7 - Transactional Analysis
7 - Transactional Analysis
Transactional
analysis
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◆ Introduction
Counselling Skills and Theory, 4th edition
The subject of this unit is transactional analysis and its use in the context
of counselling and therapy. Transactional analysis is a psychoanalytically
inspired approach that links problem behaviour to early experience.
According to the theory, this early experience exerts considerable
influence in the present and is discernible in the ‘ego states’ each person
feels and exhibits at any given time. In the course of this unit, we shall
define and discuss these ego states and consider a number of other
important concepts that are central to the theory of transactional analysis.
The approach also highlights each person’s aptitude and capacity for
change. This means, for example, that through awareness and insight the
events of early childhood can be redefined by the individual and self-defeating
patterns of behaviour altered. These ideas are similar to those expressed in
psychodynamic theory, where the emphasis is also on childhood experience
and the possibility of change through therapeutic intervention in later life.
The goals of psychodynamic counselling and transactional analysis
have much in common, since both aim to help clients bring unconscious
material into consciousness. In transactional analysis terms this means
helping clients to become more autonomous and ‘script’-free. A similar
view is implicit in the person-centred approach, where the individual’s
‘actualising tendency’ is seen as a powerful force for improvement and
change. However, transactional analysis differs greatly from both the
psychodynamic and humanistic approaches, since it stresses the importance
of social transactions – a dimension not emphasised by the other two.
KEY TERM
Transactional analysis: This refers to the analysis of a person’s communications
style or ‘transactions’, which is carried out with the aid of diagrams so that the
specific ego states involved are identified.
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Terminology
Already we can see that the terminology used in transactional analysis is quite
different from that used in any other approach. This is both a strength and
a weakness of the model, because although the language is memorable and
accessible, it is also regarded by some critics as simplistic and superficial. Berne
was concerned to demystify the esoteric language of psychotherapy so that
it could be grasped by anyone. He was especially interested in helping his
patients to understand the basic principles of the approach and the origins of
the psychological problems they had come to experience. In this respect, Berne
was certainly successful, not least because transactional analysis does appear
to help clients and patients to participate more fully in their own therapy.
Since its inception, however, Berne’s model has been extended considerably
by different schools and theorists, and new and more complex ideas have been
added to it. While the fundamental principles of transactional analysis remain
intact, the accessibility, which Berne valued so much, is often obscured.
Apart from these criticisms, however, transactional analysis continues
to gain popularity, not only as a theoretical approach to counselling and
therapy, but also as a communications skills model that is used extensively
in education, management, industry, health care and many of the caring
professions. The International Transactional Analysis Association (ITAA)
was formed in 1964 as a training and accreditation body, while the
European Association for Transactional Analysis (EATA) performs a similar
function. Many of the people who become involved in transactional
analysis do so because they are interested in it as a communications
model. It is important to remember this fact, since it highlights the point
that transactional analysis is first and foremost about the development of
effective interpersonal skills.
207
Groupwork
Transactional analysis therapy usually takes place in a group setting. Berne
believed that many problems could be addressed more readily in groups,
since such a format lends itself to the identification and analysis of faulty
social interactions and communication styles. He had gained a great deal of
experience of groupwork in the 1940s, while working as a psychiatrist in the
United States Army Corps, and he set up the first transactional analysis group
in 1954. Invaluable information about the way people relate to each other
is readily available when clients work together in groups. Each participant is
afforded the opportunity to monitor and perhaps change the interactive styles
they habitually use. As we shall see, Berne formulated his user-friendly theory
of personality in a way that seems to owe something to Freud’s concept of Id,
Ego and Superego, although Berne did point out that his concept of personality
was different in the sense that his ego states represent ‘phenomological realities’
(Berne, 1961: 31). In simple terms, this means that the three ego states are real
and observable, whereas the parts of personality Freud described were not
always clearly seen in this way. Group participants can, therefore, learn about
personal styles of social interaction and any problems associated with these,
while at the same time becoming aware of the intent behind their ways of
relating to others.
