DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

East Coast Road, Mamallapuram, Chennai – 603 104

(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

LAB MANUAL

AE 6612 – AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I

Lab Incharge : M. NATESAN

 DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN DEPT : AERO
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
ECR. MAMALLAPURAM – 603 104

Faculty Details

Name of the Faculty : M. NATESAN

Designation : Assistant Professor
Department : Aeronautical Engineering

Course Detail

Name of the Course : B.E

Branch : Aeronautical Engineering
Title of the subject : Aircraft Design Project - I
Semester : IV
Batch : 2014-2018
Subject code : AE 6612
 DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN DEPT : AERO
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
ECR. MAMALLAPURAM – 603 104

NAME :

REG.NO :

DEPT :

SEM :

SUB CODE/NAME :
Page |2
 Page |3

List of Experiments

Cycle I:

1. Comparative configuration study of different types of airplanes.

2. Comparative study on specification and performance details of aircraft.
3. Preparation of comparative data sheets.
4. Work sheet layout procedures.
5. Comparative graphs preparation and selection of main parameters for the
design.

Cycle I:

6. Preliminary weight estimations, selection of main parameters.

7. Power plant selection, Aerofoil selection, Wing tail and control surfaces
design.
8. Estimation of various Drags.
9. Detailed performance calculations and stability estimates.
10.Preparation of layouts of balance diagram and three view drawings.
 Page |4

INTRODUCTION

-------------------------------------
1.1 Defining a new design
1.2 Design process
1.3 Conceptual design
--------------------------------------

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The design method to be followed from the start of the project to the nominal end can be
considered to fall into three main phases. These phases are illustrated in Figure. The preliminary
phase (sometimes called the conceptual design stage) starts with the project brief and ends when
the designers have found and refined a feasible baseline design layout. In some industrial
organizations, this phase is referred to as the ‘feasibility study’. At the end of the preliminary
design phase, a document is produced which contains a summary of the technical and geometric
details known about the baseline design. This forms the initial draft of a document that will be
subsequently revised to contain a thorough description of the aircraft. This is known as the
aircraft ‘Type Specification’.
The next phase (project design) takes the aircraft configuration defined towards the
end of the preliminary design phase and involves conducting detailed analysis to improve the
technical confidence in the design. Wind tunnel tests and computational fluid dynamic analysis
are used to refine the aerodynamic shape of the aircraft. Finite element analysis is used to
understand the structural integrity. Stability and control analysis and simulations will be used to
appreciate the flying characteristics. Mass and balance estimations will be performed in
increasingly fine detail. Operational factors (cost, maintenance and marketing) and
manufacturing processes will be investigated to determine what effects these may have on the
final design layout. All these investigations will be done so that the company will be able to take
a decision to proceed to manufacture’
 Page |5

1.1 Defining a new design

The preliminary design also involves a more detailed analysis of the aerodynamic loads
and component weights. Based on this, the structural design is further refined. Aero elastic
motion, fatigue and flutter are considered at this stage. Additional confirmation of estimates may
require building and testing some of the proposed structural components. At the completion of
this stage, the manufacturing of the aircraft is given serious consideration and the cost estimates
are further refined. At the end of this step, the decision is made whether to build the aircraft.
With the decision to build the aircraft, the design is “frozen.”

The detailed design involves generating the detailed structural design of the aircraft. This
involves every detail needed to build the aircraft. Sometimes component mock-ups are built to
aid in the interior layout. However, the present use of computer aided design (CAD) software
can substantially minimize the need for mock-ups by providing realistic 3-D views.

1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With this, it is often
possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories include combat aircraft,
passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined
into subcategories based on particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or
landing distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in identifying any
existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a proposed design.

With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally comes
from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications for the X-29
pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from the U.S. Air Force
Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they were seeking a research aircraft that would
explore the forward swept wing concept and validate studies that indicated such a design
could provide better control and lift qualities in extreme maneuvers.

With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually comes as
the response to internal studies that aim to project future market needs. For example, the
specifications for the most recent Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the
interest of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in
between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft.
Since it is not usually possible to optimize all of the performance aspects in an aircraft,
defining the purpose leads the way in setting which of these aspects will be the “design
drivers.” For example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design drivers were range
and payload.
 Page |6

1.1.2 Payload

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s mission.
Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are considered non-
expendable payload because they are expected to be transported for the complete duration
of the flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable payload since at some point in the
flight plan it permanently leaves the aircraft. This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and
ammunition for on-board guns.

For personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot as
well as passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial aircraft, the
payload does not include the flight or cabin crew, only the passengers, baggage and
cargo.

1.1.3 Cruise and Maximum Speeds

The mission of an aircraft usually dictates its speed range. Propeller-driven aircraft are
usually designed to cruise at speeds between 150 to 300 knots. Jet powered aircraft have
higher cruise speeds that are normally specified in terms of Mach number. The typical
cruise Mach number for business and commercial jet aircraft is from 0.8 to 0.85. This
range of cruise speeds is close to optimum for maximizing the combination of payload
weight, range and speed. The few supersonic commercial aircraft designs (1) have
supersonic cruise speed as their principle design driver and (2) sacrifice range and
payload. The cruise Mach number of the Concorde is 2.02. It will carry 100 passengers
with a range of 3740 miles, which is considerably less than the aircraft of normal class,
which have high subsonic cruise speeds.

