PG&E 500 kV Series-Compensated

Transmission Line Relay Replacement:

Design Requirements and RTDS® Testing

Davis Erwin, Monica Anderson, and Rafael Pineda

Pacific Gas and Electric Company

Demetrios A. Tziouvaras and Rick Turner

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

© 2011 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained
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redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other
works.

This paper was presented at the 64th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers and can
be accessed at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/CPRE.2011.6035620.

For the complete history of this paper, refer to the next page.
 Presented at the
65th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference
Atlanta, Georgia
May 11–13, 2011

Previously presented at the

64th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, April 2011

Originally presented at the

37th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, October 2010
 1

PG&E 500 kV Series-Compensated

Transmission Line Relay Replacement:
Design Requirements and RTDS® Testing
Davis Erwin, Monica Anderson, and Rafael Pineda, Pacific Gas and Electric Company
Demetrios A. Tziouvaras and Rick Turner, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Abstract—Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) owns The relay systems applied to protect these critical transmission
an extensive 500 kV series-compensated transmission line lines must be high speed, very reliable, secure, and capable of
network. The availability of this network is critical to serving protecting series-compensated lines while operating in three-
Northern California loads and regional power transfers from the
Pacific Northwest to Southern California. PG&E identified six
or single-phase tripping and reclosing modes.
transmission lines requiring immediate replacement of faulty The relay replacement was considered an emergency
solid-state relay systems with modern, more reliable project and had to be completed in a short time period, which
microprocessor-based relay systems to improve the reliability restricted any consideration of implementing new protection
and maintain maximum availability of the 500 kV transmission design philosophies. The existing PG&E line protection
system. design was maintained on five of the six lines in this project.
This paper describes the PG&E design philosophy of the
The sixth line required special consideration because of its
500 kV transmission line relay systems and the protection
challenges of series-compensated transmission lines operating in unique configuration and is not addressed in this paper. To
single-phase tripping and reclosing modes. In addition, the paper expedite the schedule, only the relays were replaced, and the
describes the relay system settings considerations and their existing telecommunications equipment was used. Because of
validation using a Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS®). The the urgency of this project, PG&E obtained engineering
paper demonstrates the analysis of RTDS results and the benefits services from the relay manufacturer for engineering design,
derived during the engineering and commissioning stages of the
Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS®) modeling, and testing.
project.
The relay manufacturer created the settings for the first line
I. INTRODUCTION using fault study data provided by PG&E. The relay
manufacturer also provided PG&E with a template for
Existing solid-state relay systems that protect the Pacific creating the settings for the other lines. Besides helping with
Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) critical series- the creation of settings, the template provides a convenient
compensated transmission lines have reached the end of their method to check and document the settings and associated
useful life. Several of these relay systems were taken out of fault study data.
service because of misoperations and relay failures discovered Fig. 1 shows the project flow diagram. The RTDS model,
during routine testing. The misoperations and failures were design prints, and relay settings using a steady-state fault
caused by faulty solid-state components. Because the failing model were created in parallel. RTDS testing requires the
solid-state relay systems were no longer supported by the completion of the relay settings and development of the
manufacturer, repair and support were not possible. In model. The final system was installed and field
addition to the challenges resulting from relay failures, the commissioning tests were completed in order to place the
legacy solid-state relay systems were designed to emphasize relays in service.
dependability over security. In the present environment, where
the transmission system often operates near its designed
capacity, the PG&E system cannot tolerate overtripping.
Taking these relay systems out of service severely impacts
the reliability and availability of the 500 kV network.
Clearances on the remaining in-service equipment are much
more difficult to obtain, and any additional transmission line
relay system failures could force 500 kV lines out of service in
order to comply with North American Electric Reliability
Corporation (NERC) reliability standard requirements. In
addition, NERC could impose substantial monetary fines on
PG&E if critical 500 kV lines are forced out of service.
PG&E identified six transmission lines requiring
immediate replacement of faulty solid-state relay systems with Fig. 1. Relay replacement project flow diagram
modern, more reliable microprocessor-based relay systems.
 2

The goal of this paper is to share the lessons learned during The relay failures occurred on the Set B and Set C solid-
testing of the 500 kV relay systems using the RTDS and the state relays. The failed relays were replaced with two identical
practical steps taken to install the new line relays. This unique microprocessor-based relays that provide series-compensated
testing approach has many advantages over traditional line protection and single-pole tripping operation. Permissive
methods of testing and verifying settings of transmission line overreaching transfer trip (POTT) protection is selected in the
protection systems. Traditional protection testing methods are relays for high-speed protection over the existing carrier
limited in their ability to predict the response of protective system, which is switchable between the two relays.
relay elements to actual system fault conditions. The RTDS The PG&E 500 kV lines require at least one level of high-
represents the power system under more realistic conditions so speed protection to be in service at all times; otherwise, the
that the relay system response can be evaluated under line must be forced open. In addition to stability concerns,
conditions that closely match actual fault conditions. high-speed clearing is required for all line faults because of
This paper describes the types of tests selected to verify the coordination concerns. Terminals looking into series
relay settings and the reasons behind the test selection. It also compensation have reduced Zone 1 reach. As a result, the
discusses the analysis of the RTDS test data and the tools used coordination of the overreaching elements of adjacent lines is
to expedite the data analysis. This paper discusses the results compromised. Security is of utmost concern in the PG&E
of this analysis and a case study that shows the importance system; therefore, the system is maintained in a configuration
and benefits of this testing approach. that mitigates the potential for overtripping.

