Analog Communications Lab Manual
Analog Communications Lab Manual
Analog Communications Lab Manual
LAB MANUAL
(STUDENT COPY)
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INDEX
USING HARDWARE
7 Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation 44-50
8 Diode Detector Characteristics 51-53
9 Frequency Modulation And Demodulation 54-58
10 Balanced Modulator 59-62
11 Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis 63-67
12 Synchronous Detector 68-71
13 SSB System 72-76
14 Spectrum Analysis of AM And FM Signal Using
Spectrum Analyzer 77-79
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ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING HARDWARE)
APPENDIX -A 101-104
APPENDIX -B 105-128
REFERENCES 129
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Analog Communication Lab
(Software Experiments)
Simulation Using MATLAB
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Analog Communication Lab
(Hardware Experiments)
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Additional Experiments
(Using Software)
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Additional Experiments
(Using Hardware)
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APPENDIX
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INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB® is a high-
performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.MATLAB is an
interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it
would take to write a program in a scalar noninteractive language such as C or
Fortran.
Typical uses include
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building
To start MATLAB on a Microsoft Windows platform, select the Start ->
Programs -> MATLAB 7.0.1 -> MATLAB 7.0.1, or double-click the MATLAB
shortcut icon on your Windows desktop. The shortcut was automatically created
when you installed MATLAB. If you have trouble starting MATLAB, see
troubleshooting information in the Installation Guide for Windows.
When you start MATLAB, it displays the MATLAB desktop, a set of tools
(graphical user interfaces or GUIs) for managing files, variables, and applications
associated with MATLAB.
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The toolbar in the desktop provides easy access to frequently used operations.
Position the cursor over a button for a second or two and a tooltip appears that
describes the item.
The Command Window is one of the main tools you use to enter data, run
MATLAB functions and other M-files, and display results.
Use the Help browser to search and view documentation and
demonstrations for MATLAB and all other installed MathWorks products.
MATLAB automatically installs the documentation and demos for a product when
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you install that product. The Help browser is an HTML browser integrated with
the MATLAB desktop.
To open the Help browser, click the Help button in the desktop toolbar,
type helpbrowser in the Command Window, or use the Help menu in any tool.
There are two panes:
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Variables:
MATLAB does not require any type declarations or dimension statements.
When MATLAB encounters a new variable name, it automatically creates the
variable and allocates the appropriate amount of storage. If the variable already
exists, MATLAB changes its contents and, if necessary, allocates new
storage.Variable names consist of a letter, followed by any number of letters,
digits, or underscores. MATLAB uses only the first 31 characters of a variable
name. MATLAB is case sensitive; it distinguishes between uppercase and
lowercase letters. A and a are not the same variable. To view the matrix
assigned to any variable, simply enter the variable name.
You can assign the values to variables by typing in equations. For example, if
you type
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>>x=5
MATLAB creates a 1-by-1 matrix named xand stores the value 5 in its single
element. The output produced by the MATLAB
x=
5
MATLAB uses ans for any expression you don't assign to a variable. For
instance, if you type
>> 5
to MATLAB, MATLAB will return
ans =
5
and assign the value 5 to the variable ans. Thus, ans will always be assigned to
the most recently calculated value you didn't assign to anything else.
Numbers:
MATLAB uses conventional decimal notation, with an optional decimal point and
leading plus or minus sign, for numbers. Scientific notation uses the letter e to
specify a power-of-ten scale factor. Imaginary numbers use either i or j as a
suffix. Some examples of legal numbers are
3 -99 0.0001
9.6397238 1.60210e-20 6.02252e23
1i -3.14159j 3e5i
All numbers are stored internally using the long format specified by the
IEEE floating-point standard. Floating-point numbers have a finite precision of
roughly 16 significant decimal digits and a finite range of roughly 10-308 to
10+308.
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Operators:
Expressions use familiar arithmetic operators and precedence rules.
Symbol Operation
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
\ Left division
^ Power
' Complex conjugate transpose
( ) Specify evaluation order
The colon is a subtle and powerful operator, and we'll see more uses of it later.
Flow Control:
MATLAB has several flow control constructs:
if, else, and elseif
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x = i;
else
x = -a^2
end
For this command, it will see if a is positive, then if a is not positive, it will check if
a is zero, finally it will do the else clause. So, if a positive, x will be a squared, if
a is 0, x will be i, and if a is negative,
then x will be the negative of a squared. Again, note we only have a single end
after all the clauses.
For:
The for loop repeats a group of statements a fixed, predetermined number of
times. A matching end delineates the statements.
. It is functionally very similar to the for function in C. For example, typing
for i= 1:4
end
will cause MATLAB to make the variable i count from 1 to 4, and print its value
for each step. So, you would see
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
Every command must have a matching end statement to indicate which
commands should be executed several times. You can have nested for loops.
For example, typing
Form = 1:3
for n= 1:3
x(m,n)=m+n*i;
end
end
will define x to be the matrix
x=
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Scripts:
When you invoke a script, MATLAB simply executes the commands found in the
file. Scripts can operate on existing data in the workspace, or they can create
new data on which to operate. Although scripts do not return output arguments,
any variables that they create remain in the workspace, to be used in subsequent
computations.
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Functions:
Functions are M-files that can accept input arguments and return output
arguments. The names of the M-file and of the function should be the same.
Functions operate on variables within their own workspace, separate from the
workspace you access at the MATLAB command prompt.
Procedure:
2. MATLAB® logo will appear and after few moments Command Prompt will
appear.
3. Go to the File Menu and select a New M- file. (File ?New?M-file) or in the left
hand corner a blank white paper icon will be there. Click it once.
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5. Now start typing your program. After completing, save the M- file with
appropriate name. Toexecute the program Press F5 or go to Debug Menu and
select Run.
6. After execution output will appear in the Command window .If there is an error
then with an
alarm, type of error will appear in red color.