Modern military jet combat and attack aircraft usually have a flight plan that
involves efficient cruise at high subsonic Mach numbers. This is usually in the range
from Mach 0.85 to 0.90. The maximum speed is usually specified in the context of an
intercept portion of the flight plan. This has a Mach number that is typically in the range
of 2.0.

1.1.4 Normal Cruise Altitude

The cruise altitude is generally dictated by the cruise speed, propulsion system and cabin
pressurization. An aircraft with an un-pressurized cabin would cruise no higher than
10,000 feet. With propeller-driven aircraft, turbo-charged piston engines can maintain a
constant horsepower up to an altitude of approximately 20,000 feet. Higher altitudes are
possible with turboprop aircraft, such as the Piper Cheyenne, which have a maximum
ceiling from 35,000 to 41,000 feet. The decrease in air density with higher altitude lowers
the drag, so that for these aircraft, the cruise range increases with altitude.

At higher subsonic Mach numbers, the turbo-jet engine gives the higher
efficiency. For subsonic turbo-jet aircraft, there is an optimum altitude where the fuel
 Page |7

consumption is a minimum. This occurs at approximately 36,000 feet. Therefore, it is the

best altitude for the most efficient, long range cruise of turbo-jet-powered aircraft.

1.1.5 Range
The range is the furthest distance the aircraft can fly without refueling. In a flight plan,
range refers to the distance traveled during the cruise phase.The choice of the range is
one of the most important decisions because it has a large (exponential) effect on the
aircraft take-off weight. An aircraft that is intended to fly across the United States (New
York to Seattle) should have a minimum range of 2500 nautical miles. A range of 3500
nautical miles would be necessary for transatlantic flights from East coast U.S. cities to
coastal cities in Western Europe. Shorter range transports that are designed to fly between
major cities in a regional area (e.g., Los Angeles to San Francisco) should have a
minimum range of 500 nautical miles. Twice that range would allow an aircraft to fly
non-stop between most of the major cities along either coast of the United States.

1.1.6 Endurance

Endurance is the amount of time an aircraft can fly without refueling. With a
reconnaissance aircraft, endurance is one of the main design drivers. For a commercial
aircraft, a flight plan will include an endurance phase to allow for time that night is spent
in a holding pattern prior to landing. For operation within the continental United States
commercial aircraft are required to be able to hold for 45 minutes at normal cruise fuel
consumption. For international operation, the required hold time is 30 minutes.

1.1.7 Take-off Distance

The total take-off distance of the length of a runway needed to accelerate, lift off, and
climb to prescribe obstacle height. The obstacle height is 50 feet for military and small
civil aircraft, and 35 feet for commercial aircraft. The take-off distance that is required to
accomplish this depends on different factors in the design such as the thrust to weight
ratio, the maximum lift to weight ratio and the surface of the air field that affects the
rolling friction of the landing-gear wheels.
 Page |8

1.2 Design Process

Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

Requirements
No satisfied?

Yes

Preliminary Design

Stop
Final Evaluation

Go

Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test

Figure 1.3 Design Process flow chart

 Page |9

1.3 Conceptual Design

This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft. It is
broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order. These consist of,

1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3-view diagram

Engineering units of measurement

Many different systems of measurement are used throughout the world but two have become
most common in aeronautical engineering. In the US the now inappropriately named ‘British’
system (foot, pound and second) is widely used. In the UK and over most of Europe, System
International (SI) (metres, newton and second) units are standard. It is advised that students only
work in one system. Confusion (and disaster) can occur if they are mixed. The results of the
design analysis can be quoted in both types of unit by applying standard conversions. The
conversions below are typical:

1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 knot = 1.69 ft/s 1 litre = 0.001 cubic meters

1 sq. ft = 0.0929 sq. m 1poundforce=4.448 Newton 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km
1USgal = 3.785 liters 1 horsepower= 745.7 watts 1 knot = 0.516 m/s
1USgal = 0.833 Imp. gal 1 foot = 0.305 meters 1 knot = 1.151 mph
1 statute mile = 1.609 km 1 cu. ft = 28.32 liters 1 pound mass = 0.454 kilogram
1 ft/s = 0.305 m/s 1 Imp. gal = 4.546 liters 1 horsepower = 550 ft lb/s
To avoid confusing pilots and air traffic control, some international standardization of a
unit has had to be accepted. These include:

Aircraft altitude – feet Aircraft forward speed – knots∗

Aircraft range – nautical miles Climb rate – feet per minute
 P a g e | 10

COMPARATIVE CONFIGURATION STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF

AIRPLANES
Ex. No: 1

Date:

AIM:

To compare the configurations study of different types of airplanes.

INTRODUCTION

Each Student should study the different configurations of different types of airplanes.

THEORY:

Before designing an airplane, it is very essential to choose the type of airplane. For that,
he/she must undergo a thorough stud on different types of airplane. There are many types of
airplane such as

RESULT:

Thus the comparative configurations study of different types of airplanes is studied.

 P a g e | 11

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SPECIFICATION AND PERFORMANCE

DETAILS OF AIRCRAFT
Ex. No: 2

Date:

AIM:

To do comparative study on specifications and performance details of aircraft.

INTRODUCTION

Each Student should study the different configurations of different types of airplanes.

THEORY:

The study should have the following specifications & performance details.

