
2.Observations should be done carefully

Result:
Inferences:

Questions:

1. How can we use mixer circuit to generate AM signal?

2. What are the applications of mixer?
3. In which region BJT will be operated?
4. What is the roll of LC circuit?

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4. Phase Locked Loop

Aim:
To verify the capture range and lock range for given PLL IC LM 565

Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Supply voltage ±12V
IC LM 565 1
Power dissipation 1400mw
Resistors 12 K 1
10pF 1
Capacitors
0.01µF 2
CRO 20MHZ 1
Function Generator 0- 1MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30v, 1A 1

Theory:
The best frequency demodulator is the phase locked loop(PLL). A PLL is a frequency or phase –
sensitive feedback control circuit. It used not only in frequency demodulation but also in
frequency synthesizers. All PLLs have three basic elements as illustrated in Fig.1. A phase
detector or mixer is used to compare the input or reference signal with the output of a

Fig.1. Block diagram of PLL

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VCO. The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low pass filter. It is the
output of the phase detector that the low pass filter uses to produce dc control voltage. This dc
control voltage is called the error signal and is also the feedback in this circuit and will control the
VCO.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig.2 PLL Circuit diagram

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.
2. Obtain the free running frequency fo without giving any input signal.
3. Apply the square wave as input signal at pin no.2 and then vary the input signal
frequency. When input signal is locked with VCO output in forward direction then note
down the value of input signal frequency (fC1). Again increase the input
signal frequency and observe the frequency at which the PLL becomes unlocked, note
down the value of input signal frequency (fL2).
4. Again the frequency of input is reduced in backward direction and note down the
frequency of the input signal (fc2) at which input signal is locked with VCO output.

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And the frequency of input signal is still reduced, note down the frequency of input signal
(fL1) at which the PLL becomes unlocked.
5. Now by using formulae given calculate lock range and capture range and verify them
experimentally.

Observation Table:

Theoretical(KHz) Practical(KHz)
fo
fL
fC

Formulae and Calculations:

fo (free running frequency) = 1.2/4R1C1 = 1.2/4x1.2K x 0.1µF = 2.5 KHz fL =
lock range = ± 8fo/V, =± 8x2500/24 = ±833 Hz
[where V=+V-(-V)= 12-(-12)=24 volts]
Theoretical lock range is, f= fo ±fL= 2.5±0.833=1.667KHZ to 3.333KHz

1 2
FL
fC = capture range = ± = ± 60.7Hz
2π × R1C1

Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply
2. Observations should be done carefully

Inferences:

Questions:
1. Write the application of PLL?
2. What is the capture range of PLL.
3. What is the effect of R1 and C1 values and Vcc on output signal?

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5. Squelch Circuit
Aim:
To Study the performance characteristics of Squelch Circuit .

Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz 2
Transistor(BC107) Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistor 10K , 56K , 1K ,2.2K , 1,1,1,2
Capacitor 10µF 2
CRO 20MHz 1
Function generator 0-1MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:
A squelch circuit also known as a mute circuit. It is designed to keep the receiver audio
turned off until an RF signal appears at the receiver input. The Squelch circuit provides a means
of keeping the audio amplifier turned off during the time that noise is received in the background
when an RF signal appears at the input, the audio amplifier is enabled. There are two types of
squelch circuits used in communication receivers; they are (i). Amplitude squelch circuit (ii).
Noise squelch circuit.

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1 Squelch Circuit

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1

2. Set the input signal (say 180mv, 1 KHz) using function generator.
3. Vary the voltage of AGC in different steps and observe corresponding signal output
Voltages (Vo) in CRO and tabulate them.
4. Plot the graph between AGC voltage Vs Gain(dB) as shown in Fig.2

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Observation Table:
TABLE 1: Readings of a squelch circuit
Gain in
S.No. AGC(volts) Vo (mV) Gain=Vo/Vi
dB=20log(Vo/Vi)

1
2

Graphs:

Fig.2. Characteristics of Squelch circuit

Result:

Inferences:

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Questions:
1. What is the function of Squelch circuit?
2. What is Amplitude squelch or Gate squelch circuit?
3. What is true noise squelch?

