Diffraction

Diffraction pattern of red laser beam made on a plate

after passing through a small circular aperture in
another plate

Diffraction refers to various phenomena

that occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the
bending of waves around the corners of an
obstacle or aperture into the region of
geometrical shadow of the obstacle. In
classical physics, the diffraction
phenomenon is described as the
interference of waves according to the
Huygens–Fresnel principle that treats
each point in the wave-front as a collection
of individual spherical wavelets.[1] These
characteristic behaviors are exhibited
when a wave encounters an obstacle or a
slit that is comparable in size to its
wavelength. Similar effects occur when a
light wave travels through a medium with a
varying refractive index, or when a sound
wave travels through a medium with
varying acoustic impedance. Diffraction
has an impact on the acoustic space.
Diffraction occurs with all waves, including
sound waves, water waves, and
electromagnetic waves such as visible
light, X-rays and radio waves.

Since physical objects have wave-like

properties (significantly at the atomic
level, invisibly at macro level), diffraction
also occurs with matter and can be
studied according to the principles of
quantum mechanics. Italian scientist
Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined the word
"diffraction" and was the first to record
accurate observations of the phenomenon
in 1660.[2][3]

While diffraction occurs whenever

propagating waves encounter such
changes, its effects are generally most
pronounced for waves whose wavelength
is roughly comparable to the dimensions
of the diffracting object or slit. If the
obstructing object provides multiple,
closely spaced openings, a complex
pattern of varying intensity can result. This
is due to the addition, or interference, of
different parts of a wave that travel to the
observer by different paths, where
different path lengths result in different
phases (see diffraction grating and wave
superposition). The formalism of
diffraction can also describe the way in
which waves of finite extent propagate in
free space. For example, the expanding
profile of a laser beam, the beam shape of
a radar antenna and the field of view of an
ultrasonic transducer can all be analyzed
using diffraction equations.

Examples

Circular waves generated by diffraction from the

narrow entrance of a flooded coastal quarry

Solar glory at the steam from hot springs. A glory is an

optical phenomenon produced by light backscattered
(a combination of diffraction, reflection and refraction)
towards its source by a cloud of uniformly sized water
droplets.

The effects of diffraction are often seen in

everyday life. The most striking examples
of diffraction are those that involve light;
for example, the closely spaced tracks on
a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to
form the familiar rainbow pattern seen
when looking at a disc. This principle can
be extended to engineer a grating with a
structure such that it will produce any
diffraction pattern desired; the hologram
on a credit card is an example. Diffraction
in the atmosphere by small particles can
cause a bright ring to be visible around a
bright light source like the sun or the
moon. A shadow of a solid object, using
light from a compact source, shows small
fringes near its edges. The speckle pattern
which is observed when laser light falls on
an optically rough surface is also a
diffraction phenomenon. When deli meat
appears to be iridescent, that is diffraction
off the meat fibers.[4] All these effects are
a consequence of the fact that light
propagates as a wave.

Diffraction can occur with any kind of

wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties
and other obstacles. Sound waves can
diffract around objects, which is why one
can still hear someone calling even when
hiding behind a tree.[5] Diffraction can also
be a concern in some technical
applications; it sets a fundamental limit to
the resolution of a camera, telescope, or
microscope.
History

Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction, which he

presented to the Royal Society in 1803.

The effects of diffraction of light were first

carefully observed and characterized by
Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also
coined the term diffraction, from the Latin
diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring
to light breaking up into different
directions. The results of Grimaldi's
observations were published
posthumously in 1665.[6][7][8] Isaac Newton
studied these effects and attributed them
to inflexion of light rays. James Gregory
(1638–1675) observed the diffraction
patterns caused by a bird feather, which
was effectively the first diffraction grating
to be discovered.[9] Thomas Young
performed a celebrated experiment in
1803 demonstrating interference from two
closely spaced slits.[10] Explaining his
results by interference of the waves
emanating from the two different slits, he
deduced that light must propagate as
waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more
definitive studies and calculations of
diffraction, made public in 1815[11] and
1818,[12] and thereby gave great support to
the wave theory of light that had been
advanced by Christiaan Huygens[13] and
reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's
particle theory.