7. Rectify the error if any and go to Debug Menu and select Run.
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exactly; hence, the name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all
commercial AM radio receivers.
PROGRAM:
AM without functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.02,10000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=5000;%frequency of carrier signal
fm=200;%frequency of message signaql
fs=40000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal
Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal
m=Am/Ac%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal
y=Ac*(1+m*sin(wm)).*sin(wc);%amplitude modulated signal
z=y.*ec; %in synchronous detection the AM signal is
multiplied with carrier signal and passed through LPF
z1=conv(z,exp(-t/0.000795));% the LPF filter response in time domain is given
by exp(-t/RC), the cut off frequency for filter should be fm=200
%F=1/(2*pi*R*C), replacing F=200, and
%assuming R=1k ohm then C=0.795MICROFARAD
%so RC=0.000795
%we will get the demodulated signal by convolving the AM signal with LPF
response
l=10000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l),em(1:l))
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xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z1(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');
Model Waveforms:
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AM with functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.2,100000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=1000;%frequency of carrier signal
fm=200;%frequency of message signal
fs=100000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal
Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal
m=Am/Ac%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal
y=ammod(em,fc,fs,0,Ac);%amplitude modulated signal
z=amdemod(y,fc,fs,0,Ac);%demodulated AM signal
l=100000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l),em(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
axis([0 0.02 -20 20])%setting axis dimensions
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
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subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');
Model Waveforms:
Result:
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PROGRAM:
AM-DSBSC without functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.02,100000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=10000;%frequency of carrier signal
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subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z1(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');
Model waveforms:
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subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
axis([0 0.02 -5 5])%setting axis dimensions
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DSBSC MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z(1:l))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');
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Model Waveforms:
Result:
The AM-DSBSC wave is generated for the given message and carrier
signals and the message signal is recovered from the modulated wave using
synchronous detector.
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Aim:
A. To generate frequency modulated signal and observe the characteristics of
FM wave using MATLAB software.
B. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal usingMATLAB software
Theory:
Frequency modulation consists in varying the frequency of the carrier
voltage inaccordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
voltage.Thus the amplitude ofthe carrier does not change due to frequency
modulation. Let the modulating voltage begiven by expression:
Vm=Vmcoswmt.
Where wmis angular frequency of the signal &Vmis the amplitude. Let the
carriervoltage be given by expression,
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FM with functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
Fs = 8000; % Sampling rate of signal
Fc = 100; % Carrier frequency
t = linspace(0,1,10000); % Sampling times
x = sin(2*pi*10*t) % Channel 1
subplot(411),plot(t,x)
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(412),plot(t,sin(2*pi*Fc*t))
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(413),plot(t,y)
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(414),plot(t,z)
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');
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Model waveforms:
Result:
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INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK
Introduction:
Simulink is a software package that enables you to model, simulate, and
analyze systems whose outputs change over time. Such systems are often
referred to as dynamic systems. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of
a wide range of real-world dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock
absorbers, braking systems, and many other electrical, mechanical, and
thermodynamic systems. This section explains how Simulink works.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, a
user creates a block diagram, using the Simulink model editor, that graphically
depicts time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system's inputs,
states, and outputs. The user then commands Simulink to simulate the system
represented by the model from a specified start time to a specified stop time.
In general, block and lines can be used to describe many "models of
computations." One example would be a flow chart. A flow chart consists of
blocks and lines, but one cannot describe general dynamic systems using flow
chart semantics.
The term "time-based block diagram" is used to distinguish block
diagrams that describe dynamic systems from that of other forms of block
diagrams. In Simulink, we use the term block diagram (or model) to refer to a
time-based block diagram unless the context requires explicit distinction.
Simulink block diagrams define time-based relationships between signals
and state variables. The solution of a block diagram is obtained by evaluating
these relationships over time, where time starts at a user specified "start time"
and ends at a user specified "stop time." Each evaluation of these relationships is
referred to as a time step. Signals represent quantities that change over time and
are defined for all points in time between the block diagram's start and stop time.
The relationships between signals and state variables are defined by a set of
equations represented by blocks. Each block consists of a set of equations (block
methods). These equations define a relationship between the input signals,
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output signals and the state variables. Inherent in the definition of a equation is
the notion of parameters, which are the coefficients found within the equation.
Starting Simulink
To start Simulink, you must first start MATLAB. You can then start
Simulink in two ways:
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SIMULINK EDITOR:
When you open a Simulink model or library, Simulink displays the model
or library in an instance of the Simulink Editor.
Editor Components:
The Simulink Editor includes the following components.
Menu Bar
The Simulink menu bar contains commands for creating, editing, viewing,
printing, and simulating models. The menu commands apply to the model
displayed in the editor. See Creating a Model and Running Simulations for more
information.
Toolbar
The toolbar allows you to execute Simulink's most frequently used
Simulink commands with a click of a mouse button. For example, to open a
Simulink model, click the open folder icon on the toolbar. Letting the mouse
cursor hover over a toolbar button or control causes a tooltip to appear. The
tooltip describes the purpose of the button or control. You can hide the toolbar by
clearing the Toolbar option on the Simulink View menu.
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Canvas
The canvas displays the model's block diagram. The canvas allows you to
edit the block diagram. You can use your system's mouse and keyboard to
create and connect blocks, selelect and move blocks, edit block labels, display
block dialog boxes, and so on. See Working with Blocks for more information.
Context Menus
Simulink displays a context-sensitive menu when you click the right mouse
button over the canvas. The contents of the menu depend on whether a block is
selected. If a block is selected, the menu displays commands that apply only to
the selected block. If no block is selected, the menu displays commands that
apply to a model or library as a whole.
Status Bar
The status bar appears only in the Windows version of the Simulink Editor.
When a simulation is running, the status bar displays the status of the simulation,
including the current simulation time and the name of the current solver. You can
display or hide the status bar by selecting or clearing the Status Bar option on the
Simulink View menu.
Building a Model
This example shows you how to build a model using many of the model-
building commands and actions you will use to build your own models.