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6. Frequency Synthesizer
Aim:
To construct a frequency synthesizer circuit.

Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor(BC107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Supply voltage :±12V
IC 565 1
Power dissipation :1400mw
Max supply Voltage 5.25V
IC 7490 1
Power supply current 15mA
Resistor 2k , 4.7k , 10k , 20k (pot) 1each
Capacitor 10µF, 0.001µF, 0.01µF 1each
CRO 0-20MHz 1
Function generator 0-1MHz 1

Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1

Theory:

The frequency divider is inserted between the VCO and the phase comparator of PLL. Since the
output of the divider is locked to the input frequency fin, the VCO is actually running at a
multiple of the input frequency . The desired amount of multiplication can be obtained by
selecting a proper divide– by – N network ,where N is an integer. To obtain the output frequency
fOUT=5fIN, a divide – by – N = 5 network is needed. One must determine the input frequency
range and then adjust the free running fOUT of the VCO by means of R1 (20k pot) and C1
(10µF) so that the output frequency of the divider is midway within the predetermined input
frequency range. The output of the VCO now

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should be 5fIN. The output of the VCO now should be adjusted from 1.5 KHz to 15 KHz by
varying potentiometer R1 .this means that the input frequency fin range has to be with in 300Hz to
3KHz. In addition, the input wave form may be applied to inputs pin2 or pin3. Input – output
waveforms forms for fOUT= 5fIN. A small capacitor typically 1000pf is connected between pin7
and pin8 to eliminate possible oscillations. Also, capacitor C2 should be large enough to stabilize
the VCO frequency.
Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1 Frequency synthesizer circuit

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.
2. Measure the free running frequency of PLL (IC565) at pin no.4 with the input
signal set to zero volt.
3. Compare the output with the calculated theoretical value 0.25/RTCT.
4. Set the input signal (say 2 Vp-p, 1KHz square wave form ) using function
generator.
5. Vary the frequency by adjusting the 20K Potentiometer till the PLL(IC565)is
locked.
6. Measure (frequency counter) the frequency of the output signal. It must be 5 times
the input signal frequency.
7. Observe and note down the waveform and frequency of various signals using CRO .

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Observation Table:
TABLE 1: Readings of a Frequency Synthesizer

S.No. f i/p (KHz) f o/p (KHz)

1.
2.

Model Wave forms:

Fig.2 Output Wave Forms

Result:

Inferences:

Questions:
1. How to achieve fout = 2 fin ?
2. What is the effect of C1 on the output frequency?

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Appendix A
Component/ Specifications Pin diagram
Equipment
fT= 300 MHz
IC(max)= 100 mA
Transistor – Pd=1W,VCEO=45V
BC 107 hfe (min) = 40
hfe (max) = 450

Operating voltage –Max-24 Volts

Operating temperature range –
0.70oC
Operating current-Max.12.5 mA
Max. operating frequency – 1 MHz
The external resistance for
NE 566
frequency adjustment R1 must have
a value between 2K and 20k
The bias voltage (VC) applied to the
control terminal (pin 5) should be in
the range ¾ V+≤ VC ≤ V+ (V+
supply voltage)
Simultaneous outputs – sine wave
Square wave and Triangle
Low distortion – 1%
High linearity – 01%
Wide frequency range of operation
0.001 Hz to 1.0Mhz
Variable duty cycle – 2% to 98%
IC 8038 Supply voltage - ±18V or 36V total
Power dissipation – 750mW
Input current (pins 4 and 5 ) –
25mA
operating temperature range: 55oC

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to +125oC

Operating temperature range →0o to

+70oC
Wide frequency response up to 100
MHz
Dual-in-line package
Carrier feed through
LM 1496 (sinusoidal) – 60mvrms – 40µVrms
(square wave) -300mVPP – (20-
150mVrms)
Internal power dissipation – 500
mw(MAX)
Maximum voltage - 30 V
Bias current – 12mA
Supply voltage ±12V
Power dissipation 1400mw
Operating temperature range 55o to
+125oC
LM 565 VCO maximum operating frequency
500KHz (Co = 2.7PF)
VCO sensitivity (fo=-10KHz) --- 6600
Hz/V
Phase detector sensitivity KD, 0.68
V/radian
Consists of
RF generator : - 100 KHz
:Phase shift 90o isavailable
SSB Trainer RF generator and 0o phase shifted
Board signal is also available __
Balanced modulator – using MC
1496
Synchronous detector – using MC

