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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure
Instructions: This booklet can be used while watching videos. Keep filling the sheet as the
videos proceed.
1. Introduction to Force
Question 1. How does a big heavy balloon with a basket full of people manage to float in the air?
The concept of force is of central importance to all of physics; be it is classical, nuclear or

quantum physics. Forces pretty much control everything. From the planets moving around in
the solar system to the sea rolling in and out as well as walking and running. Force is not
something that you can see; but you can see the effects that it produces.
In the most basic terms force can be defined as a push or a pull on an object. Whenever there
is an interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When the
interaction ceases, the two objects no longer experience any force. Forces only exist as a
result of an interaction.
Force is a vector quantity, which has both magnitude and direction. To fully describe the
force acting upon an object, you must describe both the magnitude (size or numerical value)
and the direction. The SI unit of force is newton (N).
When a number of forces act on a body, they combine in an interesting way (vector addition)
to produce a net effect. When forces act in the same direction, they combine to make a bigger
force. When they act in opposite directions, they can cancel one another out. Forces acting in
same direction add up while acting in opposite directions cancel the effect of the other.
Copyright © Think and Learn Pvt. Ltd.

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Question 2. Forces (in N) as shown below are acting on a box. What will be the resultant in each
case? In which case will the box move the fastest?
Forces don’t always act along the same line. And in such cases, the resultant has a different
line of action.
Figure 1: Resultant of Forces

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2. What Can Force Do?
A body can either be at rest or moving with some velocity.
The state of motion of an object is defined by its velocity (speed with a direction).
Figure 2: State of Motion
The force acting on a body can bring about a number of effects. It can
• Change the speed of motion.

• Change the direction of motion.
• Change shape and size of the body.
Question 3. Does a force always bring about a change in state of motion? Justify your choice citing
proper example.
• Misconception: If equal and opposite forces act on a stationary body, it

does not produce any effect.
• Clarification: If the forces acting on an object at rest balance, the object
does not move, but its shape may change (Assuming the body to be
non-rigid). It can also produce a turning effect.

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Question 4. Is a force required to keep a body moving?
3. Types of Forces
Forces can broadly be classified into two types: Contact Forces and Non-contact Forces.
A contact force acts between two bodies, which are in physical contact with each other. For
example:
• Muscular force
• Frictional force
• Spring force
While a non-contact force does not require physical contact between the bodies; they can act
at a distance. For example:
• Gravitational force
• Magnetic force
• Electrostatic force
The truth is that even these contact forces do not interact by actual contact. The origin of all
contact forces can be traced to fundamental forces, which are basically non-contact forces.
Figure 3: Fundamental Forces

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Did You Know?
Things don't fall through other things because they are levitating on an
electrostatic field! When you sit on a chair, you are not really touching it.
Every atom is surrounded by a number of electrons, which are negatively
charged. When two atoms approach each other, their electron shells push
each other, despite the fact that each atom's net charge is 0.
Question 5. A ball is rolled along a table. What all forces are acting on the ball, after it leaves the
table but before it hits the floor?
Now that we understand what a force is, let us see how the same force acting on different
areas produces different effects.
4. Thrust and Pressure
a. Thrust
A force can be applied to a surface in any direction: perpendicular to it, parallel to it or at

any arbitrary angle. However, not all of this applied force will push against the surface.
Only a part of the applied force will be thrusting. This leads us to the concept of thrust.
Thrust is defined as the force acting normally on a surface. It is a vector quantity having
both magnitude and direction. And thus its SI unit is newton (N).

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Question 6. Suppose you apply a force of 5 N parallel to a wall. What will be the thrust?
b. Pressure
The effect of thrust depends on the surface area over which it acts. To account for this, we
define a new quantity called pressure. Pressure is defined as “thrust per unit area” of
surface. It is what differentiates a sharp object from a blunt object.
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡, 𝐹
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa). It is a scalar quantity.
1𝑁
1 𝑃𝑎 =
1 𝑚2
Did You Know?
Area is a vector quantity and its direction is always normal to the

surface. That is why although force is a vector quantity, pressure is
scalar. Think how any area with direction makes more sense and give
you more information than the area without the sense of its direction!

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Question 7. Army tanks are provided with caterpillar tracks. What is the reason for this?
A simple experiment demonstrating the concept of pressure is shown below. The balloon
does not burst even though it is pressed against numerous nails. When the pressure is
distributed over many nails, each individual nail exerts too small a pressure to pop the
balloon. When a less number of nails are used, each individual nail exerts more pressure
and the balloon pops.
Figure 4: Demonstration of Pressure
Till now we have discussed thrust and pressure for solids. Any solid object exerts
pressure because of weight. Similarly, since fluids also have weight, they also exert
pressure.
c. Pressure in Fluids
Fluids are substances that can flow. All liquids and gases are the fluids and provide an
upward thrust. The pressure exerted by a fluid is called fluid pressure. A fluid contained
in a vessel exerts pressure at all points in all the directions.
The pressure exerted by a liquid column is mathematically expressed as,

𝑃 = ρ𝑔ℎ

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That is, the pressure, 𝑃 exerted by liquids depends on
• Density of the liquid, ρ
• Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔
• Height of the liquid column, ℎ
Did You Know?

A submarine can’t operate at any depth. There is a limit to the
maximum depth at which a submarine is allowed to operate. Crush
depth, also called collapse depth, is the submerged depth at which a
submarine's hull will collapse due to pressure.
• Misconception: The pressure at base of a liquid column is given by

ρ𝑔ℎ
• Clarification: The pressure at base of a liquid column is given by
𝑃𝑜 + ρ𝑔ℎ where 𝑃𝑜 is the pressure at the free surface (not always
atmospheric pressure).
Question 8. Why is it so that the water coming from orifice B strikes the ground at a greater range?
What can you conclude from this about liquid pressure?

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Question 9. Suppose now you drop the beaker in the previous question from some height. Will the
range of liquid from orifice B still be more? Justify your answer.
• Misconception: If the height of liquid in containers having different cross-

sectional area is same, the pressure exerted at the base is inversely
proportional to the area.
• Clarification: If the height of liquid in containers having different cross-
sectional area is same, the pressure exerted at the base is the same;
irrespective of cross-sectional area. In fact, the pressure exerted at any
depth below the free surface for any container will be the same.
d. Law of Liquid Pressure
Following are the laws of liquid pressure:

• Pressure at a point inside liquid increases with the depth from its free surface.
• In a stationary liquid, pressure is equal at all points on a horizontal plane.
• Pressure at same depth is different in different liquids. It increases with the
increase in density of the liquid.
• Pressure is equal in all directions about a point in a liquid.
• A liquid seeks its own level.
e. Pascal’s Law
According to Pascal’s law, the pressure exerted anywhere in a confined liquid is

transmitted equally and undiminished in all directions throughout the liquid.
Pascal’s law is widely used in various applications like hydraulic brakes of vehicles,
vehicle lift platforms in garages etc. All the hydraulic machines are based on the principle
that a small force applied on a smaller piston is transmitted to produce a large force on the
bigger piston. A simple hydraulic machine is shown below.
It consists of two vessels, each provided with a piston, and connected by a tube
completely filled with water. When a force is applied at piston A (having less cross

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sectional area), the piston B (having more cross-sectional area) rises up with a greater
force.
Figure 5: A Hydraulic Machine
Topics to be covered in next class:
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Upthrust and Archimedes’ Principle
5. Atmospheric Pressure
a. Atmospheric Pressure
Just like solids and liquids, gases also exert pressure. The pressure of a gas is the force
that the gas exerts on the walls of its container. When you blow air into a balloon, the
balloon expands because the pressure of air molecules is greater on the inside of the
balloon than the outside.
An envelope of air known as the atmosphere surrounds the earth. This atmospheric air
extends up to 300 kilometers above the earth’s surface and is attracted to the earth due to
gravity. The atmospheric air exerts a force on all the objects in the atmosphere and on the
earth. The force or thrust exerted by the atmospheric air on a unit area is defined as
atmospheric pressure.
The approximate value of atmospheric pressure on the earth’s surface is 1.013 x 105 Pa.
The atmospheric pressure at a point is the same in all directions. However, it decreases
with an increase in altitude.

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Question 10. Describe an experiment that you can perform in the laboratory to demonstrate the
existence atmospheric pressure.
Question 11. Will you be able to drink water in space using a straw? Why/ Why not?
b. Barometer
The earth’s atmospheric pressure at any given place can be measured using an instrument
called the barometer. Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer around 1644.
A simple barometer consists of a glass tube of length 100 cm with one end closed, and a
trough with mercury. The tube is completely filled with pure and dry mercury.
When mercury level in the tube becomes stationary, pressure at points A and C are equal.
Now the pressure at A is due to the weight of the mercury column AB above it. And this
height, also known as barometric height, is a measure of the atmospheric pressure.

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Figure 6: A Simple Barometer
The atmospheric pressure at normal temperature and pressure at sea level is 76 cm of

mercury.
Atmospheric pressure = ρ𝑔ℎ = 13600 x 9.8 x 0.76 = 1.01 x 105 Pa
Did You Know?

A low-pressure area is generally characterized by bad weather. In places
where the atmospheric pressure is low as compared to surroundings, air
flows inwards from the surroundings and causes vertical motion. As a
result, the water vapors in the air condense and form clouds which
frequently give rain.
c. Mercury as Barometric Liquid
Mercury is used as barometric liquid because of a number of reasons:

• The vapor pressure of mercury is negligible.
• The density of mercury is greater than that of all other liquids.
• Mercury does not stick to glass tube.
• The surface of mercury is shining and opaque.
• Mercury can easily be obtained in a pure state.

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Question 12. What are the disadvantages of using a mercury barometer? How does an aneroid
barometer take care of this?
An aneroid barometer can also be used as an altimeter to measure the altitude of a certain
place.
6. Upthrust and Archimedes’ Principle
a. Upthrust
When a body is submerged in a fluid, it experiences an upward force. This upward force
is called the upthrust or buoyant force. And the property of liquid to exert an upward
force on a body immersed in it is called buoyancy. Being a force upthrust is measured in
newton in the system of international units.
Reason for Upthrust:
• The thrust acting on the sides of walls of the body gets neutralized because
they are equal in magnitude and opposite in the directions.
• There is a pressure difference between the lower and upper faces of the body.
Since force is the product of pressure and area, the difference in pressure due to liquid on
the two faces of causes a net upward force called upthrust on the body immersed in the
fluid. The effect of upthrust is that the weight of body immersed in a liquid appears to be
less than its actual weight.
To calculate the upthrust exerted by a fluid, we use the Archimedes’ principle.
b. Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes' principle states that the upward buoyant force exerted on a body that is
partially or fully immersed in a fluid, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the
body displaces.

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For a body placed in a fluid,
𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 = 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
Where, V is the volume of liquid displaced and ρ𝐿 is the density of the liquid.
• Misconception: The buoyant force exerted on a body depends on

the density of the body.
• Clarification: The buoyant force exerted on a body depends on the
density of the fluid in which it is immersed.
c. Law of Floatation
The Law of Flotation says that for a floating object, the weight of the object equals the
weight of the liquid displaced by the object.
Figure 7: Law of Floatation
In such a case, the apparent weight 𝑊 − 𝐹𝐵 of the body is zero.
Downward force, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝐵 𝑔
Upward force, 𝐹𝐵 = Weight of liquid displaced = 𝑚𝐿 𝑔
Or, 𝐹𝐵 = Volume of liquid displaced × Density of the liquid × 𝑔
Or, 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑉𝐿 ρ𝑔

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Question 13. Why does an iron nail sink in water, whereas a ship made of iron floats?
Figure 8: Relation between Buoyant Force and Weight
• Misconception: A body will float in a fluid if its density is less than

that of the fluid.
• Clarification: A body will float in a fluid only if its average density is
less than that of the fluid. E.g. a submarine floats or sinks in water
depending on its average density.
d. Relative Density
Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a given
reference material. It usually means relative density with respect to water.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

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Relative density also determines the proportion of a floating body that will be submerged
in a fluid.
Relative Density Float/Sink in water
<1 Float
=1 Just Float
>1 Sink
Question 14. A solid weighs 50 gf in the air and 44 gf when completely immersed in water. Calculate
relative density of the solid, upthrust and density of the solid.
Question 15. A body of density 𝑑 floats half immersed in a liquid. Will a body of same dimensions
but density 2𝑑 float in it?

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Instructions: Solve these problems after watching the videos.
1) What is force? How do two bodies exert force on each other?

2) Two forces are acting on a body such that 𝐹1 = 5N and 𝐹2 = 10 N. Can you say that the
resultant force on the body is 15 N? Why / why not?
3) What is a vector quantity? Give examples.
4) How does a force of 10 N differ from a force of -10 N?
5) What do you mean by state of motion? What are the parameters to measure it? Can a body at
rest be described by these parameters?
6) Does gravitational force exist between two astronauts in space?
7) Give some effects that can be produced by a force along with the examples.
8) The origin of all contact forces can be traced to non-contact forces. Justify this statement.
9) What are the fundamental forces in nature? Briefly explain each of them.
10) What is thrust? In what case will it be equal to the force applied?
11) How does the pressure exerted by solids, liquids and gases differ?
12) What do you mean by atmospheric pressure? Which device is used to measure atmospheric
pressure?
13) State
A) Archimedes’ Principle
B) Law of floatation
14) What are the conditions for a body to
A) Just float
B) Float partially immersed
C) Sink
15) An object weighs 36 g in air and has a volume of 8.0 cm3. What will be its apparent weight
when immersed fully in water? Density of water = 1kg/m3
16) Which of the following is a contact force?
A) Gravitational force C) Spring force
B) Electrostatic force D) Nuclear force
17) The SI unit of pressure is equal to
A) 1 newton C) 1 newton-m2
B) 1 atm D) None of these
18) According to Archimedes’ principle
A) Weight of body = Buoyant force C) Upthrust = Weight of fluid
B) Weight of body = Weight of fluid displaced
displaced D) All of these
19) When placed in water, a body weighs
A) More C) Same
B) Less D) Can’t say
20) In which direction does the buoyant force act on a body immersed in a fluid?
A) Vertically upwards
B) Vertically downwards
C) Radially outwards
D) Either vertically upwards or
vertically downwards

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VIII CBSE Physics – Friction
videos proceed.
1. Where Friction?
Question 1. Suppose you go to an amusement park and there you find a ride called “The Rotor”. The
circular room is spinning and you and other riders are stuck to the circular wall. We know earth pulls
all objects towards it. Then why don’t people fall even when though there is no floor to support you?
Ever wondered why you are able to walk? But if you try walking on ice, you slip. Or when
you step on a banana peel, you slip. Why a vehicle slows down when brakes are applied?
Why your hands become warm when rubbed together? Well it’s all because of friction! It
exists everywhere from the grip between the tyres and road to your walking on the road.
Sounds crazy? Friction is responsible for your walking. As you push the ground backwards,
the frictional force from the ground pushes you forward.
In movement involving friction, molecules vibrate, which brings about a rise in temperature.
For a machine composed of metal parts, this increase in temperature can be harmful, leading
to serious wear and damage. On the other hand, it can be of quite a use while lighting a
matchstick.

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Did You Know?
It’s because of friction that you are able to write with a pencil. The tip of your
pencil and the paper are rubbing together. Friction rubs off lead particles,
which makes your writing visible. You can decrease the amount of friction by
sharpening your pencil. Even when you write with chalk on a chalkboard, the
rough surface rubs off chalk particles on to the board.
So, we have an idea where all friction exists. But what exactly is this friction?
2. What Friction?
Scientist’s earlier picture of friction was very much different. Aristotle proposed that bodies
which are in motion eventually come to rest. However, Galileo contradicted his statement.
According to him, an opposing force was needed to bring a moving body to rest e.g. the earth
keeps moving around the sun without coming to rest. But in everyday life we generally
encounter bodies, which finally come to rest if we don’t apply force. So, there must be some
invisible force to oppose this motion and bring it to rest. This force is the force of friction!
For example, when you try to push a heavy box across the ground, you can’t move it. This is
because of friction. So, you might conclude that friction acts to the left.
Figure 1: Pushing a Heavy Box
Now if you try to push the same box from the other side, it still does not move. This means
that the direction of friction is not constant. In fact, it tries to oppose the relative motion
between the bodies.
Figure 2: Pushing a Heavy Box from Other Side
But if your friend also helps you in pushing or pulling the box, it might move. So, we can
conclude that there is a maximum limit to this opposing force.

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Question 2. Based on the discussion above, what can you conclude about the characteristics of
friction?
• Misconception: Friction always opposes motion.

• Clarification: Friction does not always oppose motion. It always
opposes relative motion between two bodies.
Did You Know?
Working in space can be tricky. With no apparent gravity or friction to keep things in
place, relatively simple tasks can become complicated ordeals. To prepare for the
rigors of working in space, there are special facilities on Earth where the astronauts
are trained.
Friction is one of the most complex forces of the nature and also a very important one. Let us
come to the next important question: How frictional force arises between two surfaces in
contact?
3. Why Friction?
a. Roughness of Surfaces:
Well, whenever we talk of friction, the first thing that comes to our mind is roughness.
When two surfaces slide past each other, it’s the roughness between them that causes
friction. Even the surfaces, which appear very smooth, have a large number of minute
irregularities on them. These irregularities lock into one another. And we need to
overcome this interlocking to move the objects.

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Figure 3: Irregularities between Surfaces
• Misconception: Smoother the surface, lesser will be the friction.

• Clarification: This is not always true. Even two smooth surfaces can
have large amount of friction between them.
b. Adhesion
However, this theory of interlocking does not always explain friction satisfactorily. Even
two glass surfaces have quite a large amount of friction between them. This can be
explained better in terms of microscopic "gluing" effect when two things touch. Adhesive
bonds are formed between the surfaces of the two bodies, which cause them to stick
together. And when we try to move the bodies, we need to break these bonds.
When a gecko climbs a wall, millions of tiny hairs on the base of its feet are touching the
wall at the same time. Molecules on the tips of each hair attract to molecules on the outer
surface of the wall with a microscopic amount of what's called Van Der Waals force—a
really weak kind of electromagnetism. Although each hair provides only a smidgen of
magnetic force, there are so many hairs on the gecko's foot that, together, they can
provide enough force to support its weight.
c. Plowing Effect:
Yet another explanation is the plowing effect. When the surfaces involved are relatively
soft, much of the resistance to motion is caused by deformations of the objects or by a
plowing effect.
4. Factors Affecting Friction?
Before we discuss the factors that affect friction, it is important to know that friction always
exists between a pair of surfaces. There is no point defining friction for a single surface.
Basically, friction depends on the following factors:
• Nature of surfaces in contact
• Normal reaction
• Speed of body (at rest or moving)
• Surface area in contact (to some extent)

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The friction that acts between two bodies, which are sliding relative to each other, is called
kinetic friction. While the friction that opposes impending motion is called static friction.
Question 3. How does friction depend on the nature of surfaces in contact?
• Misconception: Friction always acts opposite to applied force.

• Clarification: Friction does not always act opposite to applied force.
For example a block sliding on a rough surface, friction will act
opposite to velocity irrespective of the direction of applied force.
Question 4. In the figure shown below, an external force of 20 N is applied to a block and a frictional
force of 10 N acts. Now another block is placed over it. Comment on the friction between the ground
and the block.

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Question 5. Suppose in the previous question the block is placed on a different surface and it does not
move on applying a force of 20 N. Again, the second block is placed over it and the same force
applied. What can you say about the value of friction in both the cases?
Question 6. If two pieces of same metal having ultra-smooth surfaces are kept in contact. Comment
on the friction between the two surfaces when we try to move one on the other. Justify your answer
with proper reasons.

• Friction as a Frenemy
• Can We Change Friction?
• Reinvent the Wheel
• Fluid Friction

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5. Friction a Frenemy
When it comes to friction, it is very complex. It can be considered both as a friend and a foe.
On one hand, it is friction that allows vehicles to grip onto the roads and its friction in the
clutch that makes it possible to drive at all. Without friction vehicles would not be able to
slow down. From matchsticks to machines to molecular structures, friction is one of the most
significant factors into consideration in the physical world. Without it, we wouldn’t have been
able to walk. Holding things would have been impossible.
If we use friction in so many fields then why we call it our enemy?
Friction is not always desirable. Like in a machine, it reduces the mechanical advantage, or
the ratio of output to input. An automobile, for instance, uses one-quarter of its energy on
reducing friction. It also causes unnecessary heating and causes wear and tear. But this heat
can also be useful. How? A fire is created because of friction. If there were no friction, it
would be impossible to create a spark.
6. Can We Change Friction
One of the most amazing things about friction is that it can be changed according to our
requirements. Sometimes we need to minimize friction and sometimes we need to maximize
it. We already know the factors on which friction depends. By changing these factors, we can
change friction.
In car tyres, we can see linings or treading on them. These treads sink into the surface and
improve the grip of tyre on the road (Plowing effect). They are not much useful on a solid
road. However, they change the surface area, which is in contact with the road. Although we
know that friction does not depend on surface area but in real cases friction does depend on
the surface area. But this treading particularly helps vehicles to move on a wet road. Water
gets trapped in these threads and is thrown out. Due to this slipping is avoided.
Question 7. How do Formula-1 cars manage to develop friction even though they don’t have
treading?