II. 500 KV TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION III. SERIES-COMPENSATED LINE PROTECTION CHALLENGES
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS Series capacitors influence the magnitude and the direction
The existing line protection philosophy requires four of fault currents, which, in turn, influence the magnitude and
separate relay systems installed on each line terminal, as phase angle of voltages measured at different points in the
shown in Fig. 2. The Set A relay utilizes high-speed protection network. This has an impact on the performance of protection
over a microwave system and is normally selected for functions where operation depends on the magnitude and
tripping. The Set B and Set C relays utilize power line carrier phase angle properties of measured voltage and current. Other
(carrier) for high-speed protection, with the carrier switchable phenomena like voltage and current inversion at the relay
between the two relays. The relay that is connected to the location, subharmonic frequency oscillations, series capacitor
carrier is also selected for tripping, while the relay that is not metal oxide varistor (MOV) protection, and series capacitor
connected to the carrier is disabled from tripping. The Set D bypassing controls can influence the performance of different
relay is normally disabled from tripping. When the Set D relay protection functions.
is enabled for tripping, it only provides a time-delayed three- Numerous technical papers discuss the challenges of series-
pole trip and no high-speed reclosing. The Set A, B, and C compensated line protection [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]. Reference [1]
relays, if selected for single-pole operation, trip single pole for presents in great detail the problems associated with series
single-phase-to-ground faults and provide high-speed compensation, and [1], [6], and [7] provide settings
reclosing. If selected for three-pole operation, these relays trip recommendations for distance and directional elements
three pole for all faults and only provide high-speed reclosing applied in series-compensated lines. In this section, we briefly
for single-phase-to-ground faults. review the most important issues of series-compensated line
protection.
Permissive Overreaching
Transfer Trip (POTT) Voltage inversion is a phenomenon that affects distance
A – Dedicated Microwave and directional element discrimination. A voltage inversion is
B or C – Switchable Carrier
D – Time-Delayed Backup
a 180-degree change in the voltage phase angle. For elements
552-1 responding to phase quantities, voltage inversion can occur for
a fault near a series capacitor if the impedance from the relay
to the fault is capacitive rather than inductive. In general,
phase relays that utilize voltage information from the line side
Set A Set B
552-2 of the series capacitor correctly declare the fault direction for
faults on the protected line. Relays measuring the voltage from
Set D Set C the bus side of the capacitor, with respect to faults on the
protected line, can incorrectly declare the fault direction.
Voltage inversion can also occur in negative- and zero-
sequence networks if the impedance behind the relay location
Fig. 2. Typical 500 kV line protection is capacitive. A negative- or zero-sequence voltage inversion
can affect directional discrimination of voltage-polarized
directional elements that respond to sequence quantities.
 3

Fig. 3 shows the voltage and current phase relationship for For an internal fault, a current inversion occurs on a series-
a bolted three-phase fault in front of the series capacitor. compensated line when the equivalent system at one side of
the fault is capacitive and the equivalent system at the other
IS
VR
side of the fault is inductive. The current flows out of the line
at one terminal, which is referred to as current outfeed. For
VS XC < XS
IR most bolted high-current faults, the series capacitor protection
S R spark gap or MOV bypasses the series capacitor. Current
XC
XS XL XR inversion is a rare event for these faults. However, for high-
resistance faults, the low fault current prevents the capacitor
from being bypassed and creates the conditions for a current
IS
Fault
IR inversion.
Current inversion can also occur in negative- or zero-
Fig. 3. Voltage inversion at Bus S on a series-compensated line
sequence networks. Current inversion affects directional,
In Fig. 3, the voltage applied to the relay at Bus S is distance, phase comparison, and differential elements
180 degrees out of phase from what would be considered a responding to phase or sequence component quantities. Fig. 4
normal fault voltage on an uncompensated system. In depicts the condition required for a phase current inversion.
addition, a point farther back into the system (to the left of The currents are approximately 180 degrees out of phase,
Bus S) experiences zero voltage and could impact the rather than in phase, for this internal fault.
operation of relay systems on adjacent transmission lines,
even though those lines might not be series compensated.
Series capacitors introduce errors in the impedance that
distance elements estimate. The series capacitor modifies the
line impedance that the relay measures. Furthermore,
subharmonic frequency oscillations cause the impedance
estimation to oscillate. The impedance estimation depends on
the state of the capacitor protection. The effect of series
capacitors on distance elements is more severe for line-end
capacitors than for midline capacitors. Line-end capacitors not
Fig. 4. Current inversion on a series-compensated line
only affect distance estimation but also affect directional
discrimination because of voltage inversion. Midline Series capacitors introduce subharmonic frequency
capacitors do not affect directional discrimination unless the oscillations in power system currents and voltages, which are
capacitive reactance XC is greater than half of XL. not common in noncompensated systems. These subharmonic
Memory polarization, which uses prefault voltage to frequency oscillations can cause a delayed increase of fault
enhance relay directional discrimination, solves the voltage currents, delayed operation of spark gaps, and delayed
inversion problem and the zero-voltage, three-phase fault operation of protective relays. Subharmonic frequency
problem for mho and directional elements responding to phase transients can also influence the correct operation of distance
quantities. In a memory-polarized mho element, the relay uses protection functions by increasing the operating time of
a combination of prefault and fault voltage information when distance elements and causing an overreach of Zone 1
the memory is active. When the memory expires, the relay instantaneous distance elements, resulting in an undesired line
uses only fault voltage information. Memory action needs to trip.
be time-limited to avoid relay errors for system disturbances Fig. 5 shows a transmission line with 50 percent series
in which prefault and fault voltages are out of phase with each compensation (i.e., the series capacitor reactance equals
other [8]. 50 percent of the positive-sequence line reactance). For the
In series-compensated lines, the polarization memory fault location in the figure, the underreaching Zone 1 distance
should be long enough so that the mho elements consistently element at Bus S should not operate. Intuitively, we would
pick up until the fault clears, the capacitor protection spark expect that an 80 percent Zone 1 setting of the compensated
gap flashes, or the MOV conducts to clear the voltage impedance (XL – XC) would be an appropriate reach setting.
inversion. For the worst (slowest) fault-clearing time, we want However, the series capacitor and system inductance generate
a long memory. While directional integrity and overreach are subharmonic frequency oscillations that can cause severe
important issues, the viability of the directional comparison overreach of the Zone 1 distance element.
scheme logic is equally important. Additional transient
blocking logic may be necessary to provide adequate security
against undesired operations where directional integrity cannot
be maintained for slow-clearing faults. Relays using memory
polarization, especially those using positive-sequence memory
polarization, are very secure and do not require special logic.
Fig. 5. Series-compensated line with a fault at the remote bus
 4