Ego states
An idea fundamental to transactional analysis is that of ego states. Berne
suggested that human personality is made up of three elements, which he
referred to as Parent, Adult and Child.These familiar words were used by him
to describe states of ‘self ’ or states of mind, which he believed gave rise to their
own individual patterns of behaviour. In transactional analysis, ‘Parent’, ‘Adult’
and ‘Child’ are always spelt with capital letters, in
order to distinguish between their usual meaning
and that which Berne assigned to them. Ego Parent
states are, of course, common to all of us and
govern our thoughts, feelings and behaviour. In
any given situation an individual will exhibit a
certain pattern of behaviour that corresponds to
the way that person is actually feeling at the time. Adult
As feelings change, so also do the patterns of
behaviour the person displays. As a result of his
experience with groups, Berne observed that
these patterns included noticeable changes in
Child
voice, posture, vocabulary and all other aspects
of behaviour (Berne, 1964: 23). The principles
of transactional analysis are illustrated in
diagrammatic form, the most basic of which is Figure 7.1 Structural diagram
the structural diagram illustrated in Figure 7.1. of personality
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CASE STUDY
Parent ego state
Sometimes I feel that the children are driving me crazy. Most of the time I cope
quite well, and my husband is supportive and helpful. At other times, especially
when I have just got in from work, I simply don’t know where to start. Then I find
myself getting into a panic and I start to shout at them. When this happened to me
yesterday I suddenly realised that I sounded exactly like my mother. It wasn’t just
the tone of my voice . . . it was the words as well. I actually used the word ‘weary’
as she used to do, and later on I used another expression of hers as well. I’m sure I
looked like her too, standing there with my hands on my hips glaring at the children.
It pulled me up short and made me really think . . . do I want to become old before
my time and end up hassled and bad tempered, the way she always seemed to be?
Comment: In the example just given, the client described a situation in which
she felt she had ‘become’ her own mother in her response to her children. Her
actions and her state of mind were the same as her mother’s used to be in a similar
situation. It is important to point out here that the word ‘Parent’ refers to parental
substitutes as well as to actual parents, and could include, for example, teachers
and others who exerted influence on a person’s early life.
Aspects of socialisation
Whether shown in direct or indirect form, the Parent ego state resembles a
compendium of the entire socialisation process each person has received in
early life. This early socialisation is passed from parents, teachers and other
significant people in childhood, and is usually absorbed without question
by the growing child. However, it is not just parental pronouncements and
injunctions that are recorded in this way; the example given by parents and
other significant people is also relevant here. Both negative and positive
influences are recorded in the Parent ego state, and everything that is
experienced by the child is internalised to become part of the personality.
Once again Berne’s psychoanalytic training is evident in his theory, since the
idea of parental internalisation is common to all branches of psychodynamic
teaching, including object relations theory.
There is an important point of difference, however, between Berne’s theory
of personality and those described by the various branches of psychodynamic
theory. This difference concerns the ‘paternal’ influence, which, in Berne’s
formulation, is potentially just as influential as the ‘maternal’. If we consider
the theories discussed in Units 3 and 4, it is clear that such an equal emphasis
is absent from many of the psychodynamic approaches. In transactional
analysis, therefore, both parents are believed to impart information explicitly
and implicitly to the developing child’s Parent ego state.
CASE STUDY
Paternal influence
During bereavement counselling, a client called Kavita remembered her experiences
in childhood and her relationship with her father, which she described as follows:
My mother was talkative and outgoing. She was the one who seemed to have an
opinion about everything. I can see many aspects of my mother in myself, but I
can identify characteristics of my father too. When he came to this country he
concentrated on working hard, setting up a business and working virtually non-stop
from early morning until late at night. I only really started to think about him after
he died, and to appreciate all that he did for the family. Though I can’t remember
him directly influencing me when I was a child, I know now that his unspoken
influence was immense. I have absorbed his attitude to work and to family, and I am
very grateful now for the many positive messages he conveyed to me.
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EXERCISE
Parent ego state
Working individually, try to identify as many situations as possible where you respond
in a Parent ego state. How do you think, feel and act when you respond in this way?
Think carefully about your tone of voice, your gestures, your facial expressions and
any other observable features that are manifest in your Parent ego state.
ADULT
211
EXERCISE
Nurturing Parent and Controlling Parent
Working individually, identify any situations where other people responded
to you as either ‘Controlling Parent’ or ‘Nurturing Parent’. How did these
people sound and look when they responded to you in these two ego states?
How did each style of communication affect you, and how did you respond
to each?