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Sometimes friction is undesirable and we need to reduce it. Like in all types of machine, the
surfaces of moving or sliding or rolling parts rub against each other. This causes a lot of wear
and tear and also unnecessary heating. Any substance introduced between two moving/sliding
surfaces with an intention to reduce friction (or frictional resistance) between them, is known
as a lubricant. For example, oil, grease etc. The main purpose of a lubricant is to keep the
moving/sliding surfaces apart, so that friction and consequent wearing of material is
minimized.
Did You Know?

Air hockey tables use air as a lubricant, to reduce friction between the
playing surface and the puck. So, you could say that pucks slide along on
cushions of air. Air being piped through an air hockey table does not
completely remove friction, but it does reduce the force of friction greatly.
Question 8. Can any solid act as a lubricant? If yes, give examples.
7. Reinvent the Wheel
The wheel is one of the most revolutionary and important inventions of mankind. It is used in
almost every industry. From transportation to machineries used in industries, wheels find their
use everywhere. What is the reason for this widespread use of wheels?
Earlier people used to drag things to move it from one place to another. A lot of energy was
wasted in overcoming friction (sliding friction to be more specific) in this process, hence not
efficient. But with the invention of wheels, the efficiency of all working systems has
improved as it greatly reduced friction. Such a friction is known as rolling friction.

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When a body rolls over another body, the points of contact get deformed and a slight bump is
formed as shown below.
Figure 4: Cause of Rolling Friction
The wheel has to constantly overcome the bump caused in the front. It’s similar to constantly
climbing an incline. Moreover, the adhesive forces between the two surfaces also have to be
overcome constantly.
Question 9. Why is it so that it is difficult to drive a bicycle on a concrete road with less pressure in
the tires?
Question 10. How do ball bearings reduce friction?

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Question 11. We use friction’s help in moving the wheel. Comment and give reasons for the support
of this statement. Draw figure showing direction of the friction and movement of the wheel.
8. Fluid Friction
It’s not that friction is present in solids only. It is present in liquids as well as gases. This
resistance exhibited by fluid surfaces is called fluid friction. It is more commonly known as
drag or viscosity. For example, if there is some water between two thin glass plates, the plates
might get stuck and the bottom plate does not fall when you hold only the top plate. Or when
you push a small block on the surface of water, it eventually comes to rest. It is all because of
the friction, which opposes relative motion.
• Misconception: A pencil falls to the ground faster than a feather
because pencil is heavier.
• Clarification: This is because of air drag. Without air resistance, all
objects would fall to the ground at the same rate, regardless of their
mass.
The drag force on an object in a fluid depends on
• Its speed with respect to the fluid

• Shape of the object
• Nature of the fluid.
Sometimes, it is necessary to reduce this drag. One such way is to have a streamline design of
bodies. Fast-moving objects such as cars, trains, and aircrafts are all streamlined – designed
with curved and sloping surfaces to cut through the air. This helps them to move faster, hence
reducing fuel consumption. Because of streamlining air flows around the object rather than
being pushed forward by it. Boats can be streamlined too, to reduce water resistance.

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Figure 5: Streamlining
Did You Know?

When raindrops fall from sky, they also feel the drag of air opposing
their motion, which limits their speed to a value far less than that in
absence of air drag. This is known as terminal velocity. Had there been
no air drag, the raindrops would have fallen like speeding bullets.
Highly unimaginable!
Question 12. During a race, you would have seen that cyclists crouch down. What can be the reason
for this?

35
1) What are the factors affecting friction? Explain with some examples.
2) Explain why, it is easier to drag a mat on the floor when nobody is sitting on it but much more
difficult to drag the same mat when a person is sitting on it.
3) What is the direction of force of friction acting on a moving object?
4) Out of sliding friction, static friction & rolling friction:
A) Which one is the smallest?
B) Which one is the largest?
5) Explain why, sliding friction is less than static friction.
6) What prevents you from slipping every time you take a step forward?
7) Why does a matchstick light when we strike it on a rough surface?
8) State two advantages & two disadvantages of friction.
9) Explain why, oil or grease is applied to those parts of machine which are in motion.
10) You might have noticed that when used for long time, slippers with rubber soles become
slippery. Explain the reason.
11) The handle of a cricket bat or a badminton racquet is usually rough. Explain the reason.
12) When the cutting edge of a knife is put against a fast rotating stone to sharpen it, sparks are
seen to fly. Explain the reason.
13) Describe some examples where heat is produced due to friction.
14) Explain why it is convenient to pull the luggage fitted with roller
15) Enlist five ways to reduce friction.
16) A toy car released with the same initial speed will travel farthest on:
A) Muddy surface C) Cemented surface
B) Polished marble surface D) Brick surface
17) If we apply oil on door hinges, the friction will:
A) Increase C) Disappear altogether
B) Decrease D) Will remains unchanged
18) Which of the following statements are incorrect?
A) Friction acts on a ball rolling on the ground
B) Friction acts on a boat moving on the water
C) Friction acts on a bicycle moving on a smooth road
D) Friction does not act on a ball moving through air
19) The force of friction acts in a direction______ to the direction of motion of objects.
A) Same C) Perpendicular
B) Opposite D) Downwards
20) The body will move only when:
A) Force of friction > force applied
B) Force of friction < force applied
C) Force of friction = applied force
D) All the above

37
VIII CBSE Physics – Sound
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Question 1. Suppose you have a simple pendulum. It sets the particles of air in vibration. Then why
can’t you hear any sound from it?
a. Particles and Waves
Waves are present almost everywhere. Whether we recognize them or not, we encounter
waves on a very frequent basis. Our understanding of the physical world would not be
complete until we understand the nature and behavior of these waves. But before we
come to these questions, the first and foremost question is – What is a wave?
We can understand waves by taking an analogy of message transfer from one person to
another. This can basically be done in two ways i.e. either he can physically go and
deliver the message to the intended person or he can pass it on to the next person in line
who can further give it to the next person without actually moving. This will continue till
the message reaches its destination. In the first case the person is actually moving to
transfer the message, while in the second case the person is not physically moving but the
message is still being transferred. The second case is an example of wave. Wave
motion refers to a disturbance that causes transfer of energy from one point to another.

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Question 2. A wave transports energy and not matter. Justify this statement.
Waves can broadly be classified into two types – Longitudinal and Transverse waves,
depending upon the vibration of particles with respect to the wave.
b. Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
For a transverse wave the displacement of the particles of the medium is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave e.g. a ripple on a pond or a wave on a string.
Figure 1: Water Ripple
Figure 2: Wave on a String

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On the other hand, in a longitudinal wave the particle displacement is parallel to the
direction of wave propagation e.g. waves in a slinky, sound waves in the air
Figure 3: Wave on a Slinky
Did You Know?

During earthquakes, three types of waves are produced: P-waves, which are
longitudinal in nature, S-waves which are transverse and Surface waves
which are altogether a different type (neither transverse nor longitudinal).
These surface waves cause the most damage during an earthquake!
c. Mechanical and Non-mechanical Waves
Till now we have discussed only waves that require a medium for their propagation.
Another way to classify waves is based on whether they require a medium or not for their
propagation – Mechanical and Non-mechanical waves.
Mechanical waves are the waves that require a medium for their propagation e.g. sound
waves, water waves etc. while non-mechanical waves are the waves that do not require a
medium for their propagation e.g. electromagnetic waves (like visible light, UV rays).
They can travel even through vacuum.
Question 3. Do mechanical waves lose energy as they travel through a medium? Why / Why not?

40
Question 4. What type of wave is an electromagnetic wave – Transverse or Longitudinal?
Having some idea about what waves are, let us now restrict our discussion to a particular
wave – Sound wave.
2. Sound Properties
a. Visualization of Sound
Suppose you have a guitar and you pluck its string. When the guitar string is pulled, it
compresses the air nearby. Compression means that number of air molecules near the
string per unit volume increases. This leads to increase in the pressure. Now, when the
stretched string goes back, the pressure decreases and leads to rarefaction. When the
string goes back, the air molecules are no longer tightly packed. This leads to rarefaction
where it was compression beforehand.
Figure 4: Sound Wave through Air
b. Sound as a Longitudinal Wave
Every sound is produced by vibration or disturbance and these vibrations are transferred
from one point to another by the back and forth movements of the particles. It is a

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longitudinal wave in which particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the propagation of
wave. Regardless of the source of the sound wave - whether it is a vibrating string or a
vibrating tuning fork - sound waves traveling through air are longitudinal waves.
Did You Know?

Since in a sound wave, the propagated disturbance is a variation of
pressure in the material medium, it is a type of pressure wave. If a
detector were used to detect a sound wave, it would detect fluctuations
in pressure as the sound wave impinges upon the detecting device.
Question 5. How can we represent sound by a sinusoidal wave? Doesn’t this indicate transverse
nature of wave? Explain.
Question 6. How can a flute produce sound, even though there is nothing like string to vibrate?
Let us not focus on how we human beings produce and hear sound.

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3. Sounds by Humans
Humans have windpipe, which has a narrow opening for letting air pass through it. If
someone chokes you from neck, you are not able to speak because the neck has your voice
box. It is present at the upper end of the windpipe. Biologists call it larynx.
Larynx contains two vocal chords that are stretched across it. When lungs force air, these
vocal chords vibrate and produce sound. How you change your vocal chords lets you change
your voice. Muscles attached to the vocal cords can make the cords tight or loose. When
vocal chords are tight and thin, the type and quality of sound is different from when they are
loose and thick.
Figure 5: Larynx in Humans
Did You Know?

Prior to the Renaissance period, the voice was thought to be
‘sent forth by the heart’.
4. Hearing
a. Outer Ear
The shape of outer part of the ear (pinna) is like a funnel. It collects the sound from the
surroundings, which travels down the ear canal and reaches a thin membrane called
eardrum or tympanic membrane. When compression arrives at the eardrum, pressure on
the outside increases which forces the eardrum inwards. The reverse happens when a
rarefaction arrives. In this way the eardrum vibrates.
b. Middle Ear
In the middle ear, there are three bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup).

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Question 7. What functions are served by the parts of middle ear?
c. Inner Ear
Inside the inner ear, the pressure variations are converted into electrical signal by the
cochlea. These signals are transferred to brain by auditory nerve and the brain interprets it
as sound.
Did You Know?

The hammer, anvil, and stirrup are the three smallest bones in
our bodies. Together they are about the size of a pea! Of these,
stirrup is the smallest.
Figure 6: Human Ear
5. Amplitude, Time Period and Frequency

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a. Sound Wave as a Mechanical Wave
Sound wave is a mechanical wave and hence it requires a medium to propagate. It is

transferred as a vibration from one atom to another through collisions. Without
medium, vibrations will not propagate from one point to another, as there will be no
atoms or molecules between the two points.
Question 8. Using the picture below as a hint, explain the experiment conducted to demonstrate that
sound is a mechanical wave.
Figure 7: Bell-Jar Experiment
• Misconception: Sound wave is always longitudinal.

• Clarification: Sound wave can travel as a transverse wave
through solids.
b. Why do Humans have Two Ears?

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Question 9. What disadvantages would be there if we had just one ear, instead of two?
c. Characteristics of Sound
Sometimes you hear loud sound and sometimes you hear soft sound. But ever
wondered what differentiates these sounds. Every sound wave has certain properties,
which differentiate it from the rest of the sound waves. Certain properties like
wavelength, amplitude, frequency and pitch differentiate sound waves from one
another. Now let us first define certain terms that will help us understand these
characteristics better.
Figure 8: Sound Wave
• Wavelength: It is the distance between two consecutive crests or two

consecutive troughs. It is denoted by λ.
• Frequency: Frequency means number of waves passing in one unit of time. It
is denoted by 𝑓. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz).
• Time Period: Time period is defined as the time taken for one oscillation. It is
denoted by 𝑇.
• Amplitude: The maximum displacement from the mean position is known as
amplitude. It is denoted by 𝐴.

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Question 10. Generate a relationship between frequency and time period.
Question 11. A sound source produces 40 compressions and 40 rarefactions in 0.4 s. What is the
frequency of the wave?
We know that sound wave is a pressure wave i.e. compression (high pressure region) and
rarefaction (low pressure region). If we are increasing the pressure, air molecules will be
compressed more which means the amplitude of the pressure wave will increases and a loud
sound will be produced. At rarefaction, the pressure will drop which results in drop in the
pressure graph to the minimum and low sound will be produced. Loudness depends on the
amplitude of the wave. It is measure in decibels (db.).
Did You Know?

One of the loudest natural sounds ever made on our planet Earth is
probably the gigantic volcanic eruption on the island of Krakatoa. It
generated the loudest sound historically reported at 180 Decibels. This
super massive eruption killed some 40,000 people and could apparently
be heard over 3,000 miles away.

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Now let us come to another important characteristic of the sound wave – Frequency. Pitch
of the sound wave depends on its frequency. High pitch sounds have high frequency, due to
which the wavelength of the sound decreases and sound waves come closer to other
neighboring waves.
• Misconception: Both speed and frequency of sound wave depends on

the medium.
• Clarification: The speed of sound wave depends on the medium, but it
frequency depends on the source from which it was produced.
Question 12. With the help of a diagram, differentiate between a tone and a note.
Question 13. Also explain how do we differentiate between sound from guitar and sound from flute if
all the parameters are same i.e. frequency, wavelength and amplitude?

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d. Hearing Range
The sound having frequency below 20 Hz is known as infrasonic sound, while the
sound having frequency greater than 20 kHz is known as ultrasonic sound.
Ultrasound carries high energy and these waves have multiple use for humans.
SONAR uses ultrasound to calculate the depth of the seabed from the surface etc.
We, human beings, can hear sound in the range of 20-20,000 Hz (audible range). But
other animals can hear sound below 20 Hz and also sound above 20 kHz. Different
animals have different ranges of audible frequencies e.g. dolphins can hear sounds of
higher frequencies even up to 150 kHz. Bats use ultrasound to detect obstacles in its
way.
e. Speed of Sound in Different Media
We know that sound travels at a speed of 344 m/s in air. Speed of sound is different
in different media because of the different arrangement of atoms in solids, liquids and
gases. In solids, sound travels the fastest because the atoms are closely packed, hence
sound takes minimum time as the disturbance is transferred from one atom to another
very much quickly. In liquids, the sound takes relatively more time. The gap between
atoms in liquid is more as compared to solids. Hence the disturbance takes more time
to travel from one end to another. In similar way we can conclude that sound travels
slowest in gases.
• Misconception: Sound moves faster in air than in solids (as air

offers less resistance).
• Clarification: Sound moves faster in solids compared to gases.
Did You Know?

Flicking the tip of a bullwhip creates a sonic boom, just like thunder!
Some part of the whip travel faster. The tip can reach speeds more than 30
times the initial speed of the whip, which eventually crosses the speed of
sound limit and you hear the cracking noise of the whip, which is basically
a Sonic Boom.

49

Question 14. If you place your ear close to an iron railing and your friend taps it some distance away,
you hear the sound twice. Why is it so?
6. Noise Pollution
a. Issues and Solutions
Sound that appears unpleasant to us is termed as noise. Loud and excessive sound is
unbearable to our ears and causes noise pollution. E.g. Sound of horn, Sound of
aircraft, explosions etc. Noise pollution is one of the biggest problems of urban and
developed cities. It can lead to various health related issues like insomnia,
hypertension, stress, anxiety, loss of hearing etc.
Question 15. Suggest some measure to check and control noise pollution.

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Did You Know?

Sometimes if you have damage your ears, your perception of taste
may be off because the nerves (called the Chorda Tympani) run
through the ear and connect the taste buds on the front of your
tongue to your brain. However, it does not mean that hearing loss
directly correlates to an inability to taste.
b. Hearing Impairment
Noise pollution can result in hearing impairment – either partial or total. Total
hearing impairment is usually from birth itself. By learning sign language, such
people can communicate effectively. Because speech develops as the direct result of
hearing and hearing loss is accompanied by defective speech also. Partial disability is
due to disease, injury or age. For these technological devices like hearing aids can be
used. Society can contribute directly to improve the living environment for the
hearing-impaired and help them live normal lives.

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1) State any two characteristics of a wave motion.

2) If the amplitude of a wave is doubled, what will be the effect on its loudness?
3) Why are the voices of men, women and children different?
4) Why can’t you normally talk on the moon?
5) A pendulum has a frequency of 5 oscillations per second. An observer starts the pendulum
and fires a gun simultaneously. He hears the echo from the cliff after 8 oscillations of the
pendulum. If the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s, what is the distance between the cliff and
the observer?
6) Why do we not hear the screams of a bat?
7) Flute is one of the simplest music instruments. It is just a hollow bamboo with many holes in
it. Sound of different pitch can be produced using a flute. Explain, how?
8) Draw a well labeled diagram of human ear and explain how do we hear sound.
9) How does a mechanical wave differ from non-mechanical wave? Give examples.
10) Draw a curve showing pressure variations with respect to distance for sound wave.
11) Explain how, noise pollution (or excessive loud noise) is harmful for human beings.
12) Give some examples of waves which are both longitudinal as well as transverse.
13) State three characteristics of a musical sound.
14) State the various measures which can be taken to control noise pollution in our surroundings.
15) How does the frequency and amplitudes affect a musical sound?
16) The speed of sound in solids is:
A) Lesser than its speed in liquids and gases
B) Greater than its speed in liquid but lesser than its speed in gases
C) Greater than its speed in gases and liquids
D) Lesser than its speed in gases but greater than its speed in liquids.
17) Frequency above _______ belongs to the range of ultrasonic sound waves.
A) 2000 Hz C) 20,000 Hz
B) 20 Hz D) 2,00,000 Hz
18) The unit for measuring loudness of sound is _______.
A) Decibel C) Hertz
B) Lambda D) Joule
19) With increase in amplitude, the _______ of sound increases.
A) Loudness C) Timbre
B) Velocity D) Pitch
20) _______ are the characteristics of sound.
A) Frequency and amplitude
B) Crests and troughs
C) Compressions and rarefactions
D) Pitch, loudness and timbre

54
VIII CBSE Physics – Light
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Question 1. Suppose a red colored ball is placed in blue light. What color will you observe?
Having eyesight is one of the most amazing senses that we have. We are able to see objects
around us when light from it reaches our eyes. This means that having eyes alone cannot
ensure that we are able to see objects. And this justifies the fact that we are unable to see
anything in a dark room.
Did You Know?

Some animals can see other light, which we can’t see. For example,
bees can see ultraviolet light while pit vipers can see infrared!
Question 2. A luminous body emits light of its own that enables us to see them. How is it possible to
see other objects, which don’t emit any light?
When a light ray falls on a surface, it can either get reflected by it or absorbed by it or it can
just pass through it. And the result will depend on the atoms that make up the body and also
on the way that they are arranged in the body.

55
Figure 9: Light Ray Falling on a Surface
First, we are going to examine what is meant by reflection of light.
2. Laws of Reflection
The phenomenon of the bouncing back of light, when it hits a polished surface is known as
the reflection of light. From the earliest recorded history, humans have been fascinated by
reflections. People were bewitched by their own reflection in a pool of water and reflections
were so extraordinary that magic powers were ascribed to mirrors in fairy tales.
Figure 10: Reflection of Light
This phenomenon of reflection of light was found to obey two rules/laws.

56

Question 3. What are the two laws of reflection?
Angle of deviation: Angle by which incident ray gets deviated from its path.
Question 4. Suppose a light ray is incident at an angle 𝑖. What can you say about the angle of
deviation of the reflected ray?
Did You Know?
There is a phenomenon called the photic sneeze reflex, which causes

uncontrollable sneezing in the presence of bright light affects roughly 18-
35% of the human population, though nobody is sure why? One
suggested cure: Wear sunglasses.

57
3. Regular and Diffused Reflection
a. Types of Reflection:
There are two types of reflection:
• Regular reflection
Figure 11: Regular Reflection
• Irregular/Diffused reflection
Figure 12: Diffused Reflection
Question 5. How does regular reflection differ from irregular reflection? Aren’t the laws of reflection
violated for irregular reflection?