Fig. 6 shows the spiraling impedance resulting from a To prevent Zone 1 distance element overreach, relay logic
subharmonic frequency transient [1]. The circle represents the detects when a fault occurs beyond a series capacitor [9]. The
steady-state characteristic of a Zone 1 mho element set with a relay blocks the Zone 1 element until the series compensation
2.5-ohm reach. This setting represents a best estimate to logic determines that the fault is between the relay and the
prevent Zone 1 overreach for a remote bus fault based on the series capacitor.
steady-state impedance. As we can see from the impedance Subharmonic frequency oscillations could also affect relay
plot, the apparent impedance magnitude decreases to a value elements based on superimposed components. A relay system
well below 2 ohms secondary, which is lower than the misoperation tripped a PG&E 500 kV line after an external
compensated line impedance. Immediately after fault line-to-ground fault was cleared at high speed [2].
inception, the impedance trajectory passes through the Zone 1 Subharmonic modulation of voltage at any relay location is a
mho element characteristic. As the transient decays, the function of the local source impedance magnitude. There is no
impedance spiral decreases until it reaches a steady-state value guarantee that a relay resetting from a reverse decision will
after a number of cycles (dependent on the system see the highest voltage changes. A relay resetting from a
characteristics). There are three options to avoid Zone 1 forward decision could see higher subharmonic voltage
operation during the subharmonic frequency transient: changes, which could lead to a longer resetting time in relation
1. Introduce a Zone 1 time delay, which is not to the reverse resetting time of the relay at the remote end of
recommended. the line.
2. Further reduce Zone 1 reach settings, and use RTDS Another misoperation occurred when the same relay
zone margin batch testing to validate that the tripped three pole for single-line-to-ground faults [2]. In other
impedance spiral does not cause a Zone 1 element instances, while in three-phase tripping mode and set to block
overreach. autoreclosing on multiphase faults, the same relay blocked
3. If the capacitor is in front of the relay, enable the relay autoreclosing on a line-to-ground fault. The cause of these
function that blocks the Zone 1 element for a fault undesired operations was the loss of phase selection because
beyond the capacitor [9]. of higher-than-anticipated subharmonic frequency transient
Compared to the third option, the second option provides current in one of the healthy phases. Operation of the third
faster tripping for close-in faults, at the expense of reduced ΔIph-ph relay element, after the operation of the other two
security for faults beyond the capacitor. ΔIph-ph elements, was the basis for loss of phase selection
following a correct initial phase selection.
As noted previously, subharmonic frequency transients that
occur on series-compensated networks can cause an overreach
of Zone 1 distance elements and misoperation of directional or
superimposed component elements. Therefore, relay settings
in series-compensated line applications must be verified using
transient testing in an RTDS environment. The relays that
caused the misoperations were tested extensively using open-
loop transient testing with data obtained from a transient
power system model using the Electromagnetic Transients
Program (EMTP) [2]. The deficiencies in the relay design
were not uncovered during transient testing because the EMTP
simulation was terminated 10 cycles after an external fault
was cleared. However, the in-service relay misoperated
18 cycles after the successful clearing of an external fault.
Open-loop testing using EMTP runs for a limited amount of
Fig. 6. In series-compensated lines, distance elements can overreach time and requires certain assumptions, such as relay operating
because of the impedance oscillation caused by subharmonic frequency time. On the other hand, closed-loop testing, such as
transients connecting the RTDS to the actual relays, simulates the power
Proper setting of the Zone 1 elements includes not only the system continuously in real time and provides voltages and
reach setting of the elements but also the pickup setting of any currents to the relays under test until the user stops the test.
overcurrent elements that supervise the Zone 1 distance
element. The settings required for the Zone 1 distance IV. RELAY SETTINGS CONSIDERATIONS AND CRITERIA
elements are determined by the following factors: The initial relay settings were developed from the steady-
• Series capacitor location state solutions of the short-circuit base case. The relay settings
• Capacitor and line impedances require verification using RTDS testing because these lines are
• Location of instrument transformers subjected to severe transients, due to series compensation, that
• Type of capacitor protection cannot be modeled with a steady-state short-circuit program.
• Protective level of the capacitor protection Multiple steady-state fault study base cases were used to
calculate the relay settings. Each steady-state fault study base
 5

Fig. 7. Southern portion of the PG&E 500 kV system

case was configured with a particular system contingency,

Fault Data
such as a generator or step-up transformer bank outage, along Case South Path North – South North – West West – South
with variable configurations of the series capacitors. Each of 1
2 BP
the fault study base cases represents a legitimate, operating
3 BP
system configuration. Once a particular base case was 4 BP BP
selected, additional single-contingency outages were 5 BP
6 BP BP
examined, using a program that sequentially removes one 7 BP BP
system component at a time, performs the study, and creates a 8 BP BP BP
text file containing the fault values. An automated Microsoft® 9 BP
10 BP BP
Excel® workbook was used to read the text files and organize 11 BP BP
the data to determine the minimum and maximum values used 12 BP BP BP
to set all protective relay elements [10]. As mentioned 13 BP BP
14 BP BP BP
previously, the cases were determined by applying all of the 15 BP BP BP
possible bypass combinations on the neighboring series 16 BP BP BP BP
capacitors. Once the minimum and maximum values were *BP – bypassed capacitors

determined for the West – Generator Station line, the cases RB at West Bus
showing the largest minimum and maximum fault current and 5D Case 5 with generator station Unit 2 offline
9D Case 9 with generator station Unit 2 offline
impedance values were used to create additional cases with a 12D Case 12 with generator station Unit 2 offline
single Generator Station out-of-service generator and with a 13D Case 13 with generator station Unit 2 offline
single de-energized Generator Station step-up transformer 12T Case 12 with generator station Bank 2 out
13T Case 13 with generator station Bank 2 out
bank, because a generator can be offline for extended periods.
As shown in Fig. 7, there are four series capacitor bypass RB at Generator Station
combinations and, therefore, 16 separate cases were used to 2D Case 2 with generator station Unit 2 offline
4D Case 4 with generator station Unit 2 offline
test the West – Generator Station line relays. 12D Case 12 with generator station Unit 2 offline
Fig. 8 shows the cases created to test the West – Generator 16D Case 16 with generator station Unit 2 offline
Station line relays. The minimum and maximum values from 2T Case 2 with generator station Bank 2 out
4T Case 4 with generator station Bank 2 out
the analysis of all of these cases with further N – 1 outage
contingencies were used for setting the line relays. Fig. 8. Cases created to test the relays on the West – Generator Station line
 6

Analysis of the fault studies resulted in lower apparent • Enable ground time-overcurrent tripping for worst-
impedance values for faults beyond the capacitors on the case remote bus faults or line-end faults (highest
North – West and South – West lines than for the West bus contingency current) to trip in 15 to 25 cycles.
faults as seen by the Generator Station line relays. However, − Use two distinct ground overcurrent curves for
lower impedance values were not used for the Generator enhanced sensitivity, and switch between the two
Station relay settings because the relay has a function that curves for anticipated single-pole conditions and
blocks Zone 1 for a fault beyond a capacitor. This logic was actual open-pole conditions.
turned on with a capacitor setting equal to the highest − Set ground time-overcurrent elements to coordinate
capacitive reactance value connected to the West bus. We rely during single-pole trip conditions.
upon the series compensation relay logic to block Zone 1 − Use the emergency current rating to calculate the
tripping, when required. The West settings for the highest expected ground current during a single-
West – Generator Station line also utilize the series pole tripping condition. (The dual ground
compensation line logic, but with the logic to block for faults overcurrent curves allow coordination with the
beyond the capacitor turned off. This allowed us to set the breaker pole disagreement timers set for 20 cycles.)
Zone 1 element to the desired sensitivity and be secure during • Set the ground time-overcurrent pickup (on both
voltage inversions that may occur during faults on curves) for 50 percent of worst-case minimum ground
neighboring series-compensated lines. fault current for a remote bus fault.
The relays were initially set using the minimum and The PG&E criteria for POTT include the following:
maximum calculated steady-state fault values with the • Use Zone 2 phase distance, Zone 2 ground distance,
following PG&E criteria. The criteria for distance protection and forward ground overcurrent elements for the
include the following: forward POTT keying and tripping.
• Enable phase distance Zone 1, and set it for 80 percent • Disable the forward ground overcurrent element
of the worst-case minimum reach to the remote bus. during open-pole conditions.
• Enable ground distance Zone 1, and set it for • Use reverse Zone 3 phase distance, reverse Zone 3
80 percent of the worst-case minimum reach to the ground distance, and reverse ground overcurrent
remote bus. elements for the reverse-blocking POTT.
• Enable phase distance Zone 2, and set it for Secure echo back logic was developed using relay
130 percent of the worst-case maximum reach to the programmable logic instead of the more dependable scheme
remote bus. The relay settings must accommodate available as an option in the relay. The custom echo logic was
emergency line loading, as defined by NERC preferred because none of the involved terminals
PRC-023-1. demonstrated weak-infeed characteristics. As shown in Fig. 9,
• Enable ground distance Zone 2, and set it for the echo back logic is supervised by all poles being open.
130 percent of the worst-case maximum reach to the Three-pole open supervision, as opposed to single-pole open
remote bus. supervision, prohibits echo keying for out-of-section faults
• Enable phase and ground distance Zone 2 elements to that can occur during single-pole open conditions. To enable
trip with a 15-cycle time delay. echo keying, the three-pole open condition must be present for
• Set reverse phase and ground distance elements used 10 cycles. This ensures that there is no inadvertent echo
in the POTT scheme to coordinate with remote keying during three-phase pole opening for normal fault-
overreaching Zone 2 distance elements. clearing events. The feedback loop ensures that the 4-cycle
• Enable out-of-step blocking logic on all relays. echo pulse only occurs once per 10-cycle period. This helps
The PG&E criteria for overcurrent elements include the avoid the possibility of an echo “ping pong” effect.
following:
• Disable all instantaneous phase overcurrent elements
(directional or not) to prevent tripping on recoverable
system swings, with the exception of switch-onto-fault
(SOTF) and loss-of-potential (LOP) protection.
• Disable instantaneous ground overcurrent elements.
These elements were initially enabled and set with a
conservative margin (130 percent) for the worst-case
out-of-section fault. However, RTDS testing revealed
timing issues with high-speed reclosing and had to be Fig. 9. Echo back logic
disabled.
 7

V. RTDS MODELING Finally, it is necessary to properly model the power system

To generate the transient data needed to test the response of components and their controls, including their frequency
protection systems applied to series-compensated lines, we dependence. In the PG&E 500 kV transient model, we
must accurately represent the electrical and electromechanical modeled the following in great detail:
characteristics of the different power system components, • Series capacitor protection using MOV or thyristor-
including their frequency dependence. The RTDS, which was protected series capacitors (TPSCs), depending on the
used for the transient testing described in this paper, performs series capacitor bank type and its damping circuits.
digital power system simulation in real time. The RTDS • Series capacitor bypass breakers and their controls,
computes the power system simulation in discrete time steps, including high-MOV energy bypass, high-MOV
which are in the order of 50 to 80 microseconds. The actual current bypass, line relaying transfer trip bypass, and
time required to solve the network model is a function of the capacitor reinsertion.
network size and the available RTDS hardware. • Single- and three-pole reclosing controls for the line
The study of electromagnetic transients often requires under test and adjacent lines.
detailed modeling of large power systems. Although it is • Single- and three-pole breaker controls for the line
desirable to model a large portion of the power system in great under test and adjacent lines, including preinsertion
detail, this requires a prohibitive amount of computer resistors and point-on-wave closing.
resources. Therefore, it is common practice to represent only a • Capacitive voltage transformers.
small, detailed portion of the system area under study and • Shunt reactors and capacitors.
represent the remaining system with an equivalent network. • Distributed parameter transmission line models.
This was the case with the PG&E 500 kV system, where • Generator step-up and 500 kV/230 kV
several RTDS models were developed to accommodate the autotransformers.
testing of the six transmission lines involved in the emergency • Source and transfer impedances.
relay replacement project. • Realistic relay operation for faults on adjacent lines.
One of the most important aspects of transient modeling is
to obtain a reduced network from a large power system that VI. RTDS TESTING
we can model in detail in the RTDS. In the transient model,
Transient testing of 500 kV relay systems has been an
we retain the line under test, all adjacent lines, series
capacitors, line reactors, shunt capacitors, step-down integral part of the PG&E protection application philosophy
since 1984 [2]. The main reason for this is the realization that
transformers, and nearby generators. The retained power
the transient response of relay systems differs considerably
system elements are explicitly modeled using their physical
properties. Thévenin equivalent sources and transfer from what we can deduce from steady-state analysis and
testing. Another reason is the desire to validate the
impedances at least one bus away from the line under test
complete the model. Transfer impedances are modeled using performance of relay algorithms in series-compensated
distributed parameter line models and can exist at various networks. Transient testing of relay systems is also used as a
means to validate the applied settings and verify relay
voltage levels. Likewise, the equivalent sources can exist at
various voltage levels. It is very important that the reduced accuracy. As discussed previously, it is nearly impossible to
determine relay settings using steady-state short-circuit
model produce the same power flows and steady-state fault
currents as the original power system model. Prior to programs in a system that contains nonlinear elements
performing any tests, the load flow and short-circuit fault (MOVs), unbalanced impedances caused by asymmetrical
series capacitor gap bypassing, decaying low-frequency
currents are compared to the steady-state models to validate
the transient RTDS model. transients, and other system transients that could influence the
dependability and security of line protection.
Another important consideration in the development of the
Many relay performance improvements were realized over
transient model is the number of operating conditions during
relay testing. We need to consider the line loading, including the last 25 years by using transient model power system data
to test the relay systems and by analyzing all extra-high-
such things as different load flow levels and direction.
Additionally, we need to examine strong and weak system voltage (EHV) relay trips for correct operation [2]. These
sources, considering contingencies that affect either the performance improvements were realized by working closely
with relay manufacturers to test, identify certain shortcomings,
positive- or zero-sequence source impedances (i.e., out-of-
service parallel line and nearby out-of-service generators and and improve the relay systems.
transformers).
 8