The model integrates a sine wave and displays the result along with the
sine wave. The block diagram of the model looks like this.
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To create a new model , click the New Model button on the Library
Browser's toolbar.
To create this model, you need to copy blocks into the model from the following
Simulink block libraries:
• Sources library (the Sine Wave block)
• Sinks library (the Scope block)
• Continuous library (the Integrator block)
• Signal Routing library (the Mux block)
To copy the Sine Wave block from the Library Browser, first expand the Library
Browser tree to display the blocks in the Sources library. Do this by clicking the
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Sources node to display the Sources library blocks. Finally, click the Sine Wave
node to select the Sine Wave block.
Here is how the Library Browser should look after you have done this
Now drag a copy of the Sine Wave block from the browser and drop it in the
model window.
Copy the rest of the blocks in a similar manner from their respective
libraries into the model window. You can move a block from one place in the
model window to another by dragging the block. You can move a block a short
distance by selecting the block, then pressing the arrow keys.
With all the blocks copied into the model window, the model should look
something like this.
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If you examine the blocks, you see an angle bracket on the right of the
Sine Wave block and two on the left of the Mux block. The > symbol pointing out
of a block is an output port; if the symbol points to a block, it is an input port. A
signal travels out of an output port and into an input port of another block through
a connecting line. When the blocks are connected, the port symbols disappear.
Now it's time to connect the blocks. Connect the Sine Wave block to the
top input port of the Mux block. Position the pointer over the output port on the
right side of the Sine Wave block. Notice that the cursor shape changes to
crosshairs.
Hold down the mouse button and move the cursor to the top input port of
the Mux block.
Notice that the line is dashed while the mouse button is down and that the cursor
shape changes to double-lined crosshairs as it approaches the Mux block.
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Now release the mouse button. The blocks are connected. You can also
connect the line to the block by releasing the mouse button while the pointer is
over the block. If you do, the line is connected to the input port closest to the
cursor's position.
If you look again at the model at the beginning of this section, you'll notice
that most of the lines connect output ports of blocks to input ports of other blocks.
However, one line connects a line to the input port of another block. This line,
called a branch line, connects the Sine Wave output to the Integrator block, and
carries the same signal that passes from the Sine Wave block to the Mux block.
Drawing a branch line is slightly different from drawing the line you just drew. To
weld a connection to an existing line, follow these steps:
1. First, position the pointer on the line between the Sine Wave and the Mux
block.
2. Press and hold down the Ctrl key (or click the right mouse button).Press
the mouse button, then drag the pointer to the Integrator block's input port
or over the Integrator block itself.
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3. Release the mouse button. Simulink draws a line between the starting point and
the Integrator block's input port.
Finish making block connections. When you're done, your model should look something
like this.
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You can also use the keyboard shortcut, Ctrl+T, to start the simulation.
Note: A common mistake that new Simulink users make is to start a simulation while the
Simulink block library is the active window. Make sure your model window is the active
window before starting a simulation.
Simulink starts executing the model at the start time specified on the
Configuration Parameters dialog box. Execution continues until the simulation reaches
the final time step specified on the Configuration Parameters dialog box, an error occurs,
or you pause or terminate the simulation.
While the simulation is running, a progress bar at the bottom of the model
window shows how far the simulation has progressed. A Stop command replaces the
Start command on the Simulation menu. A Pause command appears on the menu and
replaces the Start button on the model toolbar.
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Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New
model
4. Select the sine wave as message signal and set the input voltage signal to
5Vp-p and signal frequency to 500Hz
5. Again select the signal generator then sine wave. Give the name as
Carrier signal. Set the carrier voltage 8Vp-p,frequency 1KHz
6. Select constant from commonly used block of simulink
7. Select Add, Product Blocks from Math Operations
8. All the above blocks connect as per the diagram shown to get the
Amplitude modulation signal. observe the output in scope
9. For demodulation select Analog Filter Design block from Filter Designs
Library Links of Simulink
10. Connect the filter output to the scope and observe the results
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Model Waveform:
Results:
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A low pass filter filters out the message signal from above.
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Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New
model
4. Select the sine wave as message signal and set the input voltage signal to
5Vp-p and signal frequency to 500Hz
5. Again select the signal generator then sine wave. Give the name as
Carrier signal. Set the carrier voltage 8Vp-p,frequency 1KHz
6. Select Product Block from Math Operations
7. All the above blocks connect as per the diagram shown to get the
Amplitude modulation signal. observe the output in scope
8. For demodulation select Analog Filter Design block from Filter Designs
Library Links of Simulink
9. Connect the filter output to the scope and observe the results
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Model waveform:
Result:
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6. Frequency Modulation
Aim:
To generate frequency modulated signal using communication block set of
SIMULINK
Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
SIMULINK
Theory:
In Frequency Modulation (FM), the amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave was
modulated in AM, this time the instantaneous frequency of a sinusoidal carrier
wave will be modified proportionally to the variation of amplitude of the message
signal.
The FM signal is expressed as
s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c + β sin (2πf m t ))
Circuit diagram:
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Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New
model
4. Select FM modulator from Communication Block set of Simulink Library
Browser
5. Observe FM modulated output in scope
Model waveform:
Results:
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Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor(BC 107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Diode(0A79) Max Current 35mA 1
Resistors 1KΩ, 2KΩ, 6.8KΩ, 10KΩ 1 each
Capacitor 0.01µF 1
Inductor 130mH 1
CRO 20MHz 1
Function Generator 1MHz 2
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1
Theory:
Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message
signal m(t).The standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is defined by
s (t ) = Ac [1+ K a m(t ) cos(2πf c t )]
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output signal that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form exactly; hence, the
name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial AM radio receivers.
( Emax − E min )
The Modulation Index is defined as, m =
( E max + E min )
Where Emax and Emin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
modulated wave.
Circuit Diagrams:
For modulation:
Fig.1. AM modulator
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For demodulation:
Fig.2. AM demodulator
Procedure:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.