1. General characteristics:

i. Crew: ---------
ii. Length: ---------
iii. Height: ---------
iv. Wing area: ---------
v. Wing span: ---------
vi. Aspect ratio: ---------
2. Weight configuration:
i. Empty Weight: ---------
ii. Take of weight: ---------
iii. Loaded weight: ---------
iv. Thrust to weight ratio: ---------
3. Performance
i. Maximum speed: ----------
ii. Maximum altitude: ----------
iii. Range: ----------
iv. Rate of climb: ----------
v. Wing loading: ----------
4. Engine configurations:
i. Power plant (No. of engines, engines type, dry thrust& wet thrust) ---------

RESULT

Thus the comparison on specification & performance details of aircraft is studied.

 P a g e | 12

PREPARTAION OF COMPARATIVE DATA SHEETS

Ex. No: 3

Date:

AIM:

To prepare a comparative data sheets for the design of an airplane.

THEORY:

To prepare the comparative data sheets with the help of exp no: 2. this data sheet will help to
get the optimized vale for the design of an aircraft. The tables are

1. Dimensions.
2. Weight configurations
3. Performance
4. Engine configurations

1. Dimensions:

Length Height Wing Wing Aspect

area span ratio
S.no Aircraft
m m m2 m No unit

2. Weight configuration:

Empty Take of Loaded Thrust to

Weight weight weight weight
Aircraft
S.no ratio

Kg Kg Kg Kg
 P a g e | 13

3. Performance:

S.no Aircraft Maximum Maximum Range Wing Rate of

speed altitude loading climb

m/s Km Km Kg/m2 m/min

4. Engine configurations:

S.no Aircraft No. of Types of Maximum

Engines Engines thrust

KN

RESULT:

Thus the preparation of comparative data sheets for the design of an airplane is done with
the help of specifications & performance details.
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WORK SHEET LAYOUT PROCEDURES

Ex. No: 4

Date:

Aim:
To know the work sheet layout procedures for drawing three view diagrams of aircraft.

Procedure:

RESULT:
Thus the above figure represents the work sheet layout procedures to draw the 3
view diagram of aircraft.
 P a g e | 15

COMPARATIVE GRAPTH PREPARETIONS & SELECTION OF MAIN

PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN
Ex. No: 5

Date:

AIM:
To prepare a comparative graph for selecting the main parameters of the airplanes.

THEORY:
Comparative graph is prepared with the help of Exp no: 3. this graph sheet will help to get
the optimized value for design. The graphs are:

1. Altitude Vs Velocity
2. Range Vs Velocity
3. Total weight Vs Velocity
4. Wing loading Vs Velocity
5. Thrust to weight ratio Vs Velocity
6. Aspect ratio Vs Velocity

PROCEDURE:
By using Microsoft Excel sheet prepare a graph is prepared.
Note:

Create a table in Microsoft Excel sheet as in

Exp no: 3. Next

Select the columns for graph i.e. (X & Write the graph heading in the name
Y axis)

Next
Choose inset option, in that click

In top click 1.Titles - Write X & Y axis name,

Chart 2. Grid lines – Remove the Tick mark

XY (scatter) Next

Chart sub type First one Finish

By using Microsoft Paint Draw the circle which enclosing more point & find corresponding X &
Y axis value.
 P a g e | 16

Example

Altitude Vs Velocity
P a g e | 17
 P a g e | 18

From the above graph the corresponding values are

Velocity – 325 m/s
 P a g e | 19

Altitude15.5 Km

SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS:

S. No. Main Parameters Optimum value

1 Altitude

2 Range

3 Total weight

4 Wing loading

5 Thrust to weight ratio

6 Aspect ratio
7
Velocity

RESULT:

Thus the comparative graph preparations are done for selecting the main parameters of
the airplanes.
 P a g e | 20

PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATIONS

Ex.No: 6

Date:

AIM:

To estimate the gross takeoff weight, fuel weight and empty weight of the aircraft in the
designing process through various design calculations.

INTRODUCTION:

There are a number of weights that must be considered in aircraft weight and balance.
The following are terms for various weights as used by the General Aviation Manufacturers
Association (GAMA).
• The standard empty weight is the weight of the airframe, engines and all items of
operating weight that have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the aircraft. This
weight must be recorded in the aircraft weight and balance records. The basic empty weight
includes the standard empty weight plus any optional equipment that has been installed.
• Maximum allowable gross weight is the maximum weight authorized for the aircraft
and all of its contents as specified in the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) or Aircraft
Specifications for the aircraft.
• Maximum landing weight is the greatest weight that an aircraft normally is allowed to
have when it lands.
• Maximum takeoff weight is the maximum allowable weight at the start of the takeoff
run.
• Maximum ramp weight is the total weight of a loaded aircraft, and includes all fuel. It is
greater than the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and run-up
operations. Ramp weight is also called taxi weight.

Gross weight:

The total weight of the aircraft at any particular time. Thus Basic Empty Weight plus
Pilot, Crew and their baggage plus payload (passengers and cargo) plus fuel load. The aircraft
gross weight (also known as the All-Up Weight (AUW)) is the total aircraft weight at any
moment during the flight or ground operation.

Payload

The payload is what is carried on board and delivered as part of the aircraft’s mission.
Standard payloads are passengers, cargo or ordnance. The first two are considered non-
expendable payload because they are expected to be transported for the complete duration of the
flight plan. Military ordnance is expendable payload since at some point in the flight plan it
permanently leaves the aircraft. This includes bombs, rockets, missiles and ammunition for on-
board guns.
 P a g e | 21

For personal or small general aviation aircraft, the payload includes the pilot as well as
passengers and baggage. For business, commuter and commercial aircraft, the payload does not
include the flight or cabin crew, only the passengers, baggage and cargo.