212
Adapted Child
In the section entitled ‘Do as I say’ we looked briefly at how people adapt to
parental influence, and the way in which this adaptation is revealed through
the Child ego state in adult life.
The person who is functioning in Adapted Child will demonstrate
behaviour meant to conform to the expectations of parents and parental
figures. Different parents have different expectations, however, and
behaviours that please one will not necessarily please the other. This means
that people learn to respond or adapt to both parents; and in later life, these
responses will be triggered in situations that are reminiscent of earlier ones.
A young woman who has received poor grades in college assignments, for
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Free Child
The Free Child ego state is the source of strong feelings and can be classified
as either positive or negative. Spontaneous expressions of joy, anger, sorrow
and a sense of fun are characteristic of Free Child.These are all feelings which
have escaped the inhibiting influence of parents, but when they are expressed
inappropriately these uncensored impulses can be problematic. On the other
hand, positive Free Child ego states are often observed in social situations
or contexts where such expressions are permitted. Steiner (1974) lists sports
events and parties as examples of structured situations, in which the Free Child
ego state is given unlimited opportunity for expression. Apart from aspects of
behaviour that can be identified with Free Child, there are also words and
phrases like ‘super’ and ‘wow’, for example, which are associated with it.
214
215
EXERCISE Cont...
Answers
It should be stressed that it is not possible to be totally accurate about the correct
answers to this questionnaire. This is because so much depends on the manner and
tone of voice of the person responding in each case. However, from the evidence
given, the answers are shown at the end of this unit.
Application to counselling
Berne’s main objective in formulating transactional analysis was that it should
provide a frame of reference for helping clients in therapy. He developed his
theories as a result of working directly with patients, whose behavioural changes
he observed and then identified in the ego state model.The behavioural changes
he noted included alterations in voice tone, gesture, choice of words, facial
expression, posture, body movement and even sentence construction. Berne was
intrigued by this phenomenon, and observed that people seemed to be governed
by different ‘inner’ personalities, whose influences were manifest at different times
and according to circumstances. He also observed that people communicated in
a variety of ways, depending on the ego state which dominated the personality
at any given time. These ‘transactions’, as he called them, could be analysed
in order to help people identify some of the problems they experienced in
communicating with others (Berne, 1964: 28). Transactional analysis, therefore,
is meant to help clients gain intellectual insight through analysis of the way they
relate to other people. It is concerned with four major areas of analysis:
1 Structural analysis: the analysis of individual personality or ego states
2 Transactional analysis: the analysis of communication styles or social
behaviour
3 Game analysis: analysis of the psychological games people play
4 Script analysis: analysis of a complex set of transactions people act out
compulsively.
KEY TERMS
Script analysis: This is based on the idea that everyone has a life plan or ‘script’,
which determines behaviour and life choices. Analysis of scripts brings these,
largely unconscious, motivations into conscious awareness.
Transaction: This refers to communication between two or more people in any social
situation. This communication can be verbal or non-verbal. Berne used the term
‘strokes’ to denote the exchanges that people engage in socially (Berne, 1964:14).
216
Transactions
While structural analysis refers to the individual, analysis of transactions
refers to social behaviour.The word ‘stroking’ is used by Berne to describe the
social exchanges that take place between people. Stroking implies recognition
Complementary transactions
People communicate with others from the Parent, Adult or Child ego state.
The person making the response will also do so from one of the three
ego states. A complementary transaction will take place when, for example,
one person addresses another from the Adult ego state, and the second
person replies from Adult. This is illustrated the following example. (See also
Figure 7.3.)
STIMULUS: Have you seen my glasses?
(Adult to Adult)
RESPONSE: Yes, they’re on the dining room table.
(Adult to Adult)
Berne illustrated his theory of transactional analysis in diagram form, in
order to make it easier to understand. He also stressed the point that when
transactions remain complementary, communication proceeds indefinitely.
Complementary transactions don’t just take place between Adult to Adult
ego states. Berne (1972: 14) identifies nine possible types of complementary
transactions, in which the responses given were those which the question or
stimulus intended. Figure 7.4 is an example of one.
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checkouts?
(Parent to Parent)
RESPONSE: Yes, it’s disgraceful. They should have more staff.
(Parent to Parent)
The following is another example of a complementary transaction, this time
Parent to Child.
STIMULUS: That’s twice this week you’ve kept me waiting.
