UNIT -II

Topic 1:

Derive the transient response of R-L,R-C and R-L-C for DC excitation with differential equation
approach

DC Response of an R-L Circuit:

Consider a circuit consisting of a resistance and inductance as shown in fig. the inductor in the
circuit is initially uncharged and is in series with the resistor. When switch S is closed, we can
find the complete solution for current. Application of Kirchhoff’s law to the circuit results in
following differential equations.

In the above equation, the current i is the solution to be found and V is the applied constant
voltage. The voltage V is applied to the circuit only when the switch S is closed. The above
equation is linear differential equation of the first order comparing with the non homogenous
differential equation

Above equation consists of two parts, the steady state part (V/R) and other is transient part
DC Response of an R-C Circuit

Application of Kirchhoff’s laws we can determine the differential equations.

By differentiating the above equation we get,

The responses are shown in fig.

DC Response of an R-L-C Circuit

The roots above equation are,

 Topic2: Analyze the circuit switching

Circuit switching:
 Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications network in which
two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the
network before the nodes may communicate.
 The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected for the
duration of the communication session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were
physically connected as with an electrical circuit.
 The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early analog telephone
network. When a call is made from one telephone to another, switches within
the telephone exchanges create a continuous wire circuit between the two telephones, for
as long as the call lasts.

Multiplexing
 Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which divides the data to be transmitted
into packets transmitted through the network independently.
 In packet switching, instead of being dedicated to one communication session at a time,
network links are shared by packets from multiple competing communication sessions,
resulting in the loss of the quality of service guarantees that are provided by circuit
switching.
 In circuit switching, the bit delay is constant during a connection, as opposed to packet
switching, where packet queues may cause varying and potentially indefinitely
long packet transfer delays.
 No circuit can be degraded by competing users because it is protected from use by other
callers until the circuit is released and a new connection is set up. Even if no actual
communication is taking place, the channel remains reserved and protected from
competing users.
 Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching technology that emulates circuit switching,
in the sense that the connection is established before any packets are transferred, and
packets are delivered in order.
 While circuit switching is commonly used for connecting voice circuits, the concept of a
dedicated path persisting between two communicating parties or nodes can be extended
to signal content other than voice.
 Its advantage is that it provides for continuous transfer without the overhead associated
with packets making maximal use of available bandwidth for that communication. Its
disadvantage is that it can be relatively inefficient because unused capacity guaranteed to
a connection cannot be used by other connections on the same network.
 The step response of a system in a given initial state consists of the time evolution of its
outputs when its control inputs are Heaviside step functions.
 In electronic engineering and control theory, step response is the time behavior of the
outputs of a general system when its inputs change from zero to one in a very short time.
 The concept can be extended to the abstract mathematical notion of a dynamical
system using an evolution parameter.
 From a practical standpoint, knowing how the system responds to a sudden input is
important because large and possibly fast deviations from the long term steady state may
have extreme effects on the component itself and on other portions of the overall system
dependent on this component.
 In addition, the overall system cannot act until the component's output settles down to
some vicinity of its final state, delaying the overall system response.
 Formally, knowing the step response of a dynamical system gives information on
the stability of such a system, and on its ability to reach one stationary state when starting
from another.
Topic 3:

Analyze anddetermine the resonant curve frequencies, the quality factor and band width of the
series RLC circuits.

Band width:

 The resonance effect can be used for filtering, the rapid change in impedance near
resonance can be used to pass or block signals close to the resonance frequency. Both
band-pass and band-stop filters can be constructed and some filter circuits are shown later
in the article. A key parameter in filter design is bandwidth. 

Q factor
 The Q factor is a widespread measure used to characterize resonators. It is defined as the
peak energy stored in the circuit divided by the average energy dissipated in it per radian
at resonance.
 Low-Q circuits are therefore damped and lossy and high-Q circuits are under
damped. Q is related to bandwidth; low-Q circuits are wide-band and high-Q circuits are
narrow-band. In fact, it happens that Q is the inverse of fractional bandwidth.