58
Did You Know?

Normally a roadway would cause diffuse reflection due to its rough surface.
But if the surface is wet, water can fill in the crevices and smooth out the
surface. Rays of light from the beam of an oncoming car hit this smooth
surface, undergo regular reflection and remain concentrated in a beam. As
a result of this, the driver perceives an annoying glare caused by this
concentrated beam of reflected light.
b. Plane Mirrors
Mirror having plane-polished surface is called plane mirror.
Figure 13: Image Formation by a Plane Mirror
There are two types of images that can form after reflection from a mirror; real image and
virtual image.

59
Question 6. Differentiate between a real image and a virtual image.
• Misconception: A shadow is an image (reproduction) of an object.

• Clarification: A shadow is not an image, but absence of light.
Question 7. Can a virtual image ever be obtained on a screen?
Characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror:

• At same distance from mirror as the object
• Same size
• Erect
• Laterally Inverted
• Virtual
Question 8. What do you mean by lateral inversion? What is the cause of it?

60
Question 9. A famous artist and scientist, Leonardo da Vinci, hid all of his ideas and inventions by
writing all of his work backward. Use your mirror to decipher Leonardo’s secret code:
c. Image formed in a Pair of Plane Mirrors
The object and images formed by the two inclined mirrors lie on the circumference of a
circle with center at the point of intersection of the two mirrors and radius equal to the
distance of object from the point of intersection.
Figure 14: Images formed in a Pair of Mirrors Placed Perpendicular to Each Other
The number of images formed if the

mirrors are inclined at an angle 𝜃is given
by:

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4. Multiple Reflection
Figure 15: Infinite Images Formed by a Pair of Parallel Mirrors
Did You Know?

The house of mirrors, which is a major attraction at amusement parks,
utilizes the concept of multiple reflections. The many twists and turns
appear to be long straight passages going in all directions – until you
try to walk along one!
Question 10. What is a kaleidoscope? Explain the working of it.
Now let us examine the next phenomenon related to light i.e. refraction.

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5. Refraction of Light
a. Refraction:
The phenomenon of bending of light when light goes from one medium to another is
known as refraction of light. Refraction is due to change in the speed of light as it enters
from one transparent medium to another.
Refractive Index:
Speed of light is the fastest in vacuum. In air, it has slightly lower speed but in this
chapter, we will ignore that and thus we will use air/vacuum interchangeably.
When light ray goes from vacuum/air to any other medium, its speed slows down.
Refractive index of that medium is defined as the “factor by which speed of light is
slowed down in that medium”.
Hence, refractive index of glass with respect to air is given by ratio of speed of light in air
to the speed of light in glass.
ɳ𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑐

ɳ𝑔𝑎 = = =
ɳ𝑎 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑣
Light goes from Rarer to Denser medium Light goes from Rarer to Denser medium
Refracted ray bends => Refracted ray bends =>

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Question 11. What are the two laws of refraction?
Did You Know?
If you place a glass rod in a liquid having the same

refractive index as the glass, it won’t be visible inside the
liquid! Think about how will you create an invisible
underwater diving suit using this!
b. Refraction through a Glass Slab:
Figure 16: Refraction through a Glass Slab

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As you can see, here refraction occurs at two surfaces. One when light enters into the
glass and another when it comes out of it. The light ray, which comes out of the glass, is
called emergent ray and the angle it makes with the normal is called as angle of
emergence, 𝑒.
i=e
Hence, if we extend the incident ray forward it would be parallel to the emergent ray.

• Spherical Lens
• Dispersion
• Human Eye
• Visual Defects
• Seeing sans Eyes

65
6. Spherical Lens
A lens is a transparent medium, usually made up of glass or plastic.
Figure 17: Different Types of Lenses
Convex Lens is also known as converging lens and Concave lens is also known as diverging
lens.
Figure 18: Terms Related to Lenses

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Question 12. Define the following terms:
Optical Center (O):
Center of Curvature (C):
Focus (F):
Focal Length (f):
Focal length is half of the radius of curvature.
𝑅
𝑓=
2
Question 13. Differentiate between a concave and a convex lens.

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Special Rays: Light rays passing
We call some rays special ray because when these rays pass through any lens, the outcome is known
already.
Parallel to the Principal Axis:
Through Optical Center:
Through Focus:
Convex Lens Image Formation:

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Position of Object Ray Diagram Characteristics of Image
Infinity
Beyond C
At C
Between C and F
At F
Between F and O
Concave Lens Image Formation:

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Position of Object Ray Diagram Characteristics of Image
At infinity
Anywhere but infinity
• Misconception: Blocking a part of the lens surface would block the

corresponding part of the image.
• Clarification: Blocking a part of the lens surface will just reduce the
intensity of the image.
7. Dispersion
a. Refraction through a Prism
A prism is a transparent medium bounded by five plane surfaces with a triangular cross-
section. It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces
are inclined to each other. The angle between its two lateral faces is called Angle of Prism
(A).

70
Figure 19: Refraction through a Prism
The angle between the direction of incident ray and the emergent ray is called angle of
deviation (δ).
δ = δ1 + δ2 = (i1 + i2 ) − (r1 − r2 )
But,
r1 + r2 = A
So,
i1 + i2 = A + δ
b. Dispersion through a prism
Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent colors. These
colors are often observed as light passes through a triangular prism. Upon passage
through the prism, the white light is separated into its component colors – Violet, Indigo,
Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red (VIBGYOR). The band of colors obtained is
known as spectrum.
Figure 12: Dispersion through a Glass Prism

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Question 14. Does the prism produce these colors? If yes, how does it produce? If no, then how is the
spectrum obtained?
• Misconception: A glass slab does not disperse white light into its
constituent colors.
• Clarification: In the case of a glass slab, the opposite sides are parallel
and therefore different colors emerge parallel to each other and are
seen simultaneously.
8. Human Eye
a. Structure of Human Eye
Eyes are one of the most sensitive sense organs in our body. Our eyes can interact with
electromagnetic spectrum (very small range) and thus enabling us to see this beautiful
world.
Figure 13: Human Eye

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Eye Part Function
Sclera
Cornea
Iris
Pupil
Crystalline Lens
Aqueous Humor
Vitreous Humor
Ciliary Muscles
Retina
Optic Nerve
The head of the optic nerve is devoid of photosensitive cells. Hence, no image is formed
at that point. This is why this point is called the blind spot of the eye.
Did You Know?

Corneas are the only tissues that don’t have blood. As it has no blood
supply; it gets oxygen directly through the air.

73
Question 15. On sunny days, when you enter a dimly lit room, you are unable to see clearly for a
moment. Why does this happen?
• Misconception: The lens is the only part of the eye responsible for
focusing light.
• Clarification: Lens is not the only part that helps to focus the light:
cornea, aqueous humor, vitreous humor and lens they all together
help in focusing the light.
b. Color Perception
Retina consists of two types of light sensitive cells – rod cells (RODS) and cone cells
(CONES). The rod-shaped cells respond to the intensity or brightness of the focused light
whereas the cone shaped cells of the retina respond to the colors. Thus, the cone cells of
the retina make color perception possible.
Question 16. Why is it so that in dim light we are not able to see colors?
c. Power of Accommodation
One of the most amazing things about human eye is that it can change its focal length i.e.,
increase or decrease, depending on the distance of objects. It is the ciliary muscles that
can modify the curvature of the lens to change its focal length. The ability of the eye lens
to adjust its focal length accordingly as the object distances is called power of
accommodation.

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To see the nearby objects clearly, the focal length of the lens should be shorter. For this,
the ciliary muscles contract to increase the curvature and thereby decrease the focal length
of the lens. Hence, the lens becomes __________ to _____________ the power of the
eye.
Figure 14: Seeing Nearby Objects
To see a distant object clearly, the focal length of the lens should be larger. For this, the
ciliary muscles relax to decrease the curvature and thereby increase the focal length of the
lens.
Hence, the lens becomes __________ to _____________ the power of the eye.
Figure 15: Seeing Far Away Objects
The minimum distance of the object by which clear distinct image can be obtained on the
retina is called least distance of distinct vision. It is equal to 25 cm for a normal human
eye and it is also known as near point of our eye.
Question 17. What do you mean by far point? What is the far point of a normal eye?

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9. Visual Defects
The loss of power of accommodation of an eye results in the defects of vision. There are four
defects of vision called refractive defects. They are myopia, hypermetropia, presbyopia and
astigmatism.
a. Myopia (Short-sightedness)
Myopia is a defect of vision in which a person clearly sees all the nearby objects but is
unable to see the distant objects comfortably. A myopic eye has its far point nearer than
infinity. It forms the image of a distant object in front of its retina.
Myopia is caused by
• Increase in curvature/power of the lens
• Increase in length of the eyeball
Myopic Eye Myopic Eye with Corrective Lens
b. Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness)
Hypermetropia is a defect of vision in which a person can see distant objects clearly and
distinctively but is not able to see nearby objects comfortably and clearly. A
hypermetropic eye has its least distance of distinct vision more than 25 cm.
Hypermetropia is caused due to

• Reduction in the curvature of the lens
• Decrease in the length of the eyeball

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Hypermetropic Eye Hypermetropic Eye with Corrective Lens
Did You Know?

Some people are born with two differently colored eyes. This
condition is heterochromia of the eye. It is of three kinds.
In complete heterochromia, one iris is a different color from
the other. In sectoral heterochromia, part of one iris is a different
color from its remainder and finally in central heterochromia
there are spikes of different colors radiating from the pupil.
c. Presbyopia (Ageing Vision Defect)
Presbyopia is a common defect of vision, which generally occurs at an old age. A person
suffering from this type of defect of vision cannot see nearby objects clearly and
distinctively. A presbyopic eye has its near point greater than 25 cm and far point closer
than infinity.
Presbyopia is caused by the

• Weakening of the ciliary muscles
• Reduction in the flexibility of the eye lens

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Bi-focal lens is required to correct this defect.
Figure 20: Correction of Presbyopia
d. Astigmatism
Question 18. Write a note on astigmatism and how is it corrected.
10. Seeing Sans Eyes
It is possible to see, rather locate objects around you, even without using your eyes. One such
technique is echolocation. This is what enables bats to fly in the dark.
Human echolocation is the ability of humans to detect objects in their environment by sensing
echoes from those objects, by actively creating sounds – for example, by tapping their canes,
lightly stomping their foot, or making clicking noises with their mouths. People trained to
orient by echolocation can interpret the sound waves reflected by nearby objects, accurately
identifying their location and size.
Aids for visually challenged people:

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• Optical Aids (Magnifying/Telescopic/Tinted/Bifocal lens)
• Non-optical Aids (Electronic aids, Talking calculator, Closed Circuit Televisions,
Tactual, Auditory and Visual aids)
Question 19. Write a note on the Braille system.

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1) Can a plane mirror ever form a real image? If so, explain how?
2) What is the focal length of a plane mirror?
3) What is the angle of reflection if a ray falls normally on a plane mirror?
4) A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light ray bend towards the
normal or away from the normal? Why?
5) List the uses of convex lenses.
6) How does the angle of deviation for a prism vary with the angle of incidence?
7) If two plane mirrors are placed parallel to each other, they form infinite images. Why?
Explain with a ray diagram.
8) An object is placed between the pole and focus of a concave lens. What is the nature and size
of image?
9) What is the function of
A) Iris
B) Ciliary muscles
C) Aqueous humor
D) Optic nerve
10) How are focal length and radius of curvature connected?
11) Why do we use blue color solution after washing the clothes?
12) How can you distinguish between a real image and a virtual image?
13) How does the human eye perceive colors?
14) Explain with a ray diagram how myopia can be corrected.
15) Distinguish between supplementary and complementary colors. What is a composite color?
16) The property of plane mirror to make ‘right appear as left’ and vice versa, is called:
A) Vertical inversion C) Reflection
B) Lateral inversion D) Refraction
17) We can see ourselves in mirror or polished surface but not on walls because the reflection
from the wall is:
A) Regular reflection C) Irregular reflection
B) Normal reflection D) Total internal reflection
18) How many images will be formed when two plane mirrors are placed at 90 degrees to each
other?
A) Two C) Three
B) Infinite D) Four
19) The phenomenon of breaking up of light into its seven constituent colors is known as:
A) Reflection of light C) Dispersion of light
B) Refraction of light D) Radiation of light
20) Which of the following part of our eye controls the amount of light entering the eye by
contracting or dilating?
A) Retina
B) Cornea
C) Ciliary muscle
D) Iris

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VIII CBSE Chemistry – Coal and Petroleum
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Can you imagine our modern lifestyle without any electricity? A day in this modern world
without any petroleum will wreak havoc. For the same reason, electricity and petroleum has
made our lives so much convenient that we wouldn’t be able to imagine our lives without
them.
What do you mean by energy?
Where do we get this energy from?

As energy is required to do work, we must constantly replenish our energy source to keep us
and our machines running. Presently, most our energy comes from the fossil fuel reserves
buried deep into Earth.
What are the two basic types of energy resources?
Write down examples of renewable and non-renewable resources in the table given below?
Renewable resources Non-renewable resources

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Question 1. What do you understand by renewable and non-renewable sources of energy?
• Fossil fuels
A type of non-renewable source, fossil fuels are buried deposits of organic materials
formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to coal, natural gas and
oil by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over a period of millions of years
2. Coal formation
Coal has been known to man since thousands of years.
Ancient writings tell us that, around three thousand years ago the Chinese knew that certain
kinds of black rock created fires. Early man probably discovered it by accident. Coal has been
used for heating since the cave man time. Archeologists have found evidence that the Romans
in England used it in the second and the third centuries.
So, what actually is coal? Why are we talking about coal? What is its importance?
Coal is the largest source of non-renewable source of energy that we have. But how did this
large source of energy come into being?
• Coal formation started millions of years ago when the earth was covered with huge
swampy forests where plants, giant ferns, reeds and mosses grew.
• As plants grew, some died and fell into the swamp waters. New plants grew up to
take their places and when these died, still more grew up, but they too died and fell,
forming separate and continuous layers of organic matter.
• Over a period of millions of years, many layers got formed, one on top of the other.
The weight of the top layers and water and dirt packed down the lower layers of the
organic matter.
• Heat and pressure produced chemical and physical changes in the organic layers
which forced out oxygen and left rich carbon deposits. In time, materials that were
once plants became coal.

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Figure 21 - Coal Formation Process Flow
Figure 22 - Coal Formation
• Types of coal
There are several different types of coal, that have different properties usually depending
on their age, content of carbon and the depth to which they had been buried under other
rocks.
Question 2. Name the different types of coal.

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3. Destructive distillation of coal
Destructive distillation is the process of heating coal in the absence of air. When coal is
heated in the absence of air or in limited supply, it does not burn but instead produces many
useful by- products. The process is called destructive because the chemical composition of
the end product is distinctly different from that of the input material.
Question 3. What are the products obtained from destructive distillation of coal and what are their
uses?
a. Extraction of oil
The wheel may be considered man’s greatest inventions. But its use was limited by man,
due to constraints of manpower or animal power. Its real usefulness could only be
extracted if we had some source of energy that didn’t tire off like our manpower or
animals.
“Necessity is the mother of invention” is a well-heard proverb. Crude oil and its by-
products were the basic commodities whose invention helped our human civilization to
progress at a much quicker rate. So how was this crude oil formed?

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Figure 3 - Step-wise Formation of Crude Oil
The mud eventually turns to rock. This rock puts a lot of pressure on dead animals and plants.
Rocks around them also got heated up. Together, the heat and pressure turned the remains
into crude oil. It was important that no air or oxygen was present or else combustion of the
materials would have taken place.
Question 4. Why was it important for air or oxygen to remain absent for the formation of petroleum
products?

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So, now we know the need for the crude and its evolution from early mankind you might be
wondering, how exactly do crude oil obtained from the earth’s crust?
Figure 4 - Industrial extraction of Crude Oil
• First, a crude oil well is created by drilling a hole into the earth with an oil rig.
• A steel pipe is placed inside the oil well for structural strength.
• Holes are made at the bottom of the well so oil passes through the base.
• Collection of valves is fitted at the top. These valves maintain pressure when crude
oil is pumped.

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Extraction of crude oil involves three stages:
•Primary Recovery is the first stage of crude oil extraction

•In this stage, oil naturally flows under the base of oil rig
Primary •The natural underground pressure of the oil well pushes the oil
•This stage allows 5% to 15% oil in reservoir to be extracted.
Recovery
•The natural pressure due to underground pressure will diminish with time
• In this method the pressure of reservoir is increased for the natural flow of oil,
this is done by injecting natural gas or water.
Secondary •This allows 35% to 45% of oil in reservoir to be extracted.
Recovery
•This method is used when it is impossible to extract with secondary recovery

method
Tertiary •In this method the pressure of reservoir is increased again and finally the
Recovery remaining crude oil is extracted.
4. Fractional Distillation
Crude oil is an important energy source; oil is used for many other purposes other than energy
and transport. But how do we use it? Can we use the extracted crude oil as petrol?
Question 5. Why the crude oil extracted from earth crust cannot be used as petrol?

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Question 6. What do you understand by fractional distillation?
The picture below depicts fractionating column with liquid mixture being extracted at
different boiling points.
Figure 5 - Fractional distillation of Oil

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Question 7. Fractional distillation is used in separation of crude oil instead of simple distillation,
why?
5. Natural Gas
Flammable gas, consisting mainly of methane and other hydrocarbons, occurs naturally
underground in association with petroleum and is used as fuel.
The natural gas is odorless, but as you all known from everyday life the gas leaked from LPG
cylinder gives an unpleasant smell. Why?
Natural gas gets its odor from Sulphur components which get added to it during various
stages of extraction.
Ethanol is a common odorant added to natural gas, which can be detected by humans even if
one part is dissolved in 50 million parts of air, so that any gas leak can be easily identified.
Question 8. Why is natural gas considered as a clean fuel?

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Question 9. What are preventive measures according to you, that could help preserve natural
resources?

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1. What is meant by destructive distillation?

2. What are the different constituents of petroleum?
3. Name the petroleum product used for making roads in place of coal tar.
4. Coal is formed from the remains of:
(a) vegetation only (b) animals only
(c) both vegetation and animals (d) neither vegetation nor animals
5. Naphthalene balls, obtained from coal tar, are used as:
(a) mosquito repellant (b) honey bee repellant
(c) moth repellant (d) snake repellant
6. Name the products obtained and their uses when coal is processed in industry.
7. Write two uses of coke.
8.What are the different types of coal?
9.What are fuels?
10. _________ is a petroleum product used in making ointments.
(a) Lubricating oil (b) Paraffin wax
(c) Bitumen (d) Coal
11. What are advantages of using LPG and CNG as fuels?
12. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process called?
13. Give some examples of natural resources.
14.What are the advantages of petroleum?
15.What are the uses of kerosene?
16.Name the fossil fuel that is used in thermal power station to generate electricity.
17. Coal mainly contains ______________:
(a) hydrogen (b) oxygen
(c) carbon (d) sodium
18. Heavy motor vehicles like trucks run on:
(a) petrol (b) diesel
(c) coal (d) coal tar
19. What are some preventive measures taken to preserve fossil fuels?
20. Why is natural gas considered as a lesser pollutant as compared to petrol?

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VIII CBSE Chemistry – Combustion and Flame
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Flame or fire is one of those things to which most of us are exposed at a very young age.
Then, even though we are unable to grasp what is happening, we do understand that fire gives
off heat and light. As we study chemistry, we will soon understand that, flame or fire is
nothing but a by-product of a type of reaction known as combustion.
Fire was discovered by our ancestors during stone age but it was only thousands of years later
did we actually understand what it was.
Question 1. What is fire and how is it different from Earth, water and air?
The human evolution from apes has been marked with discoveries/inventions that
revolutionized the way we lived. One of the earliest revolutions was caused by the discovery
of fire. Prior to the discovery, man used to live in mobile hunter groups of 50. They kept
moving, in search of food and a warmer climate. Their constant mobility was also due to the
constant threat posed by the wild animals in nearby regions. But, the discovery of fire
changed all this.
Write down the two advantages and disadvantages of fire in the column below:
Advantages Disadvantages
Question 2. How did the discovery of fire change how the hunting groups used to live?

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2. History of fire
In early times, man used to consider fire as one of the essential elements alongside water,
earth and air. But, the continuous study of fire led to the conclusion that fire was different
from Earth, water and air.
Soon, it was established that fire (or combustion) could only be lighted if there were three
components present. These three components can be represented in the form of a triangle
known as Fire triangle.
Figure 1 - Fire Triangle
Explain the fire triangle.
3. Fire: How does it work?
To move an airplane or rocket through air, we must use propulsion. Propulsion means
pushing forward or driving an object forward. Different types of aircraft use different
types of propulsion and they all depend on the type of fuel burning.
The engine burns the fuel, converting it into energy which is used by the engine for
propulsion. This process is called combustion.
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives
off heat.