Equipments and methods used:

1. Fuel fraction method

2. Tables and charts from Ref:- books
3. Survey details

Procedure:

1. Describe the mission specification elaborately in a sheet.

2. Draw the mission profile part clearly.
3. With the help of the tables and charts from Ref:- books work out the rest through the fuel
fraction method to achieve the objective.

Mission Profile:

5
6

4 7

1 2 3 8 9

Description:

Phase 1 : Engine start and warm-up

Phase 2 : Taxiing
Phase 3 : Take-off
Phase 4 : Climb to cruise altitude and accelerate to cruise speed
Phase 5 : Cruise
Phase 6 : Loiter
Phase 7 : Flying to alternate field
Phase 8 : Descent
Phase 9 : Landing, taxiing & shut-down

Gross Weight
The gross weight of aircraft will be given by equation,
W0 =W crew +W payload + W fuel + W empty
 P a g e | 22

Empty weight includes structures, landing gear, lift equipment avionic instruments.
To simplify fuel weight and empty weight calculation take fraction of them based on total
weight.

1. Overall weight of the aircraft is given by

W 0 = W crew + W payload + W fuel + W empty
Wcrew + W payload
W0 =
W  W 
1−  f  −  e 
 Wt   Wt 
The mission profile of the medium range passenger aircraft is given by fig,

Aircraft weight at end of the mission segment Mission profile

segment = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aircraft weight at begin of mission segment
Wi
=
Wi −1
L W  V
R= *ln  i−1  *
D  Wi  C
Wi  −RC L 
= exp  * 
Wi−1  V D
Mission profile:

0-1= Warm up & Take-off

1-2 = Climb
2-3 = Cruise
3-4 = Descent
4-5 = Loiter
5-6 = Landing
6-7 = Taxing
 P a g e | 23

Example Weight calculation

Weight calculation for passenger 150 seated Aircraft

MISSION 0-1:
The mission 0-1 is the engine start, warm up and the Take off from the historical data, it is
found to be.
W1/Wo=0.992.
MISSION 1-2:
The mission 1-2 is the climb. The fuel fraction from historical data was
W2/W1=0.996
MISSION 2-3:
The mission 2-3 is the cruise. The fuel fraction for this mission was found from the range
equation i.e.) Brequet equation.
Wi/Wi-1 = e-((R*Cj) / (V* L/D))
= e-((-8400*10^3*0.5) / (10*225*3600))
W3/W2 = 0.60
MISSION 3-4:
The mission 3-4 is the descend. The fraction of fuel for this fraction from the historical
data is found to be,
W4/W3 = 0.992
MISSION 4-5:
The mission 4-5 is loitering. The fuel fraction for this mission was found from the
endurance equation ie.) Brequet equation,
Wi/Wi-1 = e-((E*Cj) / (L/D))
W5/W4 = e-((-480*.5) / (10*3600))
W5/W4 = 0.99
MISSION 5-6:
The mission 5-6 is the landing. The fuel fraction of this mission was found from the
historical data to be,
W6/W5 = 0.992
MISSION 6-7:
The mission 6-7 is the taxing and shut off. The fuel fraction of this mission was found
from the historical data to be,
W7/W6 = 0.996
The fuel fraction is found from the product of all the values,
mff = W7/W6 * W6/W5 * W5/W4 * W4/W3 * W3/W2 * W2/W1 * W1/W0
mff = 0.996*0.992*0.99*0.992*0.60*0.996*0.0.992
 P a g e | 24

mff = 0.5678
Wf/Wo = 1-mff = 1-0.5678 = 0.4322
Wx/Wo = 1.06*(1-mff)
= 1.06*(1-0.5678)
Wx/Wo = 0.458 = Wf/Wo

Approximated Weight estimation:

We/WO = 129*103/225*103 = 0.5733
Wo = ((120*3) + (120*150))/ (1-0.458132-0.44) =187.53*103Kg
Actual Weight estimation:
To obtain the actual weight for the aircraft to be designed iteration process carried such
that the error is less than 5% when compared with the approximated weight obtained.
1. We/WO = A *WoC * K, Where K = No. of sweep and so K =1.
A = 1.51, C = -0.10
We/WO = 1.51* (187.53*103)-0.10 * 1 =>> We/WO = 0.4484, So, WO = 317.27*103 Kg
2. We/Wo = 0.4254 ; Wo = 157.63*103kg
3. We/Wo = 0.4563 ; Wo = 214.46*103kg
4. We/Wo = 0.4424 ; Wo = 184.63*103kg
5. We/Wo = 0.4491 ; Wo = 197.91*103kg
6. We/Wo = 0.4460 ; Wo = 191.49*103kg
7. We/Wo = 0.4475 ; Wo = 194.48*103kg
8. We/Wo = 0.4468 ; Wo = 193.078103kg
9. We/Wo = 0.4471 ; Wo = 193.73*103kg
10. We/Wo = 0.4469 ; Wo = 193.42*103kg
11. We/Wo = 0.4470 ; Wo = 193.57*103kg
12. We/Wo = 0.4470 ; Wo = 193.50*103kg
13. We/Wo = 0.4470 ; Wo = 193.53*103kg
14. We/Wo = 0.4470 ; Wo = 193.5*103kg
15. We/Wo = 0.4470 ; Wo = 193.52*103kg
 P a g e | 25

Error percentage:

=
( Assumed − Actual ) *100
Assumed

=
( 225*103 −187.53*103 ) *100
225*103
= 16.65%

RESULT:
Thus, the gross weight for the passenger aircraft (150 seated) to be designed is estimated
as,
W o = ----------------- Kg
W o = ----------------- N
 P a g e | 26

POWER PLANT SELECTION, AEROFOIL SELECTION, WING TAIL AND

CONTROL SURFACES

Ex. No: 7
Date:

Aim:
To select the engine location, aerofoil, wing and control surfaces by using
different design calculations.