(Parent to Child)
RESPONSE: I’m sorry to be such a nuisance.
(Child to Parent)
P P
Stimulus
A A
Response
C C
Stimulus
P P
Response
A A
C C
218
Stimulus
A A
Response
C C
Crossed transactions
A crossed transaction occurs when the response given is not the one which
the stimulus intended.When such a situation arises, communication tends to
break down. Figure 7.6 illustrates this.
The response to the question ‘Have you seen my glasses’ might have been
given from a Child ego state as follows:
219
P P
Stimulus
A A
se
on
sp
Re
C C
P P
Stimulus
A A
Re
sp
on
se
C C
Ulterior transactions
Both complementary and crossed transactions are relatively simple, and
operate on one level. However, Berne describes another, more complicated,
transaction that operates on two levels and conveys a double set of messages.
These are referred to as ‘ulterior’ transactions because they contain a hidden
agenda. Another way of stating this is to say that one of the messages occurs
at a psychological level, while the other takes place at a social level. The
psychological aspect of the transaction is conveyed subtly, and is often picked
up via non-verbal clues. It is by far the stronger of the two messages and
dominates the social message, which is conveyed verbally. Ulterior transactions
are frequently contained in exchanges between people who wish to become
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P P
Social
level
A A
l
ica
l og l
o
ch ve
P sy le
C C
Doctor Patient
EXERCISE
Ulterior transactions
Working individually, identify any ulterior transactions you have experienced
either at work or at home. Illustrate these in diagram form and discuss the way
they work with other members of the training group. Are there some transactions
that are common to a number of people in the group?
221
Game analysis
Berne (1964) defines the psychological games people play as follows:
● They are extensions of ulterior transactions.
● They progress to an expected and definite outcome.
● Superficially, they appear to be straightforward transactions.
● What is said is not what is felt.
● All games have some common elements, including a hidden agenda and a
negative payoff.
Berne also makes a useful distinction between an ‘operation’ – a simple
transaction or transactions set in motion for a specific purpose – and a
game – a dishonest ‘manoeuvre’ (Berne, 1964: 44). If someone asks for help
and gets it, for example, then that is an operation. If, on the other hand, the
person who gives the help is adversely affected in doing so, then that is a
game. The following case study is an example of a game.
CASE STUDY
Mr Phillips
Mr Phillips was a 36-year-old man who had been out of work for several years. He
had a number of minor health problems, which meant that he had visited his doctor
on many occasions. However, his GP had some difficulty in persuading Mr Phillips
that he had no serious health problems, an assessment confirmed by the many
diagnostic procedures that had been carried out. Mr Phillips had also visited several
alternative practitioners, all of whom he described as ‘hopeless’ and incapable of
giving him the help he needed. At a later date, he requested counselling, and during
his first sessions informed his counsellor that no one had been able to help him so
far. The counsellor observed that Mr Phillips smiled as he described all the failed
attempts to understand and assist him. Nevertheless, she worked with him over a
period of ten weeks and, during that time, was able to help him identify the game
he was playing over and over again, and the payoff he received on each occasion.
Comment: We can see that Mr Phillips was receiving a great deal of attention as a
result of his repeated visits to helpers. Gaining attention in this way was a continuation
of the strategy he had employed as a small child. However, the kind of attention this
client received effectively prevented him from achieving any real intimacy in relation
to other people. In transactional analysis terms, games are designed to confirm and
support the original decisions people make in early life about the best way to relate
to others. As far as Mr Phillips was concerned, real intimacy was fraught with danger.
This was a lesson he had learned in childhood, at the hands of neglectful and often
abusive parents. In response to these early events, he had devised his own method
of gaining the ‘strokes’ or recognition he desperately needed. As a result, he was also
able to experience the familiar, and what Berne (Harris, 1972: 137–139) referred to
as ‘racket’, feelings of hurt and satisfaction associated with his own special game.
The fact that he was sabotaging his own best interests did not occur to him. In the
units dealing with psychodynamic approaches to counselling, we noted that Freud
(and other Freudian theorists) believed that people frequently repeat early patterns
of behaviour in an unconscious and repetitive way. This idea is taken up by Berne
and is integral to his theory of games and life scripts.
