Injection well used for enhanced oil recovery

Enhanced oil recovery (abbreviated EOR), also called tertiary recovery, is the extraction of crude
oil from an oil field that cannot be extracted otherwise. EOR can extract 30% to 60%[1] or more of a
reservoir's oil,[2] compared to 20% to 40% using primary and secondary recovery.[3][4] According to the
US Department of Energy, there are three primary techniques for EOR: thermal, gas injection, and
chemical injection.[2] More advanced, speculative EOR techniques are sometimes called quaternary
recovery.[5][6][7][8]

Contents

 1Techniques
 o 1.1Gas injection
o 1.2Thermal injection
 1.2.1Steam flooding
 1.2.2Fire flooding
o 1.3Chemical injection
 1.3.1Polymer flooding
 1.3.2Microbial injection
 1.3.3Liquid carbon dioxide superfluids
 1.3.4Water-Alternating-Gas (WAG)
o 1.4Plasma-Pulse
 2Economic costs and benefits
 3CO2 EOR projects
o 3.1Boundary Dam, Canada
o 3.2Petra Nova, United States
o 3.3Kemper Project, United States
o 3.4Weyburn-Midale, Canada
 4CO2 EOR in the United States
 5Environmental impacts
 6See also
 7References
 8External links

Techniques[edit]
There are three primary techniques of EOR: gas injection, thermal injection, and chemical injection.
Gas injection, which uses gases such as natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide (CO2), accounts for
nearly 60 percent of EOR production in the United States.[2] Thermal injection, which involves the
introduction of heat, accounts for 40 percent of EOR production in the United States, with most of it
occurring in California.[2] Chemical injection, which can involve the use of long-chained molecules
called polymers to increase the effectiveness of waterfloods, accounts for about one percent of EOR
production in the United States.[2] In 2013, a technique called Plasma-Pulse technology was
introduced into the United States from Russia. This technique can result in another 50 percent of
improvement in existing well production.[9]

Gas injection[edit]
Gas injection or miscible flooding is presently the most-commonly used approach in enhanced oil
recovery. Miscible flooding is a general term for injection processes that introduce miscible gases
into the reservoir. A miscible displacement process maintains reservoir pressure and improves oil
displacement because the interfacial tension between oil and water is reduced. This refers to
removing the interface between the two interacting fluids. This allows for total displacement
efficiency.[10]Gases used include CO2, natural gas or nitrogen. The fluid most commonly used for
miscible displacement is carbon dioxide because it reduces the oil viscosity and is less expensive
than liquefied petroleum gas.[10] Oil displacement by carbon dioxide injection relies on the phase
behavior of the mixtures of that gas and the crude, which are strongly dependent on reservoir
temperature, pressure and crude oil composition.

Thermal injection[edit]
Main article: Steam injection (oil industry)
The steam flooding technique

In this approach, various methods are used to heat the crude oil in the formation to reduce its
viscosity and/or vaporize part of the oil and thus decrease the mobility ratio. The increased heat
reduces the surface tension and increases the permeability of the oil. The heated oil may also
vaporize and then condense forming improved oil. Methods include cyclic steam injection, steam
flooding and combustion. These methods improve the sweep efficiency and the displacement
efficiency. Steam injection has been used commercially since the 1960s in California fields.[11] In
2011 solar thermal enhanced oil recovery projects were started in California and Oman, this method
is similar to thermal EOR but uses a solar array to produce the steam.
In July 2015, Petroleum Development Oman and GlassPoint Solar announced that they signed a
$600 million agreement to build a 1 GWth solar field on the Amal oilfield. The project, named Miraah,
will be the world's largest solar field measured by peak thermal capacity.
In November 2017, GlassPoint and Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) completed construction
on the first block of the Miraah solar plant safely on schedule and on budget, and successfully
delivered steam to the Amal West oilfield.[12]
Also in November 2017, GlassPoint and Aera Energy announced a joint project to create California’s
largest solar EOR field at the South Belridge Oil Field, near Bakersfield, California. The facility is
projected to produce approximately 12 million barrels of steam per year through a 850MW thermal
solar steam generator. It will also cut carbon emissions from the facility by 376,000 metric tons per
year.[13]
Steam flooding[edit]
Steam flooding (see sketch) is one means of introducing heat to the reservoir by pumping steam into
the well with a pattern similar to that of water injection. Eventually the steam condenses to hot water;
in the steam zone the oil evaporates, and in the hot water zone the oil expands. As a result, the oil
expands, the viscosity drops, and the permeability increases. To ensure success the process has to
be cyclical. This is the principal enhanced oil recovery program in use today.

