Banking Law and Practice
Banking Law and Practice
Banking Law and Practice
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Index
Content............................................................................ II
List of Tables...............................................................VIII
Abbreviations................................................................IX
Bibliography................................................................ 129
I
Contents
Chapter I........................................................................................................................................................ 1
An Introduction to Banking System............................................................................................................ 1
Aim................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Reserve Bank of India as a Central Bank of the Country......................................................... 2
1.1.2 State Bank of India and its Associate (Subsidiaries) Banks-A New Channel of Rural Credit. 2
1.1.3 Nationalisation of Banks for Implementing Government Policies........................................... 3
1.1.4 Regional Rural Banks............................................................................................................... 3
1.1.5 Local Area Banks...................................................................................................................... 4
1.1.6 New Private Sector Banks........................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Structure of Banks in India....................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Different Types of Banks in India............................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Constituents of the Indian Banking System.............................................................................................. 5
1.4.1 Commercial Banks.................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.1.1 Public Sector Banks................................................................................................... 6
1.4.1.2 Private Sector Banks.................................................................................................. 6
1.4.1.3 Foreign Banks............................................................................................................ 6
1.4.2 Co-operative Banking System BANKING SYSTEM.............................................................. 7
1.4.2.1 Short-term Agricultural Credit institutions................................................................ 7
1.4.2.2 Long-term Agricultural Credit Institutions................................................................ 7
1.4.2.3 Urban Cooperative Banks.......................................................................................... 8
1.4.3 Development Banks.................................................................................................................. 8
1.4.3.1 National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)........................ 8
1.4.3.2 Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI).............................................. 9
1.4.3.3 National Housing Bank (NHB).................................................................................. 9
1.4.3.4 Export Import Bank of India (EXIM Bank)............................................................. 10
1.5 Functions of Commercial Banks............................................................................................................. 10
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 12
References.................................................................................................................................................... 12
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 12
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 13
Chapter II.................................................................................................................................................... 15
Regulation and Control on Banking in India........................................................................................... 15
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 15
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 15
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 16
2.1.1 Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934............................................................................................ 16
2.2 Banking Regulation Act, 1949................................................................................................................ 16
2.2.1 Other Important Sections of Banking Regulation Act, 1949.................................................. 17
2.2.2 Other Compliance Requirements............................................................................................ 17
2.3 Opening of New Banks and Branch Licensing....................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Setting up of a New Bank....................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2 Branch Licensing.................................................................................................................... 19
2.4 New Bank Licensing Policy, 2013.......................................................................................................... 20
2.5 Cash-Currency Management.................................................................................................................. 20
2.5.1 Currency Chests...................................................................................................................... 20
2.5.2 Currency Printing and Coin Minting...................................................................................... 20
2.6 Audit........................................................................................................................................................ 21
2.7 Inspection................................................................................................................................................ 21
II
2.8 Fraud....................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.8.1 Classification of Frauds.......................................................................................................... 22
2.9 Corporate Governance............................................................................................................................ 23
2.9.1 Effective Corporate Governance Practices............................................................................. 23
2.9.2 Corporate Governance in Banks............................................................................................. 23
2.9.3 Role of Banks.......................................................................................................................... 24
2.10 Banking Codes and Standards Board of India (BSCSBI)..................................................................... 25
2.11 The Banking Ombudsman Scheme....................................................................................................... 26
2.11.1 Grounds of Complaints......................................................................................................... 26
2.11.2 Miscellaneous Provisions...................................................................................................... 27
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 28
References.................................................................................................................................................... 28
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 28
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 29
Chapter III................................................................................................................................................... 31
Banker-Customer Relation........................................................................................................................ 31
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 31
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 31
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 31
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 32
3.2 Meaning of a Banking Company............................................................................................................ 32
3.2.1 Features of Banking................................................................................................................ 32
3.3 Customer................................................................................................................................................. 33
3.4 Banker and his Rights............................................................................................................................. 34
3.4.1 Right of Appropriation of a Banker........................................................................................ 34
3.4.2 Right of General Lien of a Banker.......................................................................................... 35
3.5 Special Features of a Banker’s Right of General Lien........................................................................... 35
3.6 Various Types of Customers................................................................................................................... 36
3.6.1 Individuals.............................................................................................................................. 36
3.6.2 Hindu Undivided Family (HUF)............................................................................................. 37
3.6.3 Firms....................................................................................................................................... 37
3.6.4 Companies.............................................................................................................................. 38
3.6.5 Trusts....................................................................................................................................... 38
3.6.6 Clubs....................................................................................................................................... 39
3.6.7 Local Authorities..................................................................................................................... 39
3.6.8 Co-operative Societies............................................................................................................ 39
3.7 Closing of a Bank Account..................................................................................................................... 39
3.7.1 Voluntary Termination............................................................................................................ 39
3.7.2 If the Bank Desires to Close the Account............................................................................... 39
3.7.3 Termination by Law................................................................................................................ 40
3.8 ‘Know Your Customer’ (KYC) Guidelines of the RBI........................................................................... 40
3.8.1 Customer Identification Procedure......................................................................................... 41
3.8.2 Customer Identification Requirements................................................................................... 41
3.8 3 Specimen Signature................................................................................................................ 42
3.8.4 Power of Attorney................................................................................................................... 42
3.9 Closing of a Bank Account..................................................................................................................... 43
3.10 Insurance of Bank Deposits.................................................................................................................. 44
3.10.1 Salient Features of Deposit Insurance.................................................................................. 44
3.11 Nomination............................................................................................................................................ 45
3.11.1 Settlement of Claims............................................................................................................. 45
3.11.2 Settlement of Claims from a Nominee.................................................................................. 45
3.11.3 Payment of Balance without Succession Certificate............................................................ 45
III
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 46
References.................................................................................................................................................... 46
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 46
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 47
Chapter IV................................................................................................................................................... 49
Legal Aspects of Banking Operations....................................................................................................... 49
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 49
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 49
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 49
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 50
4.1.2 Different Types of Cheques.................................................................................................... 50
4.2 Crossing of a Cheque.............................................................................................................................. 51
4.2.1 Cheque Crossed Generally...................................................................................................... 51
4.2.2 Cheque Crossed Specially...................................................................................................... 51
4.2.3 Payment of Cheque Crossed Generally or Specially.............................................................. 51
4.2.4 Cheque Bearing ‘Not Negotiable’........................................................................................... 51
4.2.5 Double Crossing..................................................................................................................... 51
4.3 Endorsement........................................................................................................................................... 52
4.3.1 Legal Provisions Regarding Endorsements............................................................................ 52
4.3.2 General Rules Regarding the Form of Endorsements............................................................ 53
4.4 Legal Aspects of Collection of a Cheque................................................................................................ 53
4.4.1 Banker as a Holder for Value.................................................................................................. 54
4.4.2 Collecting Banker as an Agent................................................................................................ 54
4.4.3 Conversion by the Collecting Banker..................................................................................... 54
4.4.4 Statutory Protection to Collecting Bank................................................................................. 55
4.5 Duties of the Collecting Bank................................................................................................................. 55
4.5.1 Duty to Open the Account with References and Sufficient Documentary Proof................... 55
4.5.2 Duty to Confirm the Reference where the Referee is not known or has given
Reference in Absentia............................................................................................................. 57
4.5.3 Duty to Ensure Crossing and Special Crossing...................................................................... 57
4.5.4 Duty to Verify the Instruments or Any Apparent Defect in the Instruments.......................... 57
4.5.5 Duty to Take into Account the State of Customer’s Account................................................. 58
4.5.6 Negligence of Collecting Bank in Collecting Cheques Payable to Third Parties................... 58
4.6 Indemnities.............................................................................................................................................. 58
4.7 Guarantees............................................................................................................................................... 59
4.8 Banking Hours/Working Hours/Operation............................................................................................. 59
4.8.1 Sick/Old/Incapacitated Account Holders-Operational Procedure.......................................... 60
4.8.2 Remittance.............................................................................................................................. 60
4.9 Complaints.............................................................................................................................................. 61
4.10 Erroneous Debits arising on Fraudulent or Other Transactions............................................................ 61
4.11 Safe Deposit Locker/Safe Custody Article Facility.............................................................................. 61
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 63
References.................................................................................................................................................... 63
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 63
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 64
Chapter V..................................................................................................................................................... 66
Banking Related Laws................................................................................................................................ 66
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 66
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 66
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 66
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 67
5.1.1 Important Aspects................................................................................................................... 67
5.1.2 Period of Limitation for Certain Documents.......................................................................... 67
IV
5.1.3 Revival of Documents............................................................................................................ 67
5.1.4 Court Holiday......................................................................................................................... 68
5.1.5 Limitation Period-Precautions to be taken by Bank............................................................... 68
5.2 Banker’s Book Evidence Act, 1891........................................................................................................ 68
5.2.1 Important Aspects of Bankers’ Book Evidence Act, 1891...................................................... 68
5.3 Tax Laws Applicable in Banking Operations......................................................................................... 69
5.4 Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993 (DRT ACT)............................. 70
5.4.1 Debt Recovery Tribunals........................................................................................................ 70
5.5 Lok Adalats............................................................................................................................................. 71
5.6 SARFAESI ACT, 2002........................................................................................................................... 71
5.6.1 SARFAESI Act-Important Aspects......................................................................................... 71
5.6.2 Securitisation.......................................................................................................................... 73
5.6.3 Asset Reconstruction............................................................................................................... 73
5.6.4 Enforcement of Security Interest............................................................................................ 73
5.7 Lenders Liability Act.............................................................................................................................. 75
5.8 Banking Ombudsman.............................................................................................................................. 75
5.8.1 Important Features of Banking Ombudsman.......................................................................... 76
5.9 The Consumer Protection Act, 1986....................................................................................................... 77
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 78
References.................................................................................................................................................... 78
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 78
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 79
Chapter VI................................................................................................................................................... 81
Financial Analysis of Banks....................................................................................................................... 81
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 81
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 81
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 81
6.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 82
6.2 Financial Analysis................................................................................................................................... 82
6.2.1 Analysis of Balance Sheet....................................................................................................... 83
6.2.2 Analysis of Profit and Loss Account....................................................................................... 85
6.2.3 Analysis of Funds flow/Cash Flow Statements...................................................................... 86
6.3 Techniques used in Analysis of Financial Statements............................................................................ 86
6.4 Du Pont Model........................................................................................................................................ 88
6.4.1 Special Issues in Financial Analysis-Banking Industry.......................................................... 88
6.5 Financial Analysis by Bank as a Lender................................................................................................. 89
6.6 Bankers as Investors............................................................................................................................... 90
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 91
References.................................................................................................................................................... 91
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 91
Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 92
Chapter VII................................................................................................................................................. 94
Risk Management in Banks....................................................................................................................... 94
Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 94
Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 94
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 95
7.1.1 Risks........................................................................................................................................ 95
7.2 Risk Management-Important Features.................................................................................................... 96
7.3 Risk Management Structure.................................................................................................................... 98
7.3.1 Risk Management under Basel I............................................................................................. 98
7.3.2 Risk Management under Basel II............................................................................................ 98
7.4 Credit Risk Management........................................................................................................................ 99
V
7.4.1 Mitigation of Credit Risk........................................................................................................ 99
7.4.2 Credit Risk Measurement-Basel II Norms.............................................................................. 99
7.5 Liquidity and Market Risk Management................................................................................................ 99
7.5.1 Market Risks......................................................................................................................... 100
7.5.2 Other Important Risks........................................................................................................... 101
7.5.3 Country Risk Management System (CRMS)........................................................................ 102
7.6 Operational Risks.................................................................................................................................. 102
7.6.1 Some Examples of Operational Risks.................................................................................. 102
7.7 Risk Management under Basel III........................................................................................................ 103
7.8 Reporting of Banking Risks.................................................................................................................. 104
7.9 Risk Adjusted Performance Evaluation: Important Aspects................................................................. 104
Summary.................................................................................................................................................... 107
References.................................................................................................................................................. 107
Recommended Reading............................................................................................................................ 107
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter VIII...............................................................................................................................................110
Ethics and Corporate Governance in Banks...........................................................................................110
Aim..............................................................................................................................................................110
Objectives....................................................................................................................................................110
Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................110
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................111
8.1.1 Understanding Ethics.............................................................................................................111
8.1.2 Rights of People.....................................................................................................................111
8.1.3 Ethical and Unethical Issues..................................................................................................111
8.2 Business Ethics......................................................................................................................................111
8.2.1 What is a Code of Ethics?......................................................................................................112
8.2.2 Ethical Aspects in Human Resource Management................................................................112
8.2.3 Ethical Aspects in Marketing Management...........................................................................112
8.2.4 Ethical Aspect in Financial Management..............................................................................113
8.2.5 Desired Ethical Practices and Corporate Governance...........................................................114
8.3 Corporate Social Responsibility in the Financial Sector.......................................................................114
8.4 Corporate Governance in Banking System............................................................................................115
8.5 Compliance Officer................................................................................................................................116
8.6 Clause 49................................................................................................................................................116
8.6.1 Audit Committee (AC)...........................................................................................................116
8.6.2 Auditors and other Internal Audit Reports.............................................................................116
8.6.3 Customer Service Committee................................................................................................116
8.6.4 Special Committee for Monitoring Large Value Frauds........................................................116
8.6.5 IT Strategy Committee...........................................................................................................117
8.6.6 Remuneration Committee......................................................................................................117
8.6.7 Nomination Committee..........................................................................................................117
8.7 Disclosure New Clause 41.....................................................................................................................117
8.8 Basel Committee Recommendations.....................................................................................................118
8.9 Auditor’s Certificate on Corporate Governance....................................................................................118
Summary.....................................................................................................................................................119
References...................................................................................................................................................119
Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................119
Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 120
VI
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Different banks.................................................................................................................................. 5
Fig. 2.1 Three stages of money laundering................................................................................................... 23
Fig. 3.1 Banker customer relationship classification.................................................................................... 32
Fig. 4.1 Parties to a cheque........................................................................................................................... 50
Fig. 6.1 Types of analysis.............................................................................................................................. 82
Fig. 6.2 Du Pont chart................................................................................................................................... 88
Fig. 7.1 Types of risks................................................................................................................................... 95
Fig. 7.2 Broad classification of risks as per Basel norms............................................................................. 95
Fig. 7.3 Risk management steps................................................................................................................... 97
Fig. 7.4 Asset returns.................................................................................................................................. 105
Fig. 7.5 Interpreting the information ratio.................................................................................................. 106
VII
List of Tables
Table 1.1 No. of branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks as on 31st March, 2013................................... 4
Table 1.2 Constituents of the Indian banking system..................................................................................... 5
Table 2.1 Acts passed by the central and state governments........................................................................ 18
Table 5.1 Period of limitation and the time from which the period begins to run........................................ 67
VIII
Abbreviations
ABEP - Annual Branch Expansion Plan
ALCO - Asset-Liability Management Committee
ALM - Asset Liability Management
ATM - Automated Teller Machine
BCBS - Basel Committee on Banking Supervision
BRBNMPL - Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran Pvt. Ltd
BSCSBI - Banking Codes and Standards Board of India
CBS - Core Banking Solution
CDD - Customer Due Diligence
CGTMSE - Credit Guarantee for Micro and Small Enterprises
CPC - Central Processing Centres
CR - Current Ratio
CRMS - Country Risk Management System
DCCB - District Central Cooperative Bank
DER - Debt Equity Ratio
DRT - Debt Recovery Tribunals
DSCR - Debt Service Coverage Ratio
EBIT - Earnings Before Interest And Tax
EMS - Export Marketing Services
EXIM Bank - Export-Import Bank
FIP - Financial Inclusion Plan
FIU - Financial Intelligence Unit
HFC - Housing Finance Companies
HUF - Hindu Undivided Family
ICC - International Chamber of Commerce
ICR - Interest Coverage Ratio
IFC - International Financial Corporation
IRB - Internal Rating Based
KYC - Know Your Customer
LAB - Local Area Bank
LCR - Liquidity Coverage Ratio
LOC - Lines of Credit
M&A - Mergers & Acquisitions
MCA - Ministry of Corporate Affairs
MSME - Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise
NABARD - National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
NHB - National Housing Bank
NPA - Non Performing Asset
NPM - Net Profit Margin
NSFR - Net Stable Funding Ratio
OPM - Operating Profit Margin
PACS - Primary Agricultural Cooperative Societies
PCARDB - Primary Cooperative Agriculture & Rural Development Banks
PEP - Politically Exposed Person
RBI - Reserved Bank of India
ROCE - Return On Capital Employed
RRB - Regional Rural Bank
SA - Standardised Approach
SARFAESI - Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and the Enforcement of Security Interest
SCARDB - State Cooperative Agriculture & Rural Development Banks
SIDBI - Small Industries Development Bank of India
IX
SPMCIL - Security Printing and Minting Corporation of India Limited
UCB - Urban Cooperative Bank
UCO - United Commercial Bank
UNO - United Nations Organisation
X
Chapter I
An Introduction to Banking System
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1
Banking Law and Practice
1.1 Introduction
Indian Banking System for the last two centuries has witnessed numerous developments. The businessmen of the
ancient times, such as Sharoffs, Seths, Sahukars, Mahajans, Chettis, etc., ran the indigenous banking systems. The
standard functions of lending money to traders and craftsmen and sometimes financing the wars by placing funds at
the disposal of kings were performed by these indigenous bankers. The native bankers could not develop the system
of obtaining deposits from the public, which is an important function of modern banks.
It was in the last decades of the 18th century that modern banking in India originated. The General Bank of India
started in 1786, and the Bank of Hindustan was the first bank. After that, three presidency banks, the Bank of Bengal
(originally started in the year 1806 as Bank of Calcutta and then became the Bank of Bengal in the year 1809), the
Bank of Bombay and the Bank of Madras were set up. The Presidency banks for many years, acted as quasi-central
banks. The Imperial Bank of India was formed by the merger of these three banks in 1925. The Union Bank in 1839
was established by the Indian merchants in Calcutta. It failed in 1848 as a consequence of the economic crisis of
1848-49. Bank of Upper India was established in 1863, but that too failed in 1913.
The oldest survived Joint Stock bank in India is The Allahabad Bank established in 1865. Oudh Commercial Bank
was established in 1881 in Faizabad and failed in 1958. The next was the Punjab National Bank, established in Lahore
in 1895, which is now one of the largest banks in India. The Swadeshi movement encouraged local businessmen and
political figures to establish banks of and for the Indian community during 1906 to 1911. Bank of India, Corporation
Bank, Indian Bank, Bank of Baroda, Canara Bank and Central Bank of India have survived to the present. The main
landmark in Indian banking history took place in 1934 when a resolution was taken to establish ‘Reserve Bank of
India’ which started functioning in 1935. RBI, since then has been the regulating banking system of the country as
the central bank.
1.1.2 State Bank of India and its Associate (Subsidiaries) Banks-A New Channel of Rural Credit
The All India Rural Credit Survey Committee suggested the formation of a state-partnered and state-sponsored bank
by taking over the Imperial Bank of India, and integrating the former state-owned or state-associate banks with it in
order to serve the economy in general and the rural sector in particular. An Act was accordingly passed in Parliament
in May 1955 and the State Bank of India was constituted on 1 July 1955. Later, the State Bank of India (Subsidiary
Banks) Act was passed in 1959, enabling the State Bank of India to take over eight former state-associated banks as
its subsidiaries (later named Associates). The State Bank of India was thus born with a new sense of social purpose.
Associate Banks of State Bank of India, viz., State Bank of Hyderabad, State Bank of Mysore, State Bank of Bikaner
and Jaipur, State Bank of Travancore, State Bank of Patiala, State Bank of Indore, State Bank of Saurashtra has
been functioning as per the direction of State Bank of India.
Two banks, viz., State Bank of Patiala and State Bank of Hyderabad are fully-owned by State Bank of India and in
other Associate Banks; the majority of shareholdings are with the SBI. Out of these associate banks, two banks, viz.,
State Bank of Indore and State Bank of Saurashtra have been combined with the State Bank of India and fusion of the
remaining five banks is under process. State Bank of India and its Associate Banks were given favoured treatment by
RBI over the other commercial banks through their appointment as an agent of RBI for the performance of Central
and State Government business as well as the establishment of currency chests for the smooth cash management
in the country.
2
1.1.3 Nationalisation of Banks for Implementing Government Policies
When 14 major commercial banks in the private sector were nationalised on 19th July, 1969, Indian Banking System
saw a key revolution. Most of these banks that have deposits of above 50 crores were promoted by the industrialists.
These banks were the following:
• Allahabad Bank
• Bank of Baroda
• Bank of India
• Bank of Maharashtra
• Canara Bank
• Central Bank of India
• Dena Bank
• Indian Bank
• Indian Overseas Bank
• Punjab National Bank
• Syndicate Bank
• Union Bank of India
• United Bank of India
• United Commercial Bank (now known as UCO bank)
In 1980, six more commercial banks with deposits of above 200 crores were nationalised:
• Andhra Bank
• Corporation Bank
• New Bank of India
• Punjab and Sind Bank
• Oriental Bank of Commerce
• Vijaya Bank
The New Bank of India later merged with Punjab Nationalised Bank. The nationalisation of banks resulted in the
fast branch development and the number of commercial bank branches have increased many folds in Metro, Urban,
Semi-urban and Rural Areas. The branch network helped the banks to mobilise deposits and many economic activities
have been initiated on account of priority sector lending.
3
Banking Law and Practice
With joint shareholding by Central Government, the concerned State Government and the sponsoring bank, an attempt
was made to assimilate commercial banking within the broad policy thrust towards social banking considering the
peculiarities of that particular area. RRBs were supposed to play an essential role in mobilising the savings of the
small and marginal farmers, artisans, agricultural labourers and small entrepreneurs and encourage banking habit
among the rural people. These institutions were also expected to minimise the gap created in extending the credit
to rural areas by largely urban-oriented commercial banks and the rural cooperatives despite having close contact
with rural areas, but falling short in terms of funds.
The Raghuram Rajan Committee had foreseen these local area banks as private, well governed, deposit-taking small-
finance banks. They were to have high capital adequacy norms, a strict prohibition on related party transactions,
and lower concentration norms to counterbalance chances of higher risk from being geographically constrained.
Six entities were given licences to operate LABs by RBI, but only four are operational. Of these four banks, Capital
Local Area Bank accounted for more than 70 per cent of total assets of all four LABs taken together as on 31st
March, 2012.
Scheduled banks
Scheduled Banks in India are the banks which are listed in the Second Schedule of the Reserve Bank of India
Act1934. As compared to non-scheduled banks, the scheduled banks enjoy several privileges. Scheduled banks are
entitled to receive refinance facilities from the Reserve Bank of India. They are also permitted to have currency
chest facilities. They are entitled to become members of the Clearing House. Cooperative banks like commercial
banks may also become scheduled banks, if they satisfy the norms predetermined by RBI.
Regional Rural
12722 3228 891 166 17007
Banks
Total 37953 27219 19327 17844 102343
Table 1.1 No. of branches of Scheduled Commercial Banks as on 31st March, 2013
4
Non-scheduled banks
These are banks which are excluded in the Second Schedule of the Reserve Bank of India. These, classified as non-
scheduled banks do not function as per the norms of the Reserve Bank of India within the meaning of the RBI Act
or according to specific functions, etc., or according to the judgement of the Reserve Bank. Non-scheduled banks
are not capable of helping and defending the depositors’ interests.
5
Banking Law and Practice
By default the minimum 51% shares would be kept by the Government of India, and the management control of these
nationalised banks is only with Central Government. As all these banks have the ownership of Central Government,
they can be classified as public sector banks. Apart from the nationalised banks, State Bank of India, and its associate
banks, IDBI Bank and Regional Rural Banks are also included in the category of Public Sector banks. The total
numbers of public sector banks as on March 2013 were 82 as per the following categorisation:
• State Bank of India and its Associate Banks 6
• Nationalised Banks 19
• Regional Rural Banks 56
• IDBI Bank 1
In July 1993 on the basis of banking sector reforms, the Reserve Bank of India allowed many new banks to start off
banking operations. Some of the leading banks that were given licences were UTI bank (presently called Axis Bank)
ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, Yes Bank, etc.; these banks are recognised as New Generation
Private Sector Banks. Ten banks were licensed on the basis of guidelines issued in January 1993. The guidelines were
revised in January 2001 based on the experience gained from the functioning of these banks, and fresh applications
were invited. Of the 10 licences issued in 1993, four banks merged with other lenders over a period of time. Times
Bank merged with HDFC Bank, while Global Trust Bank was amalgamated with the state-owned Oriental Bank of
Commerce. Centurion Bank took over Bank of Punjab to become Centurion Bank of Punjab, which merged with
HDFC Bank in 2008.
On account of these new generation private sector banks, a new competitive environment was created in the Indian
Banking System. These banks were having competitive advantages over their counterparts (of the existing old private
banks, public sector banks) in their IT support system, inventive products, and their product- pricing. Private sector
banks have been swiftly increasing their presence in the modern times and tendering a variety of newer services to
the customers and posing a firm competition to the group of public sector banks. Total private sector banks as on
31st March 2013 were 22. Besides these, four Local Area Banks are also categorised as private banks.
6
Foreign banks have to hold on to all local laws as well as guidelines and directions of Indian Regulators, such as
Reserve Bank of India, Insurance and Regulatory Development Authority, Securities Exchange Board of India. The
foreign banks have to fulfil the requirements of the Reserve Bank of India in respect to Priority Sector lending, and
Capital Adequacy ratio and other norms. Total foreign banks as on 31st March, 2013 were 43 having 331 branches.
Besides these, 46 foreign banks have their representative offices in India as on 31st March, 2013.
These cooperative banks cater to the needs of agriculture, retail-trade, small and medium industries and self-employed
businessmen usually in urban, semi urban and rural areas. In case of co-operative banks, the shareholders should
be members of the co-operative banks. The share-linkage to borrowing is a unique feature of a co-operative bank.
Rural cooperative sector in India plays a crucial role in fulfilling the credit requirements of rural agricultural sector
of India. In recent times, the rural credit flow through rural cooperative sector has risen significantly in order to
keep up with the increasing demand for credit in the rural parts of India. The cooperative rural credit structure in
our country is discussed below.
The DCCB being the middle-tier of the Cooperative Credit Structure is functionally positioned to tackle the concerns
of both the upper and lower tiers. This very often puts the DCCB in a position of balancing competing concerns.
While the SCB may supervise District Central Cooperative wish the DCCB to prioritise its task in a particular
way, the PACs may have their own demands on the DCCB. Balancing these conflicting concerns could often be a
predicament for the DCCBs. There are 30 State Cooperative Banks. These banks support and guide 372 District
Central Cooperative Banks (DCCBs) in India which have 13,478 branches as on March, 2013. These DCCBs provide
finance to more than 35 lakhs farmers through 1.15 lakhs Primary Agricultural Cooperative Societies (PACS).
No. of SCARDBs 19
No. of PCARDBs 714
No. of Branches of PCARDBs 1,056
No. of Branches of Unitary SCARDBs 761
Annual Lending 17,603.42 Cr
Total Membership 13.65 Million
7
Banking Law and Practice
NABARD undertakes a number of inter-related activities/services which fall under the following three broad
categories:
• Credit dispensation: NABARD creates a potential linked credit plan which forms the basis for district credit
plans for each district annually. It participates in finalisation of Annual Action Plan at block, district and state
levels and monitors implementation of credit plans at above levels. It also provides guidance in evolving the
credit discipline to be followed by the credit institutions in financing production, marketing and investment
activities of rural farm and non- farm sectors.
• Developmental and promotional: The developmental role of NABARD can be broadly classified as follows:
Nurturing and strengthening of the Rural Financial Institutions (RFIs) like SCBs/SCARDBs, CCBs, RRBs,
etc., by various institutional strengthening initiatives.
Fostering the growth of the SHG Bank linkage programme and extending essential support to SHPIs NGOs/
VAs/Development Agencies and client banks.
Development and promotional ventures in farm and non-farm sectors.
Extending support for research and development.
Acting as a catalyst for Agriculture and rural growth in rural areas.
• Supervisory activities: As the Apex Development Bank, NABARD shares with the Central Bank of the country
(Reserve Bank of India) some of the supervisory functions in respect of Cooperative Banks and RRBs.
8
1.4.3.2 Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)
Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) was founded in October 1989 and initiated its operations from
April 1990 with its Head Office at Lucknow as a development bank. It is the chief and special financial institution
for the promotion, financing and development of the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise (MSME) sector and for
co-ordination of the functions of the institutions involved in similar activities. It is a central government undertaking.
The main aspiration of SIDBI is to sustain MSMEs by providing them the valuable factor of production finance.
Many institutions and commercial banks supply finance, both long-term and short-term, to small entrepreneurs.
SIDBI coordinates the work of all of them.
SIDBI has developed a strategy to investigate the problems faced by MSMEs and come out with tailor-made
solutions. It has covered around 600 MSME clusters, through a pan-India network of 85 branches, 50 Credit Advisory
Centres, and partnerships with cluster-level industry associations as on January 31, 2013. A special scheme of the
credit guarantee for Micro and Small Enterprises called CGTMSE has provided coverage to about 1 million with
guarantee covers for an aggregate loan amount of over Rs. 48,000 crore.
The NHB also provides refinance to Housing Finance Institutions for direct lending for construction/purchase of
new housing/dwelling units, public agencies for land development and shelter projects, primary cooperative housing
societies and property developers. At present, it is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Reserve Bank of India which
contributed the entire paid-up capital. RBI has suggested transferring its entire shareholding to the Government of
India to evade clash of ownership and regulatory roles. For this transfer, the central bank will pay RBI in cash, an
amount equal to the face value of the subscribed capital issued by the RBI. The exceptional portfolio of NHB at Rs.
33,083 crores as on 31st December 2012 is almost equally divided between the commercial banks and the HFCs.
9
Banking Law and Practice
Exim Bank lays special stress on extension of Lines of Credit (LOCs) to overseas entities, national governments,
regional financial institutions and commercial banks. Exim Bank also extends Buyer’s credit and Supplier’s credit
to finance and promote country’s exports. The Bank also provides financial assistance to export-oriented Indian
companies by way of term loans in Indian rupees or foreign currencies for establishing a new production facility,
expansion/modernisation or up-gradation of existing facilities and for acquirement of production equipment or
technology. Exim Bank helps Indian companies in their globalisation pains through a wide array of products
and services presented at all stages of the business cycle, starting from import of technology and export product
development to export production, export marketing, pre-shipment and post-shipment and overseas investment.
The Bank has initiated a new lending programme to finance research and development activities of export oriented
companies. R&D finance by Exim Bank is in the form of term loan to the extent of 80 per cent of the R&D cost.
In order to support in the creation and enhancement of export capabilities and international competitiveness of
Indian companies, the Bank has put in place an Export Marketing Services (EMS) Programme. Through EMS, the
Bank proactively assists companies in identification of prospective business partners to facilitating placement of
final orders. Under EMS, the Bank also assists in detection of opportunities to establish plants or projects or for
acquisition of companies overseas. The service is provided on a success fee basis.
Exim Bank supplements its financing programmes with a wide assortment of value-added information, advisory and
support services, which facilitate exporters to estimate international risks, exploit export opportunities and improve
competitiveness, thereby assisting them in their globalisation efforts.
Major functions
The major functions of the commercial banks are listed below as follows:
• Accepting deposits
• Granting advances
Other functions
The other functions of the commercial banks are listed below as follows:
• Discounting of bills and cheques
• Collection of bills and cheques
• Remittances
• Safe custody of articles
• Safe deposit lockers
• Issue of letter of credit
• Issue of guarantees
10
Besides the above functions, Banks now-a-days connect themselves in the following activities also either by opening
separate departments or through individually floated independent subsidiaries:
• Investment counselling
• Investment banking
• Mutual fund
• Project appraisal
• Merchant banking services
• Taxation advisory services
• Executor trustee services
• Credit card services
• Forex consultancy
• Transactions of government business
• Securities trading
• Factoring
• Gold/silver/platinum trading
• Venture capital financing
• Bank assurance: Selling of life and general insurance policies as corporate agent
11
Banking Law and Practice
Summary
• Indian Banking System for the last two centuries has witnessed numerous developments. It was in the last
decades of the 18th century that the modern banking in India originated.
• The General Bank of India started in 1786, and the Bank of Hindustan were the first banks.
• Scheduled Banks in India are the banks which are listed in the Second Schedule of the Reserve Bank of India
Act 1934.
• The term ‘public sector banks’ by itself refers to a situation, where the major/full stake in the banks is held by
the Government.
• The major stakeholders in the private sector banks are individuals and corporate.
• Foreign banks have their registered offices outside India, and through their branches they operate in India.
Foreign banks are allowed on reciprocal basis.
• Cooperative banks play a significant role in the Indian Financial System, especially at the village level.
• The term Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs), although not formally defined, refers to the primary cooperative
banks located in urban and semi-urban areas.
• National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was instituted in July 1982 by an Act of
Parliament based on the recommendations of CRAFICARD.
• National Housing Bank was established in July, 1988 as the top financing institution for the housing sector with
the directive to encourage competent, feasible and sound Housing Finance Companies (HFCs).
• Export-Import Bank of India was set up in 1982 by an Act of Parliament for the purpose of financing, facilitating
and promoting India’s foreign trade.
References
• An Overview of The Banking Sector. [Pdf] Available at: <http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/
bitstream/10603/2031/10/10_chapter%201.pdf> [Accessed 28 March 2014].
• Introduction to Banking. [Pdf] Available at: <http://krishnakonatham.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/introduction-
to-banking-part-i.pdf> [Accessed 28 March 2014].
• Iyengar, V., 2007. Introduction to Banking. Excel Books.
• Choudhary, M., 2011. An Introduction to Banking: Liquidity Risk and Asset-Liability Management. John Wiley
& Sons.
• Introduction to Austrian Economics, Lecture 4: The Theory of Banking. [Video online] Available at: <http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIztM-B_Eeg> [Accessed 28 March 2014].
• Money and Banking: Lecture 32 - Regulation of Banks 1. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=grXjA0btirI> [Accessed 28 March 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Bourke, J., 2000. Money, Money, Money: An Introduction to Banking and Money Concepts in Australia for
Ages 10+. Ready-Ed Publications.
• Glantz, M., 2003. Managing Bank Risk: An Introduction to Broad-base Credit Engineering, Volume 1. Academic
Press.
• Walker, G. A., 2001. International Banking Regulation: Law, Policy, and Practice. Kluwer Law
International.
12
Self Assessment
1. ____________ Banking in India originated in the last decades of the 18th century.
a. Modern
b. Technical
c. Cultural
d. International
3. Which banks are not included in the Second Schedule of the Reserve Bank of India?
a. Commercial Banks
b. Schedule Banks
c. Non-schedule Banks
d. Co-operative Banks
4. The major ___________in the private sector banks are individuals and corporate.
a. shareholders
b. investors
c. stakeholders
d. account holders
7. Which of the following banks have their registered offices outside India?
a. International
b. Commercial
c. Foreign
d. Scheduled
13
Banking Law and Practice
8. The urban co-operative banks can spread operations to other States and such banks are called as _____________
banks.
a. multi-state cooperative
b. cooperative
c. scheduled
d. non-scheduled
14
Chapter II
Regulation and Control on Banking in India
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
15
Banking Law and Practice
2.1 Introduction
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is India’s central banking institution, which manages the fiscal policy of the
Indian rupee. RBI was established on 1st April 1935 during the British Raj in agreement with the provisions of the
Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
The Act does not directly deal with the regulation of the banking system excluding few sections like Sec 42 which
relates to the maintenance of CRR by banks and Sec 18 which deals with direct discount of bills of exchange and
promissory notes as part of rediscounting facilities to control the credit to the banking system.
Some of the important provisions of the Banking Regulation Act 1949 are listed below:
• The term banking is defined as per Sec 5(i) (b), as acceptance of deposits of money from the public for the
purpose of lending and/or investment. Such deposits can be repayable on demand or otherwise and withdrawn
by means of cheque, drafts, and order or otherwise.
• Sec 5(i)(c) defines a banking company as any company which handles the business of banking.
• Sec 5(i)(f) distinguishes between the demand and time liabilities, as the liabilities which are repayable on demand
and time liabilities means which are not demand liabilities.
• Sec 5(i)(h) deals with the meaning of secured loans or advances. Secured loan or advance granted on the security
of an asset, the market value of such an asset in not at any time less than the amount of such loan or advances.
Whereas, unsecured loans are recognised as a loan or advance this is not secured.
• Sec 6(1) deals with the definition of banking business.
• Sec 7 specifies that banking companies doing banking business in India should use at least on work bank,
banking, and banking company in its name.
16
• Banking Regulation Act through a number of sections restricts or prohibits the following activities for a
bank:
Trading activities of goods are restricted as per Section 8.
Prohibitions: Banks are prohibited to hold any immovable property subject to certain terms and conditions
as per Section 9. Further, a banking company cannot create a charge upon any unpaid capital of the company
as per Section 14. Sec 14(A) stipulates that a banking company also cannot create a floating charge on the
undertaking or any property of the company without the prior permission of Reserve Bank of India.
A bank cannot declare dividend unless all its capitalised expenses are fully written off as per Section 15.
Section 24 specifies the requirement of maintenance of Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) as a percentage (as advised
by Reserve Bank of India from time-to-time) of the bank’s demand and time liabilities in the form of cash, gold
and unencumbered securities.
The important returns to be submitted by the banks to Reserve Bank of India are as follows:
• Return of bank’s liquid assets and liabilities (Monthly)
• Return of bank’s assets and liabilities in India (Quarterly)
• Return of unclaimed deposits of 10 years and above (Yearly)
With changing time and requirements from time-to-time, a variety of other compliance issues which need to be
handled by banks, have been amended/incorporated relating to the following:
• Nomination facilities
• Time period for preservation of bank books/records
Nationalised Banks-1969 Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1970
Nationalised Banks-1980 Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Act, 1980
17
Banking Law and Practice
All the above types of banks are required to follow the relevant laws of RBI Act and Banking Regulation Act besides
the provisions of the specific Act under which the said bank has been incorporated.
Reserve Bank of India would grant the licence and the permission subject to certain terms and conditions in each
case. It is open to the Reserve Bank of India to consider the findings of the inspection report under Sec 35 of the
Banking Regulation Act while disposing of an application for licence. Before granting a licence under Sec 22,
Reserve Bank may have to be satisfied by an inspection of the books of the banking company in respect of the
following aspects:
• Whether the company is or will be able to pay its present and future depositors in full as and when their claims
accrue.
• Whether the affairs of the company are being conducted or likely to be conducted in a manner detrimental to
the interests of its present and future depositors.
• Whether the company has an adequate capital structure and earning prospects.
• Whether public interest will be served by grant of licence to the company.
• Other issues relating to branch expansion, unbanked area and other aspects.
In respect of foreign banks, (which are incorporated outside India), application for a licence to the Reserve Bank
of India to open banks/branches in India, would be considered by RBI on satisfying the following conditions apart
from the conditions applicable to domestic banks:
• Whether carrying on of banking business by the company in India will be in public interest.
• Whether the government or the law of the country in which the company is incorporated discriminates against
banking companies registered in India.
• Whether the company complies with provisions of the BR Act as applicable to foreign companies.
Section 11 of the Banking Regulation Act stipulates the minimum capital and reserve requirements of Banking
Company. The Reserve Bank of India can stipulate a higher requirement of capital for licensing a company. As per
the provisions of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 Reserve Bank of India can cancel the licences granted to any
banking company on account of any one or more of the following reasons:
• The company ceases to carry on banking business in India.
• The company fails to comply with any of the conditions imposed under the specific provisions of the Banking
Regulation Act.
18
Before cancellation of a licence for non-compliance with any of the conditions, the company has to be given an
opportunity for taking necessary steps for complying with or fulfilling the conditions. However, in cases, where the
Reserve Bank is of the opinion that delays will be prejudiced to the interests of the depositors or the public, then
Reserve Bank can take appropriate action. A banking company whose licence is cancelled can appeal to the Central
Government within 30 days from the date of the order of cancellation.
As regards branch licensing, banks have to refer to the guidelines of the Reserve Bank from time-to-time, including
change of premises, shifting of branches to other locations, etc. As regards Regional Rural Banks, the application
for permission have to be routed through the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development and based on
the comments of NABARD, RBI would act accordingly.
The Branch Authorisation Policy for commercial banks as on 1st July, 2013 is as under:
• For the purpose of branch authorisation policy, a ‘branch’ means a full-fledged branch, including a specialised
branch, a satellite or mobile office, an Extension Counter, an off-site ATM (Automated Teller Machine),
administrative office, controlling office, service branch (back office or processing centre) and credit card centre.
A call centre will not be treated as a branch.
• Domestic scheduled commercial banks (other than RRBs) are permitted to open branches, Administrative
offices, Central Processing Centres (CPCs) and Service branches in Tier 2 to Tier 6 centres (with population up
to 99,999 as per Census 2001 and in rural, semi-urban and urban centres in North Eastern States and Sikkim,
and to open mobile branches in Tier 3 to Tier 6 centres (with population up to 49,999 as per Census 2001)and
in rural, semi-urban and urban centres in North Eastern States and Sikkim without permission from Reserve
Bank of India in each case, subject to reporting. As the concept of mobile branches was mooted for rural areas,
the general permission granted for operationalising mobile branches in Tier 3 to Tier 6 centres has not been
extended to the operationalisation of mobile branches in Tier 2 centres.
• With a view to further increasing operational flexibility of banks, domestic scheduled commercial banks (other
than RRBs) are permitted to open offices exclusively performing administrative and controlling functions
(Regional Offices/Zonal Offices) in Tier 1 Centres without the need to obtain prior permission in each case,
subject to reporting.
• Opening of branches/Central Processing Centres (CPCs)/Service branches by domestic scheduled commercial
banks (other than RRBs) in Tier 1 centres (centres with population of 1, 00,000 and above as per 2001 Census)
will continue to require prior permission of the Reserve Bank of India, except in the case of North Eastern States
and Sikkim, where the general permission would cover Tier-1 centres also.
• Domestic Scheduled Commercial Banks, while preparing their Annual Branch Expansion Plan (ABEP) should
allocate at least 25 percent of the total number of branches proposed to be opened during a year in unbanked
rural (Tier 5 and Tier 6) centres. An unbanked rural centre would mean a rural (Tier 5 and Tier 6) centre that
does not have a brick and mortar structure of any scheduled commercial bank for customer-based banking
transactions.
• In view of the requirement for opening at least 25 per cent of the branches under ABEP in unbanked rural
centres, it would now not be mandatory to open at least one third of the total number of branches proposed to
be opened in Tier 2 to Tier 6 centres in under-banked districts of under-banked States. However, as there is a
continuing need for opening more branches in under-banked districts of under-banked States for ensuring more
uniform spatial distribution, banks would be provided incentive for opening such branches. Accordingly, for
each branch proposed to be opened in Tier 2 to Tier 6 centres of under-banked districts of under-banked States,
19
Banking Law and Practice
excluding such of the rural branches proposed to be opened in unbanked rural centres that may be located in the
under-banked districts of under-banked States in compliance with the requirement as indicated in the paragraph
above, authorisation will be given for opening of a branch in a Tier 1 centre. This will be in addition to the
authorisation given for branches in Tier 1 centres based on the considerations stated above.
• Banks may consider front-loading (prioritising) the opening of branches in unbanked rural centres over a 3 year
cycle co-terminus with their Financial Inclusion Plan (2013-16). Credit will be given for the branches opened
in unbanked rural centres in excess of the required 25 percent of the ABEP for the year which will be carried
forward for achieving the criteria in the subsequent ABEP/year of the Financial Inclusion Plan (FIP).
The Reserve Bank handles the currency management function through its Department of Currency Management
in Mumbai. The combined value of gold coins, bullion and foreign securities held by RBI should not be below the
prescribed limit at any time. The Reserve Bank currency management is handled through two departments’, viz.,
the Issue Department and the Banking Department. The issue department should ensure that the aggregate value of
the currency notes and bank notes in circulation from time-to-time should be equivalent to the eligible assets (gold
coins, bullion and foreign securities) held by RBI.
20
Reserve Bank of India’s concern is on the level of forged notes infiltrated into the circulation. The Reserve Bank has
been on a regular basis educating the public, banks and others through press releases and exhibition of ‘Know Your
Bank Note’. Reserve Bank from time-to-time circulates information on the security features of the currency notes.
Banks are advised to install the required ultra violet machines and counterfeit note detecting machines. Reserve
Bank provides training to banks and government treasury offices and issues detailed guidelines on how to detect
and take further necessary steps including impounding of such notes.
2.6 Audit
The balance sheet and the profit and loss account of a banking company have to be audited as stipulated under
Section 30 of the Banking Regulation Act. Every banking company’s account needs to be verified and certified by
the Statutory Auditors as per the provisions of legal frame-work. The powers, functions and duties of the auditors
and other terms and conditions as applicable to auditors under the provisions of the Companies Act are applicable
to auditors of the banking companies as well. The audit of banking companies books of accounts calls for additional
details and certificates to be provided by the auditors.
Special responsibility is cast on the bank auditor in certifying the bank’s balance sheet and profit and loss account,
since that reflects the sound financial position of the banking company.
Apart from the balance sheet audit, Reserve Bank of India is empowered by the provisions of the Banking Regulation
Act to conduct/order a special audit of the accounts of any banking company. The special audit may be conducted
or ordered to be conducted in the opinion of the Reserve Bank of India that the special audit is necessary:
• In the public interest and/or
• In the interest of the banking company and/or in the interest of the depositors.
The Reserve Bank of India’s directions can order the bank to appoint the same auditor or another auditor to conduct
the special audit. The special audit report should be submitted to the Reserve Bank of India with a copy to the
banking company. The cost of the audit is to be borne by the banking company.
2.7 Inspection
As per Sec 35 of the Banking Regulation Act, the Reserve Bank of India is empowered to conduct an inspection of
any banking company. After conducting the inspection of the books, accounts and records of the banking company
a copy of the inspection report to be furnished to the banking company. The banking company, its directors and
officials are required to produce the books, accounts and records as required by the RBI inspectors, also the required
statements and/or information within the stipulated time as specified by the inspectors.
Government’s role:
The Central Government may direct the Reserve Bank to conduct inspection of any banking company. In such cases,
a copy of the report of inspection needs to be forwarded to the Central Government. On review of the inspection
report, the Central Government can take appropriate action. In the opinion of the Central Government, if the affairs
of the banking company is not being carried out in the interests of the banking company, public and or depositors,
the Central Government may prohibit the banking company to accept fresh deposits and direct the Reserve Bank to
apply for winding up of the banking company under the provisions of the Banking Regulation Act. Before taking
action, the Government has to give an opportunity to the banking company to explain their stand. Based on the
response, the Government can initiate appropriate action as required.
21
Banking Law and Practice
Scrutiny
Apart from inspecting the books and accounts of the company, the Reserve Bank can conduct scrutiny of the affairs
and the books of accounts of any banking company. Like in the case of inspection, the Reserve Bank can handle
the scrutiny as required.
2.8 Fraud
Fraud is a deception deliberately practised in order to secure unfair or unlawful gain (adjectival form fraudulent; to
defraud is the verb).As a legal construct, fraud is both a civil wrong (i.e., a fraud victim may sue the fraud perpetrator
to avoid the fraud and/or recover monetary compensation) and a criminal wrong (i.e., a fraud perpetrator may be
prosecuted and imprisoned by governmental authorities). Defrauding people or organisations of money or valuables
is the usual purpose of fraud, but it sometimes instead involves obtaining benefits without actually depriving anyone
of money or valuables, such as obtaining a driver’s licence by way of false statements made in an application for
the same.
22
2.9 Corporate Governance
Corporate governance is an integral part of the management control system which reflects the corporate strategy
in maintaining the image and reputation of the company. In today’s global competition, banks have to be careful
in ensuring their integrity in dealing with the financial aspects of their clients. In this respect, a dynamic corporate
governance practices are needed.
Corporate Governance means to ensure that the transparency, accountability in the interests of the stakeholders such
as the shareholders, employees, clients and others. Over the years ever since the Cadbury Committee in 1992 came
out with set of guidelines on the topic of Corporate Governance, many more committees have highlighted the need
for a changing corporate governance practices with the changing time and business environment.
Integration Placement
Layering
23
Banking Law and Practice
The Prevention of Money laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA) aimed at combating money laundering in India with
three main objectives to prevent and control money laundering to confiscate and seize the property obtained from
laundered money, and to deal with any other issue connected with money laundering in India. The Act provides
that whosoever directly or indirectly attempts to indulge or knowingly assists or knowingly is a party or is actually
involved in any process or activity connected with the proceeds of crime and projective it as untainted property
should be guilty offences of money laundering. For the purpose of money laundering, the PMLA identifies certain
offences under the Indian Penal Code, the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, the Arms Act, the Wild
Life (Protection) Act, the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act and the Prevention of Corruption Act, the proceeds of
which would be covered under this Act.
To combat the menace of aforesaid offences of money laundering the Government is entrusting the work relating
to investigation, attachment of property/proceeds of crime relating to the scheduled offences under the Act and
filling of complaints, etc., to the Directorate of Enforcement, which currently deals with offences under the Foreign
Exchange Management Act.
Similarly, they have to observe the norms regarding record keeping, reporting, account opening and monitoring
transactions. The Act has made various provisions regarding money laundering transactions which include
maintenance of record of all transactions relating to money laundering. Records relating to such transactions should
be preserved for 10 years from date of cessation of transactions between the client and the banking company.
Government has set up Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU-IND) to track and curb money laundering offences. Banks,
financial institutions, stock brokers, etc., are to report non-cash transactions (cheques/drafts) totalling to over Rs. 1
crore a month and cash transactions of Rs. 10 lakhs a month, to Financial Intelligence Unit.
Non-adherence of the provision of the Act will be an offence and these offences are cognisable/non-bailable.
Punishment would be rigorous imprisonment for not less than 3 years but up to 7 years and fine as per the gravity of
the offence. Enforcement Directorate has been made the designated authority to track cases of money laundering.
As per the Act, banking companies, financial institutions and intermediaries should maintain record of transactions,
identity of clients, etc. A director appointed by the Central Government has the right to call for records and impose
penalties in case of failure on the part of the banking companies and other financial intermediaries. Central Government
in consultation with the Reserve Bank has framed rules regarding the maintenance of records, retention period of
records, verification of the identity of client (KYC norms) and submitting the details and information to the director
when called upon to do so.
24
To ensure compliance under the PMLA, banking companies should strictly comply with the KYC norms without
any deviation. KYC norms are applicable for both the new and existing client accounts. One of the objectives of
KYC norms is the clear identity of the customer. The identity does not end with obtaining the required identity
proof like, verification and retaining copies of PAN card, Passport, AADHAR card, and other relevant documents as
specified. Further to obtaining the required application forms, the photo identity and address proof documents, banks
are required to ensure that all the relevant details like status of the customer, and relevant documentary verification
to confirm the status, declaration about the multiple bank account details, source of income, source of funds, and
expected income and activities in the accounts, etc., are obtained and bank records are updated with these details.
Banks should also accordingly set up internal control checking systems, whereby the system can identify and caution
the bank officials about unusual transactions, at the time of input stage to enable the officials to take appropriate action.
Banks should be very careful to avoid incidents of Money Laundering at the entry-level itself. This precautionary
action on the part of bank officials and the inbuilt warning system in the computers of banking companies would go a
long way to control the menace of Money Laundering. Banking companies should also ensure that as part of effective
control system, that all the employees at all levels should be informed and trained to practice anti money laundering
to safe-guard not only the customers' funds, but also to be proactive to avoid incidents of money laundering.
The internal auditors, external auditors including the Statutory Auditors and the Reserve Bank of India inspectors
should include the verification of the Anti-money Laundering procedures as part of their audit and inspection of
banking companies. They should ensure that all the required guidelines and directives in respect of Anti Money
Laundering including the adherence to the KYC norms, monitoring of accounts, maintenance of records, reporting
of high-volume transactions, suspicious transactions, filing of required returns to the authorities and proper control
mechanism are adhered to. The executives should ensure monitoring and controlling of such incidents. Further, the
computer systems should be upgraded with the required checking and cautioning of suspicious and unauthorised
transactions at the input stage.
The main function of the Board is to ensure adherence to the “Code of Bank’s Commitment to Customers”. The
Code is voluntary and sets minimum standards of banking practices for banks to follow when they are dealing
with individual customers in their day-to-day operations. The Code is not only meant to provide protection to the
individual customers, but is also expected to generate awareness in the common man about his rights as a consumer
of banking services.
Banks are required to register themselves with BCSBI as members and have the Code adopted by their respective
boards. Thereafter, the banks will have to enter into a covenant with BCSBI, binding them to monitoring by BSCBI
as far as implementation of the code is concerned. Any Scheduled Commercial Bank is eligible to become a member
of BCSBI. The Code represents each member bank’s commitment to minimum standards of service to individual
customers in relation to the following products and services offered by the bank:
• Deposit accounts
• Safe deposit lockers
• Settlement of accounts of deceased account holders
• Foreign exchange services
• Remittances within India
• Loans and advances and guarantees
25
Banking Law and Practice
• Credit cards
• Internet banking
• Interest rates
• Tariff schedule
• Terms and conditions governing relationship between the bank and the customer
• Compensation for loss, if any, to the customer due the acts of omission or commission on the part of the bank
• Privacy and confidentiality of the information relating to the customer
• Norms governing advertisements, marketing and sales by banks
• Have a Help desk/Helpline at the branch
• Have a Code Compliance officer at each Controlling office above the level of the branch
• Display at each branch name and contact number of Code Compliance Officer
• Display name and address of the Banking Ombudsman
In case a customer is not provided services as promised in the Code, he can first approach the help desk of the
branch/bank. In case the issue is not resolved, the Code Compliance Officer of the bank may be approached by the
complainant. In case the issue is still not resolved to the satisfaction of the customer, he should take it up with the
Banking Ombudsman.
26
• Levying of charges without adequate prior notice to the customer.
• Non-adherence by the bank or its subsidiaries to the instructions of Reserve Bank on ATM/Debit card operations
or credit card operations.
• Non-disbursement or delay in disbursement of pension (to the extent the grievance can be attributed to the action
on the part of the bank concerned, but not with regard to its employees).
• Refusal to accept or delay in accepting payment towards taxes, as required by Reserve Bank/Government.
• Refusal to issue or delay in issuing, or failure to service or delay in servicing or redemption of Government
securities.
• Forced closure of deposit accounts without due notice or without sufficient reason.
• Refusal to close or delay in closing the accounts.
• Non-adherence to the fair practices code as adopted by the bank or non-adherence to the provisions of the Code
of Banks Commitments to Customers issued by Banking Codes and Standards Board of India and as adopted
by the bank.
• Non-observance of Reserve Bank guidelines on engagement of recovery agents by banks.
• Any other matter relating to the violation of the directives issued by the Reserve Bank in relation to banking
or other services.
A customer can also lodge a complaint on the following grounds of deficiency in service with respect to loans and
advances:
• Non-observance of Reserve Bank Directives on interest rates.
• Delays in sanction, disbursement or non-observance of prescribed time schedule for disposal of loan
applications.
• Non-acceptance of application for loans without furnishing valid reasons to the applicant.
• Non-adherence to the provisions of the fair practices code for lenders as adopted by the bank or Code of Bank’s
Commitment to Customers, as the case may be.
• Non-observance of any other direction or instruction of the Reserve Bank as may be specified by the Reserve
Bank for this purpose from time-to-time.
• The Banking Ombudsman may also deal with such other matter as may be specified by the Reserve Bank from
time-to-time.
There is no cost involved in filing complaints with Banking Ombudsman. The Banking Ombudsman does not charge
any fee for filing and resolving customers’ complaints.
27
Banking Law and Practice
Summary
• The Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 was enacted to constitute the Reserve Bank of India with an objective to
regulate the issue of bank notes, for keeping reserves to ensure stability in the monetary system and to operate
effectively the nation’s currency and credit system.
• The term banking is defined as per Sec 5(i) (b), as acceptance of deposits of money from the public for the
purpose of lending and/ or investment. Banking Regulation Act through a number of sections restricts or prohibits
certain activities for a bank.
• Banks are prohibited to hold The Banking Regulation Act,1949 requires a company or entity to obtain a licence
from the Reserve Bank of India to start the business of banking in India.
• Section 11 of the Banking Regulation Act stipulates the minimum capital and reserve requirements of Banking
Company.
• The opening of branches by banks is governed by the provisions of Section 23 of the Banking Regulation Act,
1949.
• Promoters/ Promoter Groups should be ‘fit and proper’ in order to be eligible to promote banks through a wholly
owned NOFHC.
• The NOFHC will be registered as a non-banking financial company (NBFC) with the RBI and will be governed
by a separate set of directions issued by RBI.
• As per the relevant provisions of the Banking Regulation Act, at least fifty one percent of the total number of
directors should be persons, who have special knowledge or practical experience, with respect of accountancy,
agriculture and rural economy, banking, economics, finance, law, etc.
• Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is the mandatory reserves to be maintained with Reserve Bank of India.
• Open market operations are a flexible instrument of credit control by means of which the Reserve Bank on
its own initiative alters the liquidity position of the bank by dealing directly in the market instead of using its
influence indirectly by varying the cost of credit.
• A banking company may be amalgamated with another banking company as per BR Act.
• There are various types of users of the financial statements of banks like shareholders, investors, creditors,
credit rating agencies, management students and others who need information about the financial position and
performance of the banks.
• The Banking Ombudsman Scheme enables an expeditious and inexpensive forum to bank customers for resolution
of complaints relating to certain services rendered by banks.
References
• Banking Regulation Act, 1949. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.cooperation.ap.gov.in/pdf/BR%20Act%201949.
pdf> [Accessed 1 April 2014].
• The Banking Regulation Act, 1949. [Pdf] Available at: <https://www.nabard.org/pdf/India_Banking_
BankingRegulationAct1949.pdf> [Accessed 1 April 2014].
• Bosch, R., 2012. Banking Regulation: Jurisdictional Comparisons. Sweet & Maxwell.
• Basu, C. R., 1991. Commercial Banking in the Planned Economy of India. Mittal Publications.
• Regulatory Environment and RBI lecture by Divya Jangid. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=trjD53WzfAY> [Accessed 1 April 2014].
• SEBI as Regulatory Body in Indian Financial System Lecture by Mr. B.K. Jain. [Video online] Available at:
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nHcOpEn_zAA> [Accessed 1 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Rajesh, Banking Theory Law N Practice. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
• Kapila, R. & Kapila, U., 2001. India’s Banking and Financial Sector in the New Millennium, Volume 2.
Academic Foundation.
• Khanna, P., 2005. Advanced Study in Money and Banking: Theory and Policy Relevance in the Indian Economy,
Volume 1. Atlantic Publishers & Dist.
28
Self Assessment
1. Which of the following act was enacted to constitute the Reserve Bank of India?
a. The Banking Regulation Act, 1949
b. The Reserve Bank of India Act,1934
c. The State Bank of India Act, 1955
d. The Regional Rural Banks Act, 1986
2. The opening of branches by banks is governed by the provisions of Section 23 of the _____________.
a. Banking Regulation Act, 1949
b. Reserve Bank of India Act,1934
c. State Bank of India Act, 1955
d. Regional Rural Banks Act, 1986
3. Which of the following term is defined as per Sec 5(i) (b), as acceptance of deposits of money from the public
for the purpose of lending and/or investment?
a. Regulation
b. Act
c. Banking
d. Company
D. It distinguishes between the demand and time liabilities, as the liabilities
4. Sec 6(1) which are repayable on demand and time liabilities means which are not
demand liabilities.
a. 1- A, 2- B, 3-C, 4- D
b. 1- B, 2- D, 3-A, 4- C
c. 1- C, 2- A, 3-D, 4- B
d. 1- D, 2- C, 3-B, 4- A
5. Which of the following section specifies banking companies doing banking business in India should use at least
on work bank, banking, and banking company in its name?
a. Sec 7
b. Sec 6(1)
c. Sec 5(i)(h)
d. Sec 5(i)(f)
6. The currency (bank notes) of our country is issued by the __________ Bank of India.
a. State
b. Reserve
c. Central
d. Rural
29
Banking Law and Practice
7. The Reserve Bank has the sole right to issue and management of currency in India under __________ of the
RBI Act.
a. Section 22
b. Section 20
c. Section 2
d. Section 7
9. What means acquiring, owning, possessing or transferring any proceeds ( of money) of crime or knowingly
entering into any transaction related to proceeds of the crime either directly or indirectly or concealing or aiding
in the concealment of the proceeds or gains of crime, within or outside India?
a. Corporate governance
b. Laundering
c. Layering
d. Integration
30
Chapter III
Banker-Customer Relation
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
• describe a customer
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
31
Banking Law and Practice
3.1 Introduction
The nature of service provided by a banker decides the relationship between a banker and his customer. Accepting
deposits and lending and/or investing is the core banking business of a bank. In addition to its primary functions, it
deals with various customers by providing other services like safe custody services, safe deposit lockers, and helping
the clients by collecting their cheques and other instruments as an agent and trustees for them.
Debtor/Creditor
Creditor/Debtor
Bailee/Bailer
Lesser/Lessee
Agent/Principal
From the above diagram, it can be seen that different types of relationships exist between a banker and customer.
Section 7 of this Act makes it essential for every company carrying on the business of banking in India to use as part
of its name at least one of the words, bank, banker, banking or banking company. Section 49A of the Act prohibits
any institution other than a banking company to accept deposit money from public withdrawal by cheque. The
essence of banking business is the task of accepting deposits from public with the facility of withdrawal of money
by cheque. In other words, the combination of the functions of acceptance of public deposits and withdrawal of the
money by cheques by any institution cannot be performed without the approval of Reserve Bank.
32
• Commercial in nature: As all the banking functions are carried on with the aim of making profit, it is regarded
as a commercial institution.
• Nature of agent: Besides the basic function of accepting deposits and lending money as loans, bank possesses
the character of an agent because of its various agency services.
3.3 Customer
The term ‘customer’ of a bank is not defined by law. Ordinarily, a person who has an account in a bank is considered
as customer. Banking experts and the legal judgements in the past, however, used to meet the requirements of this
statement by laying emphasis on the period for which such account had actually been maintained with the bank.
In Sir John Paget’s view “to constitute a customer there must be some recognisable course or habit of dealing in
the nature of regular banking business.” This definition of a customer of a bank lays emphasis on the duration of
the dealings between the banker and the customer and is, therefore, called the ‘duration theory’. According to this
viewpoint a person does not become a customer of the banker on the opening of an account; he must have been
accustomed to deal with the banker before he is chosen as a customer. The above-mentioned emphasis on the duration
of the bank account is now discarded.
According to Dr. Hart, “a customer is one who has an account with a banker or for whom a banker habitually
undertakes to act as such.” Supporting this viewpoint, the Kerala High Court observed in the case of Central Bank of
India Ltd. Bombay vs. V.Gopinathan Nair and others (A.I.R., 1979, Kerala 74), “Broadly speaking, a customer is a
person who has the habit of resorting to the same place or person to do business.” So far as banking transactions are
concerned, he is a person whose money has been accepted on the footing that banker will honour up to the amount
standing to his credit, irrespective of his connection being of short or long-standing.”
Thus, a person who has a bank account in his name and for whom the banker undertakes to provide the facilities as
a banker is considered to be a customer. It is not essential that the account must have been operated upon for some
time. Even a single deposit in the account will be sufficient to designate a person as customer of the banker. Though
emphasis is not being laid on the habit of dealing with the banker in the past, but such habit may be expected to be
developed and continued in figure. In other words, a customer is expected to have regular dealings with his banker
in future.
An important consideration which determines a person’s status as a customer is the nature of his dealings with a
banker. It is evident from the above that his dealings with the banker must be relating to the business of banking.
A banker performs a number of agency functions and tenders various public utility services besides performing
essential functions as a banker. A person who does not deal with the banker in regard to the essential functions of
the banker, i.e., accepting of deposits and lending of money, but avails of any of the services rendered by the banker,
is not called a customer of the banker.
For example, any person without a bank account in his name may remit money through a bank draft, encash a
cheque received by him from others or deposit his valuables in the Safe Deposit Vaults in the bank or deposit cash
in the bank to be credited to the account of the Life Insurance Corporation or any joint stock company issuing new
shares. However, he will not be called a customer of the banker as his dealing with the banker is not in regard to
the essential functions of the banker. Such dealings are considered as casual dealings and are not in the nature of
banking business. Thus, to constitute a customer the following essential requisites must be fulfilled:
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Banking Law and Practice
• A bank account, savings, current or fixed deposit must be opened in his name by making necessary deposit of
money.
• The dealing between the banker and the customer must be of the nature of banking business.
A customer of a banker need not necessarily be a person. A firm, joint stock company, a society or any separate legal
entity may be a customer. Explanation to Section 45-Z of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, clarifies that section
‘customer’ includes a government department and a corporation incorporated by or under any law.
As the banker-customer relationship is contractual, a bank follows that any person who is competent to contract can
open a deposit account with a bank branch of his/her choice and convenience. For entering into a valid contract,
a person needs to fulfil the basic requirements of being a major (18 years of age or above) and possessing sound
mental health (i.e., not being a lunatic). A person who fulfils these basic requirements, as also other requirements of
the banks as mentioned below, can open a bank account. However, minors (below 18 years of age) can also open
savings account with certain restrictions. Though any person may apply for opening an account in his name, the
banker may reserve the right to do so on being satisfied about the identity of the customer.
By opening an account with the banker, a customer enters into relationship with a banker. The special features of
this relationship impose several obligations on the banker. He should, therefore, be careful in opening an account
in his name, but the banker reserves the right to do so on being satisfied about the identity of the customer. Prior
to the introduction of ‘Know Your Customer (KYC)’ guidelines by the RBI, it was the practice amongst banks to
get a new customer introduced by a person who has already one satisfactory bank account with the Bank or by a
staff member who knows him properly. Most of the banks preferred introduction to be given by a current account
holder. Different practices of various banks were causing confusion and sometimes loss to the bank on not opening
‘properly’ introduced account, when any fraud took place in the account. A new customer was also facing difficulty
in opening an account, if he was a new resident of that area. To overcome all these problems and streamline the
system of knowing a customer, RBI has directed all banks to adopt KYC guidelines.
If the creditor accepts such payment, it must be applied accordingly. For example, A owes B several debts, including
Rs. 1,000/- upon a promissory note which falls due on 1st December, 1986. He owes B no other debt of that amount.
On 1-12-1986, A pays B Rs.1,000/-. The payment is to be applied to the discharge of the promissory note. If the
debtor does not intimate or there is no other circumstance indicating to which debt the payment is to be applied, the
right of appropriation is vested in the creditor. He may apply it as his discretion to any lawful debt actually due and
payable to him from the debtor (Section 60). Further, where neither party makes any appropriation, the payment
shall be applied in discharge of each proportionately (Section 61).
34
In M/s. Kharavela Industries Pvt. Ltd. v. Orissa State Financial Corporation and Others [AIR 1985 Orissa 153 (A)],
the question arose whether the payment made by the debtor was to be adjusted first towards the principal or interest
in the absence of any stipulation regarding appropriation of payments in the loan agreement. The Court held that
in case of a debt due with interest, any payment made by the debtor is in the first instance to be applied towards
satisfaction of interest and thereafter toward the principal, unless there is an agreement to the contrary.
In case a customer has a single account and he deposits and withdraws money from it frequently, the order in which
the credit entry will set off the debit entry is the chronological order, as decided in the famous Clayton’s Case. Thus,
the first item on the debit side will be the item to be discharged or reduced by a consequent item on the credit side.
The credit entries in the account adjust or set-off the debit entries in the chronological order. The rule derived from
the Clayton’s case is of great practical importance to the bankers. In a case of death, retirement or insolvency of a
partner of a firm, the then existing debt due from the firm is adjusted or set-off by the ensuing credit made in the
account.
The banker thus loses his right to claim such debt from the assets of the deceases, retired or insolvent partner and
may ultimately suffer the loss if the debt cannot be recovered from the remaining partners. Therefore, to avoid the
operation of the rule given in the Clayton’s case the banker closes the old account of the firm and opens a new one in
the name of the reconstituted firm. Thus the liability of the deceased, retired or insolvent partner, as the case may be,
at the time of his death, retirement or insolvency is determined and he may be held liable for the same. Consequent
deposits made by surviving/solvent partners will not be applicable to discharge the same.
A particular lien can be exercised by a craftsman or a person who has spent his time, labour and money on the goods
retained. In such cases, goods are retained for a particular debt only. For example, a tailor has the right to keep the
clothes made by him for his customer, until his tailoring charges area paid by the customer. So is the case with public
carriers and the repair shops. A general lien, on the other hand, is applicable in respect of all amounts due from the
debtor to the creditor. Section 171 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, confers the right of general lien on the bankers
as follows, “Bankers… may, in the absence of a contract to the contrary, retain as a security for a general balance
of account, any goods bailed to them.”
35
Banking Law and Practice
• The right of lien is conferred upon the banker by the Indian Contract Act: No separate agreement or contract is,
therefore, necessary for this purpose. However, to be on the safe side, the banker takes a letter of lien from the
customer mentioning that the goods are entrusted to the banker as security for a loan, existing or future taken
from the banker and that the latter can exercise his right of lien over them. The banker is also authorised to sell
the goods in case of default on the part of the customer. The latter thus spells out the object of entrusting the
goods to the banker, so that the same may not be denied by the customer later on.
• The right of lien can be exercised on goods or other securities standing in the name of the borrower and not
jointly with others. For example, in case the securities are held in the joint names of two or more persons, the
banker cannot exercise his right of general lien in respect of a debt due from a single person.
• The banker can exercise his right of lien on the securities remaining in his possession after the loan, for which
they are lodged, is repaid by the customer, if no contract to contrary exists. In such cases, it is an implied
presumption that the customer has re-offered the same securities as a cover for any other advance outstanding
on that date or taken subsequently. The banker is also entitled to exercise the right of general lien in respect of
a customer’s obligation as a surety and to retain the security offered by him for a loan obtained by him for his
personal use and which has been repaid.
In Stephen Manager North Malabar Gramin Bank vs. Chandra Mohan and State of Kerala, the loan agreement
authorised the bank to treat the ornaments not only as a security for that loan transaction, but also for any other
transaction or liability existing or to be incurred in future. As the liability of the surety is joint and several with that
of the principal debtor, such liability also came within the ambit of the above provision of the agreement.
Section 171 of the Contract Act entitles a banker to retain the goods bailed to him for any other debt due to him,
i.e., any debt taken prior to the debt for which the goods were entrusted as security. However in a lien, there should
be a right of possession because, lien is a right of one man to retain that which is in his possession belonging to
another. Possession of the goods by the person claiming right of lien, is anterior to the exercise of that right and
for which possession whether actual or conductive is a must. (Syndicate Bank vs. Davander Karkare (A.I.R. 1994
Karnataka 1)
3.6.1 Individuals
Accounts of individuals form a major chunk of the deposit accounts in the personal segment of most banks. Individuals
who are major and of sound mind can open a bank account. The following are the various types of individuals:
• Minors: In case of minor, a banker would open a joint account with the natural guardian. However to encourage
the habit of savings, banks open minor accounts in the name of a minor and allows single operations by the
minor himself/ herself. Such accounts are opened subject to certain conditions as follows:
The minor should be of some minimum age say 12 or 13 years or above.
Should be literate.
No overdraft is allowed in such accounts.
Two minors cannot open a joint account.
The father is the natural guardian for opening a minor account, but RBI has authorised mother also to sign
as a guardian (except in case of Muslim minors).
• Joint Account Holders: A joint account is an account by two or more persons. At the time of opening the account
all the persons should sign the account opening documents. Operating instructions may vary, depending upon
the total number of account holders. In case of two persons it may be as follows:
Jointly by both account holders either or survivor former or survivor In case no specific instructions is given,
then the operations will be by all the account holders jointly
The instructions for operations in the account would come to an end in cases of insanity, insolvency, death
of any of the joint holders and operations in the account will be stopped
36
• Illiterate Persons: Illiterate persons who cannot sign are allowed to open only a savings account (without cheque
facility) or fixed deposit account. They are generally not permitted to open a current account. The following
additional requirements need to be met while opening accounts for such persons:
The depositor’s thumb impression (in lieu of signature) is obtained on the account opening form in the
presence of preferably two persons, who are known to the bank and who have to certify that they know
the depositor.
The depositor’s photograph is affixed to the ledger account and also to the savings passbook for
identification.
Withdrawals can be made from the account when the passbook is furnished, the thumb impression is verified and
a proper identification of the account holder is obtained
HUF business is quite distinct from partnership business which is governed by Indian Partnership Act, 1932. In
partnership, all partners are individually and collectively liable to outsiders for the dues of the partnership and all
their individual assets, apart from the assets of the partnership, would be liable for attachment for partnership dues.
Contrarily, in HUF business, the individual properties of the coparceners are spared from attachment for HUF
dues.
The following special requirements are to be fulfilled by the banks for opening and conducting HUF accounts:
• The account is opened in the name of the Karta or in the name of the HUF business.
• A declaration signed by Karta and all coparceners, affirms the composition of the HUF, its Karta and names
and relationship of all the coparceners, including minor sons and their date of birth.
• The account is operated only by the Karta or the authorised coparceners.
• In determining the security of the family property for purposes of borrowing, the self-acquired properties of
the coparceners are excluded.
• On the death of a coparcener, his share may be handed over to his wife, daughters and other female relatives as
per the Hindu Succession Act, 1956.
The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 has been amended in 2005. The Amendment Act confers equal rights to daughters in
the Mitakshara Coparcenary property. With this amendment the female coparcener can also act as Karta of the HUF.
When any HUF property is to be mortgaged to the Bank as a security of loan, all the major coparceners (including
female coparceners) will have to execute the documents.
3.6.3 Firms
The concept of ‘Firm’ indicates either a sole proprietary firm or a partner-ship firm. A sole proprietary firm is wholly
owned by a single person, whereas a partnership firm has two or more partners. The sole-proprietary firm’s account
can be opened in the owner’s name or in the firm’s name. A partnership is defined under section 4 of the Indian
Partnership Act, 1932, as the relationship between persons who have agreed to share the profits of business carried
on by all or any of them acting for all. It can be created by an oral as well as written agreement among the partners.
The Partnership Act does not provide for the compulsory registration of a firm. While an unregistered firm cannot sue
others for any cause relating to the firm’s business, it can be sued by the outsiders irrespective of its registration.
In view of the features of a partnership firm, bankers have to ensure that the following requirements are complied
with while opening its account:
37
Banking Law and Practice
• The account is opened in the name of the firm and the account opening form is signed by all the partners of
the firm.
• Partnership deed executed by all the partners (whether registered or not) is recorded in the bank’s books, with
suitable notes on ledger heading, along with relevant clauses that affect the operation of the account.
• Partnership letter signed by all the partners is obtained to ensure their several and joint liabilities. The letter
governs the operation of the account and is to be adhered to accordingly.
3.6.4 Companies
A company is a legal entity, distinct from its shareholders or managers, as it can sue and be sued in its own name.
It is a perpetual entity until dissolved. Its operations are governed by the provisions of the Companies Act, 1956.
A company can be of three types:
• Private Limited company: Having 2 to 51 shareholders.
• Public company: Having 7 or more shareholders.
• Government company: Having at least 51per cent shareholdings of Government (Central or State).
The following requirements are to be met, while opening an account in the name of a company:
• The account opening form meant for company accounts should be filled and specimen signatures of the authorised
directors of the company should be obtained.
• Certified up-to-date copies of the Memorandum and Articles of Association should be obtained. The powers
of the directors need to be perused and recorded to guard against ‘ultra vires’ acts of the company and of the
directors in future.
• Certificate of Incorporation (in original) should be perused and its copy retained on record.
• In the case of Public company, certificate of commencement of business should be obtained and a copy of the
same should be recorded. A list of directors duly signed by the Chairman should also be obtained.
• Certified copy of the resolution of the Board of Directors of the company regarding the opening, execution of
the documents and conduct of the account should be obtained and recorded.
3.6.5 Trusts
A trust is a relationship where a person (trustee) holds property for the benefit of another person (beneficiary) or
some object in such a way that the real benefit of the property accrues to the beneficiary or serves the object of the
trust. A trust is generally created by a trust deed and all concerned matters are governed by the Indian Trusts Act,
1882. The trust deed is carefully examined and its relevant provisions, noted. A banker should exercise extreme
care by functioning in the following manner while conducting the trust accounts:
• A trustee cannot delegate his powers to other trustees, nor can all trustees by common consent delegate their
powers to outsiders.
• The funds in the name of the trust cannot be used for crediting in the trustee’s account, or for liquidating the
debts standing in the name of the trustee.
• The trustee cannot raise loan without the permission of the court, unless permitted by the trust deed.
38
3.6.6 Clubs
Account of a proprietary club can be opened like an individual account. However, clubs that are collectively owned
by several members and are not registered under Societies Registration Act, 1860, or under any other Act, are treated
like an unregistered firm. While opening and conducting the account of such clubs, the following requirements are
to be met:
• Certified copy of the rules of the club is to be submitted.
• Resolution of the managing committee or general body, appointing the bank as their banker and specifying the
mode of operation of the account has to be submitted.
• The person operating the club account should not credit the cheques drawn favouring the club, to his personal
account.
39
Banking Law and Practice
The banker is also competent to terminate his relationship with the customer, if he finds that the latter is no more a
desirable customer. The banker takes this extreme step in circumstances when the customer is guilty of conducting
his account in an unsatisfactory manner, i.e., if the customer is convicted for forging cheques or bills or if he issues
cheques without sufficient funds or does not fulfil his commitment to pay back the loans or overdrafts, etc. The
banker should take the following steps for closing such an account:
• The banker should give to the customer due notice of his intention to close the account and request him to
withdraw the balance standing to his credit. This notice should give sufficient time to the customer to make
alternative arrangements. The banker should not, on his own, close the account without such notice or transfers
the same to any other branch.
• If the customer does not close the account on receipt of the aforesaid notice, the banker should give another
notice intimating the exact date by which the account be closed otherwise the banker himself will close the
account. During this notice period the banker can safely refuse to accept further credits from the customer and
can also refuse to issue fresh cheque book to him. Such steps will not make him liable to the customer and will
be in consonance with the intention of the notice to close account by a specified date.
The banker should, however, not refuse to honour the cheques issued by the customer, so long as his account has a
credit balance that will suffice to pay the cheque. If the banker dishonours any cheque without sufficient reasons,
he will be held liable to pay damages to his customer under Section 31 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881. In
case of default by the customer to close the account, the banker should close the account and send the money by
draft to the customer. He will not be liable for dishonouring cheques presented for payment subsequently.
40
3.8.1 Customer Identification Procedure
Customer identification means identifying the customer and verifying his/her identity by using reliable, independent
source documents, data or information. Banks need to obtain sufficient information necessary to establish to their
satisfaction, the identity of each new customer, whether regular or occasional, and the purpose of the intended nature
of banking relationship. Being satisfied means that the bank must be able to satisfy the competent authorities that
due diligence was observed based on the risk profile of the customer in compliance with the extant guidelines in
place.
The risk-based approach is considered necessary to avoid disproportionate cost to banks and a burdensome regime for
the customers. Besides risk perception, the nature of information/documents required would also depend on the type
of customer (individual, corporate, etc.). For customers that are natural persons, the banks should obtain sufficient
identification data to verify the identity of the customer, his address/ location, and also his recent photograph. For
customers that are legal persons or entities, the bank should:
• Verify the legal status of the legal person/entity through proper and relevant documents.
• Verify that any person purporting to act on behalf of the legal person/entity is so authorised and identify and
verify the identity of that person.
• Understand the ownership and control structure of the customer and determine the natural persons who ultimately
control the legal person.
41
Banking Law and Practice
on the person in the public domain. Banks should verify the identity of the person and seek information about
the sources of funds before accepting the PEP as a customer. The decision to open an account for PEP should
be taken at a senior level which should be clearly spelt out in Customer Acceptance Policy. Banks should also
subject such accounts to enhanced monitoring on an ongoing basis. The above norms may also be applied to
the accounts of the family members or close relatives of PEPs.
• Accounts of non-face-to-face customers: With the introduction of telephone and electronic banking, increasingly
accounts are being opened by banks for customers without the need for the customer to visit the bank branch. In
the case of non-face-to-face customers, apart from applying the usual customer identification procedures, there
must be specific and adequate procedures to mitigate the higher risk involved. Certification of all the documents
presented should be insisted upon and, if necessary, additional documents may be called for. In such cases, banks
may also require the first payment to be effected through the customer’s account with another bank which, in
turn, adheres to similar KYC standards. In the case of cross-border customers, there is the additional difficulty
of matching the customer with the documentation and the bank may have to rely on third party certification/
introduction. In such cases, it must be ensured that the third party is a regulated and supervised entity and has
adequate KYC systems in place.
• Basic Savings Bank Deposit Accounts (No-Frills Savings Bank accounts). The features of Basic Savings Bank
Deposit Accounts are as follows:
Persons belonging to low income group both in urban and rural areas are not able to produce such documents
to satisfy the bank about their identity and address. This may lead to their inability to access the banking
services and result in their financial exclusion. Accordingly, the KYC procedure also provides for opening
accounts for those persons who intend to keep balances not exceeding Rupees Fifty Thousand (50,000/-)
in all their accounts taken together and the total credit in all the accounts taken together is not expected to
exceed Rupees One Lakh (1,00,000/-) in a year. In such cases, if a person who wants to open an account
and is not able to produce documents mentioned as mentioned in the chart below, banks should open an
account for him, subject to introduction from another account holder who has been subjected to full KYC
procedure. The introducer’s account with the bank should be at least six months old and should show
satisfactory transactions. Photograph of the customer who proposes to open the account and also his address
needs to be certified by the introducer.
While opening accounts as described above, the customer should be made aware that if at any point of
time, the balances in all his/her accounts with the bank (taken together) exceeds Rupees Fifty Thousand
(Rs. 50,000/-) or total credit in the account exceeds Rupees One Lakh (Rs. 1, 00,000/-) in a year, no further
transactions will be permitted until the full KYC procedure is completed. In order not to inconvenience the
customer, the bank must notify the customer when the balance reaches Rupees Forty Thousand (Rs. 40,000/-)
or the total credit in a year reaches Rupees Eighty thousand (Rs. 80,000/-) that appropriate documents for
conducting the KYC must be submitted, otherwise operations in the account will be stopped.
42
The Power of Attorney is then registered in the branch’s documents and the attorney’s signature is recorded in the
account for its operation. A ‘mandate’, which is a simpler and a general purpose version of the power of attorney, is
a simple authority given in writing to the banker by a customer, authorising a named person to operate the account
temporarily for a specified period.
The banker is also competent to terminate his relationship with the customer, if he finds that the latter is no more a
desirable customer. The banker takes this extreme step in circumstances when the customer is guilty of conducting
his account in an unsatisfactory manner, i.e., if the customer is convicted for forging cheques or bills or if he issues
cheques without sufficient funds or does not fulfil his commitment to pay back the loans or overdrafts, etc.
The banker should take the following steps for closing such an account:
• The banker should give to the customer due notice of his intention to close the account and request him to
withdraw the balance standing to his credit. This notice should give sufficient time to the customer to make
alternative arrangements. The banker should not, on his own, close the account without such notice or transfers
the same to any other branch.
• If the customer does not close the account on receipt of the aforesaid notice, the banker should give another
notice intimating the exact date by which the account be closed otherwise the banker himself will close the
account. During this notice period, the banker can safely refuse to accept further credits from the customer and
can also refuse to issue fresh cheque book to him. Such steps will not make him liable to the customer and will
be in consonance with the intention of the notice to close account by a specified date.
The banker should, however, not refuse to honour the cheques issued by the customer, so long as his account has a
credit balance that will suffice to pay the cheque. If the banker dishonours any cheque without sufficient reasons,
he will be held liable to pay damages to his customer under Section 31 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881. In
case of default by the customer to close the account, the banker should close the account and send the money by
draft to the customer. He will not be liable for dishonouring cheques presented for payment subsequently.
• Termination by Law: The relationship of a banker-customer can also be terminated by the process of law and
by the occurrence of the following events:
Death of customer: On receiving notice or information of the death of a customer, the bank stops all debit
transactions in the account. However, credits to the account can be permitted. The balance in the account is
given to the legal representative of the deceased after obtaining the letters of administration, or succession
certificate, or indemnity bond as per the prescribed procedure, and only then, the account is closed.
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Banking Law and Practice
Bankruptcy of customer: An individual customer may be declared bankrupt, or a company may be wound
up under the provisions of law. In such an event, no drawings would be permitted in the account of the
individual/company. The balance is given to the Receiver or Liquidator or the Official Assignee and the
account is closed thereafter.
Garnishee order: After receiving a garnishee order from a court or attachment order from income tax authority,
the account can be closed as one of the options after taking the required steps.
Insanity of the customer: A lunatic/person of unsound mind is not competent to contract under Section 11
of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. As banker-customer relationship is contractual, the bank will not honour
cheques and can close the account after receiving notice about the insanity of the customer and receiving
a confirmation about it through medical reports.
44
3.11 Nomination
While opening accounts and accepting deposits, bankers need to ensure certain procedures and precautions. For
example, KYC norms. Similarly, at the time of repayment of deposits banks should be careful and repay the amount
as per banks’ policies and the guidelines of the RBI.
As per the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, a depositor of a bank (including cooperative banks) may nominate one
person as nominee of the depositor/s. The nomination is to be made in a prescribed manner. In the event of the death
of the depositor, the deposit may be returned to the nominee. The nominee is entitled to receive the deposit in case
of the death of the depositor. A minor can also be nominated as nominee. However in case a minor is appointed as
nominee, banks should request that a person be appointed to receive the deposit on behalf of the minor. Commercial
banks are governed by the provisions of Banking Companies (Nomination) Rules 1985, and for Co-operative banks
provisions of Co-operative Banks (Nomination) Rules 1985 are applicable. Banks get valid discharge, if they make
payment to the nominee. Depositors should avail the facility of nomination and nominate a person.
Nomination facility is also available in case of articles kept in safe deposit lockers and also in safe custody with
banks. As per the provisions of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, any person who keeps any article in safe deposit
locker and/or in safe custody, may nominate one person as his nominee to receive the article in the event of the
death of that person. The nomination is to be made in a prescribed manner. In the event of the death of the bank’s
customer, the nominee is entitled to receive the articles kept in safe custody or remove the contents of locker and
the bank gets a valid discharge.
The nominee should acknowledge the receipt of the amount of the deposit, including interest if any, duly signed
by the nominee on a revenue stamp. The acknowledgement should clearly state that the nominee has received the
deposit amount, as nominee of the depositor. Obtaining the acknowledgement and stamped receipt (as mentioned
above) serves as a valid discharge of the bank.
As regards safe deposit lockers and custody accounts, the claims can be settled by the bank after proper verification of
bank’s records and other relevant documents like claim forms, death certificate of the bank’s customer and identity of
the nominee. In case no nomination is available, then banks should follow their legal department’s advice and bank’s
policy and procedures, to settle the claims. Important documents to be obtained are claim forms, death certificate
of the depositor, succession certificate if applicable, proper identification of legal heirs, proper acknowledgment of
repayment of deposits from the legal heirs.
45
Banking Law and Practice
Summary
• The relationship between a banker and his customer depends upon the nature of service provided by a banker.
• On the opening of an account the banker assumes the position of a debtor.
• A banker acts as an agent of his customer and performs a number of agency functions for the convenience of
his customers. For example, he buys or sells securities on behalf of his customer, collects cheques on his behalf
and makes payment of various dues of his customers, e.g., insurance premium, etc.
• A banker has the statutory obligation to honour his customer’s cheques unless there is valid reason for refusing
payment of the same.
• Though the Pass Book contains true and authenticated record of the customer’s account with the banker, no
unanimous view prevails regarding the validity of the entries in the Pass Book.
• Banks obtain nominations from the depositors in a prescribed manner and should register the nomination in
their records. A proper acknowledgment is to be given to the depositor.
• An important feature of Indian banking is that deposits of the public with the banks are insured up to the limit
of 1 lakh in each account.
• The banker is also competent to terminate his relationship with the customer, if he finds that the latter is no
more a desirable customer.
• Specimen signature of the customer is obtained on the account opening form in the presence of the bank staff
and it is attested by an authorised bank officer on the form itself.
• One of the main objectives of KYC procedure is to prevent misuse of the banking system for money laundering
and financing of terrorist activities.
• Banker-customer relationship is a contractual relationship between two parties and it may be terminated by
either party on voluntary basis or involuntarily by the process of law.
• The Karta and other coparceners may possess self-acquired properties other than the HUF property, but these
cannot be clubbed together for the HUF dues.
References
• Relationship between Banker and Customer. [Pdf] Available at: < http://www.indg.in/financial-literacy/financial_
quiz/relationship_between_banker_and_customer.pdf> [Accessed 07 April 2014].
• The banker-customer relationship. [Pdf] Available at: < http://www.banking-law.co.uk/gr_fs_ch1.pdf> [Accessed
07 April 2014].
• Rajola, F., 2013. Customer Relationship Management in the Financial Industry: Organizational Processes and
Technology Innovation. Springer.
• Iyengar, V., 2007. An Introduction to Banking. Excel Books India.
• Banking - Lecture 2 - Commercial Bank: Basic Functions. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=EXEQ0sDlMZI> [Accessed 07 April 2014].
• RBI As Banker of banks Lecture by Mr. B.K.Jain. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=gz1ieur_0BM> [Accessed 07 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Rajola, F., 2013. Customer Relationship Management in the Financial Industry: Organisational Processes and
Technology Innovation. Springer.
• Rajola, F., 2003. Customer Relationship Management: Organisational and Technological Perspectives.
Springer.
• Gordan, I., 2013. Managing the New Customer Relationship: Strategies to Engage the Social Customer and
Build Lasting Value. John Wiley & Sons.
46
Self Assessment
1. The relationship between a banker and his customer depends upon the _______ of service provided by a
banker.
a. number
b. nature
c. amount
d. total
4. Which of the following section of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, clarifies that section “customer” includes
a Government department and a corporation incorporated by or under any law?
a. Section 7-A
b. Section 4
c. Section 45-Z
d. Section 2-C
5. Which of the means the right of the creditor to retain the goods and securities owned by the debtor until the
debt due from him is repaid?
a. KYC
b. Lien
c. Pledge
d. Contract
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Banking Law and Practice
6. In case of minor, a banker would open a joint account with the ________ guardian.
a. natural
b. unnatural
c. two
d. one
8. HUF business is quite distinct from partnership business, it is governed by which of the following?
a. Indian Individual Act, 1947
b. Indian Partnership Act, 1947
c. Indian Individual Act, 1937
d. Indian Partnership Act, 1932
9. A lunatic/person of unsound mind is not competent to contract under ________ of the Indian Contract Act,
1872.
a. Section 11
b. Section 15
c. Section 72
d. Section 37
48
Chapter IV
Legal Aspects of Banking Operations
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
• describe cheques
• explicate endorsement
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• describe remittance
49
Banking Law and Practice
4.1 Introduction
A cheque is defined in Sec 6 of NI Act as under:
• A cheque is a bill of exchange drawn on a specified banker
• Payable on demand
• Drawn on a specified banker
• Electronic image of a truncated cheque is recognised under law
A cheque is nothing, but a bill of exchange with special features. It is always payable on demand (A bill of exchange
can be payable on demand/at sight and/or after a specific term called as usance bill) always drawn on a specified
banker, i.e., the drawee of a cheque is the banker on whom the cheque is drawn. The banker with whom the customer
holds his/her account. This drawee bank is called the paying bank.
Cheque
Apart from the above three parties, others involved in payment and collection of cheques are as follows:
• Endorser: The person who transfers his right to another person.
• Endorsee: The person to whom the right is transferred.
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4.2 Crossing of a Cheque
Crossing is an ‘instruction’ given to the paying banker to pay the amount of the cheque through a banker only and not
directly to the person presenting it at the counter. A cheque bearing such an instruction is called a ‘crossed cheque’;
others without such crossing are ‘open cheques’ which may be encashed at the counter of the paying banker as well.
The crossing on a cheque is intended to ensure that its payment is made to the right payee. Sections 123 to 131 of
the Negotiable Instruments Act contain provisions relating to crossing. According to Section 131-A, these Sections
are also applicable in case of drafts. Thus, not only cheques but bank drafts also may be crossed.
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Banking Law and Practice
4.3 Endorsement
“When the maker or holder of a negotiable instrument signs the same, otherwise than as such maker, for the purpose
of negotiation, on the back or face thereof or on a slip of paper annexed thereto or so signs for the same purpose
a stamped paper intended to be completed as a negotiable instrument, he is said to have endorsed the same and is
called endorser.”
Thus, an endorsement consists of the signature of the maker (or drawer) of a negotiable instrument or any holder
thereof, but it is essential that the intention of signing the instrument must be negotiation; otherwise it will not
constitute an endorsement. The person who signs the instrument for the purpose of negotiation is called the ‘endorser’
and the person in whose favour instrument is transferred is called the ‘endorsee’. The endorser may sign either on
the face or on the back of the negotiable instrument but according to the common usage; endorsements are usually
made on the back of the instrument. If the space on the back is insufficient for this purpose, a piece of paper, known
as ‘allonge’ may be attached thereto for the purpose of recording the endorsements.
Where a negotiable instrument is endorsed for any of the above purposes, the endorser becomes its holder and
property therein is passed on the endorsee. In Kunju Pillai and Others vs. Periasami (1969 II. M.I.J. 148), the High
Court held that a holder of a negotiable instrument, who secures the same by endorsement, does not lose the right
of his action by reason of the death of the original payee. In Mothireddy vs. Pothireddy (A.I.R. 1963, A.P. 313) the
Andhra Pradesh High Court also held that “the right based on the endorsement having made for a specific purpose,
namely, collection of the amount, will be valid till that purpose is served.” The ordinary law regarding agency does
not, therefore, apply in such cases.
• Endorser: “Every sole maker, drawer, payee or endorsee or all of several joint makers, payees or endorses of
a negotiable instrument may endorse and negotiate the same.” This is subject to the condition that the right to
negotiate has not been restricted or excluded (Section 51). Thus in case the instrument is held jointly by a number
of persons, endorsements by all of them is essential. One cannot represent the other. The absence of the words
‘or order’ in the instrument or endorsement thereon does not restrict further negotiation. For example, a bill is
drawn payable to A or order. A endorses it to B, but the endorsement does not contain the words ‘or order’ or
any equivalent words. B may further negotiate the instrument.
It is, however, essential that the maker or drawer or drawer of an instrument must have lawful possession over
it, i.e., he must be its holder in order to enable him to endorse o negotiate it. A payee or an endorsee of the
instrument must be its holder for the same purpose.
• Time: A negotiable instrument may be negotiated until its payment has been made by the banker, drawee or
acceptor at or after maturity, but not thereafter (Section 60).
• Endorsement for a part of the amount: The instrument must be endorsed for its entire amount. Section 56
provides that “no writing on a negotiable instrument is valid for the purpose of negotiable if such writing
purports to transfer only a part of the amount appearing to be due on the instrument.” Thus an endorsement for
a part of the amount of the instrument is invalid. However, in case an instrument has been partly paid, it may
52
be negotiated for the balance of the amount provided a note to that effect is given on the instrument (Section
56). If the endorser intends to transfer the document to two or more endorsees separately, it will not constitute
a valid endorsement.
• The legal representative of a deceased person cannot negotiate by delivery only, a promissory note, bill of
exchange or cheque payable to order and endorsed by the deceased but not delivered (Section 57). If the endorser
dies after endorsing the instrument payable to order but without delivering the same to the endorsee, such
endorsement shall not be valid and his legal representative cannot complete its negotiation by mere delivery
thereof.
• Unless contrary is proved, it is presumed under Section 118 that “the endorsements appearing upon a negotiation
instrument were made in the order in which they appear thereon.” It means that the endorsement which appears
on an instrument first is presumed to have been made earlier to the second one.
A banker is under no legal obligation to collect his customer’s cheques, but collection of cheques has now become
an important function of a banker with the growth of banking habit and with wider use of crossed cheques, which
are invariably to be collected through a banker only. While collecting his customer’s cheques, a banker may act as
either of the following:
• As a holder for value
• As an agent of the customer
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Banking Law and Practice
The legal position of the collecting banker, therefore, depends upon the capacity in which he collects the cheques.
If the collecting banker pays to the customer the amount of the cheque or credits such amount to his account and
allows him to draw on it, before the amount of the cheque is actually realised from the drawee banker, the collecting
banker is deemed to be its ‘holder for value’. He takes an undertaking from the customer to the effect that the latter
will reimburse the former in case of dishonour of the cheque.
In any of these circumstances, the banker becomes the holder for value and also the holder in due course. He bears
the liability and possesses the rights enjoyed by the holder for value. If the last but one endorsement is proved to
be forged, he will be liable to the true owner of the cheque. However, he shall have the right to recover the money
from the last endorser, i.e., his own customer, if the customer is unable to pay, the banker himself will bear the loss.
If the cheque sent for collections returned dishonoured, the collecting banker can sue all the previous parties after
giving them the notice of dishonour. It is, however, essential that the amount of the cheque is paid to the customer
in good faith.
The basic principle is that the rightful owner of the goods can recover the same from anyone who takes it without
his authority and in whose hands it can be traced. When the banker acts as an agent of his customer for the collection
of his cheques, he cannot escape this liability. However, the right of the true owner is a restricted one and cannot
be exercised in case the goods reach the hands of one of the following people:
• Receives it in good faith
• For value
• Without the knowledge that the other party had no authority thereon
Except in these circumstances, the true owner of the goods (including the negotiable instrument) can file a suit for
conversion.
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4.4.4 Statutory Protection to Collecting Bank
Section 131 of the Negotiable Instruments Act grants protection to a collecting banker and reads as follows:
• Non-liability of a banker receiving payment of cheque: A banker who has in good faith and without negligence
received payment for a customer of a cheque crossed generally or specially to himself shall not, in case the
title to the cheque proves defective, incur any liability to the true owner of the cheque by reason only of having
received such payment.
• Explanation: A banker receives payment of a crossed cheque for a customer within the meaning of this section
notwithstanding that he credits his customer’s account with the amount of the cheque before receiving payment
thereof.
• The provisions of the above section have been applied to drafts as per Section 131 A of the Negotiable Instruments
Act.
• Conditions for protection: Though Section 131 grants protection to a collecting banker, the protection is not
unconditional. For the collecting banker to claim the protection under Section 131, he has to comply with certain
conditions and they are:
The collecting banker should have acted in good faith.
He should have acted without negligence.
He should receive payment for a customer.
The cheque should be crossed generally or specially to himself.
4.5.1 Duty to Open the Account with References and Sufficient Documentary Proof
The duty to open an account only after the new account holder has been properly introduced to be too well grained
into today’s banker’s mind that it would be impossible to find an account without introduction. The necessity to
obtain introduction of a good customer is to keep off crooks and fraudsters who may open accounts to collect forged
cheques or other instruments. As an added precaution, RBI has insisted that while opening accounts photograph of
the customer and sufficient documentary proofs for constitution and address be obtained.
In this regard the English Decision Ladbroke vs. Todd (1914) 30 TLR 433 can be referred to. In this case, a thief stole
a cheque in transit and collected the same through a banker where he had opened an account without reference and
by posing himself as the payee whose signature the thief forged. After the cheque was collected the thief withdrew
the amount. The bank was held liable to make good the amount, since it acted negligently while opening the account
in as much as it had not obtained any reference.
In Syndicate Bank vs. Jaishree Industries and Others AIR 1994 Karnataka 315, the Appellant opened an account in
the name of “M/s Axle Conductor Industries Ltd. by the Proprietor, R.K. Vyas”. The introduction was given by one
Nanjunde Gowda, who was having a small shop at the address given by the account holder. The address of the account
holder, given by the account holder, was just opposite the Appellant Bank. In the account opening form, the name of
the account holder was given as “M/ Axle Conductor Industries by the Proprietor R.K. Vyas”. No information was
sought or inquiry neither held as to the incorporation of the account holder nor was the Memorandum of Association,
Resolution, etc., scrutinised. On 3 January 1979, partners of Firm ‘A’ purchased a draft for Rs. 2, 51,125/- from
State Bank of India, Ahmednagar, in favour of M/s Axle Conductor Industries Ltd. The draft was deposited in the
account with the Appellant on 5 October 1979 and the amount was collected by the Appellant and credited to the
account on 9 October 1979. On 10 October 1979, the monies were withdrawn from the account. The partners of
‘A’ filed a suit against the Appellant and State Bank of India for recovery of Rs. 2,51,125/- wrongly collected by
Appellant and paid by State Bank of India.
55
Banking Law and Practice
The High Court held that there was failure to follow the proper procedure for opening account in the name of a
limited company, that the account was opened as if it was a proprietary concern, the staff of the Appellant Bank did
not bestow sufficient care even to notice the word “Ltd.” on several occasions, such as, at the time of opening of
the account or withdrawal of amounts from the account. The High Court felt that having accepted the application
as if it was an application by a proprietary concern, strangely the Appellant Bank allowed the account to operate in
the name of the limited concern. There was, therefore, lack of care on the part of the Appellant Bank in the entire
transaction.
The conditions to be satisfied for claiming protection under Section 131 of the Negotiable Instruments Act are:
• That the banker should act in good faith and without negligence in receiving payment, i.e., in the process of
collection.
• That the banker should receive payment for a customer, i.e., act as mere agent in the collection of the cheque,
and not on his account as holder.
• That the person for whom the banker acts must be his customer.
• That the cheque should be one crossed generally or specially to himself.
The High Court stated that if the draft was drawn in favour of a fictitious person, it could not be said that the
ownership stood transferred to a non-existent person for the purpose of examining the question, whether the bank
as a collecting banker acted negligently or not. The ownership would pass to the true owner. The High Court did
not consider it necessary to decide as to what extent a person obtaining a draft in favour of a fictitious person would
lose the ownership in favour of a bona fide ‘holder in due course’.
In view of the aforesaid, the Appellant Bank was held to have acted without taking any care, and was found negligent
throughout and was not entitled to the protection under Section 131 of the Negotiable Instruments Act. In Indian
Bank vs. Catholic Syrian Bank AIR 1981 Mad 129, the Madras High Court had occasion to consider negligence
of collecting banker.
Briefly the facts were that one D had opened an account with Salem branch of bank A. A customer of that branch
had taken D to the said branch and had informed the manager that D was a man from Indore and that he wanted to
open a bank account to enable him to purchase carpets from Salem. Although bank A had claimed that the customer,
who had introduced D, was a well-known customer of bank A and was a leading merchant of Salem and had a
large volume of business, it was found in the evidence recorded by the Court, that these claims were not true. The
introducer had an account and also had some fixed deposits with bank A. The transactions were for paltry amount
and the amount standing to the credit of the introducer at the relevant time was only Rs. 192.57/-.
On 12 June 1969, M obtained a demand draft for Rs. 20/- from the branch at Singanallur of the bank B. The draft
was drawn on the branch office of bank B in favour of D and company. By means of clever forgery, the draft was
altered for Rs. 29,000/- drawn in favour of D. The draft was presented by D on 13 June 1969 for credit to his
account opened with Salem branch of bank A and the amount was collected by bank A from bank B and credited
to the account of D.
On 14 June 1969, the Salem branch of bank B came to know from its Singanallur branch that the draft was issued for
Rs.20/- and was drawn in favour of D and company, payable at Cochin and that no draft for a sum of Rs.29,000/- had
been issued. At once the Salem branch of bank A was contacted and was informed of the fraud, but unfortunately
by then, bank A had already paid a large part of the draft amount to D under a self cheque. Bank B (Paying banker)
filed the suit against bank A (collecting banker) for recovery of Rs. 29,000/- on the ground that the collecting banker
had been negligent while opening an account in the name of D and by reasons of its negligence and want of good
faith, the forged draft got to be wrongly converted.
The High Court observed that the collecting banker had opened the account, in the name of D on a mere introduction
of one of its account holders, knowing that the said account holder was not a well-known leading merchant and had
no large business with it at the relevant time. Further, the collecting banker had not independently questioned D
about his business and his creditworthiness before allowing him to open an account. When D stated that he had come
56
from Indore, the Manager of the collecting banker did not even care to find out his permanent address, more so when
in the application for opening account filed by D, the address given was of that of the introducer. Moreover, when
D told the Manager of collecting banker that he had not till then opened any account although he had come from
Indore to Salem to do business, the collecting banker, before opening the account, should have been more alert.
4.5.2 Duty to Confirm the Reference where the Referee is not known or has given Reference in Absentia
Though as a matter of practice, bankers in India require introduction by an existing customer of the bank, this may
not always be possible especially when the branch is newly opened. In such cases, the customers are required to get
references from known persons in the locality or from the existing bankers. In such cases, the banker is required to
make enquiries with the referee to confirm that the person whose account is newly opened is a genuine person.
In Harding vs. London Joint Stock Bank [1914] 3 Legal Decision Affecting Bankers 81, an account was opened
for a new customer after complying with the necessary formalities. The account was not opened by deposit of cash
as is the usual practice, but was by paying in a third party cheque. The bankers in the case made enquiries with
the customer who thereupon produced a forged letter issued by his employer giving him power to deal with the
cheque. It was thereafter found that the cheque was stolen by the customer and credited to his account. The bank
was held negligent for failure to make necessary enquiries from the employer as to whether the customer who was
an employee had in fact the necessary power to deal with the cheque.
4.5.4 Duty to Verify the Instruments or Any Apparent Defect in the Instruments
Sometimes the instrument which is presented for collection would convey to the banker a warning that a customer
who has presented the instrument for collection is either committing a breach of trust or is misappropriating the
money belonging to some other. In case the banker does not heed the warning which is required of a prudent banker
then he could be held liable on the grounds of negligence as can be seen from the following cases:
• In Underwood Ltd. vs. Bank of Liverpool Martin Ltd. [1924] 1 KB 775, the Managing Director of a company
paid into his private account large number of cheques which were to be paid into the company’s account and
the bank was held negligent since it did not make enquiries as to whether the Managing Director was in fact
entitled to the amounts represented by these cheques.
• In Savory Company vs. Llyods Bank [1932] 2 KB 122, the cheques which were payable to the employer was
collected by the employee in a private account opened by him and the bank was held liable for negligence. In
this case, two dishonest clerks of a Stock Broker stole bearer cheques belonging to their employer which were
collected in an account maintained by one of the clerks and in another account in his wife’s name. It was held
that the bank had been negligent in opening the clerks account inasmuch as they had not obtained his employer’s
name while opening the account and that in the case of his wife’s account the bank was negligent in as much as
it had not obtained the husband’s occupation and his employer’s name while opening the account.
• In the case of Australia and New Zealand Bank vs. Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Cherleroi [1967]
1 AC 86 PC, an agent paid his principal’s cheque into his personal account and the bank was charged with
conversion. However, the bank defended the same on the grounds that there was implied authority from the
principal to his agent to use his private account for such purpose. Though the banker was negligent in dealing
with the cheques without specific authority, the bank escaped the liability since it was found that the principal
had in fact authorised his agent to use his private account.
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Banking Law and Practice
• In Morrison vs. London County and Westminster Bank Ltd. [1914-5] All ER Rep 853, the Manager of the
plaintiff was permitted to draw cheques per pro his employer and he drew some cheques payable to himself
which he collected into his private account. The bank was held negligent for collecting such cheques without
making necessary enquiries, even though there was a clear indication that the Manager was signing as an agent
of the firm.
In Nu-Stilo Footwear Ltd. vs. Lloyds Bank Ltd. [1956] 7 Legal Decisions Affecting Bankers P. 121, the plaintiffs
who were manufacturer of ladies footwear were defrauded by their Secretary and Works Accountant who converted
9 cheques payable to the plaintiffs into his account. The Secretary opened the accounts in the defendant bank in
a false name and as reference gave his real name. The bank thereupon called the reference and got a satisfactory
reply which included the fact that the account holder had recently come down from Oxford and intended setting
up a business of his own. The Secretary thereupon presented 9 cheques totally aggregating to £ 4855. Since these
cheques were drawn on the plaintiffs, they sued the defendant bank who had collected the cheques. The Court held
that the collecting bank was negligent in as much as the collecting bank did not take necessary precautions because
the amounts collected were inconsistent with the business of the account holder and therefore necessary enquires
should have been made by the bank.
4.6 Indemnities
In day-to-day banking operations, a banker comes across instances, where he has to protect his interest in case of
certain transactions. A customer may request a banker to issue a duplicate draft or fixed deposit receipt. In such
cases, to protect against any possible loss, the banker should issue the duplicate draft and/or fixed deposit receipt
against an indemnity.
Section 124 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines indemnity as, “A contract by which one party promises to save
the other from loss caused to him by the conduct of the promisor himself, or by the conduct of any other person, is
called a ‘Contract of Indemnity’." Indemnity is applicable where there is a loss. The contract of insurance is based
on the principles of indemnity. The life insurance companies agree to cover the loss of life, whereas the general
insurance companies wish to cover the loss to the property or asset, covered under respective insurance policies.
The two parties involved in the contract of indemnity are:
• ‘Indemnifier’, the person who gives the undertaking or promise.
• The ‘indemnified’ to which such a promise is given.
While issuing a duplicate fixed deposit receipt, the bank obtains an indemnity (usually in their standard form) and
the indemnifier (customer) need to give all details regarding the original receipt. The indemnity will have clauses
to protect the bank’s interest. The indemnifier will undertake not to use the original and surrender the same to the
bank, in case he is able to locate the original. He further undertakes to cover the loss, if any that will be incurred by
the bank on account of issuing such duplicate fixed deposit receipt.
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4.7 Guarantees
Banks grant loans and advances (fund based) and provide other credit facilities (non-fund based) such as, bank
guarantee and letters of credit. Non-fund based limits are granted by banks to facilitate the customers to carry on
with the trading and business activities more comfortably. Bankers can earn front end fees and these non-fund based
items become contingent liabilities for banks.
A contract of guarantee is covered under the Indian Contract Act, 1872. Sec 126 defines a guarantee as contract to
perform the promise or discharge a liability of a third person in case of his default. The contract of guarantee may
be oral or in writing. Banks, however insist on written guarantees. There are 3 parties to the contract of guarantee.
They are called Surety, Principal Debtor and the Creditor. These parties are also called as the guarantor, borrower
and the beneficiary. Banks deal with the following two types of guarantees:
• Guarantees accepted by the bank: At the time of lending money, banks accept securities. In addition to the tangible
assets a borrower arranges to furnish a personal security given by surety (guarantor). This is called third party
guarantee, who undertakes to pay the money to the bank inclusive of interest and other charges, if any, in case
the principal borrower fails to repay or if the borrower commits default. Banks also obtain corporate guarantees
issued by companies who execute corporate guarantee as authorised by the Board of Directors’ resolution. As
per Sec 128 of the Contract Act, 1872, the surety’s liability is co-extensive with that of the principal debtor.
For example, Bank MNC has sanctioned a term loan of Rs 10 lakhs to P on the personal guarantees of Q and S.
In this case Bank MNC is the creditor. P is the borrower or the principal debtor. Both Q&S are the sureties or
guarantors. In case P commits a default, in repaying the debt to the Bank MNC (as per the terms and conditions
of bank’s sanction letter) then both Q&S (as sureties/guarantors) are liable to pay the dues to the bank.
• Guarantees issued by the bank: A Bank Guarantee is a commitment given by a banker to a third party, assuring
her/him to honour the claim against the guarantee in the event of the non-performance by the bank’s customer.
A Bank Guarantee is a legal contract which can be imposed by law. The banker as guarantor assures the third
party (beneficiary) to pay him a certain sum of money on behalf of his customer, in case the customer fails to
fulfil his commitment to the beneficiary.
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Banking Law and Practice
• Further, in addition to the above Board, the banks should also display details such as ‘Name of the bank / branch,
Working Days, Working Hours and Weekly Off-days’ outside the branch premises.
• Banks are further required to make available the detailed information in their website in such a manner that
customers are able to easily access the same from the Home Page of the site, besides in booklet form in the
touch screen by placing them in the information kiosks or Scroll Bars, or Tag Boards. Website should contain
the minimum information such as Policy/Guidelines, Complaints, Opening of accounts/ forms, Loans and
Advances, Branches, etc.
4.8.2 Remittance
The banks are required to adhere to the following rules during remittances:
• Remittance (DD/MT/TT, etc.) of Rs. 50000/- and above should be by debit to customer’s account or against
cheques only. DDs of Rs. 20,000/- and above are to be issued with ‘Account Payee’ crossing only.
• A DD is uniformly valid for a period of three months and procedure for revalidation after three months should
be simplified.
• Duplicate Draft in lieu of lost for amount up to and including Rs 5000/- can be issued against suitable indemnity
without waiting drawing advice within a fortnight from the date of receipt of the request. Delay beyond the
period, penal provision to be invoked.
• Banks may ensure that both drop box facility and the facility for acknowledgement of cheques are made available
at collection centres (branches) and no branch should refuse to give acknowledgement of cheques, if tendered
at the counters. Banks should display on the drop box itself that “Customers can also tender the cheques at the
counter and obtain acknowledgement on the pay-in-slips.”
• Banks may place per transaction limits, based on their risk perception in respect of Mobile transactions with
the approval of their respective Boards.
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• Banks need not make payment of cheques/drafts/pay orders/ banker’s cheques bearing that date or any
subsequent date, if they are presented beyond the period of three months from the date of such instrument
(w.e.f. 01.04.12)
• For loss of cheque in transit or in clearing process or at the paying bank’s branch, the banks are required to
reimburse the account holder related expenses for obtaining duplicate instruments and also interest for reasonable
delays occurred in obtaining the same. The onus rests with the collecting banker and not the account holder.
4.9 Complaints
The following rules have to be followed while making complaints:
• Banks are required to provide Complaints/suggestion box at each office besides maintaining Complaint Book/
Register with perforated copies in each set. A copy of the complaint is also to be forwarded to Controlling Office
along with remark of the Branch Manager within a time frame.
• Complaint form along with name of the nodal officer for complaint redressed is provided in the Homepage of
Website to facilitate submission by customers. Complaints received are to be reviewed by Board for taking
corrective steps wherever required. The details are to be disclosed in the financial results giving the number of
complaints received, redressed, awards by Ombudsman, etc.
• Banks are also required to put in place a proper Grievance Redressed Mechanism and examine on an ongoing
basis whether it is found effective in achieving improvement in customer service in different areas.
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Banking Law and Practice
• There cannot be more than one nominee in respect of a joint deposit account. In the case of a joint deposit
account, the nominee’s right arises only after the death of all the depositors.
• Banks may allow variation/cancellation of a subsisting nomination by all the surviving depositor(s) acting
together. This is also applicable to deposits having operating instructions ‘either or survivor’.
• Banks are required to acknowledge in writing to the depositor (s)/ locker hirer (s) the filing of the relevant duly
completed Form of nomination, cancellation and/or variation of the nomination.
• Banks may introduce the practice of recording on the face of the passbook the position regarding availment
of nomination facility with the legend ‘Nomination Registered’. This may be done in the case of term deposit
receipts also.
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Summary
• A cheque is nothing, but a bill of exchange with special features. It is always payable on demand.
• Crossing is an ‘instruction’ given to the paying banker to pay the amount of the cheque through a banker only
and not directly to the person presenting it at the counter.
• A cheque bearing a special crossing is to be collected through the banker specified therein. It cannot, therefore,
be crossed specially again to another banker, i.e., cheque cannot have two special crossings, as the very purpose
of the first special crossing is frustrated by the second one.
• Collection of cheques, bills of exchange and other instruments on behalf of a customer is an indispensable
service rendered by a banker to his customer.
• A collecting banker acts as an agent of the customer if he credits the latter’s account with the amount of the
cheque after the amount is actually realised from the drawee banker.
• The duty to open an account only after the new account holder has been properly introduced to be too well
grained into today’s banker’s mind that it would be impossible to find an account without introduction.
• A DD is uniformly valid for a period of three months and procedure for revalidation after three months should
be simplified.
• Bank branches are required to maintain a wait list for the purpose of allotment of lockers and ensure transparency
in allotment of the lockers.
• Banks may introduce the practice of recording on the face of the passbook the position regarding availment of
nomination facility with the legend ‘Nomination Registered’.
• Banks may place per transaction limits based on their risk perception in respect of Mobile transactions with the
approval of their respective Boards.
• A customer may request a banker to issue a duplicate draft or fixed deposit receipt.
• The endorsement of a negotiable instrument followed by delivery transfers the endorsed property therein with
the right of further negotiation.
References
• Legal Aspects of Banking. [Pdf] Available at: <http://venkrajen.in/docs/legal_aspects_all_modules.pdf>
[Accessed 08 April 2014].
• Legal (and Regulatory) Aspects of Bank Insolvency: The Latin American Model for Bank Insolvency. [Pdf]
Available at <http://www1.worldbank.org/finance/assets/images/Jose_Alepuz_-_Legal__and_Regulatory__
Aspects_of_Bank.pdf> [Accessed 08 April 2014].
• IIBF, 2008. Legal and Regulatory Aspects of Banking. Macmillan.
• IIBF, 2005. Legal Aspects of Banking Operations. Macmillan.
• JAIIB-Legal Aspects of Banking - Companies. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MTNAaKBD0Rk> [Accessed 08 April 2014].
• JAIIB-Legal Aspects of Banking - Regulation of Banks. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=_tdilAS0nME> [Accessed 08 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Asser, T. M. C., 2001. Legal Aspects of Regulatory Treatment of Banks in Distress. International Monetary
Fund.
• Walker, G. A., 2001. International Banking Regulation: Law, Policy, and Practice. Kluwer Law
International.
• Effros, R.C., 1998. Current Legal Issues Affecting Central Banks, Volume 5. International Monetary Fund.
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Banking Law and Practice
Self Assessment
1. What is the cash payment allowed across the counter of the bank called?
a. Bearer cheque
b. Open cheque
c. Order cheque
d. Crossing of cheque
3. Which of the following term denotes a bill of exchange with special features?
a. Loan
b. Cash
c. Cheque
d. Invoice
2. A bearer cheque B. When cash payment is allowed across the counter of the bank.
5. What is the term called when a cheque bears across its face an addition of the name of a banker, either with or
without the words “not negotiable”?
a. Cheque crossed specially
b. Cheque crossed generally
c. Open cheque
d. Cheque bounce
6. A _______ banker acts as an agent of the customer if he credits the latter’s account with the amount of the
cheque after the amount is actually realised from the drawee banker.
a. donating
b. collecting
c. reserving
d. exchange
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7. Indemnity is applicable where there is a ___________.
a. loss
b. profit
c. loan
d. interest
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Banking Law and Practice
Chapter V
Banking Related Laws
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
• enlist the recovery of debts to banks and financial institutions act, 1993
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
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5.1 Introduction
The Limitation Act, 1963 specifies certain period prescribed within which any suit appeal or application can be
made.
Money payable for money lent Three years from the loan was made.
Table 5.1 Period of limitation and the time from which the period begins to run
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Banking Law and Practice
the borrower or his authorised agent, generally or specially authorised in that behalf. A promissory note/fresh
documents executed for the old or a barred debt will give rise to a fresh cause of action and a fresh limitation
period will be available from the date of execution of such documents.
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Please note that each certificate mentioned above should bear date and should be signed by the principal accountant
or manager of the bank with his name and official designation/title.
• If the records are maintained in the electronic form (computer printouts, floppy, disc, tapes, etc.), a copy of print
out and a certificate as mentioned for the manual records.
• If the records are maintained in mechanical form (a printout of any entry in the books of a bank stored in a
mechanical or electronic form), it should contain a certificate covering all the characteristics discussed for
manual records.
Further in case the books of the bank are not written in the handwritten form, then the copies in the form computer
printout, such copy must accompany:
A certificate by the principal accountant or the manager stating that it is a printout of such entry or a copy
of such printout.
• In addition to the above another certificate by a person who is in charge of computer furnishing a brief description
of the computer system and other particulars like:
The safety features adopted by the bank to guard the date integrity.
Prevention of unauthorised access into the system.
Checks and balancing system of verification of legitimacy of input and output.
If the data is retrieved and transformed, details of control system.
In case of micro film and similar manner in which the data are stored, then the details of the agreement for
the storage and safekeeping of such storage systems and practices.
In short, the certificate should be certified by the person in charge of the computer system certifying about the
integrity, correctness and security of the computer system and the data/records. A certificate of any entry in a banker’s
book should in all legal proceedings be received as prima facie proof of the existence of such entry, and should be
permissible as if original is produced. On production of certified copy, no additional evidence is required. Court
can order the scrutiny of books of accounts.
Apart from the role of employer and beneficiary of services, banks are expected to pay tax on the interest payable
to the customers as per the directives of authorities like TDS on interest payable on fixed deposits, NRO deposits,
etc. Apart from the above, income on investments made by the bank and dealing in securities by banks also attracts
provisions of TDS.
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Banking Law and Practice
• At the time of payment of salary to employees, banks should deduct applicable tax at source and arrange to issue
the necessary certificates for TDS on form 16 to employees. For other deductions like payment to contractors,
etc., TDS on form 16A should be issued to the service providers. These TDS (16 and 16A forms) would serve
as follows:
As evidence of tax deducted at source.
As a record.
Enable the employees and service providers/professionals to claim refund of tax.
5.4 Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993 (DRT ACT)
Recovery of the dues of loans from the borrowers through courts was a chief issue for the banks and financial
institutions due to huge back log of cases and the time involved. The Act came into operation from 24th June
1993.
Some examples of interpretation of the term ‘debt’ by different courts are as follows:
• In the case of United Bank of India vs. DRT (1999) 4 SCC 69, the Supreme Court held that if the bank had alleged
in the suit that the amounts due to it from respondents as the liability of the respondents had arisen during the
course of their business activity and the same was still subsisting, it is sufficient to bring such amount within
the scope of definition of debt under the DRT Act and is recoverable under that Act.
• In G.V. films vs. UTI (2000) 100 Compo Cases 257 (Mad) (HC), it was held that payment made by the bank
by mistake is a debt.
• In the case of Bank of India vs. Vijay Ramniklal AIR 1997 Guj.75., it was held that, if an Employee commits
fraud and embezzlement of money, the amount recoverable from him is not a debt within the meaning of DRT
Act.
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• Recovery procedure: Bank has to file an application for recovery of loan taking into consideration the jurisdiction
and cause of action. Other bank or financial institution can also jointly apply. Application can be filed with fees,
documents and evidence. The Limitation Act is also applicable on the DRT cases; therefore, the application must
be filed by the bank or the financial institution within limitation period from cause of action. In case when the
defendant against whom the DRT has passed recovery order, wants to prefer appeal to the Appellate Tribunal,
he is required to deposit 75% or the prescribed percent of the amount as decided by the Tribunal. Without such
payment an appeal cannot be filed.
The tribunal issues Recovery Certificate to the applicant. Recovery officers attached to the tribunal, have adequate
powers for recovery under the Act. On receiving the recovery certificate, the recovery officer has to proceed for
the recovery by attachment and sale of movable and immovable property. Defendant is debarred from disputing
the correctness of the amount given in recovery certificate. Orders of recovery officer are applicable within
thirty days to the Tribunal.
• Special features of DRT: The provisions of this Act have overriding effect when there is inconsistency with any
other law or in any instrument by virtue of any other law for the time being in force.
• Case laws: DRT is a special Act for recovery of debt due to banks and financial institutions. DRT has overriding
effect over the provisions of Companies Act,1956, hence leave of the company court is not required even if the
company is under winding up proceedings (Allahabad Bank vs. Canara Bank AIR 2000 SC 1535).
Money realised under DRT Act and distribution between bank and other secured creditors, in cases where
winding up proceedings are pending in company court, priority of secured creditors is subject to provisions of
529 A of Companies Act (as per the said section, priority of secured creditors and workmen over other dues and
distribution inter se between secured creditors and workmen should be pari-pasu).
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Banking Law and Practice
Appoint any person to administer the secured assets which have been taken over by the secured creditor
(bank).
Instruct at any time by a notice in writing to a person as follows:
- who holds secured assets of the borrower
- from whom any money due or becoming due to the borrower
- to pay such money to the secured creditor (bank)
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The Act covers the following three important aspects, viz.:
• Securitisation
• Reconstruction of Financial assets
• Enforcement of security interest
5.6.2 Securitisation
Securitisation is the process of acquisition of financial asset by the securitisation or reconstruction company from the
lender (bank or financial institution) The reconstruction or securitisation company may be raising funds for acquisition
of financial asset from the qualified institutional buyers by issue of security receipts representing undivided interest
in the financial assets or otherwise.
Security receipt
A receipt or another security issued by a securitisation company or reconstruction company to any qualified
institutional buyer. The receipt is an evidence of purchase or acquisition by the holder thereof of an undivided right,
title or interest in the financial asset involved in securitisation is called the security receipt. The security receipts are
transferable in the market. SARFAESI Act made the loans secured by mortgage or other charges transferable.
On acquisition of a financial asset, the securitisation or reconstruction company becomes the owner of the financial
asset and steps into the shoes of the lender bank or financial institution. This acquisition can also said to be, as a
sale of asset without recourse to the bank or financial institution. The regulatory authority for all securitisation or
reconstruction companies is the Reserve Bank of India. It is a company registered under the Companies Act, 1956
for the purpose of securitisation and it also requires a registration from the RBI as per the SARFAESI Act.
Security interest
Any right, title and interest of any kind of the property created in favour of any secured creditor are called as security
interest. It includes any secured creditor is called as security interest. Whenever any lender takes any security from
the borrower the lender gets interest in that security. While taking possession of the asset various precautions are
required to be taken and if required the help of the Chief Metropolitan Magistrate or District Magistrate can be
taken.
Special features
Under certain circumstances properties cannot be attached, such as:
• Any security interest securing repayment of any financial assistance not exceeding 1 lakh
• Security interest not registered under this Act
• Any security interest created in agricultural land
• A pledge of movables as per Sec 172 of the Indian Contract Act
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Banking Law and Practice
No civil court has any jurisdiction under this Act. The Indian Limitation Act, 1963 is applicable to this Act.
Central registry
The Central registry is set up for registration of securitisation and reconstruction transaction and creation of security
interest. Registrations under other Acts are as follows:
• Registration Act, 1908
• Companies Act, 1986
• Patents Act, 1970
• Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
The registration under the SARFAESI Act is in addition to the respective registrations required in the above mentioned
acts and/or any other Act.
The central registry record can be kept fully or partly on electronic form. Filing of details of securitisation,
reconstruction, creation of security interests is to be filed with the central registrar. The details in the prescribed
form should be filed within thirty days after the date of transaction or the creation of security, by the securitisation
company, or the reconstruction company or the secured creditor. The prescribed fees are applicable for registration.
The delay if any can be condoned by the central registrar for a period of next thirty days after the first thirty days
prescribed subject to payment of fees as required.
In case of modification of details registered with the central registrar, the modification also needs to be filed before
the central registrar by the securitisation company, or the reconstruction company or the secured creditor. The time
period for modification is also like that of registration, i.e., the modification will have to be filed within thirty days
in the prescribed forms with prescribed fees. The delay if any can be condoned by the central registrar for a period
of next thirty days after the first thirty days prescribed subject to payment of fees as required.
The security interest registered with the central registrar is required to be satisfied on the payment of full amount by
the borrower. Maybe the securitisation company, or the reconstruction company or the secured creditor as the case
ought to report the satisfaction, within thirty days of payment in full or satisfaction of the charge.
On receipt of the satisfaction charge, the central registrar is required to cause a notice to be issued to the securitisation
company, or the reconstruction company or the secured creditor, calling upon to show cause within a period of
fourteen days as to why the payment or satisfaction should not be recorded as intimated. If no cause is shown as
required, then the central registrar has to order that the memorandum of satisfaction should be entered in the central
register. If any cause is shown, a noting is accordingly recorded in the central register and should inform to the
borrower accordingly.
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Where banks have incorporated a re-possession clause in the contract with the borrower and rely on such repossession
clause for enforcing their rights, they should ensure that such repossession clause is legally valid, is clearly brought
to the notice of the borrower at the time of execution of the contract, and the contract contains terms and conditions
regarding the following:
• Notice period to be given to the customers before taking possession.
• The procedure which the bank would follow for taking possession of the property.
• The procedure which the bank would follow for sale/auction of property.
This is expected to ensure that there is adequate upfront transparency and the bank is effectively addressing its legal
and reputation risks.
Duly signed acceptance letter should form part of the collateral security. In case of consortium advances, the
participating lenders should evolve procedures to complete appraisal of proposals in the time-bound manner to
the extent feasible and communicate their decision on financing or otherwise within a reasonable time. Lenders
should ensure timely disbursement of loans sanctioned in conformity with the terms and conditions governing such
sanction.
Post disbursement supervision by lenders, particularly in respect of loans up to Rs. 2 lakhs, should be constructive
with a view to taking care of any ‘lender-related; genuine difficulty that the borrower may face, Lenders should
release all securities on receiving payment of loan or realisation of loan, subject to any legitimate right of lien for
any other claim lenders may have against the borrowers. Lenders should not interfere in the affairs of the borrowers
except for what is allowed as per the terms and conditions of the loan sanction documents. In the matter of recovery
of loans, lenders should not resort to undue harassment Apart from the Fair Practices Code, banks should also have
proper system for grievance redressal system, Apart from the above code; banks have set up codes for Bankers’
Fair Practices Code, Fair Practices Code for Credit Card Operations, Model Code for Collection of Dues and
Repossession of Security, etc.
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Banking Law and Practice
Some of the deficiencies in banking services including internet banking, covered under the Banking Ombudsman
Scheme are as follows:
• Deficiency in customer service like non-acceptance, without sufficient cause, of small denomination notes
tendered for any purpose, and for charging of commission in respect thereof.
• Delayed or non-payment of inward remittance, delay in issuance of drafts.
• Non-adherence to prescribed working hours.
• Refusal to open deposit accounts without any valid reason for refusal.
• Levying of charges without adequate prior notice to the customer.
• Forced closure of deposit accounts without due notice or without sufficient reason.
• Refusal to close or delay in closing the accounts, etc.
• Non-adherence to the fair practices code as adopted by the bank or non-adherence to the provisions of the Code
of Bank’s Commitments to Customers issued by Banking Codes and Standards Board of India and as adopted
by the bank.
• Non-observance of Reserve Bank guidelines on engagement of recovery agents by banks; and any other matter
relating to the violation of the directives issued by the Reserve Bank in relation to banking or other services.
As regards loans and advances, a customer can also lodge a complaint on the following grounds of deficiency in
service with respect to loans and advances:
• Non-observance of Reserve Bank Directives on interest rates; delays in sanction, disbursement or no observance
of prescribed time schedule for disposal of loan applications.
• Non-acceptance of application for loans without furnishing valid reasons to the applicant; non-adherence to
the provisions of the fair practices code for lenders as adopted by the bank or Code of Bank’s Commitment to
Customers, as the case may be.
One can file a complaint before the Banking Ombudsman, if the reply is not received from the bank within a period
of one month after the bank concerned has received one’s representation, or the bank rejects the complaint, or if the
complainant is not satisfied with the reply given by the bank.
However a complaint will not be considered by the Ombudsman in the following situations:
• The person has not approached his bank for redressal of his grievance first.
• The subject matter of the complaint is pending for disposal or has already been dealt with at any other forum
like court of law, consumer court, etc.
• The institution complained against is not covered under the scheme.
• The subject matter of the complaint is not within the ambit of the Banking Ombudsman.
A person can file a complaint with the Banking Ombudsman simply by writing on a plain paper. A person can also
file it on-line or by sending an email to the Banking Ombudsman. For complaints relating to credit cards and other
types of services with centralised operations, complaints may be filed before the Banking Ombudsman within
whose territorial jurisdiction the billing address of the customer is located. The complaint can also be filed by one’s
authorised representative (other than an advocate).
The amount, if any, to be paid by the bank to the complainant by way of compensation for any loss suffered by the
complainant is limited to the amount arising directly out of the act or omission of the bank or Rs. 10 lakhs, whichever
is lower. The Banking Ombudsman may award compensation not exceeding Rs. 1 lakh to the complainant only in
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the case of complaints relating to credit card operations for mental agony and harassment. The Banking Ombudsman
will take into account the loss of the complainant’s time, expenses incurred by the complainant, harassment and
mental anguish suffered by the complainant while passing such award.
The Banking Ombudsman may reject a complaint at any stage, if it appears to him that a complaint made to him
is as follows:
• Not on the grounds of complaint referred to above compensation sought from the Banking Ombudsman is
beyond Rs. 10 lakh
• In the opinion of the Banking Ombudsman there is no loss or damage or inconvenience caused to the
complainant
If one is aggrieved by the decision, he/she may, within 30 days of the date of receipt of the award, appeal against
the award before the appellate authority. The appellate authority may, if he/ she is satisfied that the applicant had
sufficient cause for not making an application for appeal within time, also allow a further period not exceeding 30
days.
The complaint may be made by the complainant which includes a consumer or any voluntary consumer association
registered under the Companies Act,1956 or any other law or the Central or State Government or one or more
consumers, having the same interest and in case of death of a consumer his/her legal heirs or representative. The
Act is for speedy disposal of the redressal of consumer disputes. Consumer councils are established to promote
and protect the rights of consumers. The Central Council has the jurisdiction for the entire country, followed by the
State Council for each state and District Council for each district. The Councils at the State level is headed by the
chairman of the council, i.e., the Minister-in-Charge of the Consumer Affairs in the State Government.
The consumers’ complaints are dealt by District Forum, State and National Commission. District forum and State
Commission are established by the State Governments, and the National Commission established by Central
Government. District Forum has powers to deal with cases up to Rs. 20 lakhs. The State Commission deals with
complaints exceeding value of Rs. 20 lakh and below Rs. 1 crore and appeals against the orders of any District
forum within the State. The cases exceeding Rs. 1 crore would be handled by the Central Commission. They also
deal with appeals against the order of any State Commission. Complaints should be in a prescribed manner, with
full details, evidence and applicable fee. Supporting affidavit is required. Admissibility of complaint is to be decided
within twenty one days. Similarly, other procedures and requirements as per the Act which are in force would be
applicable.
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Banking Law and Practice
Summary
• As regards to the Limitation Act, 1963, banks can take legal course of action to recover bank dues if the documents
are valid and within limitation period.
• In some cases the limitation period can be extended if certain actions are taken within in a specified time frame
(before expiration of documents). Bankers Book Evidence Act, is applicable to throughout India except the State
of Jammu & Kashmir.
• The SARFAESI Act covers three important aspects, viz., Securitisation, Reconstruction of Financial assets and
Enforcement of security interest.
• The SARFAESI ACT is not a substitute for registration applicable in any other act. The ‘enforcement of security
interest’ is of the bank’s bad loans.
• The special feature of the SARFAESI Act is that the security interest can be enforced without intervention of
the courts, subject to certain procedures to be followed, like 60 days’ notice has to be served by the bank on the
borrower with a request to discharge the loan liability.
• Banking Ombudsman Service is a grievance redressed system.
• The security interest registered with the central registrar is required to be satisfied on the payment of full amount
by the borrower.
References
• Duties Op A Banker Towards His Customers. [Pdf] Available at: <http://eprints.uitm.edu.my/627/1/SHAMSUL_
BAHRIN_B_BAHARUDDIN.pdf> [Accessed 10 April 2014].
• Law of Banking and Security. [Pdf] Available at: <http://zulkiflihasan.files.wordpress.com/2008/06/week-3-
banker-customer-relationship.pdf> [Accessed 10 April 2014].
• Lynch, J. J., 1996. Psychology of Relationship Banking: Profiting from the Psyche. Woodhead Publishing
• Muraleedharan, D., 2009. Modern Banking: Theory And Practice. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.
• 8 2 Lecture in Customer Relationship Management mp4. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=1m9BUKQMqv0> [Accessed 10 April 2014].
• Understanding the Rights & Duties of the Customer/Banker Relationship. [Video online] Available at: <http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=pqEcGDQFOs0> [Accessed 10 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Rajola & Federico., 2013. Customer Relationship Management in the Financial Industry: Organisational Processes
and Technology Innovation. Springer.
• Hong Kong Institute of Bankers, 2012. Banking Law and Practice. John Wiley & Sons.
• Hood.P., 2012. Principles of Lender Liability. Oxford University Press.
78
Self Assessment
1. An asset ____________ company’s role is to takeover loans or advances from the bank or financial institution
for the purpose of recovery.
a. reconstruction
b. international
c. engineer
d. mechanical
2. Which of the following are established to promote and protect the rights of consumers?
a. Consumer protection
b. Consumer councils
c. Consumer act
d. Consumer Bank
7. The ‘enforcement of security interest’ is important for recovery of the bank’s ______ loans.
a. debt
b. commercial
c. bad
d. good
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Banking Law and Practice
80
Chapter VI
Financial Analysis of Banks
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
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Banking Law and Practice
6.1 Introduction
An analysis becomes a vital characteristic of decision-making; hence analysis of diverse situations, scenarios and
perceptions would aid banks to take appropriate decisions.
PESTEL FUNDAMENTAL
RISK TECHNICAL
MARKET FINANCIAL
The following financial statements are analysed and interpreted by different classes of persons, such as individual
investors, bankers, financial institutions, credit analysts, credit-rating agencies and research and management
students:
• The balance sheet shows the financial position of the business as at the end of a particular period (month, quarter
or year).
• The profit and loss account shows the financial results of the working of an enterprise over a period of time.
For example, 1st of April 2012 to 31st March 2013.
• When comparative analysis of these statements for a number of years is done, it would give a better view about
the financial performance of the business unit.
• Financial analysis and interpretation of financial statements have now become important decision-making
tools.
82
While using the financial statements, the limitations are as follows:
• The balance sheet numbers are available as on a particular date, hence may not reveal the correct position of
the financial health for over a period of one year.
• As both profit and loss account and balance sheet are in the form of numerical statements, these statements
would not reveal the overall picture about the performance of the concern or business unit.
• The methods of valuation of assets, writing off depreciation, amortisation of costs, large expenses, etc., may
vary from business unit to business unit. Therefore, a comparison of these numbers and ratios would not give
desired results and calls for further detailed investigations.
• Further, these financial statements depict the performance of the business enterprise. Therefore, any meaningful
interpretation of these statements will depend upon the projections of the future trends.
Assets
The assets are classified into current assets and fixed assets. They are discussed in the paragraphs below.
Current assets
Current assets are those assets which are to be liquidated into cash in the near future. These assets are also known
as ‘circulating assets’.
Fixed assets
The next important classification of assets is fixed assets. The fixed assets usually consist of land and buildings,
plant and machinery, fixtures and fittings, etc. These assets are used by the company for carrying on the business
and are not meant for sale in the near future. While analysing the fixed assets, care should be taken to verify the
book value as well as market value (re-saleable value and necessary precautions to be taken to verify whether such
assets are charged to any bank or financial institutions and the impact of the borrowings against such fixed assets).
The depreciation and amortisation policies should also be reviewed.
For example, the valuation of the fixed assets varies from type of assets. Land should be valued according to
ownership pattern like freehold or leasehold, and the location of the land, etc., The age of the building, location and
other factors are to be considered as regards valuation of building.
Intangible assets
With the changing pattern of integration of global business environment, a lot of changes are taking place in the
analysis of financial statements as well. Importance is being given to the intangible assets, and their valuation is
an important part of financial analysis. Generally, the following items are classified as intangible assets, goodwill,
copy right, patents, trade mark, designs, brand value, etc. These are also called as fictitious assets.
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Banking Law and Practice
Intangible assets do not represent any tangible assets like land and building, raw materials, stocks, etc. These intangible
assets in a way represent the reputation earned by the company. Apart from the above, certain other items which
can also be classified as intangible assets are preliminary expenses, debit balance in profit and loss account, which
are either deferred revenue expenses or are actual losses to be written off over a period of time.
Liabilities
The liabilities mainly represent sources of funds and can be broadly classified as follows:
• Net worth: Owned funds and share capital and free reserves.
• Current liabilities: Those items which are repayable within one year are treated as current liabilities.
• Borrowings from banks: Business units avail bank finance in the form of overdraft/cash credit (working capital
finance). An analyst should be inclined to know the details of such bank borrowings like amount under different
categories, security charged to the banks in the form of hypothecation and pledge of inventories and receivables,
etc.
• Sundry or trade creditors: The review of trade creditors is critical in determining the company’s liquidity
management. The review should be in detail relating to the nature of bills, the credit terms and other conditions.
If the bills are drawn by other than trade creditors, then careful review is needed.
• Term liabilities: While the term liabilities are long-term in nature, but the instalments of term loans which are
repayable or the maturity of debentures and other term liabilities which are due for payment within a period of
one year, need to be classified as short-term and treated like other current liabilities.
• Apart from the above items, provision for taxes, interest on term loans and debentures and other charges, unpaid
expenses, etc., are classified as other current liabilities.
• Term loans are classified into short-term, medium-term and long-term. While analysing, care should be exercised
to check and satisfy to the various terms and conditions of the loans and term finance availed by the company.
The details such as the rate of interest, the repayment period, and the security offered etc needs to be carefully
reviewed.
• Net worth: The composition of ‘net worth’ is paid-up share capital, the retained profits held in the form of
reserves and surpluses and the credit balance in the profit and loss account. One of the important aspects of
‘net worth’ is that the company’s long-term solvency depends on the strong capital base. The financial analyst
should review to find out whether the long-term needs of the business concern are financed by the owned funds
or long term liabilities.
• Contingent liabilities or off balance sheet items: Contingent liabilities are those liabilities which do not exist
as on the date of balance sheet, however they may arise in future unlike other items, which are classified as on
balance sheet items, the contingent liabilities are classified as off balance sheet items. On balance sheet items
are part of the balance sheet as historical items, whereas the contingent liabilities are future items. In case, these
items become payable, it would distort the liquidity position of the company, hence a careful review as to the
terms and conditions of such contingent liabilities, possible repayment amount and time, etc., need to be given
importance.
The financial statements should be prepared as per the legal framework and the Accounting standards as applicable
from time-to-time. In case of banking companies, the formats of both balance sheet and P&L account are prescribed
by the Banking Regulation Act. In case of other companies, they have to follow the Companies Act, 1956, as
amended from time-to-time. The Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) has issued revised Schedule VI which lays
down a new format for preparation and presentation of financial statements by Indian companies for financial years
commencing on or after 1 April 2011.
84
The revised Schedule VI introduces some significant conceptual changes such as current/non-current distinction,
primacy to the requirements of the accounting standards, etc. While the revised Schedule does not adopt the
international standard on disclosures in financial statements fully, it brings corporate disclosures closer to international
practices. Some of the important aspects of the revised Schedule are:
• Format of cash flow statement not prescribed hence companies which are required to present this statement (i.e.,
other than small and medium-sized companies) to continue to prepare it as per AS 3, Cash Flow Statements.
• Only vertical form of balance sheet is allowed with significant changes vis-à-vis the structure of prerevised
Schedule VI.
• Shareholders’ funds to be shown after deduction of debit balance of statement of profit and loss. ‘Reserves and
surplus’ and ‘shareholders’ funds’ (i.e., aggregate of Share Capital and Reserves and Surplus) could thus be
negative figures.
• Miscellaneous expenditure can no longer be shown as a separate broad heading under ‘Assets’. It would be
required to be reclassified depending on the nature of each such item.
• All assets and liabilities to be classified into current and non-current. This provides useful information by
distinguishing assets/liabilities continuously circulating as working capital or expected to be settled/realised
within 12 months from the balance sheet date from those used in long-term operations.
• Current/non-current distinction will have major impact on classification of accounting information and account
heads. Hence, changes would be required in accounting systems and procedures.
• Detailed disclosures required regarding defaults on borrowings.
• All liabilities to be classified into current and non-current on the basis of the same criteria of distinction as in
the case of assets.
• Non-current liabilities include long-term borrowings, long-term maturities of finance lease obligations, long-term
trade payables and long-term provisions. Current liabilities include current maturities of long-term debt and
of finance lease obligations, short-term borrowings, and all borrowings repayable on demand, unpaid matured
deposits/debentures, and short-term provisions.
• Intangible fixed assets to be disclosed separately.
• ‘Investments’ no longer to be included under non-current and current assets categories; disclosures
rationalised.
• Long-term loans and advances given not to be clubbed with current assets.
• Cash and cash equivalents to be disclosed separately.
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Banking Law and Practice
• Non-operating surplus: This represents gains arising from sources other than normal operations of the
business.
Its major components are income from investments and gains from disposal of assets. Likewise, non-operating
deficit represents losses from activities unrelated to the normal operations of the firm.
• Profit before interest and taxes: This is the sum of operating profit and non-operating surplus/deficit. Referred
to also as Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT), this represents a measure of profit which is not influenced
by financial leverage and the tax factor.
• Interest: This is the expense incurred for borrowed funds, such as term-loans, debentures, public deposits, and
working capital advances, etc.
• Profit before tax: This is obtained by deducting interest from profits before interest and taxes.
• Tax: This represents the income tax payable on the taxable profit of the year.
• Profit after tax: This is the difference between the profit before tax and tax for the year.
When we compare two balance sheets of different dates, change in each item (or introduction of a new item) in the
balance sheet of later date, as compared to that item in the balance sheet of earlier date, will represent either addition
of funds or additional use of funds in the intervening period. Any increase in any item on the liabilities side means
additional funds available. Please note that additional funds are also available if there is decrease in any item on
the assets side. Similarly, any increase in any item on the assets side or decrease in any item on the liabilities side
means additional use of funds. A statement of these additional sources of funds and additional uses of funds is called
Funds flow statement for the intervening period.
If we have to prepare the cash flow statement, we start with the cash in the first balance sheet as opening balance, add
all the additional sources, excluding cash (cash is also a source of funds if it is at a reduced level in the subsequent
balance sheet), and deduct all additional uses (excluding cash), thus arriving at the closing balance, which will be
equal to the cash shown in the second balance sheet. In practice, the statement is prepared perceiving cash as a use
or source of funds.
There are three methods are used for analysis of financial statements:
• Funds flow analysis: The total sources of funds are categorised as ‘long-term’ and ‘short-term’. Similarly,
the total uses are also categorised as ‘long-term’ and ‘short-term’. If the short-term sources are more than the
short uses, it indicates diversion of working capital funds and needs to be probed further. Sometimes, it may
be a desirable thing, e.g., in case of companies with very high current ratio, it may be desirable to use the idle
funds for creating additional capacity. The guiding principle is that this diversion should not affect the liquidity
position of the company to unacceptable level.
• Trend analysis: Under trend analysis, the following methodologies can be used:
The items, for which trend is required to be seen, are arranged in horizontal form and percentage increase
(decrease) from the previous year’s figure is indicated below it. Generally, this is used to see the trends of
sales, operating profit, Profit Before Tax, Profit After Tax, etc., from P& L account. Similarly, the balance
sheets arranged in horizontal order give the trends of increase or decrease of various items.
86
Common size statements are prepared to express the relationship of various items to one item in percentage
terms. For example, consumption of raw materials is expressed as a percentage of sales for different years
and comparison of these figures gives indication of trend of operating efficiency.
The use of common size statements can make comparisons of business enterprises of different sizes much more
meaningful since the numbers are brought to common base, i.e., per cent. Such statement allows an analyst to compare
the operating and financing characteristics of two companies of different sizes in the same industry.
• Ratio analysis: This is the most commonly used tool for analysis of financial statements.
A ratio is comparison of two figures and can illustratively be expressed as:
Current Ratio 1.33
Debt Equity Ratio 1:2
Profitability Ratio 21.4%
Both the figures, used in calculation of a ratio, can be from either P& L account, or balance sheet or one can be from
P& L account and the other from balance sheet. Ratios help in comparison of the financial performance and financial
position of an entity with other entities, as also for comparison with its own status over the years. While different
users of financial statements are interested indifferent ratios, some of the important ratios are as follows:
Profitability ratios: Operating Profit Margin (OPM) and Net Profit Margin (NPM) are calculated by dividing
the figures of operating profit (EBIT which means Earnings Before Interest and Tax) and net profit respectively
by the net sales. OPM is an indicator of the operating efficiency of the enterprise while NPM is an indication
of ability to withstand the adverse business conditions.
Liquidity ratios: These are Current Ratio (CR) and quick ratio or acid test ratio. While CR is a ratio of
total current assets to total current liabilities, quick ratio is calculated by dividing current assets (excluding
inventory) by total current liabilities. These ratios indicate the capacity of an enterprise to meet its short
term obligations.
Capital Structure Ratios: Debt Equity Ratio (DER) is a ratio of total outside long-term liability to the net worth
of an enterprise. High debt equity ratios are an indication of high borrowings in relation to the owned funds,
but also affects the viability of the operation of the enterprise, as higher borrowings mean higher costs and
lower operating margins. In case of those enterprises, which are not capital intensive (i.e., the requirement
of fixed assets is low), this ratio may not indicate the correct picture as working capital borrowings, which
are not indicated by DER, may be disproportionate to the capital. To get a better result, TOL/TNW ratio,
i.e., the ratio of Total Outside Liabilities to Tangible Net Worth can be used.
Coverage ratios: Interest Coverage Ratio (ICR) and Debt Service Coverage Ratio (DSCR) are the important
ratios under this category. ICR is calculated by dividing EBIT (Earnings Before Interest and Tax) by total
interest on long term borrowings. DSCR is ratio of total cash flows before interest (net profit + depreciation
+ interest on long-term borrowings) to total repayment obligation (instalment + interest on long-term
borrowings).
Turnover ratios: Turnover ratios can be classified into the following two types:
– Inventory turnover ratio: This is one of the important ratios to measure the skills of the management
of the firm. This is an indicator of how fast or slow is the movement of inventory. It is calculated by
dividing cost of goods sold by average inventory. A higher ratio indicates faster movement of inven-
tory. This is also used for calculating average inventory holding period.
– Debtors’ turnover ratio: This is another important ratio to measure the efficiency of the receivables
management of the firm. It is an indicator of how fast or slow the debtors are realised. It is calculated
by dividing the net credit sales by average debtors outstanding during the year. A higher ratio indi-
cates faster collection of debts. This is also used for calculating average collection period.
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Banking Law and Practice
The usefulness of the Du Pont model is that it presents a picture of the overall performance of a company to enable
the management to identify the factors relating to the company’s profitability. The two components of this ratio,
profit margin and investment turnover ratio individually cannot give the overall view, because the profit margin ratio
ignores the profitability of investments and the investment turnover ratio ignores the profitability on sales.
ROCE
Working
Fixed Assets Sales
Capital
88
In both capacities as lending banker and investing banker, a banker needs to be careful. He needs to carry it out as
a due diligence exercise for various reasons:
• Safety and security is the concern of a lending and investing banker, since he also acts as trustee for the
depositor’s money.
• While lending as well as investing, banks are exposed to many a risks.
• Banks needs to balance their assets and liabilities, and also ensure proper liquidity management.
• Banks should carefully handle their assets portfolio to ensure that their NPA levels remain at minimum possible
levels.
In view of the above, a banker’s financial analysis would be different from other category of persons and entities
that use the financial statements for various purposes and reasons.
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Banking Law and Practice
• Cross verification: The statements of stocks and book debts, as on the date of the balance sheet, submitted by
the borrower, for calculation of drawing power in the cash credit account, are cross checked with the figures
given in the balance sheet.
While investing funds in Non-SLR securities, the following need to be taken into account:
• They should adhere to exposure limits and counter-party limits.
• The financial statements of banks and corporate clients, where the funds would be invested, need to be properly
analysed.
• Like a lending banker, the investing banker also needs to verify all the important parameters to cover various
risks.
• If the investments are in market related instruments, banks also need to do a proper analysis of the market risks
and their impact.
• Banks should ensure that all such investments are properly valued by practising the market-to-market
concept.
• Apart from trend ratio and other analysis, banks should also carry out PESTEL analysis (Political, Economic,
Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal) and impact of the PESTEL factors on their investments.
• To protect the interests of the bank, while investing, careful assessment of the company’s performance and stock
markets, also needs to be carried out.
90
Summary
• The main source of financial analysis is the financial statements, viz., the balance sheet, profit and loss account,
cash flow and funds flow statements.
• The balance sheet depicts the position of its assets and liabilities as on a particular date, while Profit and Loss
account is prepared for an accounting period and states the position of income, expenses and the profit/loss.
• Different methods of analysis are used on the basis of comparison of two successive balance sheets.
• We can calculate the flow of funds in the intervening period.
• The credit and investment decisions are applicable for future needs of an enterprise, for which usually projected
financial statements are also prepared and analysed.
• Analysis of financial statements helps banks in knowing the financial health, performance and viability of an
enterprise, and in assessing its credit requirements.
• Some of the important methods used in analysis are trend and ratio analysis.
• The trend analysis shows how the business of an enterprise is growing while the ratio analysis depicts the most
critical financial parameters at a glance. Thus, the key ratios like OPM, debt/equity ratio, current ratio, DSCR,
debtors’ turnover ratio assist an investor and a lender to get a reasonable understanding about the financial health
and the performance of an enterprise. However, for a final decision, a more detailed analysis is necessary.
• While the format for balance sheet and P&L account are prescribed, for meaningful analysis, rearrangement of
these statements into various groups can be done according to the requirement of the analyst.
• Du Pont model highlights that the earning power of a firm is represented by Return on Capital Employed
(ROCE). ROCE shows the combined effect of the profit margin and the capital turn over. Any change in any of
the factors affects the company’s earning power.
• Banks as lender and investor carryout financial analysis. While analysing the company’s performance based
on the financial statements, banks should also be careful to give due attention to other factors apart from the
financial statements.
References
• Financial Analysis Of Banking Institutions. [Pdf] Available at: <ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/AE362e/
AE362e00.pdf> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Financial Stability Analysis Insights Gained From Consolidated Bankingdata For The Eu. [Pdf] Available at
<https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpops/ecbocp140.pdf> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Smullen, J., 1995. Financial Management Information and Analysis for Retail Banks. Woodhead Publishing.
• Greuning, H. V. & Brantanovic, S. B., 2009. Analysing Banking Risk: A Framework for Assessing Corporate
Governance and Risk Management. World Bank Publications.
• CFA level 1: Financial Reporting Analysis: Understanding Balance sheet. [Video online] Available at: <http://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=VA1Obl1oKzM> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Financial Management: Lecture 17, Chapter 3: Part 2 - Working with Financial Statements (Cont.). [Video
online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4FdGDmJvypY> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Greuning, H. V. & Brantanovic, S. B., 2003. Analysing and Managing Banking Risk: A Framework for Assessing
Corporate Governance and Financial Risk. World Bank Publications.
• Siddiqui, S. A., 2006. Managerial Economics And Financial Analysis. New Age International.
• Kapila, S., 2006. Academic Foundation`S Bulletin On Money, Banking And Finance Volume -77 Analysis,
Reports, Policy Documents. Academic Foundation.
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Banking Law and Practice
Self Assessment
1. The balance sheet is the most important ___________ statement prepared annually.
a. financial
b. commercial
c. personal
d. annual
2. Inventory Turnover Ratio B. Are the important ratios under this category.
6. Financial statement analysis is used by banks to assess the _________ requirement to overcome this issue.
a. credit
b. debit
c. loan
d. firm
92
7. __________ assets are those assets which are to be liquidated into cash in the near future.
a. Fixed
b. Current
c. Tangible
d. Intangible
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Banking Law and Practice
Chapter VII
Risk Management in Banks
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
94
7.1 Introduction
A widely used vocabulary for risk management is defined by ISO Guide 73, ‘Risk Management Vocabulary’. In
ideal risk management, a prioritisation process is followed whereby the risks with the greatest loss (or impact) and
the greatest probability of occurring are handled first, and risks with lower probability of occurrence and lower loss
are handled in descending order.
7.1.1 Risks
A risk arises on account of an uncertain event, which might result in a loss or gain to the parties associated with such
risk. Even though the risk is an independent event, invariably risks are interlinked in the sense; one risk may lead
to other risks as well. Risks can be classified into various types. Few examples of risks are shown in the following
diagram:
Credit
Liquidity Interest
Rate
Foreign
Legal
Price
exchange
Cross
Regulatory
Operational
board
Credit
Market Risk
Operational
The first diagram indicates various risks and the second diagram shows three important classifications of the
risks.
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Banking Law and Practice
To illustrate how these risks are interlinked, let us take examples of two market situations.
• Bank A lends to B Rs.10, 00,000.00/- for a period of six months. On the due date (maturity of the loan) borrower
B needs to repay to Bank A Rs. 10, 00,000.00/- + applicable interest. Assuming on the due date if B fails to
repay the amount, then it becomes a credit risk for bank A, on account of default in payment by the borrower.
On account of the non-receipt of the funds, Bank A would face another risk called liquidity risk. Not only that,
it would lead to a situation of asset liability mismatch (gap risk) for bank A. In view of the shortage of funds,
and also to manage the mismatch in its asset liability, bank A should arrange for funds from accepting new
deposits and/or approach the market to borrow at the markets interest rate. Hence bank A would be facing the
market risk (and needs to pay the market interest rate). In the ordinary course, these transactions would not
have arisen, if the borrower B had repaid his loan on the original due date. Further, our assumptions are that
after few days, if borrower B repays the loan amount and interest thereof, once again the bank A would face
asset liability mismatch on account of funds received. Such funds need to be deployed in the market subject to
market interest rate. Assuming on the date of deployment if the market rates come down, the bank A would face
a loss. A recap of this illustration would show case how; one risk is extended to series of risks, such as credit
risk, liquidity risk, mismatch (gap) risk and market risk (interest rate).
• Bank X entered into a spot forex deal with Bank Y. Bank X agreed to sell US$ 1 million to Bank Y at a particular
exchange rate. On the date of delivery Bank Y settled the equivalent rupee funds to Bank X. However, Bank X
could not deliver the US$ 1 million. So Bank Y is facing a credit risk, also called settlement risk. This would
lead to further risks for Bank Y. There would be shortage of funds in the Nostro account of Bank Y. Bank Y
needs to fund the account and should either arrange for a fresh deal and/or borrow in US markets at the market’s
interest rate. The non-receipt of US funds has created not only credit risk, but also liquidity as well as mismatch
risk in the assets and liabilities of the bank Y. Further on account of approaching the forex markets as well as
the US market, to enter into a new forex deal and to borrow funds in the US market, bank Y would also face
market risks (viz., exchange rate risk and interest rate risk respectively).
We have seen examples of credit risk and market risk and how these are interlinked. Let us take another example,
i.e., operational risk. Apart from credit and market risks, other risks can be recognised as part of operational risk.
Operational risk mainly arises out of non-adherence to the regulatory directives, guidelines, non compliance of legal
framework, on account of human and system errors, natural disasters, and also on account of frauds, misappropriation
of funds, weak internal control systems, etc.
Any risk which arises out of one or more factors mentioned above can be recognised as operational risk. Any of
the operational risk would create a credit risk for the counter party, and as already explained above, there would be
chain effect, like operational risk-credit risk, liquidity risk, mismatch (gap) risk and market risk (interest rate). In
view of the above, banks should be very careful in their risk management.
96
• One of the risk mitigation measures is to setup appropriate limits for various aspects like counter party limit,
country limit, currency limit, over night and intraday limits, stop loss limit, individual and group exposure
limits, etc.
• Inbuilt checking and balancing systems, such as input and output controls, access control to the computer
systems and sensitive areas of the banks.
• Apart from review by the ALCO members, a periodical review and evaluation system should be in place.
Risk management is a methodology that helps managers makes best use of their available resources. The process
consists of important steps like:
• Identify
• Analyse
• Evaluate
• Monitor
• Identification of risks: Identify the types of risks associated with the banking business and operations. Define
the types of risk, with special reference to the goals and objectives of the organisation. Based on the past
experience and future forecasts, risks can be identified and classified in to different levels like high, medium
and low levels.
• Analysing the risks: Risks arise out of many factors like, PESTEL factors, micro and macroeconomic policies,
ineffective internal control systems, speculation, etc., Risks can be identified by means of using various analysis
like financial, technical, trend and sensitivity analysis based on probability, trend, etc.
• Evaluating the risks: The risk may be evaluated by following the regulators guidelines and directives and also
based on past experiences as well. At the time of evaluation, proper weightages needs to be assigned for different
types of risks as per banks’ risk management policies, such as, risk category, cost associated in managing such
risks and also the impact of such risks.
• Monitor and review: Monitoring and review process is an important segment in risk management. An effective
monitoring system would assist bank management to identify or forecast risks to enable it to strengthen risk
management with more controls to manage the risks which might arise from their business models and their
exposure to various markets, across borders. In identifying, prioritising and treating risks, organisations make
assumptions and decisions based on situations that are subject to change, (e.g., the business environment, trading
patterns or government policies).
• Mitigation of risks: One of the main objectives of the risk management is to ensure that risks are either avoided
or minimised. While it is agreed that not all risks can be avoided, good risk management practices should create
an effective system of mitigation of risks.
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Asset-Liability Management Committee (ALCO) is a strategic decision-making body, formulating and overseeing
the function of asset liability management (ALM) of a bank. ALCO is headed by the Managing Director or the
Chief Executive Officer. The functions of these risk management committees are to recognise, gauge, appraise,
scrutinise and measure the risk profile of the bank. The Risk Management Committee also develops the policies and
procedures, reviews the pricing models, and also identifies new risks. The Risk Management Committee is assisted
by other individual risk management sub-committees.
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7.4 Credit Risk Management
Credit risk arises when one of the counter parties fails to fulfil the obligation to settle the payment or repay the
borrowed amount. It is also called as default risk and/or settlement risk Identification of credit risk: Close monitoring
of operations in operating loan account like working capital finance cash credit and overdraft accounts would assist
the bank to identify the risk based on the signals and warnings from the manner in which the account is being
operated. Non-submission of stock statements, wrong information provided in stock statements, regular inspections
of stocks, and review of market reports are essential tools to identify the credit risk.
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The role of the treasury in managing the liquidity position is very important. The treasury should closely watch the
market movements and accordingly handle the situations. To effectively monitor the risk, banks should set up limits
for currency, country and adhere to investment exposure norms as well. A close watch on the macro-level factors
in different markets and ensuring necessary control measures of revising exposure limits and other aspects would
also assist to manage the liquidity risk. Reviewing and understanding the various features of the monetary policy
and quarterly review by the Central Bank (Reserve Bank of India) and appropriately adjusting the strategies would
assist the banks in effectively managing the liquidity position.
Market risks can be assessed/measured by the following analyses, such as scenario analysis, trend and stress
analysis:
• Scenario analysis: A method in which the earnings or value impact is computed for different interest rate
scenarios.
• Stress analysis (testing): This is used to evaluate a bank’s potential vulnerability to certain unlikely events or
movements in financial variables. The vulnerability is usually measured with reference to the bank’s profitability
and /or capital adequacy duration analysis, measures the price volatility of fixed income securities. It is often
used in the comparison of interest rate risk between securities with different coupons and different maturities. It
is defined as the weighted average time to cash flows of a bond, where the weights are nothing, but the present
value of the cash flows themselves. It is expressed in years. The duration of a fixed income security is always
shorter than its term to maturity, except in the case of zero coupon securities where they are the same.
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• Market risk-Basel II norms: Market risk is defined as the risk of loss arising from movements in market prices
or rates away from the rates or prices set out in a transaction or agreement. The capital charge for market risk
as per the Basel norms can be estimated by two methods, viz., standardised measurement method and internal
risk management model.
• The standardised measurement method: This method, currently implemented by the Reserve Bank, adopts a
‘building block’ approach for interest-rate related and equity instruments which differentiate capital requirements
for ‘specific risk’ from those of ‘general market risk’. The ‘specific risk charge’ is designed to protect against
an adverse movement in the price of an individual security due to factors related to the individual issuer. The
‘general market risk charge’ is designed to protect against the interest rate risk in the portfolio. In the standardised
approach, there are two ways to measure market risk, i.e., duration method and maturity method. Under the
duration method, banks can calculate the interest rate risk, by calculating the price sensitivity, of each position
separately. Further, the measurement of capital charge for market risks should also include all interest rate
derivatives and off-balance sheet instruments in the trading book.
Foreign exchange open positions and gold open positions are also to be considered for capital charge as per
Basel norms and the Reserve Bank of India guidelines. Banks should strictly follow the Reserve Bank of India’s
guidelines in classification of securities as Held for Trading, Available for Sale, etc., and accordingly assign
risk weights. Banks should also assess their trading books and assign risk weights as per the Reserve Bank
guidelines
• Value at risk: Market risk can be measured through this tool called “Value at Risk” (VaR). .VaR is a method for
calculating and controlling exposure to market risk. It is a single number (currency amount) which estimates
the maximum expected loss of a portfolio over a given time horizon (holding period) and at a given confidence
level. It is measured in three variables, the amount of potential loss, the probability of that amount of loss and
the timeframe.
Country risks
These are risks in which a foreign entity, private or sovereign may be unwilling or unable to fulfil its foreign
obligations for reasons beyond the usual risks, in respect to all lending and investments.
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The Statutory Auditors have to audit the country risk exposures of the bank as at the end of the year. In addition to
the auditing being carried out by the Statutory Auditors, banks have to make necessary provisions for country risk
exposures and should disclose them as part of the ‘notes to account’ of the balance sheet and report to the Reserve
Bank of India as part of DBS return.
In respect of CRMS, the funded, non-funded and indirect exposures would include the following items:
• Direct exposure-funded
Cash balances or foreign currency, if any held by branches.
Bank balances and deposit placements: Covers the bank balances and placements with banks incorporated
outside India.
Loans and advances: Loans against NRI deposits exceeding the deposit amount, travellers’ cheques
purchased.
Overdrafts in Vostro accounts, etc.
• Direct exposure non funded
Letters of Credit: Exposures on account of Letters of credit issued by branches on behalf of constituents’
resident outside India.
Guarantees: Exposures on account of guarantees issued by branches on behalf of entities resident outside
India
Confirmed LCs issued by foreign banks, etc.
Short-term country risk exposures are those exposures which have contractual maturity up to 179 days.
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Legal risks
With the changing economic scenario, banks are not only exposed to risks associated with the domestic markets,
but also to international markets as well. More and more banking activities across borders, banks have to comply
with more than one regulatory authority and also a number of legal frame-work of international importance. The
cross border or country specific legal requirements needs to be properly interpreted and understood and applied
in the case of international trade and finance. The money laundering has become an important international issue;
banks have to be careful in its operations. Banks should appoint international legal firms to handle their legal
compliance to avoid legal risks. The Basel Committee defines this risk as “The risk of loss arising out of inadequate
or failed internal processes, people and systems, or from external events.” Banks have to make capital allocation
for operational risks as well.
The revised BASEL II framework offers the following three approaches for estimating capital charges for operational
risks:
• The Basic Indicator Approach (BIA): This approach sets a charge for operational risk as a fixed percentage
(alpha factor) of a single indicator, such as the banks’ gross annual revenue.
• The Standardised Approach (SA): This approach requires that the bank separate its operations into eight standard
business lines, such as trade finance, corporate banking and others. The capital charge for each business line is
calculated by multiplying gross income of that business line by a factor (beta) assigned to that business line.
• Advanced Measurement Approach (AMA): Under this approach, the regulatory capital requirement will equal
the risk measure generated by the banks’ internal operational risk measurement system.
As per the guidelines of the Reserve Bank of India, banks are required to integrate to the Basel II framework, with
the Standardised Approach for Credit Risk and Basic Indicator Approach for Operational Risk. Banks are also
required to upgrade their technology base to support implementation of Risk Assessment and Risk Management
structure to meet the requirements of the Advanced Approaches under Basel II.
The BASEL III capital regulations continue to be based on three-mutually reinforcing Pillars, viz. minimum capital
requirements, supervisory review of capital adequacy, and market discipline, of BASEL II. In India, guidelines
on Basel III capital regulation have been implemented from April 1, 2013 in a phased manner. To ensure smooth
transition to BASEL III, appropriate transitional arrangements have been made for meeting the minimum BASEL
III capital Ratios, full regulatory adjustments to the components of capital, etc. Consequently, BASEL III capital
regulations would be fully implemented as on March 31, 2018.
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Guidelines on liquidity coverage ratio and liquidity risk monitoring tools under Basel III
The Basel III Framework on Liquidity Standards includes Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR), Net Stable Funding
Ratio (NSFR) and liquidity risk monitoring tools. RBI’s guidelines included enhanced guidance on liquidity risk
governance, and measurement, monitoring and reporting to the Reserve Bank on liquidity positions. The Basel III
liquidity standards were subject to an observation period/revision by the Basel Committee with a view to addressing
any unintended consequences that the standards may have for financial markets, credit extension and economic
growth.
The Basel Committee has issued guidelines on the Liquidity Coverage Ratio and Liquidity Risk Monitoring
Tools in January 2013, and is in the process of finalising the NSFR and disclosure requirements. The LCR is to
be implemented from January 1, 2015 and the NSFR from January 1, 2018. The Reserve Bank will issue the final
guidelines on Basel III liquidity standards and liquidity risk monitoring tools, taking into account the revisions by
the Basel Committee.
To effectively achieve their objectives, risk reports should comply with the following principles:
• Accuracy: Risk management reports should accurately and precisely convey aggregated risk data and reflect
risk in an exact manner. Reports should be reconciled and validated.
• Comprehensiveness: Risk management reports should cover all material risk areas within the organisation. The
depth and scope of these reports should be consistent with the size and complexity of the bank’s operations and
risk profile, as well as the requirements of the recipients.
• Clarity and usefulness: Risk management reports should communicate information in a clear and concise manner.
Reports should be easy to understand, yet comprehensive enough to facilitate informed decision-making. Reports
should include meaningful information tailored to the needs of the recipients.
• Frequency: The board and senior management (or other recipients as appropriate) should set the frequency of
risk management report production and distribution. Frequency requirements should reflect the needs of the
recipients, the nature of the risk reported, and the speed, at which the risk can change, as well as the importance
of reports in contributing to sound risk management and effective and efficient decision-making across the bank.
The frequency of reports should be increased during times of stress/crisis.
• Distribution: Risk management reports should be distributed to the relevant parties while ensuring that
confidentiality is maintained.
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Total return
Risk free return Beta return Alpha return
The risk free rate carries no volatility. The beta and alpha components of the return bring volatility to the asset’s
return stream, and the Sharpe ratio measures the excess return earned by the asset ‘per unit of volatility’. It does so
by dividing the excess return, i.e., assets return less risk free rate, by the standard deviation. The following are the
various types of ratios:
• The Sharpe ratio: The Sharpe Ratio reflects the ratio of all excess returns over the risk free rate to the total
risk (or standard deviation) of the return stream. In other words, we strip out the risk free rate from the earned
returns, and divide that by the total standard deviation of the returns.
Sharpe ratio =
Where μ is the expected return, s is the standard deviation of returns, rm is the return of the market portfolio
and rf is the risk free rate.
• The Treynor ratio: The Treynor ratio is the ratio of the excess return to the beta of the portfolio. It is similar to
the Sharpe ratio, but instead of using volatility in the denominator, it uses the portfolio’s beta. Therefore the
Treynor Ratio is calculated as [(Portfolio return - Risk free return)/Portfolio’s beta].
Treynor ratio = where μ is the expected return, s is the standard deviation of returns, ß the beta of the portfolio
(or the security in question) measured against the market returns and rf is the risk free rate.
• Jensen’s alpha: Jensen’s alpha, often just referred to as alpha, and is a measure of the returns that are attributable
to the manager’s skill, i.e., the returns remaining after deducting what would have been attributable to beta
returns (which do not require skill) and the risk free rate. It is the difference between the return of the portfolio,
and what the portfolio should theoretically have earned. Any portfolio can be expected to earn the risk free
rate (rf), plus the market risk premium (which is given by [Beta x (Market portfolio’s return - Risk free rate)].
Anything remaining over and above is the result of the manager’s security selection skill, and is alpha. Jensen’s
alpha = μ - rf -ß(rm - rf), where μ is the expected return, ß the beta of the portfolio (or the security in question)
measured against the market returns, rm is the return of the market portfolio and rf is the risk-free rate
• Kappa indices: One criticism of other risk adjusted performance measures is that they take both upside and
downside risk into account, even though a portfolio manager or investor is only concerned with managing the
downside. Kappa indices, which include the Sortino ratio and the Omega statistic, consider semi-variance, i.e.,
variance calculated only in respect of the downside risk instead of variance based on all returns. One problem
with metrics based on semi-variances is that they are not mathematically tractable, i.e., it is difficult to do much
more with them once they have been calculated.
• The Information ratio: The Information ratio, often used in the hedge fund world, is the ratio of the alpha
component of total returns to the standard deviation of these excess alpha returns. The alpha component is the
returns that is attributable to the manager’s skill (or luck), and is the residual after taking out the risk free return
and the beta components from the total returns. The information ratio is merely Jensen’s alpha divided by its
standard deviation. The higher the information ratio, the greater the chances of the manager making money.
The information ratio only looks to compute the return per unit of risk undertaken for the alpha component.
This is important because alpha returns are risky, as they represent a zero sum game for the market as a whole.
In fact, average alpha for the market as a whole is in practice slightly less than zero because of transaction and
other costs. Therefore, it is easy for a manager to take on ‘alpha risk’ and lose money that will bite into the beta
returns.
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-40 -20 0 4 20 40 60
Note that just simply putting the formula = normsdist(-IR) gives us the probability of losing money in one year.
We can extend the analysis to multiple years, for example, consider a manager with an alpha of say, 3%, and standard
deviation of say 10% (IR = 0.3). The probability of him losing money over a one year period is 38%. Now think
of a three year horizon. The mean returns over a three year period will be 9%, and the standard deviation will be
(3^1/2)*10%, or 17.3%, and therefore a possibility of losing money over a three year period to be about 30%.
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Summary
• Banks, being an important financial intermediary, are associated with many risks.
• It is obvious that despite best efforts banks cannot avoid or completely eliminate the risks.
• As per the Basel norms, banks can integrate the three pillar concepts with an effective management assessment
and control, coupled with a very good supervision and market discipline banks can overcome the risks to a
greater extent.
• Banks risk management system needs to address various aspects like identification, evaluation, monitoring and
measuring the risks.
• Banks should ensure that their Risk Management System should be based on the Basel Norms and the Reserve
Bank of India’s guidelines.
• The Information Ratio, often used in the hedge fund world, is the ratio of the alpha component of total returns
to the standard deviation of these excess alpha returns.
• Banks in India are well supported by the Information Technology to carry out their banking business and
operations.
• Credit risk arises when one of the counter parties fails to fulfil the obligation to settle the payment or repay the
borrowed amount. It is also called as default risk and/or settlement risk.
References
• Risk Management In Banks. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.icai.org/resource_file/11490p841-851.pdf>
[Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Commercial Bank Risk Management: an Analysis of the Process. [Online] Available at: <http://fic.wharton.
upenn.edu/fic/papers/95/9511.pdf?origin=publication_detail> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Bessis, J., 2011. Risk Management in Banking. John Wiley & Sons.
• Ghosh, A., 2012. Managing Risks in Commercial and Retail Banking. John Wiley & Sons.
• Radim Vyhnánek - Risk Management in Banking. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=a6V2jblN2e8> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Risk Management Process Lecture. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8nGmsd7ZeLs>
[Accessed 11 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Bratanovic, S. B. & Greuning, H. V., 2009. Analysing Banking Risk: A Framework for Assessing Corporate
Governance and Risk Management. World Bank Publications.
• Ruozi, R. & Ferrari, P., 2012. Liquidity Risk Management in Banks: Economic and Regulatory Issues.
Springer.
• Bertram, S., 2011. Risk Management in Banks. GRIN Verlag.
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Self Assessment
1. Which of the following include the Sortino ratio and the Omega statistic; consider semi-variance, i.e. variance
calculated only in respect of the downside risk instead of variance based on all returns?
a. Kappa indices
b. The Treynor ratio
c. Jensen’s alpha
d. The Shape Ratio
2. The __________ is the ratio of the excess return to the beta of the portfolio.
a. Jensen’s alpha
b. Treynor ratio
c. Shape Ratio
d. Kappa indices
4. __________ requirements should reflect the needs of the recipients, the nature of the risk reported, and the
speed, at which the risk can change.
a. Frequency
b. Comprehensive
c. Accuracy
d. Clarity
a. 1- A, 2- B, 3-C, 4- D
b. 1- B, 2- D, 3-A, 4- C
c. 1- C, 2- A, 3-D, 4- B
d. 1- D, 2- C, 3-B, 4- A
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6. Which of the following statement is false?
a. Identification of Liquidity Risk: Review of asset and liability mismatch is one of the eye openers.
b. Credit risk arises when one of the counter parties fails to fulfil the obligation to settle the payment or repay
the borrowed amount.
c. The Information ratio is the ratio of the excess return to the beta of the portfolio.
d. The information ratio only looks to compute the return per unit of risk undertaken for the alpha
component.
8. The ________ Ratio reflects the ratio of all excess returns over the risk free rate to the total risk of the return
stream.
a. Liquid
b. Sharpe
c. Treynor
d. Information
10. The _______ accord introduced a new approach based on the three pillars.
a. Basel I
b. Basel III
c. Basel II
d. Basel I and III
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Banking Law and Practice
Chapter VIII
Ethics and Corporate Governance in Banks
Aim
The aim of this chapter is to:
Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to:
• describe clause 49
Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
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8.1 Introduction
The word ‘ethics’ is derived from the Greek word ‘ethikos’ meaning character or custom. As per Chambers Dictionary,
‘ethics’ is a code of behaviour that is considered right. According to some other views, ethics is the science of moral,
moral principles and practices. Ethics also deals with the dissimilarity between different actions like ‘good or bad’;
’correct or incorrect; ‘moral or immoral’
Any effort by any person to infringe any of these rights is considered unethical. Right to privacy is violated in many
ways. For example, the personal data available with researchers have led to many junk/spam mails, tele-marketing
calls, etc.
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There are many concepts of ethics and some of them are discussed below:
• Utilitarianism: Action is morally right, if the total net benefit of the action exceeds the total net benefit of any
other action. In other words, the result of the action is more favourable than unfavourable to everyone.
• Egoism: The theory which treats self-interest as the base of morality. Two forms of ethical egoism can be identified
as individual and universal, which include other’s interest only from the point of the assessors’ self-interest. It
is mainly self-centred, and importance is given to self pleasure and gain and avoids pressure and pain.
• Rights: A Right is considered as a person’s just claim or entitlement.
Legal rights: Defined by a system of laws.
Moral rights: Based on ethical standards-principles of right or wrong.
Justice: Justice is the decision which could arise from the application of rules, policies, or laws that apply
to a society or a group.
While ethical practices would make certain a better and conducive climate in work place, we come across unethical
practices in many areas.
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factor of the marketing mix, and ensures good customer relationship management. Unethical practices on account
of ‘Place’ as part of marketing mix arises in the following situations:
If a branch of a bank is relocated to another area without sufficient notice and time.
A customer, who uses ATMs, Internet banking facility, is denied access to them on account of bank’s failure
to provide the services, and thereby the customer is facing inconvenience, loss of money and time.
• Product: ‘Product’ is one of the important components of marketing mix. Product can be in the form of goods
or an article or an instrument (in case of financial services), for which the consumer pays a value (price) and
expects to get satisfaction/comfort. If a bank offers a deposit product offering higher interest and suddenly stops
offering such type of deposit products without any prior notice, then from the customers’ point of view this
could be viewed as unethical practice. Similarly, when new loan products with certain value-added features are
launched, such value additions are offered only for the new loan customers, but not for existing loan customers
could be viewed as unethical by the existing customers.
• Price: ‘Price’ is another important component of a marketing mix. Price discrimination is labelled as unethical.
For example, A bank, when there is change in the floating interest rates, immediately increases the interest rates
for loan accounts for the existing borrowers, however, in case of rate cut, the bank does not reduce the interest
rate immediately, is considered as unethical. Another example of unethical practice is, any increase in charges,
fees are given immediate effect, however any reduction in charges, fees, etc. which would benefit the customers
is not passed on to them immediately.
• Promotion: Reaching out to the customers through effective network and attractive communication is the key
role of the marketing mix called ‘promotion’. Advertisement is the main component of promoting products.
Unethical practices are as follows:
Misleading advertisements to draw the clients.
Unsolicited telephone calls, e mails, and thereby causing nuisance to the clients.
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114
• Commitment to Accountability: FIs should be accountable to their stakeholders and the community where they
operate. FIs should promote economic development through their CSR activities.
• Commitment to good governance: FIs should frame good corporate governance policies and follow them in
letter and spirit.
Quite often we come across much news pertaining to the CSR activities of banks and other players in the financial
sector. Some examples of CSR activities are as follows:
• Environment protection: Going Green is an eco-friendly initiative not only to guard the environment, but also to
encourage younger generation to make sure that such initiatives would lead to a better life around us. Some of
the green initiatives include eco-friendly e-communication, banks and companies forwarding the annual reports
by electronic mode (saving reams of papers for printing reports to the shareholders) and saving the globe from
different kinds of pollution such as water, air, noise, etc.
• Health care: Many banks and other financial institutions including government organisations are keen in ensuring
better health care facilities are provided for the needy persons. They organise regular blood donation drives,
free medical checkups, donating ambulances, sponsoring free medical camps in remote villages.
• Education: Educational services occupy an important position in CSR activities of organisations. Many
organisations are promoting community schools, colleges. Scholarships are offered to many deserving
students.
• Social causes: Many banks offer help and financial assistance through their CSR programmes to assist weaker
sections of the society for a better future.
Apart from the above, many employees of the banks and other institutions are very active in their contribution for
the community development and these can very well be considered as part of Corporate Social Responsibility in
view of the fact that each person is a stakeholder in one respect or another.
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Banking Law and Practice
8.6 Clause 49
The Bank should ensure compliance with the provisions of Corporate Governance as per Clause 49 of the Listing
Agreement with the Stock Exchanges as applicable. Important board-level committees are formed, to assist the
Board of Directors to function effectively. These Committees provide effective professional support in the conduct
of board-level business in key areas like Audit & Accounts, Risk Management, resolution of Shareholders’/Investors’
grievances, Fraud Review and Control, Review of customer service and redressal of customer grievances, Technology
Management and Payment of Incentives to Executive Directors. The Remuneration Committee approves, once in
a year, payment of incentives to whole-time Directors, based on Government of India guidelines.
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8.6.5 IT Strategy Committee
This committee assists the Board to track the progress of the Bank’s IT initiatives. Some of the important functions
of the committee are as follows:
• Approving IT strategy and policy documents, ensuring that the management has put an effective strategic
planning process in place.
• Ensuring that the IT operational structure complements the business model and its direction.
• Ensuring IT investments represent a balance of risks and benefits and those budgets are acceptable.
• Evaluating effectiveness of management’s monitoring of IT risks and overseeing the aggregate funding of IT
at the bank level.
• Reviewing IT performance matches with the bank’s policy/plans.
Mandatory requirements of Clause 49 as to the composition of the Board of Directors, composition and quorum of
the Audit Committee, Non-executive Directors’ compensation, the appointment, re-appointment of the Statutory
Auditors and fixation of their fees, etc., needs to be disclosed. In terms of Clause 49(V) of the Listing Agreement,
a certificate by the Managing Director & Chief Financial Officer on the financial statements and internal controls
relating to financial reporting needs to be obtained. The disclosure should cover all other required declarations as
applicable.
The bank should also declare that it has complied with applicable rules and regulations prescribed by stock exchanges
or SEBI or any other statutory authority relating to the capital markets during the last three years. No penalties or
strictures have been imposed by them on the bank. The Whistle Blower Policy, approved by the Board of the Bank,
is in place and has been uploaded on the bank’s intranet site for information of all the staff members.
Apart from the above mentioned details in the annual report, the bank should furnish the details of the corporate
governance policies and relevant disclosures. As the Annual Report is provided to every shareholder (either by post
or by e mail), it would serve as a means of communication from the bank to reveal not only the financial performance
of the bank, but also other important aspects of the bank including the corporate governance practices.
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Banking Law and Practice
According to the Basel guidance banks’ good corporate governance practices would entail banks for better
operational efficiency, greater opportunities to get low-cost funds, and a good reputation and increased market
value.
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Summary
• Business ethics, corporate governance and corporate social responsibility have become not only an integral part
of the present globalised business environment, but also have changed the business models of banks.
• More and more banks have started to reshape themselves to offer better customer services and also operate in
more ethical manner, through their effective corporate governance practices.
• Every financial year the directors on the bank’s board and senior management have to sign a declaration for
compliance with the bank’s code of conduct for the financial year.
• The Customer Service Committee reviews ongoing improvements on a continuous basis in the quality of
customer service provided by the Bank.
• A sound financial policy and effective management control, is very important for good corporate governance.
• Ethics involves a discipline that examines good or bad practices within the context of a moral duty.
• An individual or group of persons are influenced and guided by his/their religious faith.
• The study of moral values based on economic systems prevalent in different countries and across the globe is
called as ‘Business Ethics’.
References
• Business Ethics: The Essential Component of Corporate Governance. [Pdf] Available at: < http://www.cipe.
org/sites/default/files/publication-docs/011206.pdf> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Risk Management & Corporate Governance. [Pdf] Available at: <http://www.oecd.org/corporate/ca/corporate
governanceprinciples/42670210.pdf> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Gup, B. E., 2007. Corporate Governance in Banking: A Global Perspective. Edward Elgar Publishing.
• Fernando, A. C., 2010. Business Ethics And Corporate Governance. Pearson Education India.
• ACCA F1 - 8 Ethics and corporate governance. [Video online] Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=B7vSsD7LLrM> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
• Challenges to Corporate Governance: Policy and Ethical Considerations in a Time of Change. [Video online]
Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAoSU6jQIZA> [Accessed 11 April 2014].
Recommended Reading
• Simpson, J. & Taylor, J. R., 2013. Corporate Governance Ethics and CSR. Kogan Page Publishers.
• Tan, M., 2012. Corporate Governance and Banking in China. Routledge.
• Nelson, B., 2013. Law and Ethics in Global Business: How to Integrate Law and Ethics into Corporate
Governance Around the World. Routledge.
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Banking Law and Practice
Self Assessment
1. ______________ occupy an important position in CSR activities of organisations.
a. Health care
b. Educational services
c. Social services
d. Financial help
B. The board of directors should approve and oversee the bank’s strategic objective and
2. Principle 1
corporate values that are communicated throughout the organisation.
C. The board of directors should set and enforce clear lines of responsibility and
3. Principle 4
accountability throughout the organisation.
D. The board should ensure that there is appropriate oversight by senior management
4. Principle 1
consistent with board’s policy.
a. 1-C, 2- A, 3- D, 4-A
b. 1- A, 2- B, 3- C, 4-D
c. 1- B, 2- D, 3- A, 4-B
d. 1- D, 2- C, 3- B, 4-C
5. Which of the following committee guidance provides a foundation for sound corporate governance practices
for various banking system across countries?
a. Strategy
b. The Basel
c. Audit
d. Customer service
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6. The expertise of auditors’ of the audit division might be used by the consultancy division in valuations and this
may be considered as an example of _________.
a. conflict of interest
b. transparency
c. insider trading
d. golden parachute
8. Which of the following committee assists the Board to track the progress of the Bank’s IT initiatives?
a. Customer service
b. Remuneration
c. Nomination
d. Strategy
9. The _______________ Committee reviews ongoing improvements on a continuous basis in the quality of
customer service provided by the Bank.
a. Customer service
b. Remuneration
c. Nomination
d. Strategy
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Case Study I
Punjab National Bank
Punjab National Bank was incorporated in the year 1895. Since its humble beginning over hundred years ago, the
bank has grown in stature to become one of the leading banking institutions in India. PNB is the second largest
PSU bank in India with a dominant presence in north India. Keeping in tune with changing times and to provide its
customers more efficient and speedy service, the Bank has taken major initiative in the field of computerisation. All
the Branches of the Bank have been computerised. The Bank has also launched aggressively the concept of “Any
Time, Any Where Banking” through the introduction of Centralised Banking Solution (CBS) and over 2000 offices
have already been brought under its ambit.
To access any vital information related to the client, the company had to retrieve the original hard copy of the
application. The regular procedure included taking out a page from the entire set of documents of original application
forms. This page was either photocopied or used and then kept back with the original form. This led to papers being
misplaced or left them in a dilapidated state, due to constant wear and tear. Many a times the original was missing
and at times, the photocopy also got stapled to a wrong application form.
Pyramid’s Solution
Pyramid IT Consulting proposed Punjab National Bank to automate manual Record/Document keeping process by
providing its Document Management Solution – FineDocs & Scanning Services – FineScan. After the implementation
of the DMS, the application form and other related documents got scanned and indexed with the user defined indexed
values. After this whenever there was a need to refer to the original document, a search feature of the DMS helped to
retrieve the scanned copy of the document to the user. Search in Document Management Solution has been carried
out on the basis of title, as well as, keywords.
122
We proposed a multi-user web-based Document Management Solution, i.e., FineDocs that encompass strong
searching and distribution modules. All the documents would be stored in a server and thus this application shall
act as a central repository of storage of Data & Documents.
Document Retrieval
Whenever the document is required to be referred by the branch, the user logs in to our DMS could see the scanned
copy of the original document very easily. The request for retrieval of the document is routed to the Central FineDocs
Database and Image Server client while requesting for a connection, specifies a preferred site, to which it wants to
get connected.
For document retrieval, the user specifies the Index of the document he wants to retrieve. Whenever a request for
document retrieval is made, the Image server checks whether the document resides on the client’s preferred site. If
the document resides on the preferred site, then it is fetched from there or else it is fetched from the Home site of
the repository.
(Source: Case Study Punjab National Bank. [Online] Available at: <http://www.finedocs.com/Resources/case_studies/
cs_banking_001.pdf> [Accessed 29 April 2014])
Questions
1. What was the regular procedure to access any vital information related to the client and why was it difficult?
Answer
To access any vital information related to the client, the company had to retrieve the original hard copy of
the application. The regular procedure included taking out a page from the entire set of documents of original
application forms. This page was either photocopied or used and then kept back with the original form. This
led to papers being misplaced or left them in a dilapidated state, due to constant wear and tear. Many a times
the original was missing and at times, the photocopy also got stapled to a wrong application form.
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Banking Law and Practice
For searching or locating any document/file was a hassle for the staff involved in this process. As paper-based
files/documents were accessible to each and every person, they were liable to be tampered, and resulted sharing
of any internal information with any unauthorised person. Physical documents were prone to damage with time,
moisture, rodents, etc.
124
Case Study II
Union Bank of India Achieves High Goals through Diebold’s Managed Services
Business Objective: With the challenge of establishing and retaining tools and resources to internally manage its
rapidly growing ATM channel, Union Bank of India was looking for an innovative and cost-effective way to provide
its customer with the most efficient, reliable and technologically superior ATM network possible.
Solution: Diebold’s Managed Services provided Union Bank of India with comprehensive maintenance and expert
support services, including round the clock monitoring, incident management and help desk support, consumable
replenishment, cash management and cash optimisation analysis and consulting and monitoring to help the financial
institution achieve the highest level of availability for its ATM fleet, enhancing customer satisfaction and facilitating
a streamlined ATM channel expansion.
To meet these imperatives, UBI relied on Diebold Managed Services’ longevity in the financial self-service industry
and its proven expertise in managing, monitoring and servicing ATM channels as complex and far-reaching as UBI’s.
To increase optimum uptime, Diebold is providing round the clock monitoring of UBI’s fleet, as well as managing
consumable replenishment and cash optimisation and forecasting, which allows for tighter management and reduced
cash levels at the most critical points of the replenishment process. It also allows for easier monitoring and more
accurate prediction of cash demands by establishing and maintaining customer-specific historical data. These services,
in conjunction with Diebold’s Help Desk Support, are helping UBI minimise the total cost of ownership associated
with managing its extensive ATM channels.
Diebold also is providing incident management and first line maintenance services to help prevent problems from
ever happening, which can significantly improve the financial institution’s operational efficiencies. To further boost
UBI’s self-service channel availability, Diebold technicians coordinated with all entities in the financial institution’s
extensive roster of network vendors to provide greater continuity in its ATM operations.
Service History: Union Bank of India (UBI) is a leading, innovative commercial bank, with a proactive approach
to the changing needs of the society. Over the years, the bank has earned the reputation of being techno-savvy and
a front runner among public sector banks in modern-day banking trends. It has aggressively expanded its branch
network to become one of India’s largest state-run banks.
As UBI’s presence expanded, its commitment to continually enhancing customer satisfaction increased as well.
Lacking the tools and resources to internally manage its rapidly growing ATM channel, the financial institution
recognised the need to partner with an organisation that had a proven track-record of successfully managing large
self-service networks. Additionally, because UBI’s short-and long-range plans included continued aggressive
expansion, it required an outsourcing partner that could offer such capabilities as remote channel management as
well as the ability to meet regulatory approvals for handling cash replenishment and other necessary functions to
keep its ATM fleet at the highest possible level of availability.
“To ensure our customers’ loyalty and keep confidence in our rapidly growing financial institution high, it was essential
that our ATM fleet operates at the highest-level availability and we had confidence that Diebold could leverage its
expertise to make that a reality,” said Lalit Sinha, deputy general manager, UBI. “With Diebold Managed Services,
our ATM channel has experienced an average of 150 hits per ATM per day, which is an increase of more than 90%
as compared to the average hits per ATM prior to our partnership with Diebold. To us, those numbers underscore
the exceptional value that can be gained from relying on Diebold for its exceptional management abilities.”
At the beginning of the five-year agreement with UBI, Diebold managed 500 ATMs in a fleet that today has grown
to 1435 terminals. This growth can be attributed, in part, to the marked reduction in downtime across the financial
institution’s self-service channel, which boosted customer satisfaction and allowed for faster deployment of new
ATMs.
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Banking Law and Practice
“Our relationship with Diebold has offered us considerable benefits, both in the superior efficiency of our ATM
channel, and in the steady increase in our customers’ level of satisfaction,” Sinha said. “With the continued efficiencies
provided by Diebold’s Managed Services, we’re on target to successfully achieve our goal of 2500 ATMs by the
end of 2009.”
(Source: Union Bank of India Achieves High Goals through Diebold’s Managed Services. [Pdf] Available at: <http://
www.diebold.com/Diebold%20Asset%20Library/dbd_ubimanagedservices_casestudy.pdf> [Accessed 06 May
2014])
Questions
1. What were the challenges Union Bank of India had to meet?
2. How did Diebold Managed Services improve the efficiency of Union Bank of India?
3. What did Union Bank of India achieve through Diebold Managed Services?
126
Case Study III
State Bank of India
Executive Summary
The State Bank of India (SBI) has extended collaboration without borders to the next level. It has adopted an enterprise
wide IT strategy aimed at integrating its service channels, ramping up its efficiency levels, and enabling it to roll out
a new generation of products by building a converged IP network. In doing so, the bank has demonstrated the true
meaning of unified communications as distinct from simply allowing a proliferation of different communications
capabilities.
Client Overview
SBI is India’s largest and the world’s fifth largest bank, with more than 90 million customers, 15,000 branches and
7,000 ATMs in India and 40 other countries.
Business Challenge
Executing an enterprise wide IT strategy to integrate one’s service channels is no mean feat for any organisation.
When your operations are scattered across a myriad of geographies and time zones, it’s even trickier. SBI recognised
that success required the company to enlist the expertise of a partner to design, build, and manage a converged
network capable of carrying all its present and future traffic. The integrator would also be responsible for bandwidth,
all networking equipment, software, and management as well as a 24x7 helpdesk, service level agreements, and the
management of scheduled and unscheduled network outages.
Solution Delivered
Over a period of eight years, starting in 2002, Dimension Data worked with the Cisco Internet Business Solutions
Unit, built and deployed an integrated IP network that powers all the bank’s business processes in some of the
world’s most high-tech cities as well as in India’s most remote rural areas. Applications powered by the network
range from core banking, treasury operations and trade finance to inter-branch voice communication and unified
messaging. The project, which has met all budget and timeline requirements, was executed in five phases. Phase
I covered 1,400 branches in 49 cities. Phase II covered 3,400 branches in more than 300 cities. Phase III involved
networking the remaining 6,100 branches. Phase IV covered an additional 2,800 branches, and phase V, which
touches 2,000 branches, is currently ongoing.
The new network has been designed to give SBI a seamless flow of transactions, streamline data gathering and
dissemination and support an integrated view of products across all channels. The system is based on a three-tier,
self healing corporate wide area network (WAN), which has a centralised data centre in Mumbai and a backup in
Chennai. The three tiers comprise a core linking the country’s four main cities, a distribution network linking local
head offices and zonal offices back to the core metro cities, and an access network for the end branches. SBI’s
converged system is based on IP telephony, with some 15,500 IP phones being deployed and a closed user group
(CUG) voice solution providing 24 x 7 availability for voice. This has enabled standardisation of voice equipment
across the organisation and drastic cutting of the costs of inter-branch voice communications.
Value Derived
The system allows advanced integrated applications, such as billing and accounting, XML-based services, voicemail,
unified messaging, conferencing and collaboration solutions, and directory support, to be rolled out as services
on the network when the bank requires them. Future manageability and scalability have therefore become simple
and cost effective. The bank is now optimally positioned for future deployment of a single infrastructure for voice
communication while still complying with regulatory obligations.
Management of the bank’s IP telephony system is monitored through Dimension Data’s Global Service Centre in
Bangalore. Bank executives are provided with a dashboard that enables them to see at any time whether any part of
the system is down and what sort of fault is the cause. This enables the bank to immediately take remedial action
within its own departments when the cause is not network related. Seamless connectivity is assured through the use
of leased lines and bandwidth is provided by three separate Telcos coordinated by Dimension Data.
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Banking Law and Practice
Unbroken service is guaranteed by Dimension Data’s Uptime maintenance service, which incorporates detailed
service level agreements, including penalties for network downtime. Dimension Data’s service level management
responsibilities include partnering with the telecommunications service provider, Telco, and other third-party vendors
to ensure that all service level agreement requirements are fully aligned and delivered upon. Dimension Data acts
as a single point of billing from Telco, on the bank’s behalf. Dimension Data’s vendor-management responsibilities
include managing the bank’s contract with third-party spares suppliers, synchronising all logistical arrangements
for delivery of spares, and recovering any penalties from the banks spares suppliers.
In addition, through its managed service, Dimension Data takes ownership and accountability for all processes and
service outcomes. In total, Dimension Data has over 700 engineers across the region, covering 150 cities working
on behalf of SBI.
Questions
1. What were the business challenges faced by SBI?
2. How did Dimension Data solve the issues faced by SBI and enhance the banking experience of the
customers?
3. How did SBI benefit through the changes made by Dimension Data?
128
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Chapter II
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. b
7. a
8. d
9. b
10. d
Chapter III
1. b
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. d
9. a
10. c
Chapter IV
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. b
7. a
8. d
9. b
10. c
132
Chapter V
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. c
5. d
6. b
7. c
8. a
9. c
10. a
Chapter VI
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. d
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. a
Chapter VII
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. d
10. c
Chapter VIII
1. b
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. d
9. a
10. c
133