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Focus on counselling
Achieving the I’m OK – You’re OK position often requires a conscious
decision (and some effort) in adult life. People who do achieve it tend to
respect themselves, and all people with whom they are in contact. In his
writing, Berne (1961) makes it quite clear that personal change cannot
simply be effected by external circumstances, but must come from within
the individual.
An important objective in counselling is to help clients identify and
use their own resources so that therapeutic change becomes possible. In
transactional analysis people are viewed in a positive way; a basic principle of
the approach is that people can be helped to locate their innate (though often
neglected) coping abilities. Clients are encouraged to make new decisions
about their lives, and alternative ways of behaving are explored in therapy.
The OK positions adopted in early childhood can be challenged and changed,
and negative life scripts can be reconstructed to become more positive.
Earlier in this unit, we noted that transactional analysis is frequently conducted
in groups. The group is, in fact, the ideal medium for clients who wish to
become more aware about their personal life scripts and how they originated.
Understanding must always precede change, and in transactional analysis
groupwork, clients receive feedback from other participants. This practice is
of considerable help in increasing self-knowledge for individual clients. The
following is a summary of objectives in transactional analysis therapy. Clients:
● should become more autonomous and ‘script free’
● work towards the I’m OK – You’re OK life position
● learn to state their needs and views clearly without game playing
● take responsibility for their own feelings.
EXERCISE
Life positions
Working either individually or as a group, look at the four life positions listed
below and identify any situations in your own life when you experienced each of
them. What were the circumstances in each case, and how did you resolve any
difficulties you had?
224
The relationship
The relationship itself is based on the concept of equality between the two
people involved, and all information, including any notes taken, is shared
openly. Clients in transactional analysis counselling are helped to achieve
emotional and intellectual insight, but the primary focus of therapy is certainly
cognitive. This refers to the understanding we have already mentioned, as
a necessary component in the progress towards autonomy and script-free
independence. However, creativity and flexibility are further attributes that
transactional analysis counsellors need to have.
Clients are also encouraged to become more aware of all aspects of everyday
life, and to live with spontaneity in the present. Spontaneous living in the
here and now implies freedom from outdated scripts, as well as an ability to
choose appropriate responses in personal and social situations. The ability to
form relationships without resorting to games or subterfuge is another desired
outcome in counselling. Communication between client and counsellor
should be clear, and this clarity is facilitated when clients are familiar with
the theoretical framework of transactional analysis and its terminology. Clients
are encouraged to learn about transactional analysis and to attend courses, if
possible.When therapy is taking place in a group context, its aims and objectives
are discussed so that all participants are clear about purpose and progress.
Attitudes about the relationship between counsellor and client have
changed considerably since Berne first introduced his transactional analysis
model of helping. These changes are discussed later in this unit under the
heading of ‘How transactional analysis has evolved’ on page 229.
225
Permission
In the transactional analysis model of counselling, the concept of ‘permissions’
has an important place, although, as Stewart (1996) points out, some
transactional analysis counsellors now tend to de-emphasise this. The word
‘permission’ refers to the counsellor’s role in encouraging clients to abandon
unhealthy or destructive behaviours, in favour of more positive and life-
affirming action. Giving permission may take the form of simply telling clients
that they need not continue with certain types of behaviour that stem from
childhood beliefs still operating at an unconscious level. Many of these beliefs
have been passed on from parents and become absorbed into the client’s own
Parent ego state.The rationale underlining the concept of permission is that it
is possible for the counsellor or therapist to switch off the parental recording
that is responsible for the client’s problems. However, there is another much
more important reason for helping clients to become free of negative parental
messages. Clients need to learn to trust their own judgment before they can
experience true autonomy and freedom from outdated scripts.The following
case study highlights the therapeutic effects of permission in counselling.
CASE STUDY
Shelly
Shelly was a middle-aged client, whose mother had died two years before she
started counselling. She was now living alone and complained of an inability to
enjoy herself, which she described in the following way:
I make plans to go out with Freda [her best friend] and I’m really looking forward to
it. Then when I get to the cinema or the restaurant, a black cloud seems to descend
on me and something inside me says that I should not enjoy myself. After that I start
to feel guilty that I am out on the town, when so many other people can’t afford
to socialise in that way. I think something bad will happen to me if I enjoy myself.