Mechanism

Photograph of single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple

tank

In traditional classical physics diffraction

arises because of the way in which waves
propagate; this is described by the
Huygens–Fresnel principle and the
principle of superposition of waves. The
propagation of a wave can be visualized
by considering every particle of the
transmitted medium on a wavefront as a
point source for a secondary spherical
wave. The wave displacement at any
subsequent point is the sum of these
secondary waves. When waves are added
together, their sum is determined by the
relative phases as well as the amplitudes
of the individual waves so that the
summed amplitude of the waves can have
any value between zero and the sum of the
individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction
patterns usually have a series of maxima
and minima.

In the modern quantum mechanical

understanding of light propagation
through a slit (or slits) every photon has
what is known as a wavefunction which
describes its path from the emitter
through the slit to the screen. The
wavefunction (the path the photon will
take) is determined by the physical
surroundings such as slit geometry, screen
distance and initial conditions when the
photon is created. In important
experiments (A low-intensity double-slit
experiment was first performed by G. I.
Taylor in 1909, see double-slit experiment)
the existence of the photon's wavefunction
was demonstrated. In the quantum
approach the diffraction pattern is created
by the distribution of paths, the
observation of light and dark bands is the
presence or absence of photons in these
areas (no interference!). The quantum
approach has some striking similarities to
the Huygens-Fresnel principle, in that
principle the light becomes a series of
individually distributed light sources
across the slit which is similar to the
limited number of paths (or wave
functions) available for the photons to
travel through the slit.
There are various analytical models which
allow the diffracted field to be calculated,
including the Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction
equation which is derived from wave
equation, the Fraunhofer diffraction
approximation of the Kirchhoff equation
which applies to the far field and the
Fresnel diffraction approximation which
applies to the near field. Most
configurations cannot be solved
analytically, but can yield numerical
solutions through finite element and
boundary element methods.

It is possible to obtain a qualitative

understanding of many diffraction
phenomena by considering how the
relative phases of the individual secondary
wave sources vary, and in particular, the
conditions in which the phase difference
equals half a cycle in which case waves
will cancel one another out.

The simplest descriptions of diffraction

are those in which the situation can be
reduced to a two-dimensional problem.
For water waves, this is already the case;
water waves propagate only on the
surface of the water. For light, we can
often neglect one direction if the
diffracting object extends in that direction
over a distance far greater than the
wavelength. In the case of light shining
through small circular holes we will have
to take into account the full three-
dimensional nature of the problem.

Diffraction of light
Some examples of diffraction of light are
considered below.

Single-slit diffraction

ff f l h h
Diffraction of a scalar wave passing through a 1-
wavelength-wide slit

Diffraction of a scalar wave passing through a 4-

wavelength-wide slit

Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a

slit of width four wavelengths with an incident plane
wave. The main central beam, nulls, and phase
 , , p
reversals are apparent.

Graph and image of single-slit diffraction.

A long slit of infinitesimal width which is

illuminated by light diffracts the light into a
series of circular waves and the wavefront
which emerges from the slit is a cylindrical
wave of uniform intensity.

A slit which is wider than a wavelength

produces interference effects in the space
downstream of the slit. These can be
explained by assuming that the slit
behaves as though it has a large number
of point sources spaced evenly across the
width of the slit. The analysis of this
system is simplified if we consider light of
a single wavelength. If the incident light is
coherent, these sources all have the same
phase. Light incident at a given point in the
space downstream of the slit is made up
of contributions from each of these point
sources and if the relative phases of these
contributions vary by 2π or more, we may
expect to find minima and maxima in the
diffracted light. Such phase differences
are caused by differences in the path
lengths over which contributing rays reach
the point from the slit.

We can find the angle at which a first

minimum is obtained in the diffracted light
by the following reasoning. The light from
a source located at the top edge of the slit
interferes destructively with a source
located at the middle of the slit, when the
path difference between them is equal to
λ/2. Similarly, the source just below the
top of the slit will interfere destructively
with the source located just below the
middle of the slit at the same angle. We
can continue this reasoning along the
entire height of the slit to conclude that
the condition for destructive interference
for the entire slit is the same as the
condition for destructive interference
between two narrow slits a distance apart
that is half the width of the slit. The path

difference is approximately so

that the minimum intensity occurs at an

angle θmin given by

where

d is the width of the slit,

is the angle of incidence at which
the minimum intensity occurs, and
 is the wavelength of the light

A similar argument can be used to show

that if we imagine the slit to be divided into
four, six, eight parts, etc., minima are
obtained at angles θn given by

where

n is an integer other than zero.