1. Engine Parameters calculation:

• From the first weight estimate, we can have a rough idea of the weight of the power-plant that
is to be used.
• The total weight of the power-plant to be calculated.
• Choice of engine is based on the higher operating fuel economy & efficiency for high payloads.
• Calculate Engines combination amount.
• Calculate enough thrust for Take-off.

2. Thrust Calculation:

From the previous data, find the following data

T/W =
T/Wo =
T=
3. Thrust Vs SFC:
 P a g e | 27

4. Engine Configuration/Dimension:
Inlet Diameter =
Length =
Compressor stage =
Dry stage =
SFC at maximum power =
Overall pressure ratio at sea level =
5. Engine selected:
Write the selected engine name with specified reason.
6. Aerofoil Selection
For aerofoil selection, we have to find the following parameters and draw the following
graphs.
1. Calculation of CL
a) Reynold’s No:
Re = ρVL / µ
b) Co-efficient of lift (CL Max):
CL Max = (2* (W/S)) / (ρ*V2Stall)
c) Skin-friction drag for turbulence flow:
Cf1 = 0.455 / ((log10 Re) ^2.58 + (1+0.144M2) ^0.65
d) Calculation of CLmax Required:
Required CLmax = CLavailable + ∆CLmax
e) Digit NACA 2424:
2 - Maximum camber height as percent of chord
4 - Maximum camber position as percent of chord
24 - Maximum airfoil thickness as percent of chord
2 Graphs
a) Co-efficient of lift Vs AOA: (without flap deflection)
b) Co-efficient of Lift Vs AOA: (with flap deflection)
c) Co-efficient of Lift Vs Co-efficient of Drag
d) Co-efficient of Drag Vs AOA:
e) Y/C Vs U/V:
 P a g e | 28

f) X/C Vs U/V:
g) X/C Vs Y/C:

Wing Selection
Introduction:
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of the aircraft to
be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities are in general, a function
of the thickness of the airfoil section that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards
designing the wing is the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn depends on
the critical mach number of the airfoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number
corresponding to the wing section.
The critical Mach number can well be delayed by the use of an appropriate Sweep-back
angle to the wing structure. The natural choice of the standard series is the 65 series which is
designed specifically for use in high-speeds.
Wing Geometry Design
For wing geometry design we have to find the following things
1. Equivalent Aspect Ratio
2. Wing Area
3. Wing Span
4. Chord Length
5. Wing Section
6. Mean Aerodynamic Centre:
7. Structural weight for varying the thickness of airfoil
8. Location of Centre of Gravity

For Example:

ENGINE SELECTION
1. Locations of engines:
The engine configuration selected. The inlets are mounted on the wing root.
The type of engine is buried engine. The wing is low wing configuration.
2. Thrust Calculation:
From the previous data, T/W = 0.3
T/Wo = 0.3
T = 0.3*1.898*106
T =569.4 kN
 P a g e | 29

3. Thrust Vs SFC:

4. Engine Configuration/Dimension:
Inlet Diameter = 890mm,
Length = 2.3m,
Compressor stage = 3/7,
Dry stage = 89lb,
SFC at maximum power = 0.8,
Overall pressure ratio at sea level = 24.
5. Engine selected:
The engine selected for our design is F404-GE-100D. The specification for the engine
was given above.
6.1. Advantages of Buried engines:
a) More structural stability.
b) Interference drag is reduced.
6.2. Disadvantages of buried engines:
a) Dismantling and assembling is difficult.
b) Air inlet is small.
7.1. Advantages of Low Wing:
a) No interference between wing and engine.
b) More lift in Wing.
c) Landing gear can be retracted & placed inside the wing which saves the space.
7.2. Disadvantages of Low Wing:
a) Stability is lower than the high wings.
b) Ground with engine clearance distance is low.
 P a g e | 30

8. Thrust Matching:
From the historical data,
(L/D)max for loitering = L/D
(L/D)max for loitering = 10
(L/D)max for cruise = 0.866 * (L/D)max for loitering
= 0.866 * 10
= 8.66
(T/W) cruise = 1 / (L/D) cruise = 1/ 8.66 = 0.115
(T/W) loiter = 1 / (L/D) loiter = 1/10 = 0.1
(T/W) climb = 1 / (L/D) climb + (Vvertical / V)
Where, V vertical = 1.2 V stall and
V stall =0.25 Vcruise
Therefore,
(T/W) climb = 1 / (L/D) climb + ((1.2*0.25* Vcruise / V)
= 1/10 + (1.2*0.25)
= 0.4
(T/W) take-off = (T/W) cruise * (Wcruise/ W take- off ) * (Ttake-off/ Tcruise)
= 0.115*(1.1388*106 /1.848*106)*(569.4*103/130.962*103)
(T/W)take off =0.3 )

