POWER SYSTEM SECURITY CONCEPTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Power System needs to be operationally secure, i.e. with minimal probability of
blackout and equipment damage. An important component of power system security is
the system’s ability to withstand the effects of contingencies. A contingency is basically
an outage of a generator, transformer and or line, and its effects are monitored with
specified security limits.

The power system operation is said to be normal when the power flows and the bus
voltages are within acceptable limits despite changes in load or available generation.
From this perspective, security is the probability of a power system’s operating point
remaining in a viable state operation.

System security can be broken down into TWO major functions that are carried out in
an operations control centre:
(i) Security assessment and
(ii) Security control.
Before going into the static security level of a power system, let us analyse the
different operating states of a power system.
The states of power system are classified into FIVE states (ie) Normal, Alert,
Emergency, Extreme Emergency and Restorative.
Fig below depicts these states and the ways in which transition can occur from one
state to another.

Figure. 1.1 Power system Operating Stages

The operation of a power system is usually in a normal state. Voltages and the
frequency of the system are within the normal range and no equipment is overloaded
in this state.The system can also maintain stability during disturbances considered in
the power system planning. The security of the power system is described by Thermal,
voltage and stability limits.The system can also withstand any single contingency
without violating any of the limits.

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The system transits into the emergency state if a disturbance occurs when the system
is in the alert state. Many system variables are out of normal range or equipment
loading exceeds short-term ratings in this state. The system is still complete.
Emergency control actions, more powerful than the control actions related to alert
state, can restore the system to alert state. The emergency control actions include
fault clearing, excitation control, fast valving, generation tripping, generation run
back-up, HVDC modulation, load curtailment, blocking of on-load tap changer of
distribution system transformers and rescheduling of line flows at critical lines.
The extreme emergency state is a result of the occurrence of an extreme disturbance
or action of incorrect of ineffective emergency control actions. The power system is in a
state where cascading outages and shutdown of a major part of power system might
happen. The system is in unstable state. The control actions needed in this state must
be really powerful. Usually load shedding of the most unimportant loads and
separation of the system into small independent parts are required. Any system can
fail due to internal causes or due to external causes or human errors. The above
factors are affecting power system security.

1.2 NEED FOR VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY REGULATION IN POWER SYSTEM

A power system is said to be well designed if it gives a good quality of reliable supply,
which means that the voltage level must be within reasonable limits.
Practically ,all the equipments on the power system are designed to operate
satisfactorily within voltage variation of around 5%.
If the voltage variation is more than a pre-specified value, the performance of the
equipments is also sacrificed.

Need for voltage regulation in power system:

Knowledge of voltage regulation helps in maintaining the voltage at load terminals
within prescribed limits under fluctuation load condition by employing voltage control
equipment.
 The transmission line and the distribution line need voltage control at various
stages to maintain the voltage at the last consumers premises within
permissible limits.
 Variations in supply voltage are determent in various aspects.
 Below normal voltage substantially reduced the light output from the
incandescent lamps, above normal voltage reduces the life of the lamps.
 Motor operated at below normal voltage draw abnormal high currents and may
overheat , even when carrying no more than the rated horse power load.
 If the voltage of the system deviates from the nominal value , the performance of
the device suffers and its life expectance drop.
 By adjusting the excitation of the generator at the sending end below a certain
limit may result in instability of the system and excitation above certain level
will result in overheating of the rotor.
 Service voltage are usually specified by a nominal value and the voltage
maintained is ±5% of the nominal value.

Need for frequency regulation in power system:

Knowledge of frequency regulation helps in maintaining the system frequency
(ie)speed of the alternator within prescribed limits under fluctuating load condition ,by
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using speed governor and integral controller. In a network , considerable drop in
frequency occurs due to high magnetising current in induction motor and transformer.
 In any power system, if the frequency changes there won’t be required receiving
end voltage. if we connected tow systems in parallel, it will spoil the system.
 Most of the AC motor runs at a speed that is directly related to the frequency.
 The overall operation of a power system can be much better controlled if the
frequency error is kept within strict limit.
 A large number of electrical driven clocks are used they all driven by
synchronous motor and the accuracy of these clocks is a function not only of a
frequency error ,but actually of the integral of this error.
 When tow system working at different frequencies are to be tied together to
make same frequency . frequency converting station or links are required.
 Constant turbine speed is an important requirement the velocity of the
expanding steam is beyond our control and the turbine efficiency required
perfect match.