 Solar EOR is a form of steam flooding that uses solar arrays to concentrate the sun’s energy to
heat water and generate steam. Solar EOR is proving to be a viable alternative to gas-fired
steam production for the oil industry.
Solar enhanced oil recovery site

Fire flooding[edit]
Fire flooding works best when the oil saturation and porosity are high. Combustion generates the
heat within the reservoir itself. Continuous injection of air or other gas mixture with high oxygen
content will maintain the flame front. As the fire burns, it moves through the reservoir toward
production wells. Heat from the fire reduces oil viscosity and helps vaporize reservoir water to
steam. The steam, hot water, combustion gas and a bank of distilled solvent all act to drive oil in
front of the fire toward production wells.[14]
There are three methods of combustion: Dry forward, reverse and wet combustion. Dry forward uses
an igniter to set fire to the oil. As the fire progresses the oil is pushed away from the fire toward the
producing well. In reverse the air injection and the ignition occur from opposite directions. In wet
combustion water is injected just behind the front and turned into steam by the hot rock. This
quenches the fire and spreads the heat more evenly.

Chemical injection[edit]
The injection of various chemicals, usually as dilute solutions, have been used to aid mobility and
the reduction in surface tension. Injection of alkaline or causticsolutions into reservoirs with oil that
have organic acids naturally occurring in the oil will result in the production of soap that may lower
the interfacial tension enough to increase production.[15][16] Injection of a dilute solution of a water-
soluble polymer to increase the viscosity of the injected water can increase the amount of oil
recovered in some formations. Dilute solutions of surfactants such as
petroleum sulfonates or biosurfactants such as rhamnolipids may be injected to lower the interfacial
tension or capillary pressure that impedes oil droplets from moving through a reservoir. Special
formulations of oil, water and surfactant, microemulsions, can be particularly effective in this.
Application of these methods is usually limited by the cost of the chemicals and their adsorption and
loss onto the rock of the oil containing formation. In all of these methods the chemicals are injected
into several wells and the production occurs in other nearby wells.
Polymer flooding[edit]
Polymer flooding consists in mixing long chain polymer molecules with the injected water in order to
increase the water viscosity. This method improves the vertical and areal sweep efficiency as a
consequence of improving the water/oil Mobility ratio.[17]
Surfactants may be used in conjunction with polymers; They decrease the surface tension between
the oil and water. This reduces the residual oil saturation and improves the macroscopic efficiency of
the process.[18]
Primary surfactants usually have co-surfactants, activity boosters, and co-solvents added to them to
improve stability of the formulation.
Caustic flooding is the addition of sodium hydroxide to injection water. It does this by lowering the
surface tension, reversing the rock wettability, emulsification of the oil, mobilization of the oil and
helps in drawing the oil out of the rock.
Microbial injection[edit]
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Microbial injection is part of microbial enhanced oil recovery and is rarely used because of its higher
cost and because the developments is not widely accepted. These microbes function either by
partially digesting long hydrocarbon molecules, by generating biosurfactants, or by emitting carbon
dioxide (which then functions as described in Gas injection above).[19]
Three approaches have been used to achieve microbial injection. In the first approach, bacterial
cultures mixed with a food source (a carbohydrate such as molasses is commonly used) are injected
into the oil field. In the second approach, used since 1985,[20] nutrients are injected into the ground to
nurture existing microbial bodies; these nutrients cause the bacteria to increase production of the
natural surfactants they normally use to metabolize crude oil underground.[21] After the injected
nutrients are consumed, the microbes go into near-shutdown mode, their exteriors
become hydrophilic, and they migrate to the oil-water interface area, where they cause oil droplets to
form from the larger oil mass, making the droplets more likely to migrate to the wellhead. This
approach has been used in oilfields near the Four Corners and in the Beverly Hills Oil
Field in Beverly Hills, California.
The third approach is used to address the problem of paraffin wax components of the crude oil,
which tend to precipitate as the crude flows to the surface, since the Earth's surface is considerably
cooler than the petroleum deposits (a temperature drop of 9-10-14 °C per thousand feet of depth is
usual).
Liquid carbon dioxide superfluids[edit]
Main article: Carbon dioxide flooding
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,000 ft., where CO2 will be in
a supercritical state. In high pressure applications with lighter oils, CO2 is miscible with the oil, with
resultant swelling of the oil, and reduction in viscosity, and possibly also with a reduction in the
surface tension with the reservoir rock. In the case of low pressure reservoirs or heavy oils, CO2 will
form an immiscible fluid, or will only partially mix with the oil. Some oil swelling may occur, and oil
viscosity can still be significantly reduced.[22]
In these applications, between one-half and two-thirds of the injected CO2 returns with the produced
oil and is usually re-injected into the reservoir to minimize operating costs. The remainder is trapped
in the oil reservoir by various means. Carbon dioxide as a solvent has the benefit of being more
economical than other similarly miscible fluids such as propane and butane.[23]
Water-Alternating-Gas (WAG)[edit]
Water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection is another technique employed in EOR. Water is used in
addition to carbon dioxide. A saline solution is used here so that carbonate formations in oil wells are
not disturbed.[24] Water and carbon dioxide are injected into the oil well for larger recovery, as they
typically have low miscibility with oil. Use of both water and carbon dioxide also lowers the mobility of
carbon dioxide, making the gas more effective at displacing the oil in the well.[25] According to a study
done by Kovscek, using small slugs of both carbon dioxide and water allows for quick recovery of
the oil.[25] Additionally, in a study done by Dang in 2014, using water with a lower salinity allows for
greater oil removal, and greater geochemical interactions.[26]

Plasma-Pulse[edit]
Plasma-Pulse technology is the newest technique used in the USA as of 2013.[citation needed] The
technology originated in the Russian Federation at the St. Petersburg State Mining University with
funding and assistance from the Skolkovo Innovation Center.[27] The development team in Russia
and deployment teams across Russia, Europe and now the USA have tested this technology in
vertical wells with nearly 90% of wells showing positive effects.[citation needed]
The Plasma-Pulse Oil Well EOR uses low energy emissions to create the same effect that many
other technologies can produce except without negative ecological impact.[citation needed] In nearly every
case the volume of water pulled with the oil is actually reduced from pre-EOR treatment instead of
increased.[citation needed] Current clients and users of the new technology
include ConocoPhillips, ONGC, Gazprom, Rosneft and Lukoil.[citation needed]
It is based in the same technology as the Russian pulsed plasma thruster which was used on two
space ships and is currently being advanced for use in horizontal wells.[citation needed]

Economic costs and benefits[edit]

Adding oil recovery methods adds to the cost of oil —in the case of CO2 typically between 0.5-8.0
US$ per tonne of CO2. The increased extraction of oil on the other hand, is an economic benefit with
the revenue depending on prevailing oil prices.[28] Onshore EOR has paid in the range of a net 10-16
US$ per tonne of CO2 injected for oil prices of 15-20 US$/barrel. Prevailing prices depend on many
factors but can determine the economic suitability of any procedure, with more procedures and more
expensive procedures being economically viable at higher prices.[29] Example: With oil prices at
around 90 US$/barrel, the economic benefit is about 70 US$ per tonne CO2. The U.S. Department of
Energy estimates that 20 billion tons of captured CO2 could produce 67 billion barrels of
economically recoverable oil.[30]
It is believed that the use of captured, anthropogenic carbon dioxide, derived from the exploitation
of lignite coal reserves, to drive electric power generation and support EOR from existing and future
oil and gas wells offers a multifaceted solution to U.S. energy, environmental, and economic
challenges.[30] There is no doubt that coal and oil resources are finite. The U.S. is in a strong position
to leverage such traditional energy sources to supply future power needs while other sources are
being explored and developed.[30] For the coal industry, CO2 EOR creates a market for
coal gasification byproducts and reduces the costs associated with carbon sequestration and
storage.

CO2 EOR projects[edit]

Boundary Dam, Canada[edit]
SaskPower's Boundary Dam project retrofitted its coal-fired power station in 2014 with Carbon
Capture and Sequestration (CCS) technology. The plant will capture 1 million tonnes of
CO2 annually, which it sold to Cenovus Energy for enhanced oil recovery at its Weyburn Oil Field[31],
prior to the sale of Cenovus's Saskatchewan assets in 2017 to Whitecap Resources.[32] The project is
expected to inject a net 18 million ton CO2 and recover an additional 130 million barrels
(21,000,000 m3) of oil, extending the life of the oil field by 25 years.(Brown 2001)[33] There is a
projected 26+ million tonnes (net of production) of CO2 to be stored in Weyburn, plus another 8.5
million tonnes (net of production) stored at the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project, resulting in
a net reduction in atmospheric CO2 by CO2 storage in the oilfield . That's the equivalent of taking
nearly 7 million cars off the road for a year.[34] Since CO2 injection began in late 2000, the EOR
project has performed largely as predicted. Currently, some 1600 m3 (10,063 barrels) per day of
incremental oil is being produced from the field.

Petra Nova, United States[edit]

The Petra Nova project uses post-combustion amine absorption to capture some of the carbon
dioxide emissions from one of the boilers at the W.A Parish power plant in Texas, and transports it
by pipeline to the West Ranch oil field for use in enhanced oil recovery.
Kemper Project, United States[edit]
Mississippi Power's Kemper County energy facility, or Kemper Project, was to have been a first-of-
its-kind plant in the U.S. that was expected to be online in 2015.[35]. Its coal gasification component
has since been canceled, and the plant has been converted to a conventional natural gas combined
cycle power plant without carbon capture. The Southern Company subsidiary worked with the U.S.
Department of Energy and other partners to develop cleaner, less expensive, more reliable methods
for producing electricity with coal that also support EOR production. For the Kemper Project, rather
than burning coal directly to make electricity, gasification technology was intended to break down
the coal into chemical components, removes impurities before it is fired, avoid certain emissions,
and take gases that result from this chemical breakdown to fuel the integrated gasification combined
cycle power plant. This plant, along with others like it, would have been more efficient and therefore
cleaner than traditional coal-fired power plants.[30] Additionally, the unique location of the Kemper
Project, and its proximity to oil reserves, made it an ideal candidate for enhanced oil recovery.[36]

Weyburn-Midale, Canada[edit]

Weyburn-Midale Oil production over time, both before and after EOR was introduced yo the field.

In 2000, Saskatchewan's Weyburn-Midale oil field began to employ EOR as a method of oil
extraction.[37] In 2008, the oilfield became the worlds largest storage site of Carbon Dioxide.[38] It is
estimated that the EOR project will store around 20 million tons of Carbon Dioxide, generate about
130 million barrels of oil, and extend the life of the field by over two decades.[39] The site is also
notable as it hosted a study on the effects of EOR on nearby seismic activity.[37]

CO2 EOR in the United States[edit]

The United States has been using CO2 EOR for several decades. For over 30 years, oil fields in the
Permian Basin have implemented CO2 EOR using naturally sourced CO2 from New Mexico and
Colorado.[40] The Department of Energy (DOE) has estimated that full use of 'next generation' CO2-
EOR in United States could generate an additional 240 billion barrels (38 km3) of recoverable oil
resources. Developing this potential would depend on the availability of commercial CO2 in large
volumes, which could be made possible by widespread use of carbon capture and storage. For
comparison, the total undeveloped US domestic oil resources still in the ground total more than 1
trillion barrels (160 km3), most of it remaining unrecoverable. The DOE estimates that if the EOR
potential were to be fully realized, state and local treasuries would gain $280 billion in revenues from
future royalties, severance taxes, and state income taxes on oil production, aside from other
economic benefits.
The main barrier to taking further advantage of CO2 EOR in the United States has been an
insufficient supply of affordable CO2. Currently, there is a cost gap between what an oilfield operate
could afford to pay for CO2 under normal market conditions and the cost to capture and transport
CO2 from power plants and industrial sources, so most CO2 comes from natural sources. However,
using CO2 from power plants or industrial sources could reduce the carbon footprint (if the CO2 is
stored underground). For some industrial sources, such as natural gas processing or fertilizer and
ethanol production, the cost gap is small (potentially $10–20/tonne CO2). For other man-made
sources of CO2, including power generation and a variety of industrial processes, capture costs are
greater, and the cost gap becomes much larger (potentially $30–50/tonne CO2).[41] The Enhanced Oil
Recovery Initiative has brought together leaders from industry, the environmental community, labor,
and state governments to advance CO2 EOR in the United States and close the price gap.
In the US, regulations can both assist and slow down the development of EOR for use in carbon
capture & utilization, as well as general oil production. One of the primary regulations governing
EOR is the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (SDWA), which gives most of the regulatory power over
EOR and similar oil recovery operations to the EPA.[42] The agency in turn delegated some of this
power to its own Underground Injection Control Program,[42] and much of the rest of this regulatory
authority to state and tribal governments, making much of EOR regulation a localized affair under
the minimum requirements of the SDWA.[42][43] The EPA then collects information from these local
governments and individual wells to ensure they follow overall federal regulation, such as the Clean
Air Act, which dictates reporting guidelines for any Carbon Dioxide sequestration
operations.[42][44] Beyond the atmospheric concerns, most of these federal guidelines are to ensure
that the Carbon Dioxide injection causes no major damage to America;s waterways.[45] Overall, the
locality of EOR regulation can make EOR projects more difficult, as different standards in different
regions can slow down construction and force separate approaches to utilize the same technology.[46]
In February 2018, Congress passed and the President signed an expansion of the carbon capture
tax credits defined in section 45Q of the IRS' Internal Revenue code. Previously, these credits were
limited to $10/ton and capped at a total of 75 million tons. Under the expansion, carbon capture and
utilization projects like EOR will be eligible for a tax credit of $35/ton, and sequestration projects will
receive a $50/ton credit.[47] The expanded tax credit would be available for 12 years to any plant
constructed by 2024, with no volume cap. If successful, these credits "could help sequester between
200 million and 2.2 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide" [48] and bring down carbon capture and
sequestration costs from a currently estimated $60/ton at Petra Nova to as low as $10/ton.

Environmental impacts[edit]
Enhanced oil recovery wells typically pump large quantities of produced water to the surface. This
water contains brine and may also contain toxic heavy metals and radioactive substances.[49] This
can be very damaging to drinking water sources and the environment generally if not properly
controlled. Disposal wells are used to prevent surface contamination of soil and water by injecting
the produced water deep underground.[50][51]
In the United States, injection well activity is regulated by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and state governments under the Safe Drinking Water Act.[52] EPA has issued
Underground Injection Control (UIC) regulations in order to protect drinking water
sources.[53] Enhanced oil recovery wells are regulated as "Class II" wells by the EPA. The regulations
require well operators to reinject the brine used for recovery deep underground in Class II disposal
wells.[50]

See also[edit]
 Wikiversity:Enhanced oil recovery
 Carbon capture and storage
 Gas reinjection
 Steam assisted gravity drainage
 Steam injection (oil industry)
 Water injection (oil production)
References