Comment: The counsellor who helped this client agreed and established a specific
contract with her. Background details about Shelly’s lifestyle and general health
were also discussed, and after this a treatment contract was devised. Shelly stated
what it was she wished to achieve through counselling, and later on goals were
agreed between client and counsellor. The treatment contract was outlined in
positive terms, and Shelly stated that she wished to become more confident about
going out. She also wished to be free of the guilt feelings that had plagued her for
so long. Her parents had been very religious, and the idea that enjoyment was sinful
was accepted in the family when Shelly was a child. These strong messages were
stored, therefore, in her Parent ego state, and she was unable to dislodge them
without someone to encourage her. The counsellor told Shelly that she need not
feel guilty on the next social outing. In order to reinforce this permission, she asked
Shelly to picture their present conversation each time pangs of guilt assailed her.
This worked very well for the client, who then learned to give herself permission
when she needed it. Eventually, even this conscious self-permission was no longer
necessary, as Shelly started to feel more independent and free to think for herself.
226
Transference
We have considered the concept of transference in the units dealing with
psychodynamic approaches to counselling, and it is discussed in Unit 9,
alongside other important issues in counselling. Individual approaches to
therapy have their own views about transference, but all are aware of its
existence, or potential existence, in the counselling relationship.Transactional
analysis is no exception. Indeed, Berne (1972) believed that it was a common
cause of many problems, both inside and outside therapy. In the context of
transactional analysis, the most effective way of illustrating transference (and
countertransference) is in diagram form.When clients transfer to counsellors
their feelings and attitudes stemming from childhood, then the counsellor is
cast in the role of a parent figure. An example is shown in Figure 7.9.
227
P P
Stimulus
A A
se
on
sp
Re
C C
Client Counsellor
The conversation taking place between counsellor and client was as follows:
Countertransference
Countertransference can also be illustrated in diagram form. Figure 7.10
shows the counsellor’s Parent response to a statement the client has made.
228
Stimulus
A A
e
ns
o
sp
Re
C C
EXERCISE
Transference and countertransference
Using the ego state model described in this unit, illustrate in diagram form any
examples of transference or countertransference you can identify from personal
experience of helping, or being helped.
229
the approach has undergone, especially within the past ten years (Erskine,
2009: 15). These changes and developments are seen as essential by Erskine
and proof to him that the theory and practice of transactional analysis is in a
vibrant and healthy state.
In his analysis of the ways in which transactional analysis has absorbed
and integrated new methods and theories, Erskine details his 40 years of
professional involvement with it.
The first point he makes is that some practitioners of transactional analysis
have always emphasised the ‘centrality of the therapeutic relationship’, but it
is only within recent years that the quality of this relationship has become
‘paramount’ in training programmes and in its literature (Erskine, 2008: 16).
Before going on to describe the centrality of the relationship as it exists now
within transactional analysis, Erskine enumerates some of the significant
developmental milestones that have preceded it. He highlights his own
introduction to Berne’s original theories, with its emphasis on ego states,
analysis of transactions and theory of life scripts, but it was not until he
started to treat clients with posttraumatic stress that he came to understand
the true nature of games, for example. To Erskine, it was not that clients
were simply involved in game playing. On the contrary, games were the
clients’ attempts to convey unconscious messages they could not convey
in any other way. From this point onwards, he details the major advances in
transactional analysis theory and practice. Some of these are as follows.
230
Egograms
The egogram is a diagram or graph designed by Jack Dusay (1977) to indicate
the relative importance of each ego state within a person’s personality. This
is based on the premise that we all have different amounts of psychic energy
invested in the three ego states. The egogram shows this distribution of
energy. It should be possible for a person to chart their own egogram by
drawing a graph of their feelings over a period of time, indicating the ego
states operating as feelings and behaviour change. Aside from his work with
egograms, Dusay’s style was also confrontational at this time.
231
Some limitations
At the beginning of this unit, we noted that the specialised terminology of
transactional analysis is both its strength and its weakness. The language of
233
the approach is attractive to many people, but there are others for whom it
seems simplistic or contrived. However, it is relevant to point out here that
Berne deliberately designed a system that would simplify complex Freudian
concepts, thereby making them comprehensible to everyone.The personality
structure Berne delineated through his use of Parent, Adult and Child is
readily understood by most people, including teenagers and even children.
The traditional cognitive emphasis in transactional analysis may limit it for
some people, especially those who place more value on the expression of
emotion. On the other hand, most transactional analysis therapists are familiar
with diverse approaches and integrate aspects of these in their work, where
appropriate. In addition, the current emphasis on the client–counsellor
relationship means that a more empathic approach to clients is likely within
contemporary practice. It is possible that the language of transactional analysis
may come to dominate exchanges between therapist and client during
sessions, thereby potentially distancing both from true person-to-person
contact. There are some situations, including crisis counselling, for example,
for which the approach may not be immediately suitable. This is because
people in severe crisis often lack the concentration necessary to engage with
unfamiliar concepts such as those intrinsic to transactional analysis. On the
other hand, clients post-crisis may benefit greatly from transactional analysis,
especially if the crisis has led them to seek enlightenment about family and
their experiences within it. Corey (2009), whom we quoted in the previous
section, also points out that even though transactional analysis has definite
strengths in relation to multicultural counselling, it has some limitations in
this context too. He states, for example, that ‘the terminology may seem
foreign to some people’, in spite of the fact that it is generally considered
easy to understand (Corey, 2009: 34). In addition, there are clients who,
because of their culture and background, would consider it anathema to
question family traditions in the way that transactional analysis encourages
people to do.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we looked at transactional analysis and considered its application to
therapeutic counselling. The first part of the unit dealt with some aspects of the
specialised terminology used in the approach, and its groupwork format was also
discussed. A brief history of Eric Berne was provided, and his ego state model was
described in some detail. The four major areas of transactional analysis (structural,
transactional, game and script) were outlined. The four basic OK positions were
also described, and the way in which games and scripts originate from these was
discussed. We looked at the objectives in transactional analysis counselling, the
importance of contracts and goals, and the therapeutic relationship between client
and counsellor. Transference and countertransference were shown in diagram form,
and the dialogue was included to illustrate these concepts. Early and more recent
developments in transactional analysis were outlined, along with some discussion
about the advantages and disadvantages of the approach in relation to clients.
234
Further reading
Erskine, R.G. (ed.) (2010) Life Scripts: A Transactional Analysis of Unconscious
Relational Patterns. London: Karnac Books.
Fowlie, H. & Sills C. (eds.) (2011) Relational Transactional Analysis: Principles in
Practice. London: Karnac Books.
Hargaden, H. (2012) Transactional Analysis. Oxford: Taylor & Francis.
Hargaden, H. & Sills, C. (2002) Transactional Analysis: A Relational Perspective.
London: Routledge.
James, M. & Jongeward, D. (1971) Born to Win. London: Signet Penguin.
Klein, M. (2013) KnowYourself, KnowYour Partner: Successful Relationships Using
Transactional Analysis. Plymouth: Zambezi Publishing.
Kohut, H. (1977) The Restoration of the Self. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.
Lapworth, P. & Sills, C. (2011) An Introduction to Transactional Analysis: Helping
People Change. London: Sage Publications.
Midgley, D. (1998) New Directions in Transactional Analysis: An Explorer’s
Handbook. London: Free Association Books.
Stewart, I. (1992) Eric Berne: Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy.
London: Sage Publications.
Stewart, I. (2007) Transactional Analysis Counselling in Action (3rd edn). London:
Sage Publications.
235
Resources
Websites
www.itaa-net.org
The International Transactional Analysis Association.
www.ita.org.uk
The Institute of Transactional Analysis. Gives details of education and training.
www.claudsteiner.com
Information about Claude Steiner, Eric Berne and other TA theorists.
www.ericberne.com
The official website for Eric Berne. Includes a detailed history and description
of Transactional Analysis.
www.ta-tutor-com
General educational information about Transactional Analysis.
www.eataneews.org
The European Association for Transactional Analysis.
www.usataa.org
The USA. TA Association.
www.tastudent.org.uk
Official professional journal of the International Transactional Analysis
Association.
Addresses
Institute of Transactional Analysis
Broadway House
149–151 St Neots Road
Hardwick
Cambridge
CB23 7QJ
Email: admin@ita.org.uk
Answers [from page 218]
1 Adult
2 Adapted Child
3 Free Child (Negative)
4 Controlling Parent
5 Nurturing Parent
6 Controlling Parent
7 Free Child (Positive)
8 Adult
9 Controlling Parent
10 Adult
236