1.3 BASIC P-F AND Q-V CONTROL LOOPS

1. static changes in 𝜟Pi in the real bus power affect the bus phase angle and the
bus voltage magnitudes this change affect the real line flows, and not the
reactive line flows.
2. static changes in 𝜟Qi in the reactive power affect the bus phase angle and the
bus voltage magnitudes this change affect the reactive line flows, and not the
real line flows.
3. static changes in the reactive power affect the bus voltage at the particular bus
and has little effect on the magnitude of voltage.

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 Figure 1.2 Automatic load frequency and voltage regulator control loops.

Q-V Control loop

The automatic voltage regulation circuit (or) Q-V control loop as shown in fig.
 This loop is used for a voltage control this bus bar voltage (say 11KV) is stepped
down using a potential transformer to a small value of voltage.
 This is sent to the rectifier circuit which converts the AC voltage into DC voltage
and a filter circuit used in this removing the harmonics.
 The voltage Vi , thus rectified is compared with a reference Vref in the
comparator and a voltage error signal is generated
 The amplified form of this voltage gives a condition for the excitation to
increasing or decreasing the field current based on its polarity.
 The output of the generator is stepped up using a transformer and fed to the
bus bar. Thus the voltage is regulated and controlled in this control loop
circuit.

P-f Control loop:

This control loop circuit is divided into
1. Primary ALFC
2. Secondary ALFC as shown in fig.

Primary ALFC:
The circuit primarily controls the steam valve leading to the turbine .a speed
sensor senses the speed of the turbine. This is compared with a reference speed
,governor whose main activity is to control the speed of the steam by closing and
opening of the control value (ie)if the differential speed is low , then the control value is
opening to let out the steam at high speed , thereby increasing turbine speed and vice
versa the control of speed in turn controls the frequency.

Secondary ALFC:
This circuit involves a frequency sensor that senses the frequency of the bus bar and
compares it with tie line power frequencies in the signal mixer. The output of this is an
area control error (ACE) which is sent to the speed changer through integral. the speed
changer gives the reference speed to the governor . Integral controller is used to reduce
the steady state frequency change to zero. After this part of the circuit, is the
introduction of the primary ALFC loop whose function has already been described.
Thus the two loops together help in controlling the speed which in turbine controls the
frequency , since N α f Using the relation Speed N = 120 f/P
Where, f= frequency (Hz) , P= No.of poles

1.4 ENERGY CONTROL CENTRE OR SYSTEM CONTROL CENTRE

Introduction:
 When the power systems increase in size –the number of substations,
transformers, switchgear and so on –their operation and interaction become
more complex.
 Main feature
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 1. Increases system reliability
2. Increases economical feasibility
 Real time operation are two aspects

a. Three level controller :
1. Turbine –governor to adjust generation to balance changing load –
instantaneous control.
2. Automatic generation control(AGC) maintains frequency and net
power interchange –action repeated 2-6 sec interval.
3. Economic dispatch control (EDC) distributes the load among the
units such that fuel cost is minimum- executed at 5-10 minutes
interval.

b. primary voltage control :

1. Excitation control regulate generation bus voltage.

2. Transmission voltage control devices include
 SVC(Static VAR Controller)
 Shunt capacitors
 Transformer taps

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 Figure 1.3 Energy control centre
Automatic generation control (AGC)

Objective of (AGC):

1. To hold frequency at or very closed to a specified nominal value.

2. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control value.
3. To maintain each units generation at the most economical value.

Network topology:
We must know how the transmission lines are connected to the load and generator
buses.It program must have a complete description of each substation and how the
transmission lines are attached to the substation equipment.

State estimator:
The electrical model of the transmission system is sent to the state estimation
program together with the analog measurements.
The output of the state estimator consists of all voltage magnitudes and phase angle,
transmission line MW and MVAR flow and bus loads and generations calculated from
the line flows. These quantities, together with the electrical model, provide the basic
for the Economic dispatch program, contingency analysis program and generator
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 corrective action program. since the complete electrical model of the transmission
system is available , we can directly calculation bus penalty factors, participation
factors, optimal voltage etc.

Contingency analysis:
 That model possible system trouble before they arise .
 Alarm the operation of any potential over loads or out of the limit voltage.