2. Switch on + 12 volts VCC supply.
3. Apply sinusoidal signal of 1 KHz frequency and amplitude 2 Vp-p as modulating
signal, and carrier signal of frequency 11 KHz and amplitude 15 Vp-p.
4. Now slowly increase the amplitude of the modulating signal up to 7V and note down
values of Emax and Emin.
5. Calculate modulation index using equation
6. Repeat step 5 by varying frequency of the modulating signal.
7. Plot the graphs: Modulation index vs Amplitude & Frequency
1
8. Find the value of R from f m = taking C = 0.01µF
2πRC
9. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.2.
10. Feed the AM wave to the demodulator circuit and observe the output
11. Note down frequency and amplitude of the demodulated output waveform.
12. Draw the demodulated wave form .,m=1
Observation Table:
Table 1: fm = fc = Ac=
%m
S.No. Vm(Volts) Emax(volts) Emin (Volts) m
(m x100)
1
2
3
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Table 2: Am= fc = Ac =
%m
S.No. fm(KHz) Emax(volts) Emin(Volts) m
(m x100)
1
2
3
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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
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Theory:
The AM signal is applied to a basic half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of diode
and resistor. The diode conducts when the positive half of the AM signals occur. During
the negative half cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through it. As a
result, the voltage across resistor is a series of positive pulses whose amplitude varies
with the modulating signal. To recover the original modulating signal a capacitor is
connected across resistor. Its value is critical to good performance. The result is that the
carrier is absent there by leaving the original modulating signal.
Circuit Diagram:
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Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as per Fig.1.
2. Set the input amplitude modulated wave from AM generator.
3. Observe the modulating signal changes by varying the amplitudes of the AM
signal.
4. Note down the Amplitude of the demodulated wave.
5. Plot a graph between Emax Vs Detector wave amplitude as shown in Fig.2
Sample readings:
TABLE 1: Reading of diode detector
Detector O/P
S.No. Emax(mV) Emin (mV)
(mV)
1
2
3
4
5
Model Graphs:
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Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. Classify Amplitude modulation detector or demodulators.
2. Why envelope detector is most popular in commercial receiver circuits?
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Apparatus required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Operating voltage –Max-24 Volts
IC 566 1
Operating current-Max.12.5 mA
Power dissipation – 750mW 1
IC 8038
Supply voltage - ±18V or 36V total
Power dissipation -1400mw 1
IC 565
Supply voltage - ±12V
15 K ۷ , 10 K ۷ , 1.8 K ۷ , 1,2,1
Resistors
39 K ۷ , 560 ۷ 2,2
470 pF, 0.1ΚF 2,1
Capacitors
100pF , 0.001ΚF 1,1 each
CRO 100MHz 1
Function Generator 1MHz 2
Regulated Power Supply 0-30 v, 1A 1
Theory:
The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, is called “Frequency Modulation”.
The FM signal is expressed as
s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c + β sin (2πf m t ))
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Circuit Diagrams:
By using IC 8038:
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Procedure:
Modulation:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.2( Fig.1 for IC 566)
2. Without giving modulating signal observe the carrier signal at pin no.2 (at pin no.3 for
IC 566). Measure amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal. To obtain carrier
signal of desired frequency, find value of R from f = 1/ (2ΠRC) taking C=100pF.
3. Apply the sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency 4KHz and amplitude 3Vp-p at
pin no.7. ( pin no.5 for IC 566)
Now slowly increase the amplitude of modulating signal and measure fmin and
maximum frequency deviation ∆f at each step. Evaluate the modulating index (mf =
β) using ∆f / fm where ∆f = |fc - fmin|. Calculate Band width. BW = 2 (β + 1)fm = 2(∆f +
fm )
4. Repeat step 4 by varying frequency of the modulating signal.
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Demodulation:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram shown in Fig.3
2. Check the functioning of PLL (IC 565) by giving square wave to input and
observing the output
3. Frequency of input signal is varied till input and output are locked.
4. Now modulated signal is fed as input and observe the demodulated signal
(output) on CRO.
5. Draw the demodulated wave form.
Observation Table:
Table: 1 fc =
Table 2: fm = fc =
S.No. Am (Volts) T (Κsec) fmin(KHz) ∆f (KHz) β BW(KHZ)
01
02
Model Waveforms:
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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. observations should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. Effect of the modulation index on FM signal?
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4. Balanced Modulator
Aim:
To generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Wide frequency response up to 100 MHz
IC 1496 1
Internal power dissipation – 500mw(MAX)
6.8K¯ 1
Resistors 10 K¯ , 3.9 K¯ 2 each
1K¯ ,51 K¯ 3 each
Capacitors 0.1 ΚF 4
Variable Resistor
0-50K¯
(Linear Pot) 1
CRO 100MHz 1
Theory:
Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal. A balanced
modulator consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced
configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave. The two modulators are identical
except the reversal of sign of the modulating signal applied to them.
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Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.
2. An Carrier signal of 1Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 83 KHz is applied as carrier to
pin no.10.
3. An AF signal of 0.5Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 5 KHz is given as message
signal to pin no.1.
4. Observe the DSB-SC waveform at pin no.12.
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Observation Table:
Signal AMPLITUDE (Volts) Frequency (Hz)
Message signal
Carrier signal
DSB-SC Signal
Model Waveforms:
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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply
2. Observations should be done carefully
Results:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. What is the efficiency of the DSB-SC modulating system?
2. What are the applications of balanced modulator?
3. What is the effect of amplitude of message on DSB-Sc signal?
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Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor (BC 107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistors 10 K¯ , 7.5 K¯ , 6.8 K¯ 1 each
10 nF 1
Capacitors
0.1 ΚF 2
CRO 20MHZ 1
Theory:
The noise has a effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on the lower
ones. Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and
correspondingly cut at the receiver, an improvement in noise immunity could be
expected, there by increasing the SNR ratio. This boosting of the higher modulating
frequencies at the transmitter is known as pre-emphasis and the compensation at the
receiver is called de-emphasis.