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Question 3. What is incomplete combustion? What are its by-products?
Question 4. What do you understand by incandescence?
Fire as we know, is a by-product of combustion. Combustion is the reaction of any substance

with oxygen giving off heat and light in the process. But, we have oxygen all around us so
why don’t we see combustion happening all the time?
Combustion of a substance can only take place if the initial temperature of the reaction
exceeds a certain temperature called Ignition temperature.
Question 5. Why are we not able to burn a piece of wet paper?

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Question 6. What is ignition temperature?
4. Matchsticks
When it comes to starting a fire, match sticks are the most reliable options around.
Matchsticks were discovered by John Walker when trying to rub off some chemicals that had
solidified on the end of a stick he had been using to stir them.
Question 7. How do match sticks work? Explain the compounds used and their function.
5. Candle Flame
Although candle is one of the oldest light sources, candle did not change much throughout the
history. They have been used for illumination and sometimes for heating. There is evidence
that the earliest candles were made from whale fat in China. Candles were invented in 3000
B.C.
Candle only contains the fuel mentioned in the fire triangle. The heat is supplied from
an external source and oxygen is used up from the surroundings. The candle is made up
of solid wax (the fuel). It also has a wick which is absorbing properties.
Have you ever thought about why the flame always points upwards, or why it takes the shape
it does?

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Figure 2 - Shape of Flame
Question 8. How does a candle burn? Write the steps of changes involved.
Have you observed the colour of the flame? Is the colour of flame completely yellow?
Figure 3 - Different Zones of a Candle Flame

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Question 9. Why is there variation of colour in the flame of the burning candle? Mention the
temperature and type of combustion taking place in the various zones of a candle flame.
6. Fire extinguisher
The next thing that we need to learn is how to put off fire. Fire has destroyed many buildings
and forests. Once it starts to spread, it becomes very difficult to contain it. So, we need to
have a proper mechanism for putting out fires. Fire triangle indicates that when heat, oxygen
and fuel come together, fire lights up.
Question 10. Does fire keep burning, if any one component is removed from the fire triangle?
Question 11. How does a Sodium carbonate extinguisher work? Can it be used to put off electrical
fires?

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Figure 4 - How to safely use Extinguishers
There are different types of fire extinguisher that you need to know before using it. Different
types of extinguishers are used to tackle different types of fire. Depending on the fuel being
burnt, 1 of the following extinguishers is used.
Write down the type of extinguisher that must ideally be used in the following cases of fires
Figure 5 - Types of Extinguishers

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7. Smoke
What are soot particles? Why are they formed?
Did you know?
Ever observed fireworks? The fireworks are essentially different elements that
undergo combustion giving off light of different colors. The color released is
characteristic of the element present. Different elements of exposure to heat release
different colors.
There's nothing quite like opening the door and breathing fresh, clean air, but how clean is the
air you are breathing right now?
8. Pollution
One of the major contributors of air pollution is improper combustion. Even the most ideal
combustion of pure carbon gives off CO2 and H2O (water vapour) which have been
recognized as greenhouse gases. Greenhouse effect is a major contributor of Global warming.
Question 12. How do CO2 and H2O contribute to the greenhouse effect?
You might have already guessed by now that if complete combustion of pure carbon
contributes to air pollution, incomplete combustion would be an even bigger contributor.

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Incomplete combustion of fuels releases CO and unburnt C particles. CO is one of the most
poisonous gases which if injected in 1 ppm can prove to be fatal. CO binds to the
hemoglobin in the red blood cells 200 times more effectively than oxygen does. The
result is that many of these blood cells that were designed to carry oxygen to different
parts of the body instead bind to the CO thereby decreasing the oxygen content in our
blood.
Question 13. What do you understand by volatile substances?
The presence of volatile substances in fuels also contributes to air pollution. These volatile
substances are usually sulfur and nitrogen, which get converted into their oxides during
combustion. The oxides are released into our atmosphere and eventually lead to acid rain.
Question 14. How do oxides of Sulphur and Nitrogen cause acid rain?

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1. How is flame related to combustion?

2. What were some early uses of fire by our ancestors?
3. The emitted light which accompanies heat is known as:
a. fluorescence b. incandescence
c. effervescence d. luminescence
4. What do you understand by Fire triangle?
5. What is the significance of Ignition temperature?
6. A _______ fuel has a ______ calorific value.
(a) good, low (b) poor, high
(c) poor, low (d) none of these
7. Very often we find a black color on the back of cooking appliances. What is this color and how did
it get there?
8. One of the major drawbacks of incomplete combustion is the release of ___________ as a by-
product.
(a) CO2 (b) CO
(c) CH4 (d) NH3
9. Which of the following chemical is used in matchsticks?
(a) Silicon (b) Sodium
(c) Phosphorus (d) Chlorine
10. What do you mean by smoldering of wax?
11. Which region of a candle flame is the least hot region and why?
12. What will be the shape of the candle flame in zero gravity?
13. Explain the principle behind the working of a fire extinguisher.
14. How will you put off an electrical fire?
15. Explain the chemistry behind different colors being emitted by firecrackers.
16. Identify the greenhouse gas(es) from the below given gases.
(a) CH4 (b) H2O
(c) CO2 (d) all of these
17. How does smoke cause air pollution?
18. How does inhaling CO decrease the amount of oxygen in our blood?
19. Acid rain is caused by the presence of volatile substances in the fuel. Explain.
20. We know that a fire can be extinguished by removing one of the elements in the fire triangle.
Which element would be the most difficult to remove and why?

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VIII CBSE Chemistry – Metals and Non – Metals
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Remove all the metallic objects from the world. Whatever is left behind will have striking
similarities to the Stone Age.
Stone Age: Part of the early human timeline. Tools and weapons made up of rocks.
Some rocks contained rich deposits of minerals which led to the study of properties of metals,
eventually leading to use as weapons. Further study over the course of hundreds of years has
changed the surface of the Earth and has drastically affected our lives.
a. Physical Properties of Metals
Fill in the blanks wherever required -

• Metals have a shiny appearance; this property is known as ____________. Due to their shiny
appearance they can be used in jewellery and decorations. Gold and silver particularly are
widely used for jewellery.
• Metals are mostly hard and rigid. The hardness varies from one metal to another. Some metals
like sodium, potassium and magnesium are easy to cut.
• Metals on being hammered can be beaten into thin sheets. This property is called
____________. Gold and Silver are the most malleable metals. They can be hammered into
very fine sheets. A single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter.
• Wires are made from copper, aluminium, iron and magnesium. This property of metals which
allows them to be turned into thin wires is called ___________. Most metals are ductile.
Metals are also good conductors of electricity.
• Cooking utensils and water boilers are also made of iron, copper and aluminium, because they
are good conductors of _____________.
• Metals are predominantly sonorous. That is, they make a ringing sound when struck.
Therefore, they are used for making bells. Metal wires are used in musical instruments.
• All metals except mercury exist in the solid form at room temperature. Therefore, they retain
their shapes under normal room temperature conditions.
• Metals have high melting points.
• Metals have high tensile strength i.e. they can be stretched to some degree without breaking.
The physical properties of metals are macroscopic observations. To truly understand

these properties along with the chemical properties of metals, one needs to explore the
metallic world at the atomic level.

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Question 1. State some of the exceptions that the following elements display with respect to the
properties of metals and non-metals.
Gallium -
Mercury -
Iodine -
Carbon -
Did you know?
Of all the metals known to us, Tungsten has the highest melting
point of 34.22°C whereas Mercury has the lowest melting point of -
38.83°C. Now you know why tungsten filaments are used in electric
bulbs.
b. Metals in the Periodic Table

Metals fall into groups in the periodic table determined by similar arrangements of
their valence electrons and a consequent similarity in chemical properties. Groups of
similar metals include the alkali metals (Group 1 in the periodic table), the alkaline-
earth metals (Group 2 in the periodic table), and the rare-earth
metals (the lanthanide and actinide series of Group 3). Most metals other than the
alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals are called transition metals. The oxidation
states or valence of the metal ions vary from +1 for the alkali metals to as much as +7
for some transition metals.
The systematic distribution of electrons within an atom determines the chemical
behaviour of the substance whereas the bonding between the atoms of the metals
themselves determines the physical properties.
Question 2. What do you understand by valency?

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Question 3. What is the difference between valency and oxidation state?
What is Ionization Energy?
Figure 1 - Electronegativity Trends in Periodic Table

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Question 4. Why does Sodium(Na) have a higher ionization energy compared to Potassium(K)?
2. Chemical Properties of Metals
Chemically, the metals differ from the non-metals in a way that they form positive ions, basic
oxides and hydroxides. Upon exposure to moist air, a great many undergo corrosion, i.e. enter
into a chemical reaction; e.g. iron rusts when exposed to moist air, the oxygen of the
atmosphere unites with the metal to form the oxide of the metal.
a. Reaction with Oxygen
Most of the metals form respective metal oxides when reacted with oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide
For example, when copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper
(II) oxide, a black oxide.
2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
(Copper) (Copper (II) oxide)
What are Amphoteric oxides? Complete the following amphoteric reactions -
Al2O3 + 6HCl →
Al2O3 + 2NaOH →
b. Metals React with Water

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Metal + Water → Metal oxide + Hydrogen

Metal oxide + Water → Metal Hydroxide.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + heat energy
Metals like Na, K catch fire when treated with cold water. This is due to the large
amount of heat produced during the reaction. The hydrogen gas evolved during the
process catches fire due to heat. Metals like Mg, Fe, Zn, Ca react only with steam to
give corresponding oxide and H2 gas.
Write the chemical equation for the reaction between calcium and water –
c. The Reactivity Series

On the basis of their ability to be oxidized, i.e. lose electrons, metals can be arranged
in a list called the reactivity series. Metals toward the beginning of the series, like
caesium and lithium, are more readily oxidized than those towards the end, like silver
and gold.
Figure 2 - The Metal Reactivity Series
NOTE:
(i) Na & K are highly reactive metals. They react with air so vigorously that they
catch fire when kept in open. So, they are often stored in kerosene.
(ii) Metals like Al, Zn, Pb, Sn do not react with air at room temp due to formation of a
thin oxide layer on their surface.
(iii) Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temp.
Did you know?
Of all the metallic elements known, the most reactive is Caesium whereas
the least reactive is Gold.
d. Metals React With Acids

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Metal + dil. Acid → Salt + H2 gas.

Note: - Only Mn & Mg give H2 gas when treated with dil. HNO3.
Question 5. Complete the following equations to show the reaction between metals and strong acids -
i. Mg(s) + HCl(aq) →
ii. K(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
iii. Ag(s) + H3PO4(aq) →
e. Reaction Between Metals and Non-Metals

• Reactivity of elements can be understood as a tendency to attain a completely filled
valence shell.
• Atom(s) can lose electrons from valence shells to form __________ (+ve ions).
• Atom(s) gain electrons in valence shell to form __________ (–ve ions).
• Oppositely charged ions attract each other and are held by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction forming ionic compounds.
3. Ionic Compounds
An ionic compound is a chemical compound in which ions are held together in a structure
by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonds.
a. Properties of Ionic Compounds
Write down the general properties of Ionic Compounds

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Formation of MgCl2:
Mg → Mg2+ + 2e–
(2, 8, 2) (2, 8) Magnesium ion
Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl-

(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8) Chloride ion
Question 6. You have two unknown samples of compound - A & B. One of them is ionic compound
and one of them is covalent compound. Considering the following properties, identify the correct
option:
A- Has high melting point and can be drawn into sheets. B- Forms acidic oxides and boils over a
range of temperature.
a. B is an ionic compound
b. A is an ionic compound
c. A & B both are ionic compounds
d. A & B both are covalent compounds
Correct option -
Activity
Magic flames
Have you ever seen a blue flame? What about green or purple one? When you're expecting a regular
flame, these colourful changes can be an incredible surprise! What you may not know is that these
spectacular colours result from the presence of specific elements. We're going to show you a couple of
materials that you can easily find in your chemistry laboratory which contain metals that are easily
identifiable during a Flame Test!
Materials
• Popsicle sticks
• Boric acid
• Potassium sulphate
• Copper(II) chloride
• Flame source
• Cup of water

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Experiment
1. Dip the popsicle stick in water.
2. Dip the wetted popsicle stick into the boric acid.
3. Dim the lights and place the boric acid-covered popsicle stick into a flame. What color does
the flame produce? Write your observation in the table below.
4. Dip another popsicle stick in water.
5. Cover the wetted popsicle stick with potassium sulphate.
6. Again, dim the lights and place a copper(II) chloride covered popsicle stick into a flame.
What colour does the flame produce?
Observation
How Does It Work?
The experiment that you just conducted is called a flame test. A flame test is a procedure used to
detect certain elements in a material. When you stuck the boric acid in the flame, you should have
noticed a bright green flame. The green flame denotes the presence of the element Boron. Potassium
sulphate salt should have yielded a purple flame, the colour associated with the presence of potassium
and copper(II) chloride gives the flame a blue-green colour due to the presence of copper atoms.
These element-specific colours are a result of their emission spectrum. The emission spectrum of an
Test Material Boric acid Potassium sulphate Copper(II) chloride

Colour of Flame
element is the colour emitted when an atom's electrons make a transition from a high energy state to a
low energy state.
Can you now explain the sorcery going on behind those fancy colourful fireworks which you do not
burn because the environment is of a bigger concern to you?
4. Metallurgy
We have understood in the covered subtopics, the chemical properties of metals. This
knowledge is used to isolate metals from their compounds that are commonly found in the
crust of the Earth.
Metallurgy is the science of economically and profitably obtaining metals from ores.
What does one mean by the term “Ore”?
Minerals: Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and

predictable chemical composition and physical properties.

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Define the following: Gangue, Flux and Slag:
Figure 3 - Minerals Vs Ores
a. Introduction
The metal reactivity series conveniently groups all metals into three neat groups -
i) Metals of low reactivity
ii) Metals of medium reactivity
iii) Metals of high reactivity
Depending upon the metal which is to be isolated from its ore, a defined set of steps
is taken, these steps have been used after a thorough study of chemical properties of
the metal.
Question 7. What are the basic steps involved in the process of obtaining metal from its ore.

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Enrichment of ore:
• Removing earthly impurities like clay, sand etc. from an ore is called enrichment
or concentration of the ore.
• Ores which are mined often contain many impurities. These impurities are called
gangue.
• Gravity separation, hydraulic washing, electromagnetic separation, froth flotation
process, etc. are some examples of the processes which are applied for
concentration of ores.
b. Extracting Metals of Low Reactivity
The metals low in the reactive series are very less reactive. The oxides of such metals
can be reduced to metals by heating alone e.g.
Complete the following reactions -
2HgS(s) + 3O2 heat
→
2HgO(s) heat
→
In this case mercury is a metal of low reactivity, hence it is weakly bounded to the
sulphur atom. Simple heating of the ore is sufficient to provide the energy required to
break the bond.
c. Extracting Metals of Medium Reactivity
Metals like iron, zinc, lead etc. occur as sulphides or carbonates in nature. First the
ore is converted into its oxide form. This is done by either roasting or by calcination.
Roasting: Heating of sulphide ores in the presence of excess air to convert them into
oxides is known as roasting.
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) heat→ 2ZnO(s) + SO2(g)
Calcination: Heating of carbonate ores in the limited supply of air to convert them
into oxides is known as calcination.
ZnCO3(s) heat
→ ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Question 8. What are the steps you will take in order to convert an ore of copper carbonate(CuCO 3)
into its oxide?

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Question 9. How will you isolate copper from the copper oxide obtained above? Mention all possible
processes.
d. Extracting Metals of High Reactivity
The metals high up in the activity series are very reactive. They cannot be obtained
by reduction of their oxides by carbon due to the strong ionic bonds. These metals are
obtained by the electrolysis of their molten chlorides.
Question 10. Draw and describe the setup to be used in order to extract sodium out of sodium chloride
(NaCl).

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e. Refining of Metals
Impurities present in the obtained

metal can be removed by electrolytic
refining. Copper and Aluminium are
the common metals obtained using this
method.
Consider the following example to
understand the refining of copper.
Figure 2: In the electrolytic tank-
Figure 23 - Electrolytic Refining
• Anode – slab of impure copper
• Cathode – slab of pure copper
• Solution – aqueous solution of copper sulphate with some dilute sulphuric acid.
• On application of electric current, copper ions from the anode are released in the solution and
equivalent amount of copper from solution is deposited at cathode. Impurities such as traces
of silver and gold get deposited at the bottom of anode as anode mud.
5. Corrosion
Metals are attacked by substances in surroundings like moisture and acids. Corrosion is a
process through which metals in manufactured states return to their natural oxidation states.
This process is a reduction-oxidation reaction in which the metal is being oxidized by its
surroundings, often by the oxygen in air. This reaction is both spontaneous (does not need the
supply of external energy for the reaction to take place) and electrochemically favoured.
a. Corrosion
• Silver - it reacts with sulphur in air to form silver sulphide and particles develop a black
coating of this _________________.
• Copper - reacts with moist carbon dioxide in air and gains a green coat of ____________.
• Iron- acquires a coating of a brown flaky substance called rust (ferric oxide). Both air and
moisture are necessary for rusting of iron.
Question 11. Write the chemical reaction to show the rusting of iron.

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b. Prevention of Corrosion
▪ Corrosion of iron is prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanizing,

electroplating, anodising and making alloys. In short, cutting off the supply of
oxygen to the metal surface.
▪ In galvanization, iron or steel is coated with a layer of zinc because zinc is

preferably oxidized than iron.
Question 12. Why is there a need to protect metals from corrosion?
Question 13. What are alloys?
• Misconception: Aluminium does not corrode easily because it has low

reactivity.
• Clarification: Aluminium is moderately reactive hence a freshly made
aluminium object's surface oxidizes spontaneously creating a protective layer
of aluminium oxide which protects the metal from further corrosion.
• Stainless steel is obtained by mixing iron with nickel and chromium. It is hard and doesn’t
rust.
• Mercury is added to other metals to make alloys which are commonly known as _________.
• Brass: alloy of ______ and ______.

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• Bronze: alloy of copper and tin. In brass and bronze, melting point and electrical conductivity
is lower than that of pure metal.
• Solder: alloy of ________ and _______ has low melting point and is used for welding
electrical wires.

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1. Name a non-metal which conducts electricity.

2. Why are alkali metals highly reactive in air?
3. Name the metal that is used to make ornaments.
4. What do you understand by malleability?
5. If you put one end of a rod of metal in the hot solution you can feel the heat at another end.
What does it mean? What is this property of metals?
6. What property of metal makes it useful as electrical wires?
7. Why is tincture of iodine applied on wounds?
8. Why should food stuff with acid component not be stored in metallic containers?
9. Give reason for the following:
(i) Iron is used in construction of bridges & houses.
(ii) Iron sheets are galvanized before use.
10. Why is aluminium used in manufacture of airplanes?
11. Name a metal that is attacked by cold water, boiling water and steam.
12. What are coinage metals?
13. Why do aluminium articles lose their shine soon after use?
14. Metals are hard to cut but one among the following metals can even be cut with a knife: Identify
the metal.
(a) Iron (b) Aluminium
(c) Potassium (d) Copper
15. What do you mean by ductility?
16. Why doesn’t copper displace iron from an iron sulphate solution?
17. Why do Gallium & Caesium melt when kept on the palm of your hand?
18. Differentiate between metals & non-metals.
19. What is understood by the term alloy?
20. Which gas is released when sodium reacts with cold water?

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VIII CBSE Biology – Cells and Tissues
videos proceed.
1. Introduction to cells
Question 1. Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. Why do you think is it called so?
Cells are the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently and are often called the
‘building blocks of life’. The study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of protoplasm
enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic
acids.
Cells can be of different shapes and sizes. To understand this, consider below given diagram
of cells found in humans.
Figure 24: A. Nerve cell B. Ovum C. Sperm D. Cheek cells
Question 2. Why do cells have different shapes and sizes?