1.5 ENERGY CONTROL ENERGY FUNTION

The practice of all communication links between equipment and the control centre
could be interrupted and still, electric service is being maintained.
Monitoring:
Fulfils the function – both normal and emergency conditions
Normal conditions:
1.Normal situation is delegated to the digital computer and selective monitoring is
performed by human.
2.Less serious case- exceeding normal limit are routinely handled by digital computer.
Emergency Conditions:
1.Digital computer is used to process the incoming steam of data to detect
abnormalities- alarm the human operation via light, buzzer, CRT presentation.
2.More serious case – detected by digital computer may cause suspension of normal
control function.
3.In emergency such as loss of a major generator or excess power demands by a
neighbouring utility on the tie lines. many alarm could be detected and the system
could enter an emergency state.

1.6 DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL

Data acquisition remote control is performed by computer system called SCADA.

SCADA:
 Master station
 Remote terminal unit[RTU]
Master station communicates to the RTU for observing and controlling plants. RTU are
installed at generating station or transmission substation or distribution substation.

computer aided data acquisition scheme:

 steady state reading can be acquired simultaneously from various instrument
location and saved for future analysis.
 transient may be in the form of voltage or current fluctuation . using a data
acquisition system the transient can be decreased and analysed.

Energy control centre level:

Level System Monitoring and control

First level Generating station and Local control center

sub stations

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 second level Sub transmission and Area load dispatch
transmission network centre
Third level Transmission system State load dispatch
centre
Fourth level(top level) Interconnected power Regional control centre
system

SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition):

It consists of a master station and RTU linked by communication channel.
The hardware components can be classified into
1. Process computer and associated hardware at energy control centre
2. RTU and the associated hardware at the remote stations.
3. Communication equipment that links the RTU and process computers at the
master station.

System hardware configurations:

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition system allows a few operators to monitor
the generation and HV transmission system.
• Consistent with principles of high reliability and fail safe features
• Usually one computer, the online-units, is monitoring and controlling the power
system
• The online computer periodically updates a disk memory shared between two
computers

Figure 1.4 Digital computer control and monitoring for power system.

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• The back-up computer may be executing off-line batch programs such as load
forecasting
• Upon a fail over, the stored information of the common disk is inserted in the
memory of the on-line computer.
• The information used by the on-line computer has a maximum age of update cycle
(typically 30 sec)
• All the peripheral equipment is interfaced with the computer through input-output
microprocessors that have been programmed to communicate as well as preprocess
the analog information, check for limits, convert to another system of units and so
on.
• The microprocessors can transfer data in and out of computer memory without
interrupting the CPU. As a result of these precautions, for all the critical hardware
functions, there is often a guaranteed 99.8%.
• The most critical function have the fastest scan cycle. Typically, the following
categories are scanned every 2 seconds.
• All status points such as switchgear position, substation loads and voltages,
transformer tap position and capacitor banks
• The line flows and interchanges schedules
• Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity
• Telemetry verification to detect failures and errors in the remote bilateral
communication links between the digital computer and the remote equipment
• The turbine generators are often command to new power levels every 4 seconds
• The absolute power output of each units response capability is typically adjusted
every 5 minutes by the computer executing an economic dispatch program to
determine the base power settings.

1.7 TYPES OF SCADA SYSTEM AND AREA OF APPLICATION

1. Small distribution system (substation control centre) small hydro stations, HVDC
links.
2. Medium sized power system ( plant control centre) power station HVDC link
distribution systems
3. Regional control centre, distribution system in large urban areas several hydro
power stations with cascade control
4. National and regional control centre distributed system in large urban areas
several hydro power stations with hydro control.

Master station:

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 Figure 1.5 Master station.

Master unit is provided with the digital computer with associated interfacing devices
and hardware to receive information from RTU. The hardware at the master station
includes following
1. Process computer
2. CRT display
3. Printer
4. Data logger
5. Computer graphics
6. Control console
7. Keyboard
8. Alarm panel
9. Instrument panel
10. Modem
11. Multiplexer

Remote terminal units[RTU]:

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 Figure 1.6 Remote terminal unit (RTU)
The RTU’s are installed at selected power stations and substation.
The hardware components of RTU may include the following
1. Transducers
2. A/D and D/A converters
3. Serial interface
4. Modems
5. Multiplexers
6. Front end computer
7. Control relays

• The analog quantities like voltage, MW,MVAR and frequency measured at stations
are converted into DC voltage or current signals through transducers and fed to
the A/D converters which converts the analog into digital form suitable for
transmission.
• The digital signal is fed to the front end computer and modems through the serial
interface.
• MODEM sends the information to the unit through multiplexer. As well as receive
commands from master unit to control the station equipment through the control
relay. In addition to measure quantities, status of various devices is informed to
master station.
• The master station scans the RTU sequentially and gathers information on the
system operating condition (ie) voltage, current, line flows, generating output, etc,
as well as equipment status.
• Give an alarm- operator if overloading
• The system real time information is presented to the operator through CRT,
computer graphic terminals, alarm panels, alarm printer. So that the operator can
supervise minute by minute.

1.8 FUNCTIONS OF SCADA

It allow a few operators to monitor the generator. The following are the functions of
SCADA.
1. Data Acquisition: It provides telemetered measurements and status information to
operator
2. Information display

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3. Supervisory control
Circuit breakers: on/off, Generator: stop/start, (raise/lower command)
a. Electrical breaker control
b.Voltage regulation
c.Tap changer control
d.Capacitor control
e.Loss reduction
f.Miscellaneous device control
g.Load management
h.Fault isolation
i.Service restoration
4. Information storage and result display
5. Sequence of events acquisition
6. Remote terminal unit processing
7. General maintenance
8. Runtime status verification
9. Economic modelling
10. Remote start/stop
11. Load matching based on economics\
12. Load shedding: provides both automatic and operator-initiated tripping of load in
response to system emergencies.

1.9 TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are the functions of control center?

System monitoring contingency analysis security constrained optimal power flow.
2. What is the function of system monitoring?
System monitoring provides up to date information about the power system.
3. Define SCADA system?
It stands for supervisory control and data acquisition system, allows a few operators to
monitor the generation and high voltage transmission systems and to take action to
correct overloads.
4. What are the states of power system?
Normal state alert mode contingency mode emergency mode. Define normal mode?
The system is in secure even the occurrence of all possible outages has been
simulated the system remain secure is called normal mode.
5. Define alert mode?
The occurrence of all possible outages the system does not remain in the secure is
called alert mode.
6. What are the distribution factors?
Line outage distribution factor, generation outage distribution factor.

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7. Define state estimation?
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state
variable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria.
8. Define post contingency?
This is the state of the power system after a contingency has occurred. Define secure
dispatch? This is state of the power system with no contingency outages, but with
correction to the operating parameters to account for security violations.
9. What are the priorities for operation of modern power system?
Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably. Within the
constraints placed on the system operation by reliability considerations, the system
will be operated most economically.
10. Denote the hierarchical level used in EMS.
 System control level
 Area control level
 Remote terminal unit(RTU)

11.What are the objectives of automatic generation control?

 To hold frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value.
 To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas.
 To maintain each unit’s generation at the most economic value.
12. What is network topology?
In order to run the state estimation, we must know how the transmission lines
are connected to the load and generation buses. This information is called
network topology.

13. What are the functions of SCADA?

 Monitoring
 Alarm
 Control and indication of AGC.
 Data logging
 Data acquisition
 ON/OFF control
 RAISE/LOWER command to speed changer
 Display

14. Mention four types of SCADA systems and its application area.
TYPE1: Small distribution systems, Small hydro stations, HVDC links.
TYPE2: Medium sized power systems, power station HVDC link distribution systems.
TYPE3: Regional control centre, distribution systems in large urban areas several
hydro power station with cascade control.

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TYPE4: National and Regional control centers distributed systems in large urban
areas, several hydro power station with cascade control.
15. What are the different operating states a power system can operatin in ? or
what are the system security levels?
 Normal state
 Alert state
 Emergency state
 Extremis state
 Restorative state

16. What is emergency state?

The state can be reached either directly from the normal state or vis the alert
state. In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.

17. What is the need for voltage regulation in power system?

knowledge of voltage regulation helps in maintaining the voltage at the load
terminals within prescribed limits under fluctuation load conditions, by employing
suitable voltage control equipments
18. List out the various needs for frequency regulation in power system.
 In any power system, if the frequency changes, there won’t be required voltage
at the receiving end. If we connected two systems in parallel, it will spoil the
system.
 The generator turbines are designed to operate at a very precise speed that can
be maintained by regulating frequency.
 Constant turbine speed is an important requirement.
 Unusual deviations in the frequency can be detected earlier.

19. What is the purpose of primary ALFC?

The circuit primarily controls the steam value leading to the turbine. A speed
sensor senses the speed of the turbine. The control of speed in turn controls the
frequency.
20. State the difference between p-f and Q-V controls.
Change in MW will be felt uniform through out the system but change in MVAR
is not felt uniform. Change in MW output does not cause change in voltage level but
change in MVAR input affects the frequency control.

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