There is no such simple argument to

enable us to find the maxima of the
diffraction pattern. The intensity profile
can be calculated using the Fraunhofer
diffraction equation as
where

is the intensity at a given angle,

is the original intensity, and
the unnormalized sinc function above is

given by if ,

and

This analysis applies only to the far field,

that is, at a distance much larger than the
width of the slit.
2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser light

Diffraction of a red laser using a diffraction grating.

A diffraction pattern of a 633 nm laser through a grid

of 150 slits

Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is an optical
component with a regular pattern. The
form of the light diffracted by a grating
depends on the structure of the elements
and the number of elements present, but
all gratings have intensity maxima at
angles θm which are given by the grating
equation

where

θi is the angle at which the light is

incident,
d is the separation of grating elements,
and
 m is an integer which can be positive or
negative.

The light diffracted by a grating is found by

summing the light diffracted from each of
the elements, and is essentially a
convolution of diffraction and interference
patterns.

The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-

element and 5-element gratings where the
grating spacings are the same; it can be
seen that the maxima are in the same
position, but the detailed structures of the
intensities are different.
A computer-generated image of an Airy disk.

Computer generated light diffraction pattern from a

circular aperture of diameter 0.5 micrometre at a
wavelength of 0.6 micrometre (red-light) at distances
of 0.1 cm – 1 cm in steps of 0.1 cm. One can see the
image moving from the Fresnel region into the
Fraunhofer region where the Airy pattern is seen.
Circular aperture

The far-field diffraction of a plane wave

incident on a circular aperture is often
referred to as the Airy Disk. The variation
in intensity with angle is given by

where a is the radius of the circular

aperture, k is equal to 2π/λ and J1 is a
Bessel function. The smaller the aperture,
the larger the spot size at a given distance,
and the greater the divergence of the
diffracted beams.
General aperture

The wave that emerges from a point

source has amplitude at location r that
is given by the solution of the frequency
domain wave equation for a point source
(The Helmholtz Equation),

where is the 3-dimensional delta

function. The delta function has only radial
dependence, so the Laplace operator
(a.k.a. scalar Laplacian) in the spherical
coordinate system simplifies to (see del in
cylindrical and spherical coordinates)
By direct substitution, the solution to this
equation can be readily shown to be the
scalar Green's function, which in the
spherical coordinate system (and using
the physics time convention ) is:

This solution assumes that the delta

function source is located at the origin. If
the source is located at an arbitrary source
point, denoted by the vector and the
field point is located at the point , then we
may represent the scalar Green's function
(for arbitrary source location) as:

Therefore, if an electric field, Einc(x,y) is

incident on the aperture, the field produced
by this aperture distribution is given by the
surface integral:
On the calculation of Fraunhofer region fields

where the source point in the aperture is

given by the vector

In the far field, wherein the parallel rays

approximation can be employed, the
Green's function,
simplifies to

as can be seen in the figure to the right

(click to enlarge).

The expression for the far-zone

(Fraunhofer region) field becomes

Now, since

and
the expression for the Fraunhofer region
field from a planar aperture now becomes,

Letting,

and

the Fraunhofer region field of the planar

aperture assumes the form of a Fourier
transform
In the far-field / Fraunhofer region, this
becomes the spatial Fourier transform of
the aperture distribution. Huygens'
principle when applied to an aperture
simply says that the far-field diffraction
pattern is the spatial Fourier transform of
the aperture shape, and this is a direct by-
product of using the parallel-rays
approximation, which is identical to doing
a plane wave decomposition of the
aperture plane fields (see Fourier optics).