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1496
Radio Receiver MW 550kHz to 1.5mHz
Measurement Consists of
Trainer 1. Internal AM generator __
2. Internal AF generator
3. Internal RF generator
Frequency:
LPT-2250 Frequency range: 30 KHz to 1.15
Spectrum GHz __
analyzer Frequency resolution: 1KHz
Amplitude:
Input level +20dBm(max.atten.)
Display range 75 dB usable
Ref. level range -30dBm to
+20dBm
AM-FM Frequency range: 100 KHz to 110
generator MHz (CW mode)
Frequency indication: Digital 4 digit
Frequency accuracy:+/-1 digit (4
digit max.)
RF output:75 mV(rms) max. into
75 ohms __
Output control: 0dB/20dB and fine
control
Int.Mod.Freuqency:1KHz
External: Frequency -50Hz to
20KHz
Level – 15V p-p max.

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Supply Voltage ±22V

Power Dissipation 500mW
Differential input voltage ±30V
Input voltage ±15V
µA741
Operating Temperature -55o to
+125oC
Storage Temperature range -55o to
+150oC
N-channel –Depletion JFET
Max Voltage 30V
Idss :8mA
BFW10
Min Temperature -40oC
Max Temperature 150oC

Ge-Diode
Max Voltage 45V
OA79 Max Current 35mA

Min Supply Voltage 4.75V

Max supply Voltage 5.25V
Output current high -0.4mA
7486
Output current low 80mA
Temperature range 0o to +70oC

Min Supply Voltage 4.75V

Max supply Voltage 5.25V
Output current high -0.4mA
Output current low 80mA
Temperature range 0o to +70oC
7490
Power supply current 15mA

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Appendix B
PLOT(X,Y):

Plots vector Y versus vector X. If X or Y is a matrix, then the vector is

plotted versus the rows or columns of the matrix, whichever line up. If X is a scalar
and Y is a vector, length(Y) disconnected points are plotted.

SUBPLOT(m,n,p) or SUBPLOT(mnp):

Breaks the Figure window into an m-by-n matrix of small axes, selects the p-th
axes for for the current plot, and returns the axis handle. The axes are counted along the
top row of the Figure window, then the second row, etc. For example,

SUBPLOT(2,1,1), PLOT(income)

SUBPLOT(2,1,2), PLOT(outgo)

plots income on the top half of the window and outgo on the bottom half. If the current
axes is nested in a uipanel the panel is used as the parent for the subplot instead of the
current figure.

LINSPACE(a,b,n):

The linspace function generates linearly spaced vectors. It is similar to the colon
operator ":", but gives direct control over the number of points.

y = linspace(a,b,n) generates a row vector y of n points linearly spaced between and

including a and b.

AXIS([xmin xmax ymin ymax]):

Controls axis scaling and appearance.

AXIS([XMIN XMAX YMIN YMAX]) sets scaling for the x- and y-axes on the current
plot.

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AMMOD(x,Fc,Fs,ini_phase,carramp):

Uses the message signal x to modulate a carrier signal with frequency Fc (Hz)
using amplitude modulation. The carrier signal and x have sample frequency Fs (Hz).
The modulated signal has initial phase specified by ini_phase.

AMDEMOD(Y,Fc,Fs,INI_PHASE,CARRAMP):Demodulates the amplitude

modulated signal Y from the carrier frequency Fc (Hz). Y and Fc have sample frequency
Fs (Hz).The modulated signal Y has specified initial phase, and specified carrier
amplitude.

MODULATE(x,fc,fs,'method'):

Modulate the real message signal x with a carrier frequency fc and sampling
frequency fs, using one of the options listed below for 'method'. Fs must satisfy Fs > 2*Fc
+ BW, where BW is the bandwidth of the modulated signal.