Forty years of operational experience with series- Relay event reports are retrieved for faults of interest to
compensated line protection allowed PG&E to confirm the further review and verify proper relay operation.
need for transient model power system testing. Initially, To minimize the set of tests that require reevaluation, the
transient testing was performed using analog simulator tests should be performed in the following order:
technology at the relay manufacturer facility. Later, this 1. Verification of RTDS model (comparison of fault
evolved to computer-based simulation with EMTP and open- conditions).
loop transient waveform playback into the relay systems using 2. Verification of relay analog readings during steady
voltage and high-current dc-coupled amplifiers. Computer state.
simulation makes it easier to develop models and change the 3. Manual tests for extreme conditions (using weak and
power system configurations to test more scenarios. However, strong source base cases).
the biggest limitation of computer simulation is that it is not a 4. External fault scripted tests.
closed-loop testing environment, where action of the 5. Internal fault scripted tests.
protection and control system under test directly affects the The scripting tools allow us to automate fault simulation
power system [11]. The difficulties of using the open-loop and data collection. We can run thousands of test cases in a
transient simulation methods limited the thoroughness of the relatively short period of time. Other computer software
testing in the past. analysis tools, such as Excel, allow us to analyze the large
Today, RTDS technology allows us to combine the ease of amount of test data generated during the simulation and
computer-based power system modeling and simulation with transient relay testing. In addition, accurate computer-based
the closed-loop testing environment of an analog model power protection algorithm models that run in Mathcad® or
system simulator. The RTDS provides breaker status contacts MATLAB® indicate how close the relay response is to a
and analog currents and voltages directly to the relays under boundary or threshold. These computer relay models provide
test. Likewise, the relays provide trip and close signals us with a better understanding of the relay response, help us
directly to the RTDS. Operationally, it is as if the relay is adjust relay settings if necessary, and provide us with greater
connected to the actual power system. Other contacts from the confidence that the relay will perform acceptably while in
relays are connected to the RTDS to monitor the relay service.
performance and collect data. The following relay elements The scripting tools allow an order of magnitude more
are monitored to assist in analyzing their performance: testing than traditional EMTP-simulated testing. For example,
• Reclose block and initiate in each of the two previous PG&E 500 kV relay replacement
• Zone 1 phase or ground distance pickup projects, 100 tests were run to verify relay settings on each
• Zone 2 phase or ground distance pickup line. For this project, one week was allocated to the RTDS for
• POTT each line, and over 5,000 fault simulations were run on each
− Forward ground overcurrent pickup line to verify the settings. Given the magnitude of data
− Key permissive captured during the tests, it was necessary to create automated
methods to detect undesirable relay responses and verify
− Receive permissive
proper relay element coordination.
− Reverse element pickup
The automated tests run overnight to maximize the
• Series compensation block Zone 1
effectiveness of the testing. The number of tests to perform
• Out-of-step blocking (if utilizing this feature) must be calculated to determine how much time they require.
The first tests validate the transient model and verify The calculation involves the number of power flow cases,
proper connections between the relays and the RTDS. This is contingencies, fault locations, fault types, and fault inception
accomplished by verifying the power flow, comparing the angles. As an example, a test involving four contingencies,
three- and single-phase fault duties to the steady-state model, ten fault locations, and all ten fault types at three different
and verifying that the relays read proper current and voltage. fault inception angles results in 1,200 simulations. Table I
Next, selected tests validate the initial relay settings. The shows the calculation of the number of automated tests to be
most challenging faults are selected to determine if any relay completed for one script in order to determine the time
settings changes are required prior to performing automated required for testing.
tests via the scripting tools. Examples of the tests include the
following: TABLE I
FAULTS FOR ONE SCRIPT
• Verify relay operation for SOTF, LOP, and a fault
during the open interval of a single-pole trip. Power Flow Cases 4
• Apply ground faults with varying fault resistance at Fault Locations 10
the zero-sequence center of the line to determine the Fault Types 10
relay sensitivity. The zero-sequence center is the point
Fault Inception Angles 3
where both ends contribute the same 3I0 current.
Total (4 • 10 • 10 • 3) = 1,200
 9

For some cases, there was a potential for overreach when Two major categories of fault simulations were
the source behind the terminal under test was weakened by performed—those internal and external to the line under test.
removing the strongest source. The overreach with a weak Fig. 12 shows an example of a worksheet for the internal fault
source was unexpected because it was not observed during relay response.
steady-state analysis.
The actual Zone 1 reach setting was not reduced because
the original setting of 80 percent provided adequate margin to
ensure no overtripping for out-of-section faults.
Fig. 10 shows a Mathcad plot of the mho element
calculation during an out-of-section fault. The upper dashed
line indicates the Zone 2 reach, and the lower dashed line
indicates the Zone 1 reach.
Fig. 10 shows that the Zone 1 element did not operate for
the fault.

Fig. 12. Internal fault relay response worksheet

Fig. 12 displays the worksheet that includes the relay

response times for faults at 10 percent of the line for all the
operating scenarios that were considered. All internal faults
Fig. 10. Mathcad plot showing the phase-to-phase mho element calculation should result in the relay providing a trip output.
Conditionally formatted cells indicate relay tripping action
VII. ANALYSIS OF RTDS TEST DATA (green) and nonaction (red). Because the relay trips single pole
for internal single-line-to-ground-faults, the red cells indicate
The relay instantaneous tripping elements, overreaching
no tripping events for the nonfaulted phases. For internal
elements, reverse-blocking elements, permissive send, and
faults, predictable color patterns appear in each worksheet for
permissive receive were mapped to relay output contacts.
easy verification of proper relay action. At the bottom of each
These contacts were wired to digital inputs on the RTDS and
worksheet, several preconfigured graphs illustrate important
captured as discrete points, along with the analog voltages and
data results. Fig. 13 displays two of these graphs. The top
currents, in a COMTRADE (Common Format for Transient
graph displays the relay operating time as a function of faulted
Data Exchange) file. The operating time relative to fault
phase(s), and the bottom graph is a histogram of Zone 1
inception of the points was also captured as a matrix within a
operations. This particular histogram shows that four base
space-delimited ASCII (American Standard Code for
cases were considered with 30 faults each. In total, there were
Information Interchange) file. A different ASCII file was
120 Zone 1 operations out of 120 faults at 10 percent of the
created for each fault location within each particular base case
line from the generator terminal.
selected for the testing. Fig. 11 shows a portion of an example
ASCII file.
Seconds

BCG
BCG
CAG

BCG
BCG
CAG

BCG
BCG
CAG

BCG
BCG
CAG
ABG

ABG

ABG

ABG
ABC

ABC

ABC

ABC
_CG
_CG

_CG
_CG

_CG
_CG
_AG
_AG
_BG

_AG
_AG
_BG

_AG
_AG
_BG

_AG
_AG
_BG
_CB
_CB

_CA
_CA

_CA
_CA

_CA
_CA

_CA
_CA
_BC

_BC

_BC

_BC
_AB
_AB

_AB
_AB

_AB
_AB

_AB
_AB

Fig. 11. ASCII file containing relay element assertion timing

An Excel workbook was created to automatically assist in

Number of Zone 1

the analysis of the vast quantity of data captured by the RTDS.

Operations

The workbook contains a Visual Basic® macro to import the

ASCII files, conditionally format cells for quick viewing of
results, and create graphs to illustrate the coordination and trip
times of the relaying systems.

Fig. 13. Internal fault relay response graphs

 10

Fig. 14 shows the internal fault summary worksheet, which The Excel workbook used for evaluating out-of-section
gathers the results of the individual worksheets. The formulas faults is constructed similar to the one used for evaluating
in the worksheet calculate the results of the Zone 1 elements internal faults. Relay performance for faults behind the left
for each line terminal as a percentage of all faults simulated at (Generator Station) and right (West) terminals is evaluated.
each location. The histogram graph displays the effect of the Along with verifying that no trip events occur, proper
right (West) terminal adjacent line series capacitors on the coordination of forward-overreaching elements and reverse-
Zone 1 reach of the left (Generator Station) terminal. blocking elements is verified.
Combined together, it is clear that the Zone 1 elements There is one worksheet per fault location. Within the
provide overlapping high-speed line protection. worksheet, the columns contain formulas and conditionally
formatted cells to automatically evaluate each fault for the
Summary of Internal Zero-Impedance Sliding Faults
Number of Faults
Total Total Zone 1 Operations Total Zone 1 Operations
following:
Cases Per
Fault
Location
Considered Case
Faults (Right Terminal) (Left Terminal)
• Overreaching element assertion of one terminal
without an assertion of the reverse-blocking element at
the other terminal.
• Reverse-blocking element assertion without an
assertion of the forward-overreaching element at the
other terminal. (This condition is considered normal
and gives the engineer quantifiable information to
evaluate the relative sensitivity between the two
Zone 1 Element Operations at Each Fault Location terminals.)
(500 kV Transmission Line)
• Calculation of the time difference to ensure proper
Zone 1 Operations

100 %
Percentage of

80 % coordination between the reverse-looking elements at

60 %
40 % one terminal and the forward-reaching elements at the
20 % other terminal.
0%
Fig. 15 shows an example of the fault location data. The
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90
4

c6
oc

5_

5_

5_

5_

5_

5_

5_

5_

5_

figure shows the conditionally formatted cells (green) that

Fl

Fl
oc

oc

oc

oc

oc

oc

oc

oc

oc
Fl

Fl

Fl

Fl
Fl

Fl

Fl

Fl

Fl

Fault Location indicate there was no relay trip event, as well as a column that
Right Zone 1 Left Zone 1
verifies there was no assertion of the overreaching elements of
one terminal without the assertion of the blocking elements at
Fig. 14. Internal fault summary worksheet
the other terminal.

Fig. 15. Fault location data

 11

At the bottom of each worksheet, a graph plots the IX. CONCLUSION

coordination time between the reverse-blocking elements and Presently, RTDS testing is the best available transient
the overreaching permissive element. The coordination times testing method to verify relay settings on 500 kV series-
are graphed as a function of the faulted phase, and the results compensated systems. The testing helps improve the
look very similar to the graphs shown in Fig. 13. reliability of the protection systems and increase familiarity
Fig. 16 shows an example of the external fault summary with the relays. It also provides greater insight into the power
worksheet, which compiles all of the information from each system and its behavior during faults.
individual worksheet and displays a table of results. Allow a minimum of one week per line for RTDS testing to
perform all required tests, verify relay settings, and explore
any possible problems. The testing should be carefully thought
through to ensure all pertinent conditions are examined,
maximize the number of runs, and minimize the number of
repeats due to settings changes.
RTDS testing allows the relays to experience more faults
than they would see in a lifetime of operation. Specific faults
that have caused problems in the past can be fully explored to
ensure the relays perform properly for that scenario. Faults
that are expected to cause problems can also be fully
Fig. 16. External fault summary worksheet examined. As an added bonus, the RTDS testing provides
COMTRADE files that are available for field commissioning
There are two tables in the summary worksheet. One table and routine time-scheduled, end-to-end, clock-synchronized
displays the results of the relays for faults behind the left tests. The RTDS model can also be used for future project
(Generator Station) terminal, and the other table presents the work.
results for faults behind the right (West) terminal. A column is Transient testing of EHV series-compensated line
created for each fault location, with four rows of data for each protection relay systems has been part of the PG&E protection
column. The rows represent the following data: application philosophy for the last 25 years. Many relay
1. Number of faults at each location. performance improvements were realized during this time by
2. Conditionally formatted cell that counts the number of working closely with relay manufacturers to test, identify
instances where the overreaching elements at one end certain shortcomings, and improve the performance of line
of the line asserted and the reverse-blocking elements protection systems.
at the other end did not.
3. Minimum coordination time between the reverse- X. REFERENCES
blocking elements at one end of the line and the
[1] H. J. Altuve, J. B. Mooney, and G. E. Alexander, “Advances in Series-
remote overreaching elements at the other end. Compensated Line Protection,” proceedings of the 35th Annual Western
4. Number of faults where the reverse-blocking elements Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2008.
asserted and the remote-end overreaching elements did [2] D. A. Tziouvaras and A. Apostolov, “Experience With Directional
not. Comparison Protection for Series-Compensated Transmission Lines,”
proceedings of the 25th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
Automated methods for detecting undesirable relay actions
Spokane, WA, October 1998.
are essential when working with the RTDS. Because scripted [3] G. E. Alexander, J. G. Andrichak, S. D. Rowe, and S. B. Wilkinson,
fault scenarios are generally performed during evening hours, “Series-Compensated Line Protection: A Practical Evaluation,”
it is important to quickly evaluate the relay performance each proceedings of the 15th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference,
morning, prior to beginning subsequent testing scenarios. If a Spokane, WA, October 1988.
problem is detected that requires a modification of relay [4] J. G. Andrichak, G. E. Alexander and W. Z. Tyska, “Series-
Compensated Line Protection: Practical Solutions,” proceedings of the
settings, an assessment needs to be performed to determine if 17th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA,
previous tests need to be rerun. October 1990.
[5] F. Anderson and W. A. Elmore, “Overview of Series-Compensated Line
VIII. FIELD TESTING AND COMMISSIONING Protection Philosophies,” proceedings of the 17th Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1990.
To verify the adequacy of the design, relay settings, relay
[6] G. E. Alexander, J. Mooney, and W. Z. Tyska, “Advanced Application
analog-to-digital conversion, and compatibility with the Guidelines for Ground Fault Protection,” proceedings of the 28th
telecommunications infrastructure, it is essential to perform a Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October
small subset of tests in the field before the relays are placed in 2001.
service. About 15 end-to-end, clock-synchronized tests were [7] J. B. Mooney and G. B. Alexander, “Applying the SEL-321 Relay on
Series-Compensated Systems,” SEL Application Guide AG2000-11.
performed on each line using RTDS-derived COMTRADE Available: http://www.selinc.com.
files. Two seconds of prefault simulation data were added to [8] D. Hou, A. Guzmán, and J. B. Roberts, “Innovative Solutions Improve
the COMTRADE files to avoid LOP assertion. Transmission Line Protection,” proceedings of the 24th Annual Western
Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1997.
 12

[9] A. Guzmán, J. Mooney, G. Benmouyal, and N. Fischer, “Transmission

Line Protection for Increasing Power System Requirements,”
proceedings of the 63rd Annual Conference for Protective Relay
Engineers, College Station, TX, April 2010.
[10] D. Erwin and F. Karchemskiy, “An Automated Fault Study
Application,” proceedings of the 36th Annual Western Protective Relay
Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2009.
[11] F. Plumptre, M. Nagpal, X. Chen, and M. Thompson, “Protection of
EHV Transmission Lines With Series Compensation: BC Hydro’s
Lessons Learned,” proceedings of the 63rd Annual Georgia Tech
Protective Relaying Conference, Atlanta, GA, April 2009.

XI. BIOGRAPHIES
Davis Erwin received his BSEE and MSEE in 1997 and 1998, respectively,
from New Mexico State University. Davis is a registered professional
engineer in California and has been with Pacific Gas and Electric Company
system protection since 1999, primarily supporting 500 kV system projects
and special protection schemes.

Monica Anderson received her BSEE in 1988 from the University of

California, Davis. Monica is a registered professional engineer in California
and has been with Pacific Gas and Electric Company system protection since
2003. Previously, she worked at Western Area Power Administration,
FirstEnergy Corp., and Puget Sound Energy.

Rafael Pineda received his BSEE in 1990 from Cal Poly State University,
San Luis Obispo. Rafael is a registered professional engineer in California and
has been with Pacific Gas and Electric Company since 1991. He currently
supports 500 kV system protection projects and special protection schemes.
He is a member of the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC)
relay work group.

Demetrios A. Tziouvaras received his BSEE from the University of New

Mexico and MSEE from Santa Clara University. He is an IEEE Senior
Member and a member of the Power System Relaying Committee (PSRC)
and CIGRE. He previously worked at Pacific Gas and Electric Company,
where he held various protection engineering positions, including principal
protection engineer for 18 years. In 1998, he joined Schweitzer Engineering
Laboratories, Inc., where he currently holds the position of senior research
engineer. He holds four patents and has authored and coauthored more than
50 technical papers. He served as the convener of CIGRE working group
B5.15 on “Modern Distance Protection Functions and Applications” and is a
member of several IEEE PSRC and CIGRE working groups.

Rick Turner received his BSEE from the University of New Mexico. He
began his career at Public Service Company of New Mexico and worked for
several electric utilities. He joined Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
in 1997, where he has held several positions. He is currently a principal
engineer in engineering services. He is a member of the IEEE and an active
participant of the Power System Relaying Committee (PSRC). He is a
registered professional engineer in the states of Washington and California.

Previously presented at the 2011 Texas A&M

Conference for Protective Relay Engineers.
© 2011 IEEE – All rights reserved.
20110217 • TP6446-01