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Circuit Diagrams:
For Pre-emphasis:
For De-emphasis:
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Sample readings:
Table1: Pre-emphasis Vi =
Frequency(KHz) Vo(mV) Gain in dB(20 log Vo/Vi)
0.5
1
2
4
5
6
7
10
15
Table2: De-emphasis Vi =
Frequency(KHz) Vo(Volts) Gain in dB(20 log Vo/Vi)
0.150
1
2
3
5
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Graphs:
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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observation should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. What is the value of time constant used in commercial pre-emphasis
circuit?
2. For which modulated signals pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits are
used.
3. On what parameters fc depends?
4. Explain the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis characteristics?
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6. Synchronous Detector
Aim:
To demodulate the DSB-SC signal.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Maximum voltage - 30 V
IC 1496 1
power dissipation – 500 mw
100 ۷ ,6.8 K ۷ , , 22 K ۷ 1 each
3.9 K ۷ 2
Resistors
4.7 K ۷ 4
1K۷ 3
0.0047 ΚF 3
Capacitors
1 ΚF 3
Theory:
The message signal m(t) is recovered from a DSB-SC wave s(t) by first
multiplying s(t) with locally generated carrier wave and then low-pass filtering as shown
in the block diagram in Fig.1
It is assumed that the local oscillator output in the detector is exactly coherent or
synchronized, in both frequency and phase; with the carrier wave c(t) used to generate
s(t).This method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous
detection.
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Circuit Diagram:
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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply
2. Observations should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
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Questions:
1. Write the applications of synchronous detector?
2. What are the drawbacks of synchronous detector?
3. What is the Effect of Carrier signal on output signal?
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7. SSB System
Aim:
To generate the SSB modulated wave.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications Quantity
Component/Equipment
SSB system trainer board --- 1
CRO 30MHz 1
Theory:
An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective
band pass filter. This filter selects either the upper or the lower sideband. Hence
transmission bandwidth can be cut by half if one sideband is entirely suppressed. This
leads to single-sideband modulation (SSB). In SSB modulation bandwidth saving is
accompanied by a considerable increase in equipment complexity.
Circuit Diagram:
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Procedure:
1. Switch on the trainer and measure the output of the regulated power supply i.e.,
±12V and -8V.
2. Observe the output of the RF generator using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the
RF generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct
output. The output frequency is 100 KHz and the amplitude is ≥ 0.2VPP.
(Potentiometers are provided to vary the output amplitude).
3. Observe the output of the AF generator, using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the
AF generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct
output. A switch is provided to select the required frequency (2 KHz, 4KHz or 6
KHz). AGC potentiometer is provided to adjust the gain of the oscillator (or to set the
output to good shape). The oscillator output has amplitude ≅ 10VPP. This amplitude
can be varied using the potentiometers provided.
4. Measure and record the RF signal frequency using frequency counter. (or CRO).
5. Set the amplitudes of the RF signals to 0.1 Vp-p and connect direct signal to one
balanced modulator and 90o phase shift signal to another balanced modulator.
6. Select the required frequency (2KHz, 4KHz or 6KHz) of the AF generator with the
help of switch and adjust the AGC potentiometer until the output amplitude is ≅ 10
VPP (when amplitude controls are in maximum condition).
7. Measure and record the AF signal frequency using frequency counter (or CRO).
8. Set the AF signal amplitudes to 8 Vp-p using amplitude control and connect to the
balanced modulators.
9. Observe the outputs of both the balanced modulators simultaneously using Dual
trace oscilloscope and adjust the balance control until desired output wave forms
(DSB-SC).
10. To get SSB lower side band signal, connect balanced modulator output (DSB_SC)
signals to subtract or.
11. Measure and record the SSB signal frequency.
12. Calculate theoretical frequency of SSB (LSB) and compare it with the practical
value.
LSB frequency = RF frequency – AF frequency
13. To get SSB upper side band signal, connect the output of the balanced modulator to
the summer circuit.
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14. Measure and record the SSB upper side band signal frequency.
15. Calculate theoretical value of the SSB(USB) frequency and compare it with practical
value. USB frequency = RF frequency + AF frequency
Observations:
Model Waveforms:
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Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.
Results:
Inferences:
Question:
1. What are difficulties in practical implementation of SSB-C system?
2. Why SSB-SC is not used in broadcasting?
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CRO 30MHz 1
Theory:
A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT with
frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude on the vertical axis. Displayed as vertical
lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the input signal in
composed. The height represents the absolute magnitude, and horizontal location
represents the frequency. This instrument provide a display of the frequency spectrum
over a given frequency band.
Block diagram:
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Procedure:
1. AM signal is given to the spectrum analyzer.
2. Adjust the zero marker to carrier frequency and measure spectrum of AM.
3. For different values of fc and fm, observe the spectrum of AM.
4. Now remove AM signal and give FM signal to the spectrum analyzer.
5. Adjust the zero marker to carrier frequency and observe spectrum of FM.
6. Plot the spectrums of FM and AM.
Observation Table:
Table1: Readings for AM signal
S.No. fc (MHz) fm (KHz) (fm+ fc ) (MHz) (fc - fm) (MHz)
1
Table2: Readings for FM signal
S.No. fc (MHz) fm (KHz) (fm+ fc ) (MHz) (fc - fm) (MHz)
1
Model Graphs:
Fig.2 AM spectrum
Fig. 3 FM spectrum
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Precautions:
1. Check the probe connections.
2. Observations should be done carefully
Inferences:
Results:
Questions:
1. Distinguish between CRO and Spectrum analyzer?
2. What are the functions of span/div control and reference level control?
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Theory:
Pulse width modulation (PWM) encodes a signal into periodic pulses of
equal magnitude but varying width. The width of a pulse at a given point in time is
proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at that time. For example, the
large value of the message yields a narrow pulse.