Method Description

‘am’ or ‘amdsb-sc’ Amplitude modulation, double sideband suppressed

carrier

'amssb' Amplitude modulation single side-band

'fm' Frequency modulation

'pm' Phase modulation

'pwm' Pulse width modulation

'ppm' Pulse position modulation

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DEMOD(y,fc,fs,'method'):

Demodulates the carrier signal Y with a carrier frequency Fc and sampling

frequency Fs, using the demodulation scheme in METHOD.

FMMOD(X,Fc,Fs,FREQDEV):

Uses the message signal X to modulate the carrier frequency Fc (Hz) and sample
frequency Fs (Hz), where Fs > 2*Fc. FREQDEV (Hz) is the frequency deviation of the
modulated signal.

Method Description

‘am’ or ‘amdsb-sc’ Amplitude demodulation, double sideband

suppressed carrier

'amssb' Amplitude demodulation single side-band

'fm' Frequency demodulation

'pm' Phase demodulation

'pwm' Pulse width demodulation

'ppm' Pulse position demodulation

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SIMULINK:

BLOCK NAME LIBRARY DESCRIPTION

Sine / cosine Wave Simulink-- Generates sine/cosine

Sources wave withrequired
amplitude, frequency
and phase

constant Simulink-- Generates constant

Sources value

scope Simulink-- Sinks Used to display the

signals

Add,subtract,multiply,divide Simulink-- Math Mathematical

operations operators

Signal generator Simulink-- Generates

Sources sine/square/triangular
waves with required
amplitude, frequency
and phase

Analog passband Communications Generates various

modulation blockset-- Analog analog modulation
passband waves
modulation

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Sine wave:

We can generate the sine wave in two ways one is by using the directly sinewave block
and other way is by using the signal generator block

Sine wave block:

Symbol
The Sine Wave block provides a sinusoid. The block can operate in either time-based or
sample-based mode.

Sine type

Type of sine wave generated by this block, either time- or sample-based. Some of the
other options presented by the Sine Wave dialog box depend on whether you select time-
based or sample-based as the value of Sine type parameter.

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Time

Specifies whether to use simulation time as the source of values for the sine wave's time
variable or an external source. If you specify an external time source, the block displays
an input port for the time source.

Amplitude

The amplitude of the signal. The default is 1.

Bias

Constant value added to the sine to produce the output of this block.

Frequency

The frequency, in radians/second. The default is 1 rad/s. This parameter appears only
if you choose time-based as the Sine type of the block.

Samples per period

Number of samples per period. This parameter appears only if you choose sample-
based as the Sine type of the block.

Phase

The phase shift, in radians. The default is 0 radians. This parameter appears only if you
choose time-based as the Sine type of the block.

Number of offset samples

The offset (discrete phase shift) in number of sample times. This parameter appears
only if you choose sample-based as the Sine type of the block.

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Sample time

The sample period. The default is 0. If the sine type is sample-based, the sample time
must be greater than 0. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for
more information.

Interpret vector parameters as 1-D

If selected, column or row matrix values for the Sine Wave block's numeric
parameters result in a vector output signal; otherwise, the block outputs a signal of the
same dimensionality as the parameters. If this option is not selected, the block always
outputs a signal of the same dimensionality as the block's numeric parameters.

Signal generator:

The Signal Generator block can produce one of three different waveforms: sine
wave, square wave, and sawtooth wave. The signal parameters can be expressed in Hertz
(the default) or radians per second. This figure shows each signal displayed on a Scope
using default parameter values.

Symbol

The block's Amplitude and Frequency parameters determine the amplitude and
frequency of the output signal. The parameters must be of the same dimensions after
scalar expansion.

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Wave form

The wave form: a sine wave, square wave, or sawtooth wave. The default is a sine
wave. This parameter cannot be changed while a simulation is running.

Time

Specifies whether to use simulation time as the source of values for the waveform's
time variable or an external signal. If you specify an external time source, the block
displays an input port for the time source.

Amplitude

The signal amplitude. The default is 1.

Frequency

The signal frequency. The default is 1.

Units

The signal units: Hertz or radians/sec. The default is Hertz.

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Interpret vector parameters as 1-D

If selected, column or row matrix values for the Amplitude and Frequency parameters
result in a vector output signal.

Constant

The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block generates
scalar (1x1 2-D array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output, depending on the
dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting of the Interpret vector
parameters as 1-D parameter.