Propagation of a laser beam

The way in which the beam profile of a
laser beam changes as it propagates is
determined by diffraction. When the entire
emitted beam has a planar, spatially
coherent wave front, it approximates
Gaussian beam profile and has the lowest
divergence for a given diameter. The
smaller the output beam, the quicker it
diverges. It is possible to reduce the
divergence of a laser beam by first
expanding it with one convex lens, and
then collimating it with a second convex
lens whose focal point is coincident with
that of the first lens. The resulting beam
has a larger diameter, and hence a lower
divergence. Divergence of a laser beam
may be reduced below the diffraction of a
Gaussian beam or even reversed to
convergence if the refractive index of the
propagation media increases with the light
intensity.[14] This may result in a self-
focusing effect.

When the wave front of the emitted beam

has perturbations, only the transverse
coherence length (where the wave front
perturbation is less than 1/4 of the
wavelength) should be considered as a
Gaussian beam diameter when
determining the divergence of the laser
beam. If the transverse coherence length
in the vertical direction is higher than in
horizontal, the laser beam divergence will
be lower in the vertical direction than in
the horizontal.

Diffraction-limited imaging

The Airy disk around each of the stars from the 2.56 m
telescope aperture can be seen in this lucky image of
the binary star zeta Boötis.
The ability of an imaging system to resolve
detail is ultimately limited by diffraction.
This is because a plane wave incident on a
circular lens or mirror is diffracted as
described above. The light is not focused
to a point but forms an Airy disk having a
central spot in the focal plane with radius
to first null of

where λ is the wavelength of the light and

N is the f-number (focal length divided by
diameter) of the imaging optics. In object
space, the corresponding angular
resolution is
where D is the diameter of the entrance
pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a
telescope's main mirror).

Two point sources will each produce an

Airy pattern – see the photo of a binary
star. As the point sources move closer
together, the patterns will start to overlap,
and ultimately they will merge to form a
single pattern, in which case the two point
sources cannot be resolved in the image.
The Rayleigh criterion specifies that two
point sources can be considered to be
resolvable if the separation of the two
images is at least the radius of the Airy
disk, i.e. if the first minimum of one
coincides with the maximum of the other.

Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens,

and the smaller the wavelength, the finer
the resolution of an imaging system. This
is why telescopes have very large lenses
or mirrors, and why optical microscopes
are limited in the detail which they can
see.

Speckle patterns

The speckle pattern which is seen when

using a laser pointer is another diffraction
phenomenon. It is a result of the
superposition of many waves with
different phases, which are produced
when a laser beam illuminates a rough
surface. They add together to give a
resultant wave whose amplitude, and
therefore intensity, varies randomly.

Babinet's Principle

Babinet's Principle is a useful theorem

stating that the diffraction pattern from an
opaque body is identical to that from a
hole of the same size and shape, but with
differing intensities. This means that the
interference conditions of a single
obstruction would be the same as that of a
single slit.

Patterns

The upper half of this image shows a diffraction

pattern of He-Ne laser beam on an elliptic aperture.
The lower half is its 2D Fourier transform
approximately reconstructing the shape of the
aperture.
Several qualitative observations can be
made of diffraction in general:

The angular spacing of the features in

the diffraction pattern is inversely
proportional to the dimensions of the
object causing the diffraction. In other
words: The smaller the diffracting
object, the 'wider' the resulting
diffraction pattern, and vice versa. (More
precisely, this is true of the sines of the
angles.)
The diffraction angles are invariant
under scaling; that is, they depend only
on the ratio of the wavelength to the size
of the diffracting object.
 When the diffracting object has a
periodic structure, for example in a
diffraction grating, the features generally
become sharper. The third figure, for
example, shows a comparison of a
double-slit pattern with a pattern formed
by five slits, both sets of slits having the
same spacing, between the center of
one slit and the next.

Particle diffraction
Quantum theory tells us that every particle
exhibits wave properties. In particular,
massive particles can interfere and
therefore diffract. Diffraction of electrons
and neutrons stood as one of the powerful
arguments in favor of quantum
mechanics. The wavelength associated
with a particle is the de Broglie wavelength

where h is Planck's constant and p is the

momentum of the particle (mass ×
velocity for slow-moving particles).

For most macroscopic objects, this

wavelength is so short that it is not
meaningful to assign a wavelength to
them. A sodium atom traveling at about
30,000 m/s would have a De Broglie
wavelength of about 50 pico meters.
Because the wavelength for even the
smallest of macroscopic objects is
extremely small, diffraction of matter
waves is only visible for small particles,
like electrons, neutrons, atoms and small
molecules. The short wavelength of these
matter waves makes them ideally suited to
study the atomic crystal structure of solids
and large molecules like proteins.

Relatively larger molecules like buckyballs

were also shown to diffract.[15]

Bragg diffraction
Following Bragg's law, each dot (or reflection) in this

diffraction pattern forms from the constructive

interference of X-rays passing through a crystal. The
data can be used to determine the crystal's atomic
structure.

Diffraction from a three-dimensional

periodic structure such as atoms in a
crystal is called Bragg diffraction. It is
similar to what occurs when waves are
scattered from a diffraction grating. Bragg
diffraction is a consequence of
interference between waves reflecting
from different crystal planes. The
condition of constructive interference is
given by Bragg's law:

where

λ is the wavelength,
d is the distance between crystal planes,
θ is the angle of the diffracted wave.
and m is an integer known as the order
of the diffracted beam.

Bragg diffraction may be carried out using

either light of very short wavelength like X-
rays or matter waves like neutrons (and
electrons) whose wavelength is on the
order of (or much smaller than) the atomic
spacing.[16] The pattern produced gives
information of the separations of
crystallographic planes d, allowing one to
deduce the crystal structure. Diffraction
contrast, in electron microscopes and x-
topography devices in particular, is also a
powerful tool for examining individual
defects and local strain fields in crystals.

Coherence
The description of diffraction relies on the
interference of waves emanating from the
same source taking different paths to the
same point on a screen. In this description,
the difference in phase between waves
that took different paths is only dependent
on the effective path length. This does not
take into account the fact that waves that
arrive at the screen at the same time were
emitted by the source at different times.
The initial phase with which the source
emits waves can change over time in an
unpredictable way. This means that waves
emitted by the source at times that are too
far apart can no longer form a constant
interference pattern since the relation
between their phases is no longer time
independent.[17]:919
The length over which the phase in a beam
of light is correlated, is called the
coherence length. In order for interference
to occur, the path length difference must
be smaller than the coherence length. This
is sometimes referred to as spectral
coherence, as it is related to the presence
of different frequency components in the
wave. In the case of light emitted by an
atomic transition, the coherence length is
related to the lifetime of the excited state
from which the atom made its
transition.[18]:71–74[19]:314–316

If waves are emitted from an extended

source, this can lead to incoherence in the
transversal direction. When looking at a
cross section of a beam of light, the length
over which the phase is correlated is
called the transverse coherence length. In
the case of Young's double slit experiment,
this would mean that if the transverse
coherence length is smaller than the
spacing between the two slits, the
resulting pattern on a screen would look
like two single slit diffraction
patterns.[18]:74–79

In the case of particles like electrons,

neutrons and atoms, the coherence length
is related to the spatial extent of the wave
function that describes the particle.[20]:107
See also
Angle-sensitive pixel
Atmospheric diffraction
Bragg diffraction
Brocken spectre
Cloud iridescence
Diffraction formalism
Diffraction grating
Diffraction limit
Diffraction spike
Diffraction vs. interference
Diffractometer
Dynamical theory of diffraction
Electron diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction
Fresnel diffraction
Fresnel imager
Fresnel number
Fresnel zone
Neutron diffraction
Prism
Powder diffraction
Refraction
Schaefer–Bergmann diffraction
Thinned array curse
X-ray scattering techniques
Coherent diffraction imaging
References
1. Wireless Communications: Principles and
Practice, Prentice Hall communications
engineering and emerging technologies
series, T. S. Rappaport, Prentice Hall, 2002
pg 126
2. Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Physico
mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride,
aliisque annexis libri duo (Bologna
("Bonomia"), Italy: Vittorio Bonati, 1665),
page 2 Archived 2016-12-01 at the
Wayback Machine.:

Original : Nobis alius quartus

modus illuxit, quem nunc
proponimus, vocamusque;
diffractionem, quia advertimus
lumen aliquando diffringi, hoc
est partes eius multiplici
dissectione separatas per idem
tamen medium in diversa
ulterius procedere, eo modo,
quem mox declarabimus.

Translation : It has illuminated

for us another, fourth way,
which we now make known and
call "diffraction" [i.e.,
shattering], because we
 sometimes observe light break
up; that is, that parts of the
compound [i.e., the beam of
light], separated by division,
advance farther through the
medium but in different
[directions], as we will soon
show.

3. Cajori, Florian "A History of Physics in its

Elementary Branches, including the
evolution of physical laboratories."
Archived 2016-12-01 at the Wayback
Machine. MacMillan Company, New York
1899
4. Arumugam, Nadia. "Food Explainer: Why
Is Some Deli Meat Iridescent?" . Slate. The
Slate Group. Archived from the original on
10 September 2013. Retrieved 9 September
2013.
5. Andrew Norton (2000). Dynamic fields
and waves of physics . CRC Press. p. 102.
ISBN 978-0-7503-0719-2.
6. Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Physico-
mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride,
aliisque adnexis … [The physical
mathematics of light, color, and the rainbow,
and other things appended …] (Bologna
("Bonomia"), (Italy): Vittorio Bonati, 1665),
pp. 1–11 Archived 2016-12-01 at the
Wayback Machine.: "Propositio I. Lumen
propagatur seu diffunditur non solum
directe, refracte, ac reflexe, sed etiam alio
quodam quarto modo, diffracte."
(Proposition 1. Light propagates or spreads
not only in a straight line, by refraction, and
by reflection, but also by a somewhat
different fourth way: by diffraction.) On p.
187, Grimaldi also discusses the
interference of light from two sources:
"Propositio XXII. Lumen aliquando per sui
communicationem reddit obscuriorem
superficiem corporis aliunde, ac prius
illustratam." (Proposition 22. Sometimes
light, as a result of its transmission, renders
dark a body's surface, [which had been]
previously illuminated by another [source].)
7. Jean Louis Aubert (1760). Memoires
pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux
arts . Paris: Impr. de S. A. S.; Chez E.
Ganeau. p. 149.
8. Sir David Brewster (1831). A Treatise on
Optics . London: Longman, Rees, Orme,
Brown & Green and John Taylor. p. 95.
Archived from the original on 2016-12-01.
9. Letter from James Gregory to John
Collins, dated 13 May 1673. Reprinted in:
Correspondence of Scientific Men of the
Seventeenth Century …, ed. Stephen Jordan
Rigaud (Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press, 1841), vol. 2, pp. 251–255, especially
p. 254 Archived 2016-12-01 at the
Wayback Machine..
10. Thomas Young (1804-01-01). "The
Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and
calculations relative to physical optics" .
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London. 94: 1–16.
doi:10.1098/rstl.1804.0001 .. (Note: This
lecture was presented before the Royal
Society on 24 November 1803.)
11. Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1816) "Mémoire
sur la Diffraction de la lumière, où l'on
examine particulièrement le phénomène
des franges colorées que présentent les
ombres des corps éclairés par un point
lumineux" (Memoir on the diffraction of
light, in which is examined particularly the
phenomenon of colored fringes that the
shadows of bodies illuminated by a point
source display), Annales de la Chimie et de
Physique, 2nd series, vol. 1, pages 239–
281. (Presented before l'Académie des
sciences on 15 October 1815.)
12. See:
Excerpts from Fresnel's paper on
diffraction were published in 1819: A.
Fresnel (1819) "Mémoire sur la
diffraction de la lumière" (Memoir on
the diffraction of light), Annales de
chimie et de physique, 11 : 246–296
Archived 2016-12-01 at the Wayback
Machine. and 337–378. Archived
2016-12-01 at the Wayback Machine.
The complete version of Fresnel's
paper on diffraction was published in
1821: Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1821)
"Mémoire sur la diffraction de la
lumière" Archived 2014-09-07 at the
Wayback Machine. (Memoir on the
diffraction of light), Mémoires de
l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de
France, 5 : 339–475. (Summitted to
l'Académie des sciences of Paris on 20
April 1818.)
13. Christiaan Huygens, Traité de la lumiere
… Archived 2016-06-16 at the Wayback
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