Resonance curve definition:

A curve whose abscissas are frequencies lying near to and on both sides of the natural
frequency of a vibrating system and whose ordinates are the corresponding amplitudes of
the near-resonant vibrations
 Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily transfer energy between two
or more different storage modes (such as kinetic energy and potential energy in the case
of a simple pendulum).
  However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called damping. When damping is
small, the resonant frequency is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the
system, which is a frequency of unforced vibrations.
 Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies.
 Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or waves: there is mechanical
resonance, acoustic resonance, electromagnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR) and resonance of quantum wave
functions.
 Resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency (e.g., musical
instruments), or pick out specific frequencies from a complex vibration containing many
frequencies (e.g., filters).

Topic 4: Root Locus

Root Locus Method with step by step solution

General steps for drawing the Root Locus of the given system:

 1. Determine the open loop poles, zeros and a number of branches from given G(s)H(s).
 2. Draw the pole-zero plot and determine the region of real axis for which the root locus
exists. Also, determine the number of breakaway points (This will be explained while solving the
problems).
 3. Calculate the angle of asymptotes.
 4. Determine the centroid.
 5. Calculate the breakaway points (if any).
 6. Calculate the intersection point of root locus with the imaginary axis.
 7. Calculate the angle of departure or angle of arrivals if any.
 8. From above steps draw the overall sketch of the root locus.
 9. Predict the stability and performance of the given system by the root locus.

EX:
Question: For a unity feedback system, G(s) = K/[s(s+4)(s+2)]. Sketch the nature of root locus
showing all details on it. Comment on the stability of the system

Solution:

Given system is unity feedback system. Therefore H(s) = 1.

Therefore G(s) H(s) = K/[s(s+4)(s+2)].

Step 1:

Poles = 0, -4, -2. Therefore P=3.

Zeros = there are no zeros. Z=0.

So all (P-Z=3) branches terminate at infinity.

Step 2: Pole-zero plot and sections of the real axis.

The pole-zero plot of the system is shown in the figure below. Here RL denotes Root Locus
existence region and NRL denotes the non-existence region of root locus. These sections of real
axis identified as a part of the root locus as to the right sum of poles and zeros is odd for those
sections.
Step 3: Angle of asymptotes ‘A line to which root locus touches at infinity is called asymptotes.’

Number of asymptotes = P-Z = 3. Therefore 3 asymptotes are approaching to infinity.

Step 4: Centroid or Centre of asymptotes.

Asymptote touches real axis at a point called centroid.

Branches will approach infinity along these lines which are asymptotes.

Step 5: To find breakaway point, we have characteristic equation as,

As there is no root locus between -2 to -4, -3.15 cannot be a breakaway point. it also can be
confirmed by calculating ‘K’ for s = -3.15. It will be negative that confirms s = -3.15 is not a
breakaway point.
For s = -3.15, K = -3.079 (Substituting in equation for K). But as there has to be breakaway point
between’0’and ‘-2’, s = – 0.845 is a valid breakaway point.

For s = -0.845 K = +3.079. As K is positive s = – 0.845 is valid breakaway point.

Step 6: Intersection point with the imaginary axis.

Characteristic equation

S3+6S2 +8s+K = 0

Roth’s array:

Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis is at ±j2.828 and corresponding value of
K(marginal) = 48.

Step 7 : As there are no complex conjugate poles or zeros, no angles of departures or arrivals are
required to be calculated.

Step 8: The complete root locus is as shown in the figure below.

Step 9: Prediction about stability:

For 0 < K < 48, all the roots are in left half of s-plane hence system is absolutely stable.

For K(marginal) = +48, a pair of dominant roots on imaginary axis with remaining root in left
half. So the system is marginally stable oscillating at 2.82 rad/sec. For 48 < K < 8, dominant
roots are located in right half of s-plane hence system is unstable.

Stability is predicted by locations of dominant roots. Dominant roots are those which are located
closest to the imaginary axis.