Symbol

The output of the block has the same dimensions and elements as the Constant value
parameter. If you specify a vector for this parameter, and you want the block to interpret
it as a vector (i.e., a 1-D array), select the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter;
otherwise, the block treats the Constant value parameter as a matrix (i.e., a 2-D array).

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Constant value

Specify the constant value output by the block. You can enter any MATLAB
expression in this field, including the Boolean keywords, true or false, that evaluates to a
matrix value. The Constant value parameter is converted from its data type to the
specified output data type offline using round-to-nearest and saturation.

Interpret vector parameters as 1-D

If you select this check box, the Constant block outputs a vector of length N if the
Constant value parameter evaluates to an N-element row or column vector, i.e., a matrix
of dimension 1xN or Nx1.

Sample time

Specify the interval between times that the Constant block's output can change during
simulation (e.g., as a result of tuning its Constant value parameter). The default sample
time is inf, i.e., the block's output can never change. This setting speeds simulation and
generated code by avoiding the need to recompute the block's output. See Specifying
Sample Time in the online documentation for more information.

Scope

The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can
have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range with independent
y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and the range of input values
displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and you can modify the Scope's
parameter values during the simulation.

Symbol

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When you start a simulation, Simulink does not open Scope windows, although it does
write data to connected Scopes. As a result, if you open a Scope after a simulation, the
Scope's input signal or signals will be displayed.

If the signal is continuous, the Scope produces a point-to-point plot. If the signal is
discrete, the Scope produces a stair-step plot.

The Scope provides toolbar buttons that enable you to zoom in on displayed data, display
all the data input to the Scope, preserve axis settings from one simulation to the next,
limit data displayed, and save data to the workspace. The toolbar buttons are labeled in
this figure, which shows the Scope window as it appears when you open a Scope block.

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Number of axes

Set the number of y-axes in this data field. With the exception of the floating scope,
there is no limit to the number of axes the Scope block can contain. All axes share the
same time base (x-axis), but have independent y-axes. Note that the number of axes is
equal to the number of input ports.

Time range

Change the x-axis limits by entering a number or auto in the Time range field.
Entering a number of seconds causes each screen to display the amount of data that
corresponds to that number of seconds. Enter auto to set the x-axis to the duration of the
simulation. Do not enter variable names in these fields.

Sum (Add or subtract)

The Sum block performs addition or subtraction on its inputs. This block can add or
subtract scalar, vector, or matrix inputs. It can also collapse the elements of a single input
vector.

Symbol
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The Sum block first converts the input data type(s) to the output data type using the
specified rounding and overflow modes, and then performs the specified operations.

List of signs

Enter as many plus (+) and minus (-) characters as there are inputs. Addition is the
default operation, so if you only want to add the inputs, enter the number of input ports.
For a single vector input, "+" or "-" will collapse the vector using the specified operation.

You can manipulate the positions of the input ports on the block by inserting spacers
(|) between the signs in the List of signs parameter. For example, "++|--" creates an extra
space between the second and third input ports.

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Sample time (-1 for inherited)

Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for more
information.

Product(multiply or divide)

The Product block performs multiplication or division of its inputs.

Symbol

This block produces outputs using either element-wise or matrix multiplication,

depending on the value of the Multiplication parameter. You specify the operations with
the Number of inputs parameter. Multiply(*) and divide(/) characters indicate the
operations to be performed on the inputs.

Number of inputs

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Enter the number of inputs or a combination of "*" and "/" symbols. See Description
above for a complete discussion of this parameter.

Multiplication

Specify element-wise or matrix multiplication. See Description above for a complete

discussion of this parameter.

Sample time (-1 for inherited)

Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for more
information.

DSB AM (Amplitude modulation and de-modulation)

Modulation

The DSB AM Modulator Passband block modulates using double-sideband

amplitude modulation. The output is a passband representation of the modulated signal.
Both the input and output signals are real sample-based scalar signals.

Symbol
if the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is

where: k is the Input signal offset parameter.

fc is the Carrier frequency parameter.

θ is the Initial phase parameter.

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Input signal offset

The offset factor k. This value should be greater than or equal to the absolute value of
the minimum of the input signal.