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Did You Know?
The largest cell in the world is an ostrich’s egg. Sometimes

weighing over 3 pounds, the ostrich’s egg is composed of a
single cell, as all other animal eggs are.
a. Discovery of cell
Question 3. Match the following:
Robert Hooke All animals are made up of cells
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek Discovered cell
Matthias Schleiden Invented microscope
Theodor Schwann All plants are made up of cells
2. Structural Organisation of the Cell
If we study a cell under microscope, we would come across three features in almost every
cell: plasma membrane, ________ and cytoplasm. Let us now discuss each one of them in
detail.
a. Plasma Membrane
The outer most covering of cell is called plasma membrane. The most accepted theory of
plasma membrane structure is fluid _________________. According to this theory, the
plasma membrane that surrounds cell has two layers (a bilayer) of phospholipids (fats
with phosphorous attached), which is fluid at body temperature. Proteins and substances
such as cholesterol become embedded in the bilayer, giving the membrane mosaic like
look. Plasma membrane separates the contents of the cell from its external environment.
Plasma membrane is a _______________ membrane i.e., it allows entry and exit of only
selected material in and out of the cell.
b. Cell wall
In plants, other than plasma membrane, one more external layer is found called the cell
wall. Plant cell wall is made of _________. It is somewhat rigid but permeable to most of
the substances. Cell wall is also found in cells of bacteria and fungi. It provides rigidity to
the cell. It prevents the plant cells from desiccation. It gives shape to the plant cell. It
protects the plant cell from external environment.

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c. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a thick _________ that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane.
It is mainly composed of water, salts, and proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm
includes all of the material inside the cell and outside of the nucleus.
d. Nucleus
Remember the central circle in the human cheek cell that we had seen in the beginning of
this chapter? It is the nucleus of the cell. Nucleus is the main ___________ unit of the
cell. The membrane around nucleus is called ___________________ which is double
layered. Nuclear membrane has pores called nuclear pores that help in transportation of
substances in and out of nucleus. The matrix inside nucleus is known as _____________.
The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures only when
the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features
from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. Functional segments of DNA are
called ________. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes present in the human cells.
Did you know?

Each human cell contains around 6 feet of DNA which is tightly
packed, but very organized with proteins
Cells can be divided into two groups on the basis of the type of nucleus found in them –
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In organisms like bacteria, nuclear membrane is absent. Such
an undefined nuclear area is called a _________. In contrast to these cells, cells in which
a well-defined nucleus with a nuclear membrane is present are called eukaryotic cells.

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Figure 2: A. Prokaryotic cell B. Eukaryotic cell
Question 4. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells with an example of each.
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
3. Cell Organelles
Eukaryotic cells contain many membrane-bound organelles. An organelle is an organized and

specialized structure within a living cell. The organelles include the nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, mitochondria, etc.

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a. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of

a eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. There are two types of ER –
_______________________ and _______________________. RER has ribosomes
attached on its surface and is involved in protein synthesis. As the name suggests the SER
has no ribosomes attached to it and is involved in lipid synthesis. In liver cells of
vertebrates, SER plays a vital role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.
Figure 3: Endoplasmic reticulum
Question 5. What do you mean by membrane biogenegis?
b. Golgi Apparatus
Golgi complex was discovered by Camillo Golgi for which he received Nobel prize in the
year 1906. It is composed of many sac-like structures which are stacked one above
another. Its functions include the _________, modification and packaging of products
made by ER in vesicles.

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Figure 4: Golgi complex
c. Lysosomes
Lysosomes are single layered. It is kind of waste disposal system of the cell. Lysosomes
help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn-out cell
organelles. They contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all
organic material.
Question 6. Explain how lysosomes help in defence of the cell.
Question 7. Why lysosomes are called suicide bags of cell?
d. Mitochondria
Mitochondria is also known as ‘power house’ of a cell as it is the site of production of

energy currency of the cell i.e. ATP. Mitochondria have two membrane coverings instead
of just one. The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is extensively
folded. Each fold is called a cristae. These folds provide large surface area for generating
ATP. A very unique feature of this organelle is that it has its own DNA.

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Figure 5: Mitochondria
e. Plastids
Plastids are major organelles found in the cells of plants and algae. Plastids often contain
pigments called________ used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments present can
change or determine the cell's color. Plastids are also double layered and like
mitochondria they contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
Question 8. Match the following
i. Leucoplast a. gives colour to plant parts

ii. Chromoplast b. helps in photosynthesis
iii. Chloroplast c. colourless and stores starch, oil, protein.
f. Vacuoles:
Vacuoles are storage sacs. Vacuoles are small in size in animal cells while plant cells
have very large vacuoles. In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity
and rigidity to the cell.
Question 9. Based on the entire discussion and the figure given below, differentiate between plant and
animal cell.

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Figure 6: A. Animal cell B. Plant cell
Plant cell Animal cell

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Question 10. We know that cells are the structural and functional unit of life. What is the next level of
the hierarchy of classification? Why do we need it?
4. Introduction
___________are a group of cells that are specialized to perform a specific function. They are
like families of cells functioning together. Several tissues together combine to form an
_______. Tissues are different for plants and animals because their cellular structures are
fundamentally different. This results in different growth pattern in both plants and animals.
Moreover, plants and animals differ functionally as well. For instance, plants are stationary
and perform photosynthesis for manufacture of food; whereas, animals are mobile and depend
on plants or other animals for food.
5. Plant Tissues
Plant tissues can broadly be divided into two types – __________ tissues and _________
tissues.
a. Meristematic tissues
Plants grow at very specific regions. This growth is brought about by the meristematic
tissues. The cells of these tissues keep on dividing and give rise to new cells. These cells
are very active with dense cytoplasm, thin cell wall, prominent nuclei and no vacuoles.
Meristematic tissues are present at the _________ parts of plant. These are dividing tissues
classified into _________ meristem, _________ meristem and __________ meristem.

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(i) Apical Meristem

These tissues are present at the tip of ______ and _____ of the plant. They therefore,
bring about the increase in plant height and also the length of the root inside the soil.
(ii) Lateral Meristem

These tissues are present in the _______ walls of the stems and bring in the increase
in ________ of the plant.
(iii) Intercalary Meristem

These tissues are present at the base of ________ or _________.
Question 11. In the given diagram, locate the position of the different types of meristematic tissues in
plants.
Question 12. Why do meristematic tissues lack vacuoles?

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b. Permanent Tissues
These are the tissues which are made up of cells that lose the ability to divide and take up a
specific function in the plant. This process in which the cells of meristematic tissue take up
specific functions or roles is known as _____________. These tissues can be broadly divided
into two types – simple permanent tissues and complex permanent tissues. Simple permanent
tissue is further divided into three types – ____________, ___________ and __________.
Similarly, complex permanent tissue is further divided into two types – _______ and
________.
(i) Simple permanent tissues
As already discussed, these tissues are of three different types. Parenchyma tissues
are made up of loosely packed cells with thin cell walls and large intercellular spaces.
They are live cells and help in support and storage. If the parenchyma cells contain
chlorophyll, they are called ______________ and if they consist of large air spaces,
they are called _____________.
Collenchyma tissues are made up of live cells which have irregularly _________
corners with thus __________ intercellular spaces. They help in bending of various
parts of the plant without breaking.
Sclerenchyma tissues make up the hard and stiff parts of the plant. They are made up
of dead, long and narrow cells. They almost have no intercellular space as the walls
are thickened due to the presence of ________.

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Question 13. Identify the types of tissues and give one structural feature of each.
(ii) Complex Permanent Tissues
Complex tissues are made up of many types of specialized cells coordinating to perform a
single function. As we have already learnt, these are of two types – _______ and ________.
These form the vascular system of the plant. Vascular or conductive tissues transport food,
nutrients and water across the plant. Water and minerals are conducted by xylem tissue while
food is conducted by phloem tissue.
Xylem is made up of the following components – ________, _________, xylem _________

and xylem ________. The movement of molecules is unidirectional in xylem.

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Question 14. Identify the xylem components in the following figure.
A B C
A– B– C–
Phloem is made up of the following components – __________, ____________, Phloem _________

and Phloem ________. Unlike xylem, phloem conducts in both directions.
Question 6. Name the tissue shown in the figure.
6. Animal Tissues
Animal tissues can broadly be divided into four types – __________, _________, __________
and ____________ tissues.
a. Epithelial Tissue
This group of tissues forms the outer covering and protective layer of animals. They form the
outer lining of all the organs and cavities in the body. Based on structure and functions, we

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can divide epithelial tissues into four different types – ___________ epithelium, __________
epithelium, __________ epithelium and _________________ epithelium.
(i) Squamous Epithelium

They form an extremely thin and flat layer of tissues. They provide a very thin
layer important for __________ exchange, thus providing permeability. They are
present in the lining of oesophagus and mouth.
(ii) Cubiodal Epithelium

As the name suggests, they are cubiod in shape and form the lining of
________glands and kidney tubules. They provide mechanical support.
(iii) Columnar Epithelium

These tissues line the organs which help in _________ and ________ , such as
lining of intestines. They are made up of elongated cells. This epithelium is
ciliated in our respiratory tract.
Did you know?

Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles
and foreign bodies which enter the air passages.
(iv) Stratified Squamous Epithelium

This kind of tissue is formed when multiple layers of squamous epithelium are
arranged in a pattern. Our _______ is made up of this kind of tissue.
Question 16. Identify A, B, C and D in the following figure.
A B
C D

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b. Muscular Tissue
These tissues make up our muscles which are responsible for almost all the movements that
take place in the body.
Muscular tissues can be of three types – _________ muscle, _______ muscle and ______
muscle. All the voluntary movements carried out by our body is carried out by the striated or
skeletal muscles. They are called skeletal because
____________________________________. Further they are long, cylindrical, unbranched
with striations and are multinucleated.
Almost all the _____________ movements in the body are carried out by the smooth or
unstriated muscles. They are long, smooth, spindle shaped and uninucleate. We can find them
in places like alimentary canal and blood vessels.
Did you know?
Hardest muscle in the body is the chin
Question 17. Why do you think smooth muscles are also called unstriated muscles?
Question 18. Which is the strongest muscle in the body? How can you say it is the strongest?

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__________ muscles make up our entire heart. These muscles are involuntary in nature and
show rhythmic contractions and relaxations. Structurally, they may look quite similar to
striated muscles but they are branched, uninucleate and have intercalated discs.
Question 19. Identify A, B and C in the following figure.
c. Connective Tissue
As the name suggests, these tissues help in connecting different parts of the body. For
example, ________ is a connective tissue which transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, food,
hormones and waste materials from one part of the body to other. Blood is composed of a
yellow coloured fluid matrix called _______ and other cellular components like RBCs, WBCs
and platelets are suspended in it.
Question 11. How do you think plasma regulates the body temperature?

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Did you know?

A new born baby has just one cup of
blood in his/her body.
Bones form another set of connective tissue. They give the structural support to the body. They are
non-flexible. One bone is connected to another bone with the help of _________ which form strong
elastic connective tissues with very little matrix. __________ are another type of connective tissues
which connect muscles to bones. They are very strong fibrous tissues with limited flexibility.
One more example of connective tissues is cartilage. These tissues are present in nose, ear, trachea
and larynx.
__________ tissues are present in bone marrow, around blood vessels and between skin and muscles.
They help in repair of damaged tissues. The fats in the body are stored in ________ tissues in the
form of fat globules.
Question 12. Write one function each of areolar tissue and adipose tissue.
d. Nervous Tissue

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This tissue is specialized to carry electrical signals throughout the body required to transmit
information and instructions. The brain is made up of nervous tissue and is essential for all
sensations, consciousness, memory and emotion. The dendrites of a nerve cell pick up
electrical signals and then transmit them to other cells via the axon endings.
Question 13. Label the parts in the following figure.

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1. Which of the following are single cells?

A. Egg C. Both A and B
B. Sperm D. Either A or B
2. Which of the following form a part of the structural organization of a cell?
A. Protoplasm C. Plasma membrane
B. Nucleus D. All of the above
3. Cell wall in plants is mainly made up of
A. Cellulose C. Pectin
B. Lignin D. All the above
4. Find the correct match from the following.
A. Apical meristem – Present on the lateral walls
B. Intercalary meristem – Increases the height of the plant
C. Lateral meristem – Increases the girth of the plant
D. None of the above
5. The flow of substances in xylem is
A. Unidirectional C. Either A or B
B. Bidirectional D. None of the above
6. List the types of epithelial tissues with one function of each.
7. What is the difference between striated and cardiac muscles?
8. Describe the structure of mitochondria with the help of a diagram.
9. How are vacuoles different in plant and animal cells?
10. Differentiate between plant and animal cells.
11. What do you mean by a semi permeable membrane?
12. List the functions of the cell wall.
13. Differentiate between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells.
14. How is rough endoplasmic reticulum different from smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
15. Write one function for the following:
a. Golgi bodies c. Mitochondria
b. Lysosomes d. Plastids
16. Draw a neat labeled diagram of a neuron.
17. What is the difference between xylem and phloem?
18. What are the different types of simple permanent tissues? Give one characteristic of each.
19. From your understanding of the chapter till now, how can you explain the growth of a banyan
tree?
20. Name the cell organelles which have their own genetic material.

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VIII CBSE Biology – Microorganisms
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Question 1. A drop of sea water was observed under the microscope, the figure of which is given
below. Give a collective term for these small organisms and define them.
Figure 1: A drop of sea water magnified under microscope
Microorganisms can broadly have classified under five groups – Bacteria, Fungi, Protozoa,
Algae and Viruses. Microorganism can be useful or harmful.
Question 2. “All microbes are not pathogens”. Justify.

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Microorganisms can be single-celled or multicellular. They can survive in almost all types of
environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands. They
are also found inside the bodies of animals including humans. Some may be beneficial to the
host while some are harmful. Let’s discuss them one by one.
Did you know?

Oral microbes are fast and furious. It takes only around 4 to 5 hours for the
bacteria in our mouth to double in number. So, can you calculate the number
of times we need to brush if we need to keep their numbers in check?
2. Bacteria
All bacteria are unicellular prokaryotes, meaning they do not have a defined cellular nucleus.
According to their shape, all bacteria are divided into three groups: Spirilla (spiral body
shape); Cocci (spherical body shape); Bacillus (with a rod-shaped body).
Figure 2: Different types of bacteria based on their shape
a. Importance of Bacteria
Question 3. When a small amount of curd culture is added to a bowl full of milk, entire milk gets
converted into curd. Give reason for this change.

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Question 4. Define probiotics. Also state its importance.
Did you know?

Botox is made from a deadly bacterial toxin which is used in
very small doses to remove wrinkles.
3. Fungi
Fungi are multicellular, heterotrophic organisms. They are saprophytic (feeding on decaying
organic matter) and parasitic organisms. Fungi include moulds, rusts, mildews, smuts,
mushrooms and yeast. They lack chlorophyll and are generally found in colonies. They do not
photosynthesize. For example — Penicillium. Aspeigillus, Bread mould and yeast.
Figure 3 : Penicillium Dry Yeast Mushroom

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a. Importance of Fungi
By breaking down dead organic material, they continue the cycle of nutrients
through ecosystems. Some plants have a symbiotic relationship with fungi.
Some fungi are also used to prepare antibiotics.
Question 5. Yeast is widely used to make soft and fluffy cakes. Explain the science involved in this.
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugar to acids, gases or alcohol.

Yeast can convert sugars into alcohol by the process of fermentation. This process is
used in commercial production of alcohols, wine and vinegar.
• Misconception: Mold, yeast and fungi are the same.

• Clarification: While sometimes used interchangeably, each of these terms
refers to a distinct group of organisms. “Fungi” refers to the broad group
(Eumycota) of related organisms that includes mold, yeast, and mushrooms.
“Mold” is a subset of fungi that grow in long, multi-cellular filaments. This is a
practical, not a biological, category, since molds come from several fungal
divisions. They share functional similarities, not ancestry. “Yeast” is another
practical distinction, referring to single-celled fungi with certain
characteristics. In casual conversation yeast often means bakers’ yeast,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the fermenter of beer, wine, and bread
4. Protozoa
Group of organisms which comprises the single-celled microscopic animals and includes
amoeba, flagellates, ciliates, sporozoans, and many other forms. Like other groups we
discussed protozoa are also both helpful and harmful

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Figure 4: Amoeba Trypanosoma
a. Useful protozoa
Protozoans serve as food for many small aquatic organisms. Zooplankton are tiny
protozoans which live in the sea. They form the principal diet of blue whales, who gulp
them in with sea water.
Question 6. List some other importance of protozoa.
b. Harmful protozoans
Some protozoans cause diseases. The protozoan Endamoeba histolytica causes
amoebiasis (amoebic dysentery) in human beings, Giardia causes giardiasis (dysentery),
while Plasmodium causes malaria. trypanosoma, a parasitic protozoan which lives in the
bloodstream of human beings, cattle and other animals, causes a dangerous disease called
sleeping sickness.
5. Viruses
Viruses form the borderline between living and non-living. They essentially need a host to
reproduce which may be bacteria, plant or animal. When found outside of host cells, viruses
exist as a protein coat or capsid, sometimes enclosed within a membrane. The capsid encloses

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either DNA or RNA which codes for the virus elements. While in this form outside the cell,
the virus is metabolically inert.
Figure 5: Viruses
Question 7. With the help of a diagram explain how viruses infect a host cell and replicates itself?
6. Vaccines and Antibiotics
When we are affected by a disease we consult a doctor. The doctor gives us medicines in the
form of tablets or injections or syrups that help us to recover from the disease. Vaccines and
antibiotics are category of medicines in which the former is used as a preventive measure
while the later is used as a curative measure . Lets study them in detail.
a. Vaccines
Question 7. You must have taken injections in your childhood to protect yourself from diseases in
future. What is this method known as?

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The immune system fights pathogens by producing antibodies. When a vaccine is introduced
into the body, the body recognizes the pathogen and remembers it. This prevents the person
from disease when actual pathogen infects him. Vaccines have been developed for polio,
rubella, tuberculosis etc.
Antibiotics
An antibiotic is a medicine (such as penicillin or its derivatives) that inhibits the growth
of or destroys microorganisms. The first antibiotic was developed by Alexander Fleming in
1928 from a fungus known as penicillin. Antibiotics work by disrupting cellular processes of
the pathogen or by preventing replication of pathogen DNA or by weakening the cell wall of
the pathogen.
Question 8. Why antibiotics cannot be used against viral diseases?
Antibiotics are used for both animals and plants. These days a number of antibiotics are being
produced from bacteria and fungi. Some commonly used antibiotics are streptomycin,
tetracycline and erythromycin.
Question 9. Why should antibiotics be used in the correct dosage? What happens if you take too much
and too less than the prescribed dose?

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Disease Caused Due to Microorganisms
Disease causing microorganisms are called pathogens. Pathogens may enter our body through
air, water, or food. It can also be transmitted through direct contact with the infected person or
through a carrier.
Question 10. Define carrier with an example.
Question 11. Fill in the table. First one is done for your convenience.
Diseases Causative Microorganism Mode of Transmission

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air
Influenza
Measles
Chicken Pox
Small Pox
Cholera
Polio
Cholera
Typhoid
Jaundice
Malaria
Dengue
Ebola
Keeping in view the damage caused by a disease it is rightly said that prevention is better than
cure.

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Question 12. List some general method of prevention of diseases.

(i) For Air Borne Diseases
(ii) For Water Borne Diseases
(iii) For Diseases that Spread Through Carriers
7. Plant Diseases
Microorganism is also known to cause diseases in plants like potato, rice, wheat, sugarcane,
orange, apple and others. Diseases in plants reduce both quality and quantity of the yield. It
can be controlled by using some chemicals.
Question 11. Identify the plant diseases shown in the following figure. Also, mention the causative
microorganism and mode of transmission.

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A B C
8. Food Poisoning
Food poisoning occurs due to the consumption of contaminated food. The two best known
causes are – one is Salmonella found usually in eggs and chicken meat and the E. coli infects
a person by eating or drinking food contaminated with raw sewage. Some E. Coli are useful
as well like the one that lives in our intestine. Storing food correctly prevents spread of
diseases. Good hygiene is essential.
Food Preservation

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The chemicals that are used to check the growth of bacteria are called preservatives.
Some common methods of food preservation are discussed below.
(i) Chemical Method

Salt and acid preservatives are added to the pickles in order to prevent the attack of
microbes. Sodium meta-bisulphate and sodium benzoate are commonly used food
preservatives.
(ii) Use of common salt

Our ancestors have been using salt is used as a preservative. Till date it is used to
preserve raw meat, fish, mango, amla and many more.
Question 11. Explain how the following things help in preserving food? Give one example of food
preserved by these methods.
a. Salting
b. Adding sugar
c. Adding oil and vinegar
d. Refrigeration
e. Drying
Pasteurization preserves milk by heating it up to 70 degrees centigrade to kill germs.
Question 12. How does boiling milk preserve it?

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Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is essential for the production of proteins, nucleic acids and amino acids in all living
things.
Question 13. Define the nitrogen cycle:
Figure 6: Nitrogen Cycle
Question 14. Fill up the blanks to complete the explanation of nitrogen cycle.

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Free nitrogen or molecular nitrogen is the biggest source of nitrogen for the ecosystem. Plants absorb
nitrogen in two forms (ions) __________________________ and _______________________. Most
plants absorb nitrogen as nitrates. Nitrogen oxides ______________and _______________ are
formed at high temperatures near lightning bolts and IC engines. These oxides combine with water to
form ____________________ and _________________acids that rain down into the soil.
Bacteria and algae convert nitrogen from air to forms available to plants in a process known as
_________________________________. Leguminous plants have special nodules called that contain
bacteria that convert free nitrogen into ammonia, nitrites and then into nitrates. Ammonia is made
artificially by reacting nitrogen and hydrogen at high pressures and temperatures in the presence of a
catalyst in a process known as __________________________________. Ammonia can be uses to
produce nitric acid and ammonium nitrates. Denitrification is the process of converting
__________________________ into _____________________________ by denitrifying bacteria.
Nitrous oxide is also produced as a byproduct.

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1. Microbes are visible to the naked eye. True/False

2. Most microbes are helpful or harmless. True/False
3. Which of the following is not a reason why microbes are useful to us?
a. They help in digestion
b. They control the population of human beings and plants
c. They help in preparation of bread
d. They help in fertilizing soil
4. Fungi are:
a. Plants
b. Animals
c. Prokaryotes
d. None of the above
5. Which of the following turns milk into curd?
a. Escherichia coli
b. Penicillium
c. Lactobacillus spp.
d. Streptococcus spp.
6. Which of the following will not help preserve food?
a. Storing in salt
b. Keeping food open to air
c. Adding concentrated sugar solution in food
d. Keeping food in water
7. Which of the following are not plant diseases?
a. Citrus canker
b. Wheat leaf rust
c. Yellow vein mosaic
d. Cholera
8. What is the difference between vaccination and immunization?
9. After using antibiotics that are taken orally for stomach and intestinal infections, the doctor
usually prescribes probiotic pills containing gut bacteria such as Lactobacillus,
Bifidobacterium, Saccharomyces and Streptococcus thermophilus. Why does he do so?
10. How did eukaryotes evolve from prokaryotes?
11. You are lost in the forest and you do not have anything to eat with you. You do not know how
to make a fire. You find the following things near you:
a. A pretty red mushroom with yellow spots.
b. A smelly, dead, half-eaten deer.
c. A colony of tasty looking worms.
d. Some fresh raw mangoes that have fallen on the ground.
e. Some newly laid bird’s eggs in a nest.
f. Fish in a stagnant, green looking pool of water.
Which of the above foods should you choose to survive? Why can’t you eat the others?
12. What is anti-biotic resistance? Why should you always take anti-biotics exactly as prescribed
by the doctor?

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13. Give some symptoms of citrus canker. What is the vector for yellow vein mosaic?
14. Which two microbes are best known for causing food poisoning?
15. List some methods of food preservation.
16. Give two examples of artificial preservatives. Find some food items in the kitchen that use
them (Look at the ingredients list!).
17. Explain the nitrogen cycle briefly.
18. Which structures of some plants have nitrifying bacteria in them? How do they help fertilize
soil?
19. How does the stomach protect itself from infections that can come from food?
20. List the immunizations that you have been given since birth. Which ones have you missed
and which are due? Can you name the diseases for which you are immunized against?

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VIII CBSE Biology – Reproduction in Animals

videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Reproduction is the process in which new organisms are produced from their parents. It is
essential for the survival of species. Every organism that reproduces is alive. There are two
types of reproduction _______________ and________________.
Question 1. Why do most of the eukaryotes reproduce sexually?
Question 2. How is sexual reproduction advantageous over asexual reproduction?
2. Fission
It is a type of asexual reproduction in which reproduction occurs by splitting the body into
parts. Fission is of two types- Binary and Multiple. Binary fission results in formation of
______________cells from a single parent while multiple fission results in formation of
________________ cells. Fission requires replication and division of genetic material. Most

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bacteria and protozoa divide along a specific plane during division. For amoeba, this can
occur along any plane. Multiple fission usually occurs during ______________________
conditions producing many daughter cells within a protective covering called cyst. When
conditions become more_________________, the cyst breaks and daughter cells are
liberated.
Question 3. If an amoeba undergoes reproduction after every 3 months, how many amoebae will be
formed after 12 months of this cycle? How?
3. Budding
Budding generally results in offspring that is smaller than its parent. Budding is possible in
both unicellular and multi-cellular organisms. A new offspring results when a bud breaks
away from its parent.
Parent hydra Hydra with bud Bud grows into a new hydra New hydra detaches
Figure 1: Budding in Hydra
Question 4. Differentiate between budding and binary fission.

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Question 5. Draw a neat labeled diagram to show budding in yeast.
4. Mitosis and Meiosis
Cell division serves the following functions______________, _____________

and___________. Mitosis helps in ___________,
___________and________________. DNA replication happens once
during__________ followed by_____________. Humans have___________
chromosomes i.e. diploid condition.
In meiosis, parent cells are _______________ while daughter cells are ______________.
Meiosis occurs with two cell divisions – first is reduction division and second is mitotic
division. In simple organisms all germ cells are generally similar. In complex organisms,
germ cells take on differential roles. The egg is generally large and contains a food source.
The sperm is small and motile. Conventionally, __________________ germ cells are called
the male gamete.
5. Male and Female Reproductive System
Did you know?

The reproductive system contains the largest and smallest
human cells. The largest cell is the female’s ovum while the
smallest cell is the sperm.

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Question 6. Label the given diagram of the male reproductive system.
The testes are the site of sperm production and are housed in a sac protruding out of the body
known as the scrotum.
Question 7. Why are the testes located outside the body?
The testes release the male sex hormone __________________________. The epididymis
collects the haploid cells produced in the testes. It is here that they turn into mobile sperm. The
sperm moves into the vas deferens and then into the ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory duct
connects to the urethra from which sperm is ejected through the male copulatory organ, the
_________________________. The accessory glands such as the prostate and seminal vesicles
provide nutrition to the sperm and also aid in the movement of sperm in the female reproductive
system. The fluid coming out during ejaculation is called semen.
Question 8. Label the given diagram of the female reproductive system.

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The female analogue of the testes is _________________________. This organ produces the
female sex hormones _______________________ and _____________________________.
This organ produces eggs, the female gamete. The eggs enter the oviduct fallopian tube where
they may get fertilized. The fertilized egg is implanted into the endometrial wall of the
uterus. The uterus opens into the cervix and vagina which receives the semen.
• Misconception: Ova and eggs are same.

• Clarification: All ova are eggs but all eggs are not just ova.
6. Fertilization
Question 9. Write the differences between external and internal fertilization with an example of each.
The sperm has a sleek design with a long tail to propel it. The head contains the genetic
material, the chromosomes.
Question 10. Draw and label the different parts of a sperm.

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Question 11. Why do you think mitochondria are clumped near the tail of the sperm?
Sperms mature in the epididymis and they take about a month to do so. A few sperms reach
the cervix of the female after ejaculation and swim into the acidic environment there. The
cervix is covered with mucus and becomes alkaline during ovulation. After fluids from the
semen meet the mucus, it becomes more alkaline and suitable for sperm to survive.
Sperm live only for 24-72 hrs. Only a few hundred to thousand sperms make it to the egg cell
in the fallopian tube.
Question 12. What are the two barriers that the sperms encounter on reaching the egg?

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The barrier layer present over the ovum is removed by the _________________ enzymes released
by sperm. Only one sperm makes its way into the nucleus of the egg. Upon fertilization, the egg
prevents other sperm cells to enter into the egg. The nuclear membranes of both gametes dissolve
allowing chromosomes to pair up. The resulting zygote is _________________ though both
gametes are haploid.
Question 13. How the sex of a child is determined?
Question 14. Discuss the development of the zygote after fertilization?

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Question 15. Differentiate between oviparous and viviparous organism?

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1. The number of ova released at a time in a female human being is:

a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
2. Match the following:
i. Testes a. estrogen
ii. Ovary b. site of implantation
iii. Sperm c. testosterone
iv. Uterus d. male gamete
3. External fertilization occurs in which of the following?
a. Fishes
b. Cows
c. Dogs
d. Humans
4. Site of fertilization in a mammal is:
a. Uterus
b. Vagina
c. Urethra
d. Fallopian tube
5. Role of placenta is to:
a. Provide nutrition to the embryo
b. Protect the embryo from shocks
c. Act as a storage organ
d. Convey nerve impulses
6. Identify the cell division type occurring during the following events.
i. Formation of new kidney cell.
ii. Formation of ovum.
iii. Formation of new lung cell.
iv. Formation of sperm.
v. Formation of new blood cells.
7. Fill up the blanks.
i. The size of daughter cell produced by budding is _________________than the parent
cell.
ii. As a result of meiosis, ____________________daughter cells are produced.
iii. Humans have ______________ number of chromosomes.
8. Sperms need to be motile. Give reasons.
9. What do you mean by variation? How is it created in a population?
10. The sex of a child depends upon the type of chromosome carried by the sperm. Elaborate.
11. What is the significance of amniotic fluid?
12. Nucleus is present in which part of the human sperm?
13. Name and explain the process shown in the figure.

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14. In a sexually reproducing organism X, the number of chromosomes is 24. What will be the
number of chromosomes in the gametes of the organism?
15. Which is a better mode of reproduction- sexual or asexual? Why?
16. What is the function of scrotum?

17. Offsprings produced by asexual reproduction are referred to as clones. Why?
18. Offsprings of oviparous animals are at a greater risk for survival. Why? How are they
different from viviparous animals? Give one example for each type of animals.
19. Failure of testes to descend into scrotal sacs leads to sterility. Why?
20. Why the testes are present outside the abdominal cavity in human male?

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VIII CBSE Physics – Chemical Effects of Electric Current
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Question 1. On what principle does an electric fly trapper work?
a. Effects of Electric Current
We already have studied in details about two effects of electric current:
Effect of Electric Current Applications
Heating Effect
Magnetic Effect

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Figure 25: Heating Effect of Electric Current
Figure 26: Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
b. Physical and Chemical Changes
Physical Changes Chemical Changes

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Did You Know?

A few chemical reactions can be reversed – the original materials can be re-
created from the new materials. Such reactions have a forward mechanism
and a backward mechanism. Both reactions are actually happening at the
same time but, depending on the conditions, one will be stronger than the
other.
Question 2. Can a body undergo physical as well as chemical change simultaneously? Support your
answer with proper example.
Changes Physical/Chemical
Rusting of iron
Drying of puddles
Dew formation
Mowing a lawn
Lighting a match
Photosynthesis

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2. Current Test Conductors
a. Tester
The substances that allow electricity to flow through them easily are known as good
conductors e.g. copper, aluminum etc. On the other hand, substances that do not allow
electricity to flow easily are called poor conductors. E.g. air, wood etc.
Figure 27: A Simple Tester
A simple device like a tester can be used to test whether a particular material allows
electric current to pass through it or not. If the material placed between the two wires is a
good conductor of electricity, the bulb glows else it doesn’t glow.
b. Testing a Tester
Question 3. While testing a copper rod for conductivity, Akash found that the bulb didn’t glow. What
can be the probable reason for this?
Hence, before testing the material for conductivity, it is essential that first we check
whether the tester is working or not. For this, the two ends of wire are brought together. If
the bulb glows, the tester is working fine. Else we need to check for the following:
• Whether the connections are tight?
• Whether the bulb is fused?

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• Whether the cells are used up?
However, it is important not to join the free ends for more than a few seconds. Else the
cells of the battery will drain very quickly.
Did You Know?

In the simple neon screwdriver tester that is used in homes, the user’s body
must be in contact with the metal cap on the top of the screwdriver when
the tester is put in contact with the wire. This completes a genuine
electrical circuit and the bulb lights up once the tester senses voltage.
3. Current Conducting Liquids
a. A Bulb Tester
Just like solids, some liquids are also good conductors of electricity. To test the
conductivity of a liquid, we can use the same tester that we used for solids. However, we
should use a battery in place of a cell.
Figure 28: A Simple Tester
Question 4. While testing liquids for conductivity, why should a battery be used instead of a single
cell?
Below is the list of some liquid with their conductivity for electricity.

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Liquid Good/Poor Conductor
Tap water
Lemon juice
Honey
Distilled water
Milk
Vinegar
Question 5. While testing the above liquids using a bulb tester, Beena found that for a liquid, even
though it was a good conductor of electricity still the bulb didn’t glow. If she had tested the tester and
it was working fine, what could be the probable reason for this?
a. An LED Tester
The problem in the previous question can be solved using an LED tester. While using an
LED as a tester, the longer lead should always be connected to the positive and shorter to
negative terminal of battery.
Figure 29: An LED

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Question 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using an LED tester over a bulb tester?
a. Tester Utilizing Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Figure 30: Tester using Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Question 7. Describe the working of the tester shown above.
b. Liquids as Good and Poor Conductors
It is not correct to classify materials as – conductors and insulators. Most of the materials
can conduct electricity under certain conditions. So, it is better to classify them as – good
conductors and poor conductors of electricity.
Did You Know?

Although air is a bad conductor of electricity, during lightning it
can conduct huge current through it! The ionized air molecules
conduct electricity quite well, and the path of charged particles
acts as a wire, connecting the highly negative cloud and the
positive ground.

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It has been found generally that the solutions of acids, bases and salts are good conductors
of electricity.
Examples of acids
Examples of bases
Examples of salts
• Misconception: While testing, if the bulb of the tester doesn’t glow, the
substance is a poor conductor of electricity.
• Clarification: If the bulb doesn’t glow, there is a possibility either the
tester is defective, or the current is weak or the substance actually is a
poor conductor.
4. Current at the Molecules
Now that we know that some liquids allow current to flow through them easily, let us
examine what happens at the molecular level when current is passed through a liquid.
a. Electrolysis of Water
Electrolysis is the process of breaking or decomposition of water (𝐻2 𝑂) into oxygen gas
(𝑂2 ) and hydrogen gas (𝐻2 ) on passing electric current through it.
Figure 31: Electrolysis of Water
Chemical equation for electrolysis of water:

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2𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙) → 2𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝑂2 (𝑔)
Term Definition
Electrode
Electrolyte
Figure 32: Electrolysis of Water
Question 8. Using the figure shown above, describe how electrolysis is carried out in a laboratory.
b. Chemical Effects of Electric Current
As we saw in the case of electrolysis of water, bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen gas were
released at the electrodes. This process is chemical effect of electric current. The effect
produced depends on the solutions and electrodes used. Following are the chemical
effects of electricity that can be seen:
• Bubbles of gas can be formed at the electrodes.
• The color of solution can change.
Deposit of metal can be seen on the electrodes.

185
Question 9. Describe a simple experiment that utilizes chemical effect of electric current which can
be carried out to determine the polarity of a cell or a battery.
Did You Know?

Electrolysis is not just restricted to water. For example, electrolysis of
molten sodium chloride yields sodium metal and chlorine gas. While the
electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride yields hydrogen gas and chlorine
gas with aqueous sodium hydroxide remaining in the solution.
5. Electroplating
a. Process of Electroplating
The basic idea behind electroplating is to use electricity to coat a relatively mundane
metal (like copper or iron) with a thin layer of another, more precious metal, such as gold
or silver. But this is not the sole purpose of electroplating. It has lots of other uses too. Let
us first look into how this process works.
Figure 33: Electroplating

Suppose you want to coat a layer of copper over an object. Here the object that is to be
plated is made the cathode, copper is made anode and a salt of copper is used as
electrolyte.

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Question 10. Why is dilute sulphuric acid added to copper sulphate solution instead of some salt?
It is observed that after sometime, a layer of copper is formed over the object. When
electricity is passed through the copper sulphate solution, it dissociates into copper and
sulphate ions.
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐶𝑢2+ + 𝑆𝑂4 2−

Copper ions, being positively charged, are attracted to the electrode connected to negative
terminal of the battery (cathode). At the cathode, they gain electrons and get deposited
over it.
Question 11. How is the loss of copper ion from copper sulphate solution compensated?

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Figure 34: Electroplating at Molecular Level
Question 12. Suppose that you use carbon rod as a cathode, will a coating of copper be obtained now?
a. Applications of Electroplating
Electroplating finds a number of applications and is widely used in industries. However,

the disposal of used conducting solution poses a major concern. Some of the applications
of electroplating are listed below:
Electroplating with Application
Chromium
Gold/Silver

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Tin
Zinc
Question 13. Why is it that only a plating of chromium is done over car parts, instead of making it
completely with chromium?
Did You Know?
The concept of electroplating can be used for electrolytic refining of

metals to extract impurities from crude metals. Here in this process, a
block of crude metal is used as anode, a diluted salt of that metal is used as
electrolyte and plates of that pure metal is used as cathode.
Question 14. Zinc is more reactive than iron. Then how is it possible that a layer of zinc can protect
bridges from rusting?

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1) Although water is not a good conductor of electricity, why is it advised not to touch electrical
appliances with wet hands?
2) Describe the functioning of a simple tester that utilizes magnetic effect of electric current.
3) What do you mean by a poor conductor of electricity? Can poor conductor conduct
electricity?
4) A simple bulb tester can be used to check whether a substance conducts electricity or not.
Under what conditions does this tester fail?
5) What is an LED? What are the advantages of using it in a tester in place of an electric bulb?
6) An LED has two arms – one longer and one shorter. How do you connect it in a circuit?
7) Differentiate between physical and chemical changes. Give examples for each.
8) Why is it that solutions of acids, bases and salts conduct electricity?
9) Describe an experiment to demonstrate chemical effects of electric current.
10) What do you mean by electrolysis? During electrolysis of water, why is lemon juice added to
it?
11) What is electroplating? Describe how it is carried out?
12) List some of the applications of electroplating.
13) Why is it advised to use a battery instead of a cell while testing the conductivity of certain
liquids?
14) Suppose you have a black box, which has a battery inside it and whose two ends are each
connected to a wire coming out of the box. Using a simple experiment, describe how you can
determine the polarity of the battery.
15) Electroplating has many applications in practical life. But what is the major concern during
this process?
16) Which of the following will not conduct electricity?
a) Salt solution c) Sugar solution
b) Solution of potassium iodide d) Both b and c
17) The electrode which is positively charged is known as
a) Anion c) Cation
b) Anode d) Cathode
18) During electrolysis of water, oxygen gas is released at which electrode?
a) Cathode c) Both cathode and anode
b) Anode d) Can’t say
19) When electric current is passed through CuSO4 solution, copper deposits on the electrode
connected to
a) Positive terminal of battery d) Depends on concentration of the
b) Negative terminal of battery solution
c) Both the terminals of battery
20) Upon passing of current through an electric bulb, the bulb gives off light because of
a) Chemical effect of electric current c) Heating effect of electric current
b) Magnetic effect of electric current d) None of these

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VIII CBSE Physics – Some Natural Phenomena
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
We observe a number of phenomena occurring around us. Some of these are natural (like
earthquake, tsunami etc.) while some are man-made/artificial (like nuclear explosions). In this
chapter we are going to focus on two natural phenomena – lightning and earthquake.
Question 1. What is a natural phenomenon? Is it always destructive in nature?
In order to understand lightning, we need to have some idea about electricity and charges. The
"modern electricity" that powers everything is what we call current electricity. But earlier the
only form of electricity known was static electricity. The ancient Greeks knew as early as 600
B.C. that when amber was rubbed with fur, it attracted light objects such as hair.
If you live in a home with nylon carpets and metal doorknobs, your body builds up a static
charge when you walk across the floor, which can be discharged when you touch a doorknob,
giving you a tiny electric shock. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning and these
sparks are essentially the same phenomena. Lightning is basically a spark on a very large
scale.
Figure 1: Lightning Sparks

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2. Static Charges
Question 2. What do you mean by static charges?
Static charges can be developed by:

• Rubbing
• Induction
a. Charge developed by Rubbing
If two objects are rubbed together, under certain conditions, they acquire equal and
opposite charges and an attractive force develops between them. The development of
static charges can be explained using the structure of atom. Everything around us is made
up of atoms. These atoms are made up of three elementary particles – electrons, protons
and neutrons.
Elementary Particle Charge
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Figure 35: Structure of an Atom

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In an atom, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons such that the
atom carries a net zero charge. The electrons are attracted towards the nucleus. Some
atoms have a more powerful pull on electrons than others. If by some means, an
imbalance is created between the number of electrons and protons, the material acquires a
net charge (either positive or negative).
Charges Attraction/Repulsion
By convention, we call the charge acquired by a glass rod when it is rubbed with silk as
positive. The other kind of charge opposite to this is said to be negative.
Question 3. When you rub two balloons with wool and suspend them near each other using insulating
threads, they repel each other. Why is it so that they don’t attract each other?

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Question 4. What will happen if these balloons are suspended using copper threads? Will they still
repel? Justify your answer.
Question 5. What will happen if we rub two same materials against each other? Will they still acquire
a charge? Why / Why not?
It's not the rubbing that's important but the fact that we're bringing two different materials
into contact. Some atoms have a more powerful pull on electrons than others. If we put
two different materials in contact, and one attracts electrons more than the other, it's
possible for electrons to be pulled from one of the materials to the others. As a result, one
of the materials has gained some extra electrons (and becomes negatively charged) while
the other material has lost some electrons (and becomes positively charged).
Did You Know?
Most current photocopiers use a technology called xerography, a dry

process that uses electrostatic charges on a light sensitive
photoreceptor to first attract and then transfer toner particles (a
powder) onto paper in the form of an image.

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Question 6. Can transfer of protons from one atom to another charge a substance?
a. Charge developed by Induction
The other method of charging is charging by induction.
Figure 36: Charging by Induction
Question 7. How can a body be charged negatively by using induction?
To detect the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body, we can use an
instrument known as an electroscope.

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Figure 37: A Gold Leaf Electroscope
When the metal terminal is touched with a charged object, the gold leaves spread apart in
a 'V'. This is because some of the charge on the object is conducted through the terminal
and metal rod to the leaves. Since they receive the same sign charge they repel each other
and thus diverge.
Question 8. What will happen if you touch the metal terminal with your finger?
Question 9. Why is Earth called “an ocean of neutrality”?

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3. Lightning
a. How Lightning Takes Place?
Lightning is a sudden electrostatic discharge during an electrical storm between

electrically charged regions of a cloud, a cloud and another cloud, or a cloud and the
ground. Charge accumulation happens because of charging by friction.
Winds inside the cloud are very turbulent. Water droplets in the bottom part of the cloud
are lifted to great heights where the much colder atmosphere freezes them. When the ice
going down meets the water coming up, electrons are stripped off which accumulate in
the lower parts of the cloud. There is an accumulation of positive charges near the ground
also. When this charge concentration becomes very large, the air, which generally is a
poor conductor of electricity, is no longer able to resist their flow then lightning strikes.
Figure 38: Charge Separation in Clouds
Question 10. List some of the safety measures that we should take during lightning.

199
Did You Know?
Lightning doesn’t always strike from clouds to ground. In ground-

to-cloud lightning (also known as upward-moving lightning), a
discharge takes between the cloud and ground which is initiated
from a tall ground-based object. These are common on tall towers
and skyscrapers.
b. Lightning Rod
It is basically a metal rod mounted on top of the elevated structure, with its upper end
taller than the building and lower end buried deep in ground. If lightning hits the
structure, it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducted to the ground through wire,
instead of passing through the structure, where it could start a fire.
Figure 39: Lightning Rod
Question 11. Is the lightning rod insulated from the building? Why / Why not?

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4. Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden perceptible shaking or tremor of the earth lasting for a short period
of time. They can cause vast scale destructions.
a. Structure of Earth
Figure 40: Structure of Earth
Terms Definition
Tectonic Plates
Fault Zones
Focus/Hypocenter
Epicenter
Question 12. List three probable causes of an earthquake.

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Figure 41: Earthquake Related Terminologies
Did You Know?
Aftershocks occur because the displaced fault line and crust are
adjusting to the effects of the main earthquake. Larger
earthquakes can have aftershocks that last for years.
b. Measurement of Magnitude of an Earthquake

The seismic waves are measured and recorded using an instrument called seismograph.
Figure 42: A Seismograph
Question 13. Explain the working of a seismograph.

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The magnitude of earthquake is measured on a scale known as Richter scale. Because the
scale is logarithmic, a difference of one unit represents a tenfold difference in the
magnitude of a seismic wave.
Did You Know?
The largest earthquake ever recorded was of magnitude 9.5

in Chile on May 22, 1960.
Earthquakes can also cause a number of other natural phenomena like:
• Floods
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
Question 14. List some protective measures to be taken in case of earthquakes.

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1) What do you mean by static electricity? How is it different from current electricity?
2) How can you produce static charges by friction? Doesn’t it violate the principle of charge
conservation?
3) Why do two balloons charged by friction using same material repel each other? Can you say
anything about the nature and charge of each of the balloons?
4) Why does a comb attract pieces of paper when rubbed against dry hair? Does gravity fail to
act in this case?
5) A positively charged body A attracts another body B. Can you say that B must carry a net
negative charge? Why/Why not?
6) Explain the following:
a) Charging by rubbing
b) Charging by induction
7) Describe with a diagram, the principle and construction of a simple electroscope. Also show
how it can be used to detect presence and polarity of charges.
8) Why does a charged body when brought in contact with the earth loses its charge?
9) What is lightning? How are charges developed in the clouds? Why do we see lightning first
and then hear thunderstorm?
10) List some safety precautions against
a) Thunderstorm and lightning
b) Earthquake
11) With a diagram show that a lightning conductor protects buildings from possible damage.
12) What is an earthquake? How does it take place?
13) What are tectonic plates? In which layer of the earth do they exist?
14) What do you mean by Richter scale? Is this a linear scale?
15) How does a seismograph measure earthquake intensity?
16) Which of the following layer of the earth has the highest temperature?
a) Inner core c) Mantle
b) Crust d) Outer core
17) Which of the following is a sure test that a body is charged?
a) Attraction c) Either attraction or repulsion
b) Repulsion d) None of these
18) Which of the following statements is true?
a) There is accumulation of positive c) There is accumulation of negative
charges near the ground. charges near the ground.
b) Ground is neither positively d) None of these
charged nor negatively charged.
19) What is an electric discharge?
a) Process of separation of charge inside a body (like inside clouds)
b) Process of formation of clouds
c) Process of accumulation of charges inside a body
d) Process of flow of electric charge through a gas, liquid or solid.

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20) Which of the following is not a cause for occurrence of earthquakes?

a) Volcano eruption
b) Meteor hitting the earth
c) Underground nuclear explosion
d) Tsunami

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VIII CBSE Physics – Stars and the Solar System
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
In this chapter, we are going to learn about a few of the heavenly bodies such as the sun,
moon, planets and stars. Mankind has known these celestial bodies ever since we were living
in caves and looking at the bright spots of light in the night sky. People around the world have
associated them with gods, goddesses and spirits. Many beautiful myths existed regarding the
stars, constellations and planets. But gradually, we have gained knowledge about the universe
and understand it in a much better way than we had understood before.
Question 1. What do you think “Universe” is? What all components are parts of this universe?
Astronomers have proposed many theories about the universe. However even today we don’t
have a fair idea of how big the whole universe is and whether it has any limit or not. We can
just imagine its vastness from the fact that our Earth, the Moon, the Sun are just a tiny part of
this universe.
Let us first discuss the most prominent and brightest thing in the night sky – the Moon.
2. The Moon
b. Phases of the Moon
The Moon is the only natural satellite of our Earth. It is a non-luminous body and reflects the light
from the sun because of which we can see it. However, it appears to change its shape every day
because we can see only those parts from which reflected light reach us. These are referred to as
“phases of the Moon”.

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Question 2. For the relative position of the Sun, Moon and Earth shown below, we should not be able
to see the Moon. But actually, we can see the complete Moon. Why is it so?
It takes around 29 days for the moon to come to the same phase.
Figure 1: Lunar Phases
Did You Know?

Mons Huygens is the tallest mountain on the Moon; it is
4700 meters tall, just over half the height of
Mt Everest (8848m).

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Question 3. How is it that all parts of the earth can see the phase change of the Moon?
• Misconception: We see different phases of the Moon because it is lit

differently by the Sun.
• Clarification: Exactly one half of the Moon is always illuminated by
the sun. It is the view from the Earth that is responsible for the
phases.
c. Names of the Phases
So, we have seen that the portion of the moon facing the earth that is visible to us can
vary from about 100% (when we can see the complete moon) to 0% (when we can’t see
the moon).
Question 4. How does waxing differ from waning?
Figure 2: Names of the Phases of Moon

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Did You Know?
The boundary between the illuminated and darkened parts of the

moon is known as lunar terminator.
The Dark Side of the Moon
By the dark side, we do not refer to the various phases that the Moon shows; but to that
half of the moon, which we never see from the earth. This happens because of “tidal
locking” or “gravitational locking”.
Figure 3: Side of Moon as Seen by Us
Question 5. What do you mean by tidal locking?
We all know that the Moon’s gravitational pull causes tides on the Earth. The Earth also exerts this
gravitational pull on the Moon and its effect on the Moon is even more powerful because of less mass
of the Moon. Because of gravitational pull of the Earth, the Moon gets distorted into an oblong shape.
The sides along the Earth bulge outward, while the others are pulled inward to compensate.

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Question 6. Using the diagram given below, can you explain how tidal locking works?
Question 7. Is the moon completely tidally locked to the Earth?
Question 8. What can you deduce about the orbital frequency and the rotational frequency of moon?
What is their ratio?

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e. Surface of the Moon
The surface of the Moon consists of mountains and craters. It is just a rocky desert with
no water or vegetation. Also, the surface has a day temperature of about 100°C and night
temperature of 168°C, making it impossible for life to exist.
Question 9. Give reasons for the following:
a) The Moon doesn’t have an atmosphere.
b) Moon’s sky appears black.
c) We can’t hear sound on the Moon.

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3. Stars
a. Stars and Galaxies
Stars are luminous bodies that continuously emit heat and light; held together by their
own gravity. In a clear night sky, we can see a large number of stars. These appear as a
band stretching across the sky and are a part of the Milky Way galaxy. It is a spiral
galaxy. However, from the Earth, we get a side view of it. A galaxy is basically a huge
group of stars, gas and dust bound together by gravity. These are the building blocks of
the universe. There are about 1011 galaxies in the observable universe.
Figure 4: The Milky Way Galaxy
Question 10. Why do the stars appear to rise in the east and set in the west?
b. The Sun and Measurement of Astronomical Distances
The Sun is also a star. It is closest to the Earth and is about 4.5 billion years old. Its
surface temperature is about 6000°C while at the center the temperature is about 15
million degrees Celsius.
The distances of the stars from the Earth are so large that light can take millions of years to reach us.
Hence the distances are expressed in units like parsec, light year and astronomical unit.

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Unit Definition and km Equivalent
Light year
Astronomical unit
Star Distance from the Earth
Sun
Alpha Centauri
a. The Pole Star
We have seen that the stars appear to move from east to west in the night sky. However,
there is one star, which does not follow this pattern and appears stationary in the night
sky. This is the Pole Star or the North Star. It points to the north direction and has
historically been used for navigation by sailors and travelers all over the world.
Question 11. Why does the Pole Star appear to be fixed, unlike other stars?
4. Constellations

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Although the stars appear to move from east to west, their relative position remains fixed.
People, since ancient times, were fascinated by the stars and named certain groups according
to their shapes. These are known as constellations. Officially there are 88 constellations.
Question 12. Why do different constellations appear at different times of the year?
Constellation How it appears?
Orion
Leo Major

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Scorpio
• Misconception: The stars in a constellation are close to each other.

• Clarification: The stars in a constellation are the brightest ones in that
region of the sky, but they are not necessarily close to each other. Some
groups of stars are close to each other. The Pleiades is one such group.
Using these constellations, we can locate some of the prominent stars in the night sky.
Question 13. How can you locate the “Pole Star” and the “Sirius” in the night sky with the help of
constellations?
5. The Solar System
a. Components of the Solar System
When we look at the night sky, we notice that although the stars hardly move with respect to each
other, there are some objects that appear to change their positions and move around in complex paths.
These were called planets (which basically mean wanderers) by our ancestor. These revolve around
the sun in elliptical paths called orbits. There are eight planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

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Question 14. Why is Pluto no longer considered a planet, rather a dwarf planet?
The celestial bodies like the planets, satellites, comets, asteroids and meteors, which
revolve around the Sun, form the solar system.
Figure 5: The Solar System
b. Mercury
• Nearest planet to the Sun

• Smallest planet
• 2nd hottest planet (after Venus)
• Axis hardly tilted (No seasons)
• No atmosphere
• Maximum variation of temperature (–173°C to 420°C)
• No moon
Question 15. Why mercury experiences such great variations in temperature?

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c. Venus
• Closest neighbor of the Earth (also known as our twin planet)

• Brightest planet (because of reflection of sunlight from its cloudy atmosphere)
• Hottest planet (462°C)
• Revolves from east to west
• No moon
• Also known as morning/evening star
Question 16. Why is Venus, and not mercury the hottest planet of our solar system?
Question 17. Venus is also known as morning/evening star. Why is that?
d. Earth
Question 18. What factors have helped to sustain life on the earth’s surface?
The change in seasons on the earth takes place due to the tilting of its axis rotation and the change in
its position with respect to the sun.
e. Mars

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• nd
2 closest planet to the Earth
• 2nd smallest planet
• Also known as the “red planet”
• Thin atmosphere with small amounts of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide
• Possibility of presence of water on its surface
• Two moons – Phobos and Deimos
Question 19. Why is Mars known as the “red planet”?
f. Jupiter
• Largest planet (1300 Earths can fit into it)

• Appears very bright because of thick atmosphere (consisting mainly of hydrogen
and helium)
• Made up predominantly of gases – cloud-like outer regions consist of methane in
gaseous form, ammonia present in crystalline form
• 67 moons
g. Saturn
• 2nd largest planet of the solar system

• Most distinguishable feature – three distinct rings around it which can be seen
with a telescope
• Least dense planet (Density less than that of water)
• About 95 times heavier than the Earth
• 62 moons
Did You Know?
Titan is the largest moon of Saturn. It is the only moon known to

have a dense atmosphere. On its surface, clear evidence of stable
bodies of surface liquid has been found.

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h. Uranus, Neptune and Pluto
Uranus
• Hydrogen and methane in its atmosphere
• Rotates from east to west like Venus
• 27 moons
• Orbit tilted almost horizontal, appears as rolling
Neptune
• Cold planet as it is very far from the Sun
• 14 moons
Pluto
• A dwarf planet
• Orbit overlaps with that of Neptune
• 5 moons
Did You Know?
Charon is the largest of the five moons of Pluto. Both Charon and
Pluto are tidally locked to each other.
6. Asteroids, Comets and Meteorites
a. Asteroids
The asteroid belt consists of crude, irregular and randomly shaped rocky bodies. These
revolve around the sun mainly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Question 20. How has the asteroid belt been created?

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Did You Know?
The first asteroid was discovered in 1801 by Italian astronomer

Giuseppe Piazzi. It was named Ceres and is now regarded as
a dwarf planet.
b. Comets
Question 21. What are comets? What is the one distinguishing feature about them?
Halley’s Comet is a periodic comet, which reappears after every 76 years. It was last seen in 1986.
c. Meteors and Meteorites
Meteors are small heavenly bodies made up of rocks and metals.
Question 22. Why are meteors called “shooting stars”?
Few of the bigger meteors, which don’t completely burn and reach the earth’s surface, are
called meteorites.

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7. Artificial Satellites
Since the rise of humans on this planet, we have come too far given that we started like any other
animal with just one purpose, “survival”. Over the time, the human intellect level has increased. We
have created objects that move in the sky around the Earth and give us information. They serve many
purposes because they are designed by us. These objects are called artificial satellites.
Question 23. What are artificial satellites? How are they useful to us?
Did You Know?
Sputnik 2, launched in November 1957, carried the first living

creature into orbit, a dog, named Laika.
Artificial satellites can be different from one another, one by the virtue of their purpose
and also because of their orbits around the earth. These are mainly of two types:
• Polar
• Geostationary
Polar Satellite Geostationary Satellite

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1) Describe the solar system and its components.

2) Why are different phases of the moon seen? With the help of a diagram, show how these
phases occur.
3) Is it true that we can see only the part of the moon, and never its rear side? Why?
4) Why does the celestial bodies and stars appear to move from east to west? Do these bodies
appear to move in the same sense for all the planets?
5) A particular star is 20 parsecs away from the sun. How can you express this distance in
kilometers and light years?
6) Differentiate between a constellation and a galaxy citing some examples.
7) Match the following:
Column A Column B
a) Mercury 1. Red planet
b) Shooting star 2. Brightest star in night sky
c) Halley 3. Galaxy
d) Mars 4. Meteors
e) Sirius 5. Morning star
f) Milky Way 6. Comet
8) How can you locate the following stars with the help of a constellation?
A) Pole star
B) Sirius
9) What are comets? What is one distinguishing feature about them?
10) What is a planet? How can you differentiate between a planet and a star in the night sky?
Why does this happen?
11) How is “pole star” different from all the other stars? Explain.
12) What are asteroids? How have they been formed?

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13) Name the following constellations:
A)
B)
C)
14) Write short notes on the following:

A) Meteors
B) Meteorites
15) What are artificial satellites? How are they useful to us? How do they differ from natural
satellites?
16) Which of the following is not an “inner planet”?
A) Mercury C) Neptune
B) Mars D) Venus
17) Which of the following is not a part of the solar system?
A) An asteroid C) The pole star
B) The moon D) None of these
18) Which of the following planets has the maximum number of natural satellites?
A) Jupiter C) Uranus
B) Saturn D) Neptune
19) The time taken by light from the sun to reach the earth is approximately
A) 6 minutes C) 12 minutes
B) 8 minutes D) 15 minutes
20) Pole star belongs to which of the following constellations?
A) Ursa Minor C) Orion
B) Ursa Major D) Cassiopeia

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VIII CBSE Chemistry – Synthetic Fibres and Plastics
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Clothing in India and all over the globe varies with the ethnicity, geography, climate and
cultural traditions of the people in that region.
Historically, the only fibres man used were those that he could harvest from the nature:
cotton, silk and wool, all of which had their limitations. To overcome these limitations,
humans applied technology, techniques and knowledge in the processing and manufacturing
of synthetic fibres.
Question 1. What do you mean by the term monomers?
2. Natural and synthetic fibres
Natural fibres can be defined as a substance produced by plants and animals that can be spun
into filament, thread or rope and then woven into fabrics.
Question 2. What are fibres?
Question 3. What are synthetic fibres?

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a. Natural Fibres
Natural fibres can be classified as:
• Silk
• Jute
• Flax
i. Silk
Almost all of the greatest break-throughs which humans made, starting from the
discovery of fire in early stone age to the discovery of sub-atomic particles in modern
times, have all been the result of human curiosity. This curiosity led to a gradual
learning curve of our environment and even silk was a product of this human
curiosity. Learning what silk was and what were its uses eventually led to the
extraction of silk from silkworms.
Figure 43: Silkworm Life Cycle
Question 4. Where did silk originate from?

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ii. Jute
Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant materials: cellulose and lignin. These
Jute fibres are 100% biodegradable and are thus environmental friendly.
iii. Flax
Flax fibre is extracted from the stems of the flax plants and was an important textile
material before the discovery of wool and cotton.
b. Synthetic Fibres
Types of synthetic fibres:
• Rayon
• Nylon
• Polyester
• Acrylic
i. Rayon
Rayon is a nature-based material manufactured from the cellulose of wood
pulp.
The natural base gives it many advantages such as: low cost, diversity and availability
that led to its popularity and success.
Question 5. Name the scientist who discovered rayon?
Question 6. Write the uses of rayon.

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Did you know?
Flax is the earliest known natural textile fabric seen used in about 5000 BC. Flax is the
material used to make linen which is seeing a huge come back today in drapery and
upholstery.
ii. Nylon
Nylon is another synthetic fibre made without the use of the natural raw material. It is
prepared by using coal, water and air.
Question 7. Write the uses of nylon.
iii. Polyester
Polyester is a general term often defined as long chains of polymers chemically

composed of atleast 85% by weight of an ester, an alcohol and an acid
Characteristics of polyester
• Polyester fabrics and fibres are extremely strong

• Polyester are wrinkle resistant even when washed and dried
Uses of polyester
Polyester clothes were very popular due to its strength. It was also used to make ropes
in industries. Today, PET bottles are one of the most popular uses of polyester
iv. Acrylic
Acrylic fibres are synthethic fibres created from polymer of polyacrylonitrile. It is a

combination of vinyl acetate and methyl acetate. The DuPont Corporation created
the first acrylic fibres in 1941.

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Question 8. What are the properties of acrylic fibre?
3. Plastic
Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such as
polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be moulded into shapes while soft, and then set into
rigid or slight elastic form.
a. Thermosetting plastic
Thermosetting plastics are materials which act as liquids or are generally malleable at low
temperatures. These plastics are modified at low temperature to get the desired shape and
then heated to high temperatures where they become irreversibly hard.
b. Thermoplastic
Plastic which gets deformed on heating and hard on cooling are called thermoplastics.
PVC and polythene are examples of thermoplastic
Question 9. Differentiate between Thermoplastic and Thermosetting plastic.
Question 10. Write the disadvantage of plastic.

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1. What are fibres?

2. Are your clothes made from natural fibres or artificial fibres?
3. An expensive fabric which originated in China is ______.
a. Wool b. Nylon
c. Cotton d. Silk
4. Which of the below aren’t natural fibres?
a. Cotton and Jute b. Jute and Nylon
c. Nylon and cotton d. Nylon and Rayon
5. Write a short note on rayon.
6. What are some uses of nylon?
7. What are PET bottles made up of?
8. Which kind of clothes shouldn’t be worn in kitchens and laboratories?
9. Which fabric will you prefer if you are going for outdoor sports activities?
10. What was the need of artificial fibres?
11. List the demerits of artificial fibres?
12. Example(s) of artificial fibres is(are):
a. Rayon b. Nylon
c. Polyester d. All of these
13. What are monomers and polymers?
14. What are artificial fibres mostly used in and why?
15. Is plastic a good conductor of electricity?
16. What are thermoplastics?
17. Define thermosetting plastics.
18. What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances?
19. Plastics are discouraged because of:
a. Durability b. Poor conductivity
c. Non-biodegradable nature d. Light-weight
20. What is the 4R principle?

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VIII CBSE Chemistry – Pollution of Air and Water
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
Pollution, now a frequently discussed term was relatively unheard off a couple of hundred
years earlier. 4.5 billion years ago, when Earth was formed, nature and all life forms existed
in mutual harmony. Back then, the planet was covered with trees and plants and there was
enough for the survival of all life forms. With time, man got over the basic purpose of
survival and started to evolve using whatever he could get from nature.
How is the evolution of man related to pollution?
Before we understand what pollution is, let us first understand what an ecosystem or
environment means. Man, along with the animals, trees, plants, water, land and air constitute
our environment. In other words, all living being along with their surroundings forms an
ecosystem.
Look around and note down the parts of your environment which are polluted according to
you?
Polluted Component Possible Reason of Pollution
Question 1. What do you understand by air pollution?
2. Pollution of Air
Ever wondered, what are the basic necessities of life? Humans need food, water, air and a
shelter for a healthy life. But what if these necessities itself are unhealthy?
Man can survive for some time without food or water or out in the open, but can you stay
without air for the same amount of time? We can barely hold our breath for a minute or two
and that points out the requirement of healthy air in our life. Without air, we simply can’t
survive.
Even if this air is polluted, it can lead to harmful effects in our healthy life.

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Presence of unwanted components, particulates or other harmful materials in our

atmosphere may cause diseases, death to humans, damage to other living organisms or
damage to the natural or man-made enviroment around us. This is known as Air
Pollution.
The substances that cause air pollution are called pollutants. Pollutants that are pumped into
our atmosphere and directly pollute the air are called primary pollutants. Primary pollutant
includes carbon monoxide from car exhausts and sulfur dioxide from the combustion of coal.
Pollution can also be cause by natural sources such as volcanoes which releases dust and
poisonous oxides during eruption.
Question 2. Is the air in cities more polluted than the air in villages? Give reasons to support your
answer.
Causes of Air Pollution
a) Natural Sources: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or forest fires were primary

reasons for air pollutions before the industrial revolution. Volcanoes in particular
release large amounts of particulates and harmful gases into our environment.
Particulates are dust particles which when ingested can cause dysfunctioning of the
respiratory tracts. Forest fires, which can go on for days, releases carbon monoxide
which is a harmful gas as it lowers the oxygen content of the blood if ingested.
Earthquakes, similarly leads to dust being released apart from the destruction it
causes.
b) Man-made Sources: Industrial revolution is considered to be one of the major
breakthroughs in the evolution of human kingdom. The revolution was a major
success in developing tools and machines that would later make our lives much more
convenient. But, little did we know that it was also the beginning of pollution of our
environment. In modern times, vehicles and refrigerating appliances are recognized as
the major air pollution contributors along with factories which dump their residues
and waste materials in the open.
Question 3. Why is Industrial revolution considered as a major contributor of pollution of our

environment?

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Question 4. What are chlorofluorocarbons? Why are they considered as air pollutants?
3. Taj Mahal and Acid Rain
Taj Mahal, one of the Seven Wonders of the World is located in Agra. It was constructed in
the early 1600s using mostly white marble. Recently after complaints from the care takers, it
was noticed that the Taj Mahal was losing its white color due to pollution, discoloration
appearing deep brown in some areas.
More research on the topic led to the conclusion that the primary cause for air pollution was
the rampant release of untreated and unfiltered gases into the environment by factories nearby
which combined with limestone (marble, CaCO3) of the Taj Mahal formed colored
compounds. Hence, the discoloration of the much tamed pristine – white of the Taj Mahal.
Question 5. What is acid rain?
Did You Know?

The word “SMOG” is coined by joining two words, Smoke and Fog. Smog results
from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke
and sulfur dioxide. Smog can be responsible for any ailment from minor pains to
deadly pulmonary diseases such as lung cancer

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4. Global Warming
The global temperature of Earth has been rising for the past few decades. The global
temperature has risen from 13.59o Celsius in 1901-1910 to 14.47o Celsius in 2001-2010 which
has resulted in a global sea level rise of about 17 centimeters (6.7 inches) last century. The
rate in the last decade, however, has been nearly double than that of the last century.
Global warming has been a global issue for some time. The rise in temperature has led to
melting of ice caps and a growing number of weather-related catastrophes.
Question 6. What causes Global warming?
Greenhouse effect has been recognized as one of the major contributors of Global warming.
The effect is similar to a greenhouse where plants are grown. In a greenhouse, the heat which
enters the house is not allowed to escape. The radiations entering the greenhouse have shorter
wavelength but when these radiations are emitted back from earth, they have longer
wavelength and are not allowed to escape.
Figure 1: Global Warming
Something similar is happening where our Earth is acting like a greenhouse and some gases in
the troposphere are not allowing the heat to escape thus leading to continuous rise in
temperature.

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Question 7. Which gases act as greenhouse gases?
Greenhouse effect was considered beneficial until it got out of hand. It earlier played an
important role in the evolution of Earth as it helped to trap the heat energy we got from Sun.
It also ensured that continuous evaporation took place thus accelerating rainfall.
Question 8. What are the disadvantages of greenhouse effect?
Question 9. How can we reduce global warming?
5. Controlling Air Pollution
Air pollution has to be taken seriously. To exist without healthy air is unimaginable. Hence,
steps must be taken at all levels to reduce and prevent air pollution.
At Organizational Levels:
• By-products, residual matter and other such discharges should be treated properly
before being dumped in the environment.
• Organizations should encourage their employees to use carpool or public transport,
thus reducing vehicular pollution.
• Companies and factories should plant trees to compensate for the deforestation
caused while clearing lands for the respective companies and factories.

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At Individual Levels:
• Plant trees in your neighborhood to improve the air quality.

• Say no to crackers at festivals as they cause air pollution.
• Travel using public transport.
• Do not smoke in public places. Report to authorities if you find anyone smoking
cigarettes out in the open.
Question 10. What other measures can be taken to control air pollution?
6. Water Pollution
The introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the aquatic
environment (including estuaries) results in deleterious effects such as harm to living
resources, hazards to human health, hindrance to aquatic activities, including fishing,
impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities is called Water
Pollution.
Question 11. What are the various ways in which water gets polluted?
7. The Holy yet Polluted Ganges
River Ganga, one of the holiest rivers in India, runs from the Himalayan glaciers to the
northern and central India. It sustains most of the central, northern and eastern population
who depend on the water for their daily needs.
Apart from the regular use, the Holy Ganges is also used as a spiritual sink where people from
all over the country come to wash off their sins. It is also believed that if you discharge the
ashes of your beloved in Ganges, they will enter heaven. Because of similar reasons,
sometimes you can even find dead bodies floating in Ganga. The illiterate population is often
found defecating in the river, completing their daily ablutions, thus leading to water pollution.

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Because of such reasons, Holy Ganga is struggling to keep itself away from pollution. For the
same reason, an ambitious plan, Ganga Action Plan was launched in 1985. Its aim was to
reduce the pollution levels in the river.
Question 12. How can a river, as polluted as Ganges, be effectively cleaned?
Apart from the pollution of such rivers for domestic use, various nearby industries also
choose to dump their harmful discharge into the rivers without proper treatment. Industries
such as oil refineries, paper factories, and textile and sugar mills cause chemical
contamination of water as they release arsenic, lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity in
plants and animals.
8. Potable Water
Potable water, by definition is water that is suitable for drinking. Water which may appear
clear and without any smell necessarily may not be fit for drinking purposes. Water may still
have microorganisms which may cause diseases or impurities that may be dissolved and
hence, escape the naked eye. Such water should be treated first before using it for drinking
purposes. Water can be made fit for drinking by passing it through a water treatment facility
or through an advanced filter.
How can water be treated at home?
• Firstly, pass water through some basic filter that filters out any physical impurity
present such as particulates, etc.
• The water can then be boiled to kill the germs that may be present in water.
• If you want to be completely sure of the quality of water, you can use bleaching
powder. Using bleaching powder is known as chlorination and is a chemical method
of purifying water.
At individual levels and organizational levels, the 3R principle should be followed. The 3R
principle stands for reduce, reuse and recycle. Unnecessary water consumption should be
discouraged. Reusing water already used for some purpose is very beneficial in reducing
unnecessary consumption. Water once collected after all uses can then be recycled to be used
again. Water can be purified at home by following the above mentioned methods.

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Question 13. How can you implement the 3R principle in your neighborhood?

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1. What do you understand by Environment?

2. Pollution of the environment leads to:
a. Improvement in the environment b. Detrimental conditions.
c. No changes d. change in the environment
3. What are some major sources of CO2 emission?
4. Name some alternative sources of fuel which are eco-friendly.
5. Explain respiration with the help of an equation.
6. How does a fire extinguisher work?
7. What are air pollutants?
8. How did the Industrial Revolution lead to increase in pollution?
9. Industries are considered to be a major cause of:
a. Air Pollution b. Water Pollution
c. Land Pollution d. All of these
10. Why do the infrared rays get trapped inside our atmosphere?
11. What are some measures which industries can undertake to reduce air pollution?
12. What do you understand by primary pollutants?
13. The non-metallic oxides responsible for Acid rain is(are):
a. Sulphur b. Nitrogen
c. Carbon d. All of these
14. How does Acid rain take place?
15. Explain the working of Foam-based extinguishers.
16. What effects will be observed if global warming is not kept in check?
17. How can we make water potable?
18. The gas(es) which is(are) considered green-house gas(es) is(are):
a. Methane b. Water
c. Methane and water d. Chlorine
19. What are some steps that must be taken to clean river Ganga?
20. Explain what is causing the Ozone hole in our atmosphere with the help of examples.

247
VIII CBSE Biology – Reaching the Age of Adolescence
videos proceed.
1. Introduction
All living organisms keep on growing throughout their life. Human beings have four
important stages of life: childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. In this chapter we
will study about adolescence. Adolescence is the period of life when body undergoes a lot of
changes leading to reproductive maturity. This begins at the age of 11 years and lasts up to 18
or 19 years. The changes in the body during adolescence marks the onset of
_________________. There are chemical substances in our body known as
______________________ which undergo a lot of changes during this phase of life. These
substances are secreted by the _______________ organ of our body.
2. A Changing You
The changes that occur in the body during adolescence are different in boys and girls.
Increase in height results from____________________________. Girls grow faster than boys
initially during adolescence, but by 18 years______________________________. Height is
inherited from_________________________. _________________ hormone is responsible
for all the growth in our body.
Question 1. Why do boys have broader shoulders and girls have wider hips?
Voice of boy’s crack because of the growth of larynx. Acne in adolescents is promoted
by____________________________. Sweat and __________________ glands become active
during adolescence. Sebaceous glands secrete _______________, which accumulate and
make the skin___________________.
3. Mental and Physical Changes at Puberty

248

______________ is released by the brain which kick starts the changes at puberty. This
hormone reaches the ________________gland. This gland releases
_______________________ and ________________________________. In boys, the LH
and FSH reach ____________________ which then releases ________________________.
In girls, the LH and FSH target the___________________ which then releases
___________________________. There are two types of sexual characteristics are primary
and __________________________. Primary sexual characteristics are
_________________________________________.
For example: ________________________________.
Question 2. Differentiate between secondary sexual characters in boys and girls.
Secondary sexual characters in boys Secondary sexual characters in girls
4. Our Great Glands

249

There are two types of glands in our body - endocrine glands and exocrine glands.
Question 3. Write the differences between endocrine and exocrine glands.
The endocrine glands present in the human body are: Pineal gland, Hypothalamus,
Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Parathyroid gland, Thymus, Pancreas, Adrenal glands,
Testes (only in males) and Ovaries (only in females). The location of these glands is
shown in the figure given below.

250
Figure 1: Endocrine glands found in human
You will study the details of each gland in your higher grades. Here we will restrict our discussion to
some important glands only.
a. Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain, just
below the ____________, to which it is attached via nerve fibers. Pituitary is
called the _________ gland as it produces hormones that control other glands.
One of the main hormones produced by pituitary is the __________. This
hormone is responsible for growth of the body. Excessive secretion of growth
hormone causes __________________ and lack of growth hormone in a
developing child causes ______________________.
b. Thyroid Gland
A large ductless butterfly shaped gland in the neck. It secretes hormones which regulate growth
and development by controlling the rate of metabolism. Functioning of thyroid is regulated by
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted by __________gland. Iodine is necessary for
production of ___________hormone by the thyroid gland. Therefore, a deficiency of iodine in the
diet can cause deficiency of thyroxine hormone in the body and cause a disease known as
______________.

251

Question 4. There are two packets of salt available in the market: one is iodised salt that costs 15
rupees per kilogram and the other is non-iodised salt that costs 10 rupees per kilogram. Which salt
should you buy and why?
Did you know?

Goitre is very common among people living in hilly regions where iodine
is deficient in soil and hence in the food grown.
c. Adrenal Glands
Adrenal glands are located above the __________. They secrete __________
hormone which is also known as flight or fight hormone. Adrenal glands also
secrete aldosterone that serves the principle of regulation of salt and water
balance in our body.
Question 5. Which of the following are functions of adrenaline? (Tick the correct answer/answers)
i. Increase of heart rate

ii. Increase in blood pressure
iii. Increase in breathing rate
iv. Dilation of pupil
d. Pancreas

252
Pancreas plays both endocrine and exocrine functions in our body Hence it is
called a heterocrine gland. As an endocrine gland it secretes hormones and as an
exocrine gland it secretes _________ enzymes. Here we will concentrate on the
endocrine functions of pancreas. The two hormones secreted by pancreas are
_________ and glucagon.
Question 6. If a person is advised to reduce sugar in his diet by a doctor, which disease he might be
suffering from? Also, mention the hormone whose deficiency leads to such condition.
• Misconception: Insulin converts glucose to glycogen.

• Clarification: Insulin enables cells to absorb glucose, and the cells than
convert it into glycogen.
e. Testes
Testes are a pair of glands which are present only in males (men). They secrete
male sex hormone called _____________. The function of testosterone hormone
is to control the development of male sex organs and secondary sexual
characteristics in men such as deeper voice, moustache, beard, etc.
f. Ovaries
Ovaries are a pair of glands which are present only in females (women). They
secrete female sex hormones called _____________and ___________. The
function of __________ hormone is to control the development of female sex
organ and female features such as feminine voice, soft skin and mammary glands.
The function of ______________ hormone is to control the changes in uterus
during menstrual cycle. It also helps in maintenance of pregnancy.
5. Menstrual Cycle
Question 7. Label the diagram of the female reproductive system given below.

253
Once in a month, alternate ovary releases an egg by the process of

_______________________. ____________________________ stimulates the uterine wall
to develop a thick layer of blood and tissue. In case of fertilization, the zygote formed
attaches itself to the__________________. In case of lack of fertilization, the thick uterine
wall and egg is shed in the form of____________________________. The occurrence of
menstruation in every__________ days is called menstrual cycle. Menarche is the first
menstrual cycle or first menstrual bleeding in female humans while _________________ is
the stoppage of menstruation.
Question 8. Most postmenopausal women suffer from osteoporosis. Justify.
6. Boy or Girl?
In humans every cell has _____________ chromosomes. Sex chromosomes found in
the___________________ and are______ in number.
Question 9. Why do gametes have 23 chromosomes?

254
Question 10. Sex of a baby is dependent on chromosomes from father or mother? Elaborate your
answer.
Question 11. Why the legal age of marriage in India is 18 for girls and 21 for boys?
7. No Crash Dieting
A healthy diet is necessary for the proper growth of a teenager especially for girls.
Consumption of junk food should be avoided. The normal fat that is obtained is good for
health. Physical exercises help in keeping mind healthy.

255

Question 12. Why do we feel hungry even after having metals three times a day?
Question 13. What are the constituents of balanced diet? How is balanced diet important for a
teenager?
8. Say No to Drugs
Drugs should not be taken. They are addictive. AIDS stands for
____________________________________________________.
Question 14. Why we should not take drugs?

256

Question 15. Differentiate between HIV and AIDS.
HIV can be spread through: sharing needles, unprotected sex, during pregnancy from mother to
the child.
Question 16. How addiction of drugs helps in spreading HIV?

258
1. Find the correct statement about menstruation.

a. The onset of menstruation is called menopause.
b. It occurs once in every 28 – 30 days.
c. The end of menstruation is called menarche.
d. Females have unlimited number of eggs at birth.
2. Pick the correct statement from the following.
a. Initially girls grow at a faster rate than boys.
b. Initially boys grow at a faster rate than girls.
c. Both boys and girls grow at the same price.
d. None of the above
3. Adam’s apple is prominent in
a. Boys of any age
b. Girls of any age
c. Adolescent boys
d. Adolescent girls.
4. Acne on the face is due to secretion of
a. Bile from liver
b. Oil glands during puberty
c. Enzymes in the digestive tract
d. Tear from tear glands
5. The secretion of endocrine glands are called
a. Hormones
b. Enzymes
c. Proteins
d. Fats
6. Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands.
7. Why does an adolescent need physical exercise?
8. How can reproductive health be maintained?
9. Do all the parts of the body grow at the same rate during puberty? Give reasons.
10. Name the element which is essential to produce thyroxine hormone.
11. What is metamorphosis?
12. Why is AIDS called a syndrome?
13. State true and false.
(i) Intellectual development takes place during puberty.
(ii) Pituitary glands only take care of the growth hormones.
(iii) Lack of fertilization leads to menstruation.
14. Fill in the blanks
(i) The period of life when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity
is called __________.
(ii) At puberty, the voice box or ________ begins to grow.
(iii) Many young people get acne and pimples because of the increased activity of the
________.

259
15. Why are pancreas considered both endocrine and exocrine glands?
16. What are chromosomes? What is their significance in our body?
17. Why are diabetic patients given insulin injections?
18. What is the difference between primary and secondary sexual characteristics?
19. What will happen if the level of testosterone in males becomes low?
20. ______ is the only vitamin that is also a hormone, deficiency of which can lead to
numerous mental illness such as depression and schizophrenia.

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4

VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

The concept of force is of central importance to all of physics; be it is classical, nuclear or

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Figure 1: Resultant of Forces

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

A body can either be at rest or moving with some velocity.

Figure 2: State of Motion

• Change the speed of motion.

• Misconception: If equal and opposite forces act on a stationary body, it

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Figure 3: Fundamental Forces

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Did You Know?

4. Thrust and Pressure

A force can be applied to a surface in any direction: perpendicular to it, parallel to it or at

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

The SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa). It is a scalar quantity.

Did You Know?

Area is a vector quantity and its direction is always normal to the

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Figure 4: Demonstration of Pressure

The pressure exerted by a liquid column is mathematically expressed as,

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Did You Know?

• Misconception: The pressure at base of a liquid column is given by

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

• Misconception: If the height of liquid in containers having different cross-

d. Law of Liquid Pressure

Following are the laws of liquid pressure:

According to Pascal’s law, the pressure exerted anywhere in a confined liquid is

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Figure 5: A Hydraulic Machine

Topics to be covered in next class:

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

Figure 6: A Simple Barometer

The atmospheric pressure at normal temperature and pressure at sea level is 76 cm of

Atmospheric pressure = ρ𝑔ℎ = 13600 x 9.8 x 0.76 = 1.01 x 105 Pa

Did You Know?

c. Mercury as Barometric Liquid

Mercury is used as barometric liquid because of a number of reasons:

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VIII CBSE Physics – Force and Pressure

6. Upthrust and Archimedes’ Principle

To calculate the upthrust exerted by a fluid, we use the Archimedes’ principle.