AEROFOIL SELECTION

5.1. Calculation of CL:

a) Reynolds’s No:
Re = ρVL / µ
Considering optimum altitude = 12000m
ρ = 3.1194*10-1 kg/m3
V = 225m/s
L = 5.78m
µ = 1.42*10^-5 N-s/m2
Therefore,
Re = (3.1194*10-1 *225*5.78) / 1.42*10^-5
Re = 28.568*10^6
 P a g e | 31

b) Co-efficient of lift (CL Max):

CL Max = (2* (W/S)) / (ρ*V2Stall)
Where,
Vstall = 0.25 * Vcruise = 56.25m/s
W/S = 6376.5N/m2
Therefore,
CL Max = (2*6376.5) / (3.1194810-1*56.252)
CL Max = 1.32
c) Skin-friction drag for turbulence flow:
Cf1 = 0.455 / ((log10 Re) ^2.58 + (1+0.144M2) ^0.65)
Cf1 = 0.455 / ((7.45858) ^2.58 + (1.0634) ^0.65)
Cf1 = 2.54*10^-3
Cut-off Reynolds’s No, R cut = 44.62* (L/ k) ^1.053 * M^1.16
Where,
k = 0.052*10^-5 and M = 0.83
R cut = 44.62* (5.78/ (0.052*10^-5)) ^1.053 * 1.25^1.16
R cut = 0.944*10^9
Cf2 = 1.328 / sqrt (R) = 4.322*10^-5
Cfe = (Cf1+Cf2) / 2 = 1.2916*10^-3
CDo = Cfe * (Swet / Sref) = 1.2916*10^-3 * 6.3 = 8.139*10^-3
Oswald’s efficiency for supersonic flow,
e = 4.61 * (1-0.045Aeff0.68) * (cos ΛL.E) 0.15- 3.1
Where, Aeff =1.2A = 8.98
e = (4.61 * 4.248 * 0.99) – 3.1
e = 0.79
Co-efficient of drag, CD = CDo + KCL2
Where, K= 1 / (П*AR*e) = 1 / (3.14*8.9*0.6) = 0.0596
d) Calculation of CLmax Required:
Required CLmax = CLavailable + ∆CLmax
= (2*0.95*(W/S)) / (ρ* V2Stall)
Required CLmax = 1.3
∆CLmax = Required CLmax - CLavailable
= 1.3 – 1.2
= 0.1
 P a g e | 32

This extra lift can obtain by the use of flap. Our required ∆CLmax is 0.1. Hence we can use
conventional flap which meets our lift requirement.
For the maximum deflection of 60 deg, the CLmax value is 1.32 but our requirement of our
lift is CLmax required is 1.3. so, 25 – 30 deg flap deflection is enough for the aerofoil NACA
2424 configuration. (In assumption)
Landing CLmax is 25% greater than CLmax required for take-off. So,
Landing CLmax = 1.65
So, we have selected the aerofoil NACA 2424 for required maximum lift co-efficient.
e) Digit NACA 2424:
2 - Maximum camber height as percent of chord
4 - Maximum camber position as percent of chord
24 - Maximum airfoil thickness as percent of chord

5.2. Co-efficient of lift Vs AOA: (without flap deflection)

The Graph was drawn between the angle of attack and the co-efficient of lift without flap.
When the plain flap is deflected, the increase in lift is due to an effective increase in camber
and a virtual increase in angle of attack. And the maximum co-efficient of lift obtained
without the deflection of the flap is 1.4.
 P a g e | 33

5.3. Co-efficient of Lift Vs AOA: (with flap deflection)

The above graph was drawn in between angle of attack and the co-efficient of lift with flap
deflection.
1. Reduce the curve slope without any change of lift angle of incidence is seen in CLVs
α characteristics.
2. Increase of stalling angle without appreciable change in maximum lift co-efficient is
also seen in CLVs α graph.
3. Definite increase in drag for every increase of lift is observed in CLVs CD.
5.4. Co-efficient of Lift Vs Co-efficient of Drag:

The above graph is drawn between CLVs CD.

1. Negative value of CL pertain to negative lift which occurs when the angle of attack of
the airplane is less than αL=0.
 P a g e | 34

2. This situation is not encountered frequently in the analysis of airplane performance,

hence only that portion of the drag polar associated with positive CL.

5.5. Co-efficient of Drag Vs AOA:

The above graph was drawn between angle of attack and the co-efficient of drag. This
graph shows that the drag keeps increasing with the increase of angle of attack. And at the
maximum defection of AOA = 16 deg, the maximum CD value obtainable is 0.05.

5.6. Y/C Vs U/V:

 P a g e | 35

5.7. X/C Vs U/V:

5.8. X/C Vs Y/C:

 P a g e | 36

WING SELECTION
6.1. Equivalent Aspect Ratio:
Equivalent AR = a. M c
Equivalent AR = 7.8
6.2. Wing Area:
We know from the exercise 2, W/S = 650 Kg/m2
S = 193.52*103 / 650
S = 297.72m2
6.3. Wing Span:
WKT, AR = b2 / S
8.9 = b2 / 297.72
b2 = 8.9 * 297.72
b2 = 2649.7
b = 51.47m
6.4. Chord Length:
WKT, AR = b / C
8.9 = b / C
C = b / AR
C = 51.47/8.9=5.78
Therefore,
Airfoil root chord (Cr ) , C = 5.78m
WKT, Taper Ratio, λ = Ct / Cr
0.4 = Ct / Cr
Tip chord (Ct) = 0.3 * Cr
= 0.4*5.78
Ct = 0.2.312m
6.5. Wing Section:
 P a g e | 37

6.6. Mean Aerodynamic Centre:

Ĉ = 2/3 * Cr * ((1 + λ + λ2) / (1 + λ))
Ĉ = 2/3 * 5.78 * ((1 + 0.4 + 0.42) / (1 + 0.4))
Ĉ = 4.29m
6.7. Structural weight for varying the thickness of airfoil:
Volume of fuel = Weight of the fuel / 800
Weight of the fuel = Wf / Wo = 0.458
Wf = 0.458 * 193.52*103
Wf = 88632.16kg
Therefore,
Volume of fuel = 88632.16 / 800
Volume of the fuel = 110.79 m3
Total volume of the fuel = 110790 liters
Assume,
20% of fuel carrying in the wings = t/c * Ĉ * (0.5*Ĉ) * (0.5*b*0.75*2)
Since, 20% of the fuel = 22.158 m3
Therefore,
22.158 = t/c * 4.29 * (0.5*4.29) * (0.5*51.47*0.75*2)
t/c = 0.06237
So, t/cr = 0.06237: t/ct = 0.06237
Thereby we get,
Thickness of the root, tr = 0.06237 * 5.78 = 0.36049m
Thickness of the tip, tt = 0.06237 * 2.312 = 0.144m
 P a g e | 38

6.10. Location of Centre of Gravity:

To
find C.G.:
Ҳ = b/2; Ў = h/3 * ((b+2a) / (b+a))
Centroid (Cg):
Ҳ = b/2 = 2.13/2 = 1.065m;
Ў = h/3 * ((b+2a) / (b+a)) = 25.735/3 * ((1.065+2*5.78) / (1.065+5.78))
Ў = 15.82m.
Wing Cg = (1.065, 15.82)

RESULT:
(T/W) take-off = --------------------------
Thus, the engine selection was made and it matches with our design thrust requirement value
and it is verified mathematically too.
 P a g e | 39

ESTIMATION OF VARIOUS DRAGS

Ex. No: 8
Date:
Aim:
To estimate the various types of drag by using various design calculations
DRAG:
• Drag is the resolved component of the complete aerodynamic force which is parallel
to the flight direction (or relative oncoming airflow).
• it always acts to oppose the direction of motion.
• It is the undesirable component of the aerodynamic force while lift is the desirable
component.
• Drag Coefficient (CD)
Amount of drag generated depends on:
Plan form area (S), air density () h  () a  ()
CD is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and mainly depends upon:
Section shape, plan form geometry, angle of attack (ά), compressibility effects (Mach
number), viscous effects (Reynolds’ number).
Drag Components
Skin Friction:
Due to shear stresses produced in boundary layer.
Significantly more for turbulent than laminar types of boundary layers.
 P a g e | 40

Form (Pressure) Drag

Due to static pressure distribution around body - component resolved in direction of
motion. Sometimes considered separately as fore body and rear (base) drag components.

Wave Drag
• Due to the presence of shock waves at transonic and supersonic speeds.
• Result of both direct shock losses and the influence of shock waves on the boundary
layer.
• Often decomposed into portions related to:
• Lift.
• Thickness or Volume.
 P a g e | 41

Typical streamlining effect

 P a g e | 42

Lift induced (or) trailing vortex drag

The lift induced drag is the component which has to be included to account for the 3-D nature of
the flow (finite span) and generation of wing lift.

CALCULATION:

Generally for jet aircrafts, it is given that

CD,0 = 0.0030
e = 0.8
The general drag equation is given by, For calculating Ø, we use the formula,
Ø = 16ܾ 21 + 16ܾ 2
Where h = height above ground, b = wing span.
h = 2m
b = 58.32m
Ø = 16×258.32 21 + (16×258.32)2 = 0.2314

Drag at Cruise
ߩ = 0.3715 (at the cruising altitude of 10800m)
V = 242.2 m/s
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL (cruise) = 0.63022 (from the wing and airfoil estimation)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D (cruise). D (cruise) = 12×0.3715× (242.2)2 ×400.72 (0.0030+0.2314×0.6302223.14×8.6×0.8)
 P a g e | 43

Drag at cruise = 31674.846 N

Drag at Take-off
ߩ = 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V = 0.7 x Vlo = 0.7 x 1.2 x Vstall
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL(take-off) = 2.508 (flaps extended and kept at the take-off position of 20o)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D = 12×1.225× (0.7×1.2×66.86)2 ×400.72 (0.0030+0.2314×2.50823.14×8.6×0.8)
Drag at take-off = 54482.6 N

Drag at Landing
ߩ = 1.225 (at sea altitude)
V = 0.7 x Vt = 0.7 x 1.3 x Vstall
S = 400.72 kg/m2
CL(landing) = 3.058 (flaps extended and kept at the landing position of 40o)
Substituting all these values in the general drag equation,
D = 12×1.225×(0.7×1.3×60.55)2 ×400.72 (0.0030+0.2314×3.05823.14×8.6×0.8)

Drag at landing = 76876.7 N

RESULT
1. Drag at landing = ---------------
2. Drag at take-off = ---------------
3. Drag at Cruise = ---------------
 P a g e | 44

DETAILED PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS AND STABILITY ESTIMATES

Ex. No: 9

Date:

Aim:
To estimate the performance and stability calculation.

Introduction:

The length of landing run and take-off run is a very important parameter that should
match the conventional length of runway. The main parameters that determine the take-off and
landing distance are the four aerodynamic forces, Lift, drag, thrust and weight.

LENGTH OF TAKE-OFF RUN

a) Ground run (s1);

W  dv 
T − D = µ (W − L ) +   
 g  dt 
W  dv 
T − D − µ (W − L ) =   
 g  dt 
s1

s1 = ∫ ds
0

 W  
  g   v1
    V dv
 T − D − µ (W − L )  ∫0
s1 =
 
 
  V12  
 W   
 2 g 
s1 =  
 (T − D ) − µ (W − L ) 
 
 

b) Transition run (s2):

 P a g e | 45

µ (W − L ) = 0, (W / 2)
 W   V dv 
T −D =  
 g   ds 
 W   V dv 
ds =   
 g  T − D 
s2 v
 W  2
S 2 = ∫ ds   ∫ V dv
0  g ( T − D )  v1

C) CLIMBING:
(T − D ) − W s i n θ = 0
(T − D )
s in θ =
W
 H 
ta n θ =  
 S3 
S3 = H cot θ
 cosθ 
cot θ =  
 s in θ 
 1 − s in 2 θ 
cot θ =  
 sin θ 
 
  (T − D )2  
 1−   
  W  
 
cot θ =  
  (T − D )  
   
  W  
 
 W 2
− (T − D )
2 
S3 = H  
 (T − D ) 
 
 2 2 
 (1 9 3 . 5 2 8 * 1 0 ) − (5 6 9 . 4 8 * 1 0 3 − 5 2 9 . 7 * 1 0 3 ) 
S3 = 12000  
 (5 6 9 . 4 8 * 1 0 3
− 5 2 9 .7 1 * 1 0 3 ) 
 
 P a g e | 46

D) LANDING:

a) Descend (s a):
 W 2 − (T − D )2 
Sa = H  
 (T − D ) 
 
S a = 57.25 km

b) Transition (sb):

 W (V12 − V22 ) 
Sb =  * g
 2 g (T − D ) 
 
Sb = 9.807km
c) Ground run (SC):
  V12  
 W   
 2 
SC = −  
 (T − D ) − µ (W − L ) 
 
 
SC = 3.25km

The landing distance is,

S=S a + S b + S c
S=
 P a g e | 47

Take-off Profile:

Landing Profile:

Example: Long Range Passenger Aircraft – 150 Seated

 P a g e | 48

LENGTH OF TAKE-OFF RUN

a) Ground run (s1);

V1 = 1.2Vstall
V1 = 1.2*.25*225
V1 = 68.625m / s
 6  68.625 
2

 1.898*10    b)
 2 g 
s1 =  
 ( 569.4*103 − 529.74*103 ) − 0.4(1.898*106 −12.186*106 ) 
 
 
s1 = 1.750km

b) Transition run (s2):

 W (V 2 2 − V 2 1 ) 
S 2 =  
 g (T − D ) 
 1 9 3 .5 2 * 1 0 3 ( 5 6 .2 5 2 − 1 1 2 .5 2 ) 
S 2 =  3 3 
 9 .8 1( 5 6 9 .4 * 1 0 − 5 2 9 .7 1 * 1 0 ) 
− 1 .8 0 8 1 0 10
S 2 =
3 8 9 3 5 8 .9
S 2 = 4 .7 2 K m
 P a g e | 49

C) CLIMBING
( T − D ) − W sin θ = 0
(T − D )
sin θ =
W
 H 
tan θ =  
 S3 
S 3 = H co t θ
 co s θ 
cot θ =  
 sin θ 
 1 − sin 2 θ 
cot θ =  
 sin θ 
 
  (T − D )2  
 1−   
  W  
 
cot θ =  
  (T − D )  
   
  W  
 
 W 2
− (T − D ) 
2

S3 = H  
 (T − D ) 
 
 2 2 
 (1 9 3 .5 2 8 * 1 0 ) − ( 5 6 9 .4 8 * 1 0 3 − 5 2 9 .7 * 1 0 3 ) 
S3 = 12000  
 ( 5 6 9 .4 8 * 1 0 3 − 5 2 9 .7 1 * 1 0 3 ) 
 

S3=57.25 Km
 P a g e | 50

D) LANDING:

a) Descend (s a):
 W 2 − (T − D )
2 
Sa = H  
 (T − D ) 
 
Sa = 5 7 .2 5 k m

b) Transition (sb):

 W (V 1 2 − V 22 ) 
Sb =  * g
 2 g (T − D ) 
 
Sb = 9 .8 0 7 k m

c) Ground run (SC):

  V1 2  
 W   
  2  
SC = −
 (T − D ) − µ (W − L ) 
 
 
S C = 3 .2 5 km

The landing distance is,

S=S a + S b + S c
S=70.307km
 P a g e | 51

Take-off Profile:

Landing Profile:

RESULT

Lengths of Take-off run

a) Ground run (s1) = -------------
b) Transition run (s2) = -------------
C) Climbing (s3) = -------------

LANDING:
a) Descend (sa) = -------------
b) Transition (sb) = -------------
c) Ground run (SC) = -------------
 P a g e | 52

PREPARATION OF LAYOUTS OF BALANCE DIAGRAM AND THREE VIEW

DRAWINGS
Ex. No: 10

Date:

3-VIEW DIAGRAM

Result:
Thus the preparation of layout diagram and 3-view diagram was drawn successfully.