Carrier frequency (Hz)

The frequency of the carrier.

Initial phase (rad)

The initial phase of the carrier.

De-modulation

The DSB AM Demodulator Passband block demodulates a signal that was modulated
using double-sideband amplitude modulation. The block uses the envelope detection
method. The input is a passband representation of the modulated signal. Both the input
and output signals are real sample-based scalar signals.

Symbol

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In the course of demodulating, this block uses a filter whose transfer function is described
by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator parameters.

Offset factor

The same as the Input signal offset parameter in the corresponding DSB AM
Modulator Passband block.

Carrier frequency (Hz)

The frequency of the carrier in the corresponding DSB AM Modulator Passband

block.

Initial phase (rad)

The initial phase of the carrier in radians.

Lowpass filter numerator

The numerator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a vector that
lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s.

Lowpass filter denominator

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The denominator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a vector

that lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s. For an FIR filter, set this
parameter to 1.

Sample time

The sample time of the output signal.

DSB-SC AM (DSB-SC modulation and de-modulation)

Modulation

The DSBSC AM Modulator Passband block modulates using double-sideband

suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation. The output is a passband representation of the
modulated signal. Both the input and output signals are real sample-based scalar signals.

Symbol

If the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is

where fc is the Carrier frequency parameter and θ is the Initial phase parameter.

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Carrier frequency (Hz)

The frequency of the carrier.

Initial phase (rad)

The initial phase of the carrier in radians.

Demodulation

The DSBSC AM Demodulator Passband block demodulates a signal that was modulated
using double-sideband suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation. The input is a passband
representation of the modulated signal. Both the input and output signals are real sample-
based scalar signals.

Symbol

In the course of demodulating, this block uses a filter whose transfer function is described
by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator parameters.

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Carrier frequency (Hz)

The carrier frequency in the corresponding DSBSC AM Modulator Passband block.

Lowpass filter numerator

The numerator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a vector that
lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s.

Lowpass filter denominator

The denominator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a vector

that lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s. For an FIR filter, set this
parameter to 1.

Initial phase (rad)

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The initial phase of the carrier in radians.

Sample time

The sample time of the output signal.

FM (DSB-SC modulation and de-modulation)

Modulation

The FM Modulator Passband block modulates using frequency modulation. The output is
a passband representation of the modulated signal. The output signal's frequency varies
with the input signal's amplitude. Both the input and output signals are real sample-based
scalar signals.

Symbol
If the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is

where:

fc is the Carrier frequency parameter.

θ is the Initial phase parameter.

Kc is the Modulation constant parameter.

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Carrier frequency (Hz)

The frequency of the carrier.

Initial phase (rad)

The initial phase of the carrier in radians.

Modulation constant (Hertz per volt)

The modulation constant Kc.

Sample time

The sample time of the output signal. It must be a positive number.

Symbol interval

Typically set to Inf.

De-modulation

The FM Demodulator Passband block demodulates a signal that was modulated using
frequency modulation. The input is a passband representation of the modulated signal.
Both the input and output signals are real sample-based scalar signals.

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Symbol
In the course of demodulating, the block uses a filter whose transfer function is described
by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator parameters.

The block uses a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) in the demodulation. The Initial
phase parameter gives the initial phase of the VCO.

Carrier frequency (Hz)

The carrier frequency in the corresponding FM Modulator Passband block.

Initial phase (rad)

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The initial phase of the VCO in radians.

Modulation constant (Hertz per volt)

The modulation constant in the corresponding FM Modulator Passband block.

Lowpass filter numerator

The numerator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a vector that
lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s.

Lowpass filter denominator

The denominator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a vector

that lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s. For an FIR filter, set this
parameter to 1.

Sample time

The sample time in the corresponding FM Modulator Passband block.

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REFERENCES:

 Communication Systems Engineering - by John G. Proakis and

Masoud Salehi, Pearson education

 Electronic Communication Systems - by kennedy, McGraw Hill
Publ.

 Communication Systems - by B.P.Lathi, BS Pub.

 Electronic Commmunication Syatems By Kennedy, Davis Mc
Graw Hill Publ.

 MATLAB User manual 7.0.4
SURENDRA LOYA

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