To implement the PWM, the message signal is compared with the
sawtooth carrier. When the message signal is greater than the carrier, the
comparator output becomes highand vice versa; the heights and lows can be
represented by +1 or-1 respectively.The comparator output will be the pulse
width modulated signal.
Program:
%PWM wave generation
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.001:2;
s=sawtooth(2*pi*10*t+pi);
m=0.75*sin(2*pi*1*t);
n=length(s);
for i=1:n
if (m(i)>=s(i))
pwm(i)=0;
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elseif (m(i)<=s(i))
pwm(i)=1;
end
end
subplot(211),plot(t,m,'-r',t,s,'-b');axis([0 2 -1.5 1.5]);
title('message signal with sawtoothcoparison')
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('voltage(V)');
subplot(212),plot(t,pwm,'-k')
axis([0 2 -0.5 1.5]);
title('PWM wave');
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('voltage(V)');
Model Waveforms:
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Theory:
Phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback loop which locks two waveforms with
same frequency but shifted in phase. The fundamental use of this loop is in
comparing frequencies of two waveforms and then adjusting the frequency of the
waveform in the loop to equal the input waveform frequency. A block diagram of
the PLL is shown in Figure 1. The heart of the PLL is a phase comparator which
along with a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), a filter and an amplifier forms the
loop.
If the two frequencies are different the output of the phase comparator varies and
changes the input to the VCO to make its output frequency equal to the input
waveform frequency. The locking of the two frequencies is a nonlinear process
but linear approximation can be used to analyse PLL dynamics. In getting the
PLL to lock the proper selection of the filter is essential and it needs some
attention. If the filter design is understood from control theory point-of-view then
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the design becomes quite simple. In this short note we will discuss only the
fundamentals of the PLL and how you can use nonlinear simulation and
linearised approximation to get a better understanding of the PLL.
Program:
clc;
closeall;
clearall;
reg1 =0;
reg2 =0;
reg3 = 0;
eta =sqrt(2)/2;
theta =2*pi*1/100;
Kp = [(4*eta*theta)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
Ki = [(4*theta^2)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
d_phi_1 = 1/20;
n_data = 100;
for nn =1:n_data
phi1= reg1 +d_phi_1;
phi1_reg(nn) = phi1;
s1 =exp(j*2*pi*reg1);
s2 =exp(j*2*pi*reg2);
s1_reg(nn) =s1;
s2_reg(nn) =s2;
t =s1*conj(s2);
phi_error =atan(imag(t)/real(t))/(2*pi);
phi_error_reg(nn) = phi_error;
sum1 =Kp*phi_error + phi_error*Ki+reg3;
reg1_reg(nn) =reg1;
reg2_reg(nn) = reg2;
reg1 =phi1;
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reg2=reg2+sum1;
reg3 =reg3+phi_error*Ki;
phi2_reg(nn) =reg2;
end
figure(1)
plot(phi1_reg);
holdon
plot(phi2_reg,'r');
holdoff;
gridon;
title('phase plot');
xlabel('Samples');
ylabel('Phase');
figure(2)
plot(phi_error_reg);
title('phase Error of phase detector');
gridon;
xlabel('samples(n)');
ylabel('Phase error(degrees)');
figure(3)
plot(real(s1_reg));
holdon;
plot(real(s2_reg),'r');
holdoff;
gridon;
title('Input signal & Output signal of VCO');
xlabel('Samples');
ylabel('Amplitude');
axis([0 n_data -1.1 1.1]);
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Phase plot:
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Result:
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3. Characteristics of Mixer
Aim:
To obtain the characteristics of a mixer circuit.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistors (BC 107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistors 1 K۷ , 6.8 K۷ , 10K۷ 1 each
Capacitor 0.01ΚF 1
Inductor 1mH 1
CRO 20MHZ 1
Function Generator 1MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30v, 1A 1
Theory:
The mixer is a nonlinear device having two sets of input terminals and one set of
output terminals. Mixer will have several frequencies present in its output, including the
difference between the two input frequencies and other harmonic components.
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Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1. Assume C=0.1µF
1
and calculate value of L1 using f= where f=7KHz
2π L1C1
2. Apply the input signals at the appropriate terminals in the circuit.
3. Note down the frequency of the output signal, which is same as difference frequency
of given signals.
Observation Table:
Signal Amplitude (Volts) Frequency(KHz)
Input signal1
Input signal 2
Output signal
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Waveforms:
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Precautions:
1.Check the connections before giving the supply
2.Observations should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
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Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
Supply voltage ±12V
IC LM 565 1
Power dissipation 1400mw
Resistors 12 K ۷ 1
10pF 1
Capacitors
0.01ΚF 2
CRO 20MHZ 1
Function Generator 0- 1MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30v, 1A 1
Theory:
The best frequency demodulator is the phase locked loop(PLL). A PLL is a frequency or
phase –sensitive feedback control circuit. It used not only in frequency demodulation but
also in frequency synthesizers. All PLLs have three basic elements as illustrated in
Fig.1. A phase detector or mixer is used to compare the input or reference signal with
the output of a
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VCO. The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low pass filter. It is
the output of the phase detector that the low pass filter uses to produce dc control
voltage. This dc control voltage is called the error signal and is also the feedback in this
circuit and will control the VCO.
Circuit Diagram:
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And the frequency of input signal is still reduced, note down the frequency of
input signal (fL1) at which the PLL becomes unlocked.
5. Now by using formulae given calculate lock range and capture range and verify
them experimentally.
Observation Table:
Theoretical(KHz) Practical(KHz)
fo
fL
fC
Inferences:
Questions:
1. Write the application of PLL?
2. What is the capture range of PLL.
3. What is the effect of R1 and C1 values and Vcc on output signal?
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5. Squelch Circuit
Aim:
To Study the performance characteristics of Squelch Circuit .
Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz 2
Transistor(BC107) Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistor 10K¯ , 56K¯ , 1K¯ ,2.2K¯ , 1,1,1,2
Capacitor 10ΚF 2
CRO 20MHz 1
Function generator 0-1MHz 1
Regulated Power Supply 0-30V, 1A 1
Theory:
A squelch circuit also known as a mute circuit. It is designed to keep the receiver
audio turned off until an RF signal appears at the receiver input. The Squelch circuit
provides a means of keeping the audio amplifier turned off during the time that noise is
received in the background when an RF signal appears at the input, the audio amplifier
is enabled. There are two types of squelch circuits used in communication receivers;
they are (i). Amplitude squelch circuit (ii). Noise squelch circuit.
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Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
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Observation Table:
TABLE 1: Readings of a squelch circuit
Gain in
S.No. AGC(volts) Vo (mV) Gain=Vo/Vi
dB=20log(Vo/Vi)
1
2
Graphs:
Result:
Inferences:
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Questions:
1. What is the function of Squelch circuit?
2. What is Amplitude squelch or Gate squelch circuit?
3. What is true noise squelch?
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6. Frequency Synthesizer
Aim:
To construct a frequency synthesizer circuit.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the Specifications/Range Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor(BC107) Pd = 1W 1
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Supply voltage :±12V
IC 565 1
Power dissipation :1400mw
Max supply Voltage 5.25V
IC 7490 1
Power supply current 15mA
Resistor 2k¯ , 4.7k¯ , 10k¯ , 20k¯ (pot) 1each
Capacitor 10ΚF, 0.001ΚF, 0.01ΚF 1each
CRO 0-20MHz 1
Function generator 0-1MHz 1
Theory:
The frequency divider is inserted between the VCO and the phase comparator of PLL.
Since the output of the divider is locked to the input frequency fin, the VCO is actually
running at a multiple of the input frequency . The desired amount of multiplication can be
obtained by selecting a proper divide– by – N network ,where N is an integer. To obtain
the output frequency fOUT=5fIN, a divide – by – N = 5 network is needed. One must
determine the input frequency range and then adjust the free running fOUT of the VCO by
means of R1 (20k¯ pot) and C1 (10ΚF) so that the output frequency of the divider is
midway within the predetermined input frequency range. The output of the VCO now
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should be 5fIN. The output of the VCO now should be adjusted from 1.5 KHz to 15 KHz
by varying potentiometer R1 .this means that the input frequency fin range has to be with
in 300Hz to 3KHz. In addition, the input wave form may be applied to inputs pin2 or pin3.
Input – output waveforms forms for fOUT= 5fIN. A small capacitor typically 1000pf is
connected between pin7 and pin8 to eliminate possible oscillations. Also, capacitor C2
should be large enough to stabilize the VCO frequency.
Circuit Diagram:
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Observation Table:
TABLE 1: Readings of a Frequency Synthesizer
Inferences:
Questions:
1. How to achieve fout = 2 fin ?
2. What is the effect of C1 on the output frequency?
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Appendix A
Component/ Specifications Pin diagram
Equipment
fT= 300 MHz
IC(max)= 100 mA
Transistor – Pd=1W,VCEO=45V
BC 107 hfe (min) = 40
hfe (max) = 450
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to +125oC
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1496
Radio Receiver MW 550kHz to 1.5mHz
Measurement Consists of
Trainer 1. Internal AM generator __
2. Internal AF generator
3. Internal RF generator
Frequency:
LPT-2250 Frequency range: 30 KHz to 1.15
Spectrum GHz __
analyzer Frequency resolution: 1KHz
Amplitude:
Input level +20dBm(max.atten.)
Display range 75 dB usable
Ref. level range -30dBm to
+20dBm
AM-FM Frequency range: 100 KHz to 110
generator MHz (CW mode)
Frequency indication: Digital 4 digit
Frequency accuracy:+/-1 digit (4
digit max.)
RF output:75 mV(rms) max. into
75 ohms __
Output control: 0dB/20dB and fine
control
Int.Mod.Freuqency:1KHz
External: Frequency -50Hz to
20KHz
Level – 15V p-p max.
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Ge-Diode
Max Voltage 45V
OA79 Max Current 35mA
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Appendix B
PLOT(X,Y):
SUBPLOT(m,n,p) or SUBPLOT(mnp):
Breaks the Figure window into an m-by-n matrix of small axes, selects the
p-th axes for for the current plot, and returns the axis handle. The axes are
counted along the top row of the Figure window, then the second row, etc. For
example,
SUBPLOT(2,1,1), PLOT(income)
SUBPLOT(2,1,2), PLOT(outgo)
plots income on the top half of the window and outgo on the bottom half. If the
current axes is nested in a uipanel the panel is used as the parent for the subplot
instead of the current figure.
LINSPACE(a,b,n):
AXIS([XMIN XMAX YMIN YMAX]) sets scaling for the x- and y-axes on the
current plot.
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AMMOD(x,Fc,Fs,ini_phase,carramp):
MODULATE(x,fc,fs,'method'):
Method Description
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DEMOD(y,fc,fs,'method'):
FMMOD(X,Fc,Fs,FREQDEV):
Uses the message signal X to modulate the carrier frequency Fc (Hz) and
sample frequency Fs (Hz), where Fs > 2*Fc. FREQDEV (Hz) is the frequency
deviation of the modulated signal.
Method Description
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SIMULINK:
scope Simulink--
Sinks Used to display the
signals
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Sine wave:
We can generate the sine wave in two ways one is by using the directly sinewave
block and other way is by using the signal generator block
Symbol
The Sine Wave block provides a sinusoid. The block can operate in either time-
based or sample-based mode.
Sine type
Type of sine wave generated by this block, either time- or sample-based. Some
of the other options presented by the Sine Wave dialog box depend on whether
you select time-based or sample-based as the value of Sine type parameter.
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Time
Specifies whether to use simulation time as the source of values for the sine
wave's time variable or an external source. If you specify an external time source,
the block displays an input port for the time source.
Amplitude
Bias
Constant value added to the sine to produce the output of this block.
Frequency
Number of samples per period. This parameter appears only if you choose
sample-based as the Sine type of the block.
Phase
The phase shift, in radians. The default is 0 radians. This parameter appears
only if you choose time-based as the Sine type of the block.
The offset (discrete phase shift) in number of sample times. This parameter
appears only if you choose sample-based as the Sine type of the block.
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Sample time
The sample period. The default is 0. If the sine type is sample-based, the
sample time must be greater than 0. See Specifying Sample Time in the online
documentation for more information.
If selected, column or row matrix values for the Sine Wave block's numeric
parameters result in a vector output signal; otherwise, the block outputs a signal
of the same dimensionality as the parameters. If this option is not selected, the
block always outputs a signal of the same dimensionality as the block's numeric
parameters.
Signal generator:
The Signal Generator block can produce one of three different waveforms:
sine wave, square wave, and sawtooth wave. The signal parameters can be
expressed in Hertz (the default) or radians per second. This figure shows each
signal displayed on a Scope using default parameter values.
Symbol
The block's Amplitude and Frequency parameters determine the amplitude and
frequency of the output signal. The parameters must be of the same dimensions
after scalar expansion.
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Wave form
The wave form: a sine wave, square wave, or sawtooth wave. The default is a
sine wave. This parameter cannot be changed while a simulation is running.
Time
Specifies whether to use simulation time as the source of values for the
waveform's time variable or an external signal. If you specify an external time
source, the block displays an input port for the time source.
Amplitude
Frequency
Units
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If selected, column or row matrix values for the Amplitude and Frequency
parameters result in a vector output signal.
Constant
The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block
generates scalar (1x1 2-D array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output,
depending on the dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting
of the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter.
Symbol
The output of the block has the same dimensions and elements as the Constant
value parameter. If you specify a vector for this parameter, and you want the
block to interpret it as a vector (i.e., a 1-D array), select the Interpret vector
parameters as 1-D parameter; otherwise, the block treats the Constant value
parameter as a matrix (i.e., a 2-D array).
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Constant value
Specify the constant value output by the block. You can enter any MATLAB
expression in this field, including the Boolean keywords, true or false, that
evaluates to a matrix value. The Constant value parameter is converted from its
data type to the specified output data type offline using round-to-nearest and
saturation.
If you select this check box, the Constant block outputs a vector of length N if
the Constant value parameter evaluates to an N-element row or column vector,
i.e., a matrix of dimension 1xN or Nx1.
Sample time
Specify the interval between times that the Constant block's output can change
during simulation (e.g., as a result of tuning its Constant value parameter). The
default sample time is inf, i.e., the block's output can never change. This setting
speeds simulation and generated code by avoiding the need to recompute the
block's output. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for more
information.
Scope
The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time. The Scope
block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range
with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and
the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window
and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation.
Symbol
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When you start a simulation, Simulink does not open Scope windows, although it
does write data to connected Scopes. As a result, if you open a Scope after a
simulation, the Scope's input signal or signals will be displayed.
If the signal is continuous, the Scope produces a point-to-point plot. If the signal
is discrete, the Scope produces a stair-step plot.
The Scope provides toolbar buttons that enable you to zoom in on displayed
data, display all the data input to the Scope, preserve axis settings from one
simulation to the next, limit data displayed, and save data to the workspace. The
toolbar buttons are labeled in this figure, which shows the Scope window as it
appears when you open a Scope block.
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Number of axes
Set the number of y-axes in this data field. With the exception of the floating
scope, there is no limit to the number of axes the Scope block can contain. All
axes share the same time base (x-axis), but have independent y-axes. Note that
the number of axes is equal to the number of input ports.
Time range
Change the x-axis limits by entering a number or auto in the Time range field.
Entering a number of seconds causes each screen to display the amount of data
that corresponds to that number of seconds. Enter auto to set the x-axis to the
duration of the simulation. Do not enter variable names in these fields.
The Sum block performs addition or subtraction on its inputs. This block can add
or subtract scalar, vector, or matrix inputs. It can also collapse the elements of a
single input vector.
Symbol
ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB 116
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The Sum block first converts the input data type(s) to the output data type using
the specified rounding and overflow modes, and then performs the specified
operations.
List of signs
Enter as many plus (+) and minus (-) characters as there are inputs. Addition
is the default operation, so if you only want to add the inputs, enter the number of
input ports. For a single vector input, "+" or "-" will collapse the vector using the
specified operation.
You can manipulate the positions of the input ports on the block by inserting
spacers (|) between the signs in the List of signs parameter. For example, "++|--"
creates an extra space between the second and third input ports.
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Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for
more information.
Product(multiply or divide)
Symbol
This block produces outputs using either element-wise or matrix multiplication,
depending on the value of the Multiplication parameter. You specify the
operations with the Number of inputs parameter. Multiply(*) and divide(/)
characters indicate the operations to be performed on the inputs.
Number of inputs
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Enter the number of inputs or a combination of "*" and "/" symbols. See
Description above for a complete discussion of this parameter.
Multiplication
Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for
more information.
Modulation
Symbol
if the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is
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The offset factor k. This value should be greater than or equal to the absolute
value of the minimum of the input signal.
De-modulation
Symbol
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In the course of demodulating, this block uses a filter whose transfer function is
described by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator
parameters.
Offset factor
The same as the Input signal offset parameter in the corresponding DSB AM
Modulator Passband block.
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Sample time
Modulation
Symbol
where fc is the Carrier frequency parameter and θ is the Initial phase parameter.
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Demodulation
Symbol
In the course of demodulating, this block uses a filter whose transfer function is
described by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator
parameters.
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Sample time
Modulation
Symbol
If the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is
where:
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Sample time
Symbol interval
De-modulation
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Symbol
In the course of demodulating, the block uses a filter whose transfer function is
described by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator
parameters.
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Sample time
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REFERENCES:
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