MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018)

https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

A Review of Bio-lubricant Production from Vegetable Oils Using

Esterification Transesterification Process
Arianti N. Annisa1,* and Widayat Widayat1,2
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University, Semarang
2
Laboratory of Material Technology, Centre of Research and Service Diponegoro University, Semarang

Abstract. Since long time ago, petroleum oil has been used as a lubricant in motor vehicles. But,
the uses of lubricants petroleum can pollute the environment and disrupt marine ecosystems and
terrestrial. On the other hand, the use of lubricants in the world in 2008 reached 46 million
kiloliters/year and increased by 2% every year. The future prospect the uses of lubricant
petroleum on the vehicle’s engine is predicted to have a bad prospect. Thus began research to
identify suitable materials to replace petroleum based lubricants. It can produce from vegetable
oils and animals oils by chemical modification. But, bio-lubricant properties are easily damaged
so we need more research to improve the shelf life of the bio-lubricant. The research must be
done to improve the characteristics by adding a bio-lubricant additive.

1 Introduction identify suitable materials to replace petroleum based

lubricants.
In 2025, Indonesia's energy mix is expected to be Their depletion of crude oil reserves and demands for
realized by the use of oil less than 20% and uses of protecting the environment by reducing pollution
renewable energy more than 5% [1]. It aims to improve generated from the lubricating oil led to an interest to
the management of natural resources and the develop and use alternative lubricants. Bio-lubricant felt
environment to support the quality of life and to improve can be used as an alternative to replace lubricants from
the maintenance and use of biodiversity. On the other petroleum as it has suitable properties and can be
hand, the automotive industry and the machine began to renewed. Compared with a lubricant, bio-lubricant has a
focus on the improvement of environment-friendly high degree of lubricity, high viscosity index, high flash
technologies and energy efficient. Technology developed point and low volatility [5-10].
toward the use of fuel with low pollution combustion
and exhaust as well as the efficiency of the vehicle is
expected to reduce environmental problems [2]. To 2 Raw Material of Bio-lubricant
achieve an environmentally friendly vehicle conditions
Bio-lubricant interpreted as a lubricant obtained from
requiring lubrication in the engine parts so as to reduce
natural raw materials both vegetable and animal oils,
friction between each other. By reduced friction, it can
renewable and non-toxic to humans and other living
reduce energy loss in the engine.
things, as well as environmentally friendly. Vegetable oil
For a long time oil has been used as a lubricant in
used for the production bio-lubricant can be obtained
motor vehicles. Nonetheless, the uses of lubricants
from plant seeds, such as vegetable oil that can be
petroleum can pollute the environment and disrupt
consumed or which cannot be consume. Some of the
marine ecosystems and terrestrial. On the other hand, the
vegetable oil can be used as bio-lubricant i.e. castor oil
use of lubricants in the world in 2008 reached 46 million
[11], karanja, neem, rice bran, rapeseed, castor, linseed,
kiloliters/year and increased by 2% every year. In
mahua [12], palm oil [13], sunflower oil, coconut,
Indonesia, the use of lubricants in 2012 amounted to
soybean, olive and canola [14].
2,988,265 barrels and increased 2% - 8% annually [3].
The main content of vegetable oils that are important
However this is not in line with the availability of
in making bio-lubricant is triglycerides. Triglycerides are
petroleum which has declined by 3% annually [3]. Based
glycerol molecules that have three long chain polar fatty
on Tung and McMillan [4] research, the future prospects
acids attached at the hydroxyl groups via ester linkages
the uses of lubricant petroleum on the vehicle's engine is
[15]. But vegetable oils derived from plants have
predicted to have a bad prospect. Thus began research to
unstable nature. It is influenced by the free acid content
in vegetable oil. Therefore, it should be known fatty acid

*
Corresponding author: ariantinuura@gmail.com
© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

content in vegetable oil. The fatty acid composition of vegetable oils were listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Fatty acids composition of vegetable oils [15-16]

Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic

Vegetable oils
(16:0) (18:0) (18:1) (18:2) (18:3)
Sunflower oil 6.1 5.3 21.4 66.4 -
High oleic sunflower oil 3.5 4.4 80.3 10.4 -
Safflower oil 6.4 2.5 17.9 73.2 -
High oleic safflower oil 4.6 2.2 77.5 13.2 -
High linoleic safflower 6.7 2.6 14.6 75.2 -
oil
Soybean oil 6.0 5.2 20.2 63.7 5.0
High oleic soybean oil 6.2 3.0 83.6 3.7 1.7
Corn oil 10.6 2.0 26.7 59.8 0.9
Cottonseed oil 18.0 2.0 41.0 38.0 1.0
Rapeseed oil 3.5 0.9 19.4 22.3 8.2
Canola oil 2.5 1 64.4 22.2 8.2
Peanut oil 10 3 50 30 -
Linseed oil 5 3 22 17 52
Olive oil 14 2 64 16 2
Coconut oil 9 2 7 1 -
Palm oil 42 5 41 10 -
By knowing the composition of fatty acids in automobile, fishing, chainsaw oils, transmission oils,
vegetable oil can affect the characteristics to be serving as engine oils and hydraulic oils [17]. Based on
generated bio-lubricant. Vegetable oils that have more that, it must be known to the comparison between the
double chains will have a better pour point and low properties of commercial lubricants and vegetable oils
oxidation stability, whereas the vegetable oils those to produce bio-lubricant. Properties of commercial
have less double chains. Lubricants have utility for lubricant and vegetable oils listed in Table 2.
reducing friction between the surfaces in mutual
contact and are used in various applications such as
agriculture, forestry, transportation, mining,
Table 2. Characteristics of commercial lubricant and vegetable oils [17]

Viscosity Oxidative
Lubricant Viscosity Viscosity Pour point Flash Coefficient Wear scar
100°C stability
requirement 40°C (cSt) index (°C) point (°C) of friction (mm)
(cSt) (min)
ISO VG32 >28.8 >4.1 >90 -6 204 - - -
ISO VG46 >41.4 >4.1 >90 -6 220 - - -
ISO VG68 >61.4 >4.1 >198 -6 226 - - -
ISO VG100 >90.0 >4.1 >216 -6 246 1670.26 - -
Paraffin 95 10 102 - - - - -
VG95
Paraffin 461 31 97 - - - - -
VG460
R150 150.04 - - - 195 931.16 - -
SAE20W40 105 13.9 132 -21 200 - 0.117 0.549
AG100 216 19.6 103 -18 244 - - -
75W-90 120 15.9 140 -48 205 - - -
75W-140 175 24.7 174 -54 228 - - -
80W-140 310 31.2 139 -36 210 - - -

Vegetable oil
Soybean 28.86 7.55 246 -9 325 - - -
Sunflower 40.05 8.65 206 -12 252 - - -
Passion fruit 31.78 - - - 228 7.5 - -
Moringa 44.88 - - - 204 28.27 - -
Castor 220.6 19.72 220 -27 250 - - -
Rapeseed 45.60 10.07 180 -12 240 - - -
Jatropha 35.4 7.9 205 -6 186 5 - -
Coconut 24.8 5.5 169 21 325 - 0.101 0.601
Rice bran 40.6 8.7 169 -13 318 - 0.073 0.585
Palm 52.4 10.2 186 -5 - - - -
Lesquerella 119.8 14.7 125 -21 - - 0.045 0.857
Pennycress 40.0 9.3 226 -21 - - 0.054 0.769

2
MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

lubricant produced by modifying the chemical structure

of the fatty acid. The method can be performed is lists
3 Production Process of Bio-lubricant in Table 3.
Bio-lubricant is a lubricant made from vegetable oil
that can reduce environmental pollution [18]. Bio-
Table 3. Chemical Modifications on Fatty Acids [19]

Modification Catalyst
Modification of Carboxyl Groups
- Esterification/transesterification Acids, Bases
- Estolides HClO4
Modification of fatty acid chains
- Selective hydrogenation Copper catalysts
- Dimerisation/oligomerisation Aluminosilicates
- Diels-Alder cycloaddition -
- Telomerisation H2O vapor
- Co-oligomerisation RhCl3.3H2O
- Hydroformylation (oxo-synthesis) Rh(Ph3P)3
- Friedel-Crafts alkylation Et3Al2Cl3
- Aminoalkylation [Rh(COD)Cl]2
- Friedel-Crafts acylation EtAlCl2
- Ene-reaction EtAlCl2, SnO4
- Radical addition Mn(OAc)3, Cu
- Acyloxylation Nafion/SiO2
- Cyclopropanation CH2I2, Zn(Cu), Et2Zn
- Metathesis Grubbs catalyst
- Epoxidation Peracids, chemo-enzymatic
- Ozonation -
- Oxidative cleavage Pb3O4

as a free radical. The acid catalysts are often used is a

strong mineral acid, such as hydrochloric acid and
4 Esterification/Transesterification sulfuric acid. Also, it can use other materials such as
Esterification process is a method to produce ester silica gel, and cation resin exchanger. Biopelumas
(RCOOR') by reacting a compound of acid and alcohol formation mechanism esterification reaction can be
by eliminating the water formed in the reaction seen in Figure 1.
product. The molecular structure that reacts affect
reaction rates, in particular molecular structure that acts

CH2OH CH2OCOR CH2OH

2CH3CH2C CH 2OH + 2 RCOOH CH3CH2C CH2OH + CH3CH2C CH2OCOR + 2H2O
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
Trimethylolpropane (TMP) Monoester (ME)

CH2OCOR CH2OCOR
2 ME + 2 RCOOH CH3CH2C CH2OH + CH3CH2C CH2OCOR + 2H2O
CH2OCOR CH2OH
Diester (DE)

CH2OCOR
2 DE + 2 RCOOH 2CH3CH2C CH2OCOR + 2H2O
CH2OCOR
Triester (TE)
Fig. 1. Esterification of fatty acids [20]

as transesterification process, the reaction between

While the process of converting vegetable oil triglycerides as a component of vegetable oil with
(triglyceride ester) into bio-lubricant (triesters) known

3
MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

alcohol octavalen, using a base catalyst. The transesterification reaction is shown in Figure 2.
mechanism of the production biopelumas

CH2OH – C – R
CH2O
O
H
CH3 – CH2 – C – CH2OH + 3 RCOOCH3 CH3 – CH2 – C – CH2O – C – R + 3 CH3OH
CH2O CH2OH – C – R
H
O
polyol metyl ester polyol-triester methanol

Fig. 2. Transesterification reaction Bio-lubricant [21]

equilibrium towards the right and the greater the

The transesterification process is influenced by the production of methyl ester. Another factor affecting the
catalyst, contact time, temperature, flow rate, water transesterification process is a free fatty acid content in
content in alcohol, the amount of alcohol excesses and the raw material. If the free fatty acid content exceeds
free fatty acids in raw materials. The water content in 0.5 %, the saponification reaction will occur in the
alcohol will result in the formation of soap by form of an emulsion. Soap can be physically separated
consuming a catalyst, and this will reduce the from the former vegetable oils. While the esterification
efficiency of the catalyst. To get the maximum reaction mechanism on biopelumas briefly
conversion, the use of anhydrous alcohol is preferred. transesterification contained in Figure 3 below.
Excess alcohol consumption will shift the reaction

Glycerol
OH

H 2C – O – C – R Glycerol
O O O

H 2C – O – C – R HO – C – R O–C–R
O Biolubricant
OH
H 2C – O – C – R

Fig. 3. Esterification Process Scheme (A) and transesterification (B) Bio-lubricant Production [22]

result of a reaction between PEE and POME [24]. The

4.1. Transesterification using sodium optimal reaction conditions were obtained, namely at a
methoxide catalyst temperature of 158°C, the catalyst concentration of
1.19% and a molar ratio of 4.5:1 with a reaction time
Aziz et al., [23] using raw materials palm oil methyl
of 60 minutes. From these optimal conditions, the
ester (POME) to produce a bio-lubricant. In this study
results obtained by the yield of 37.56%, the viscosity at
used sodium methoxide catalyst at a concentration of
40°C and 100°C. Zulkifli et al [25] testing the
0.5 wt%, 0.75 wt%, 1.0 wt%, 1.25 wt% and 1.5 wt%.
lubrication of biolubricant trimethylolpropane (TMP)
Experiments carried out by reacting palm oil methyl
and pentaerythritol ester (PE) obtained from POME
ester with pentaerythritol (PEE) and stirring with a
(palm oil methyl ester) and of the friction value is
speed of 700 rpm. Furthermore, the catalyst is added to
obtained then this biopelumas fit for use in vehicle
the mixture and reacted until the designated time. Then
engines. Similarly, the results of research by using
the results obtained were separated from the soap and
glycerol [26] and using trimethylolpropane ester [27].
catalyst.
However, to applied bio-lubricant commercially need
The existence of bio-lubricant products showed by
to increase oxidative stability, thermal and hydrolytic.
the composition pentaerythrityol tetraoleate (PETO)
and trimethylolpropane ester (TMPE) which is the

4
 MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

4.2 Transesterification using oscillatory flow Reeves et al. [31] conduct research on the effect of
reactor and sodium methoxide catalyst fatty acid composition of the viscosity index contained
in the avocado seed oil, canola oil, corn oil, olive oil,
Koh et al., [28] undertake the production of bio- peanut oil, safflower oil, sesame oil and soy oil. The
lubricant of palm methyl ester (PME) and result showed that the fatty acid composition affects
trimethylolpropane (TMP) using sodium methoxide the viscosity grades, with the highest viscosity in
catalyst (NaOCH3). Then do the transesterification peanut oil for 70.24 cP. Based on Zubaidah et al. [32]
reaction in the oscillatory flow reactor at 110°C to research used palm oil derivative compounds
150°C. An optimal reaction condition was obtained at a (trimetylolpropane) as bio-lubricant raw material.
temperature of 140°C to be reacted for 25 minutes. Production trimetylolpropane performed using a
Bio-lubricant obtained 94.6% by the concentration vacuum reactor with transesterification reaction. From
diesters 14.7% and 79.9% trimesters. However, the this study showed that the highest conversions were
lower yield obtained from the research Yunus et al. achieved by 66% at a temperature operating conditions
[29] 2003) with a concentration of 4.6% diesters and 120°C for 2 hours. Syaima et al. [33] produce bio-
trimesters 93.2%. lubricant from palm oil mill effluent (POME).
Although the results of a study by Koh et al., [28] Production of bio-lubricant performed using enzymatic
obtained a high yield, kinematic viscosity and viscosity hydrolysis and esterification. From the research,
index which is not accordance with ISO. Bio-lubricant optimum reaction conditions reached at 40°C, pH 7,
produced has a kinematic viscosity 47.1 cSt at 40°C, stirring speed of 650 rpm, the composition of the
9.0 cSt at 100°C and a viscosity index of 176. enzyme 20 U/ml and 50% (v/v) POME.
Meanwhile, based on ISO VG100 [30] lubricant should The research results bio-lubricant using processes
have a kinematic viscosity >90 cSt at 40°C, >4.1 cSt at esterification/transesterification is shown in Table 4.
100°C and a viscosity index >216.
Table 4. Characteristics of Bio-lubricant using esterification/transesterification process [17]

Pour Oxidative/
Reaction Viscosity Viscosity Viscosity Yield
Reactants Product Catalyst point Thermal
conditions 40°C (cSt) 100°C (cSt) index (%)
(°C) stability
Jatropha and TMP Sodium 150°C, 43.90 8.71 180 -6 - >80
TMP triesters methoxide 10mbar, 3 h
Jatropha ME TMP Sodium 150°C, 55 42.57 9.37 183 -6 325°C -
and TMP triesters methoxide min Degradation
temp
High oleic TMP Sodium 120-150°C, 45.5 – 50.7 9.2 - 10 183 - 200 (-37) to - -
palm ME triesters methoxide 0,3 mbar, 45 (-9)
and TMP min
Palm ME TMP Sodium 140°C, 25 47.1 9.0 176 -2 355°C 94.6
and TMP triesters methoxide mbar, 25 Degradation
min, temp
oscillatory
flow reactor
at 1,5 Hz
with 20 mm
amplitude
Palm ME TMP Calcium 180°C, 50 - - - - - 92,38
and TMP triesters methoxide mbar, 8 h
Canola TMP Sodium 110°C,1 40.5 7.8 204 -66 Induction time: 90.9
biodiesel triester methoxide mbar, 5 h 0.74 h
ME and
TMP
Castor TMP Dibutyltin 170°C, 0.01 287.2 26.13 119 -27 RPVOT: 43 min 89.7
biodiesel and triester dilaurate bar (Butylated
TMP hydroxytoluene
added)
Castor TMP Amberlyst 120°C, 0.01 20.94 4.467 127 - - -
biodiesel and triester 15 ionic bar
TMP exchange
resin
Castor TMP Sodium 120°C, 0.01 11.28 3.100 141 - RPVOT: 150 -
biodiesel and triester methoxide bar min (Butylated
TMP hydroxytoluene
added)
WCO ME TMP KOH 128°C, 200 38.60 8.44 204 -8 FP: 240°C 85.7
and TMP triester Pa, 1.5 h

5
 MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

Soybean oil n- Sulfated 140°C, 4 h 10.3 – 432.7 3.0 – 34.4 45 - 195 - - >80
and various alcohol- zirconia
alcohols esters catalysts
Sunflower FA-n- Fe-Zn 170°C, 8 h 7.93 2.74 226 -3 23 min (RBOT) 98
oil and octyl double-
octanol esters metal
cyanide
(DMC)
complexes
Pentaerythrit Pentaeryt Ion 110°C, 6 h 63.08 12.00 190 -24 - -
ol and oleic hritol exchange toluene
acid tetraoleta resin, solvent
e ester Indion-
130
Valeric acid Valeric Silica- 70°C molar 9.5 2.5 80 -75 - -
TMP acid TMP sulphuric ratio of 3:1,
ester acid toluene
Rubber ME NPG/TM p- 135-140°C, 23,1-62,6 5.9-12.6 206-222 (-15) to 10-15 min 94.5-
and P/PE Toluensul until (-3) (RBOT) 96.5
NPG/TMP/P triesters phonic theoretical FP: 266 - 308°C
E acid reaction
complete
Rapeseed NPG/TM C 150, 200, 50 7.8 – 38.2 2.7-8.4 205-224 (-31.3) ∆v: 90.1-147.1 98
ME and P/PE Antarctica h to (-18) ∆Ac: 2.9-7.7
NPG/TMP/P triesters lipase
E
Thumba NPG/TM p- 135-140°C, 20.65-60.26 5.45-11.89 209-220 (-12) to 10-15 min 89-95
ME, xylene P/PE Toluensul until (-3) (RBOT)
and triesters phonic complete FP: 270-318°C
NPG/TMP/P acid
E

7. N.H. Jayadas, K.P. Nair, G. Ajithkumar, G.

5 Conclusion Tribology International Journal, 40, 350-354
(2007).
Increasing the amount of environmental pollution can 8. S.M. Alves, B.S. Barros, M.F. Trajano, K.S.B
be solved by replacing petroleum lubricant with bio- Ribeiro, E. Moura. Tribology International
lubricant those have made from vegetable oils. This is Journal, 65, 28-36 (2013).
because the use of petroleum lubricant gives big 9. P. Lathi, B. Mattiasson. Journal of Applied
influence on environmental pollution because of their Catalyst B: Environment, 69, 207-212 (2007).
lubricant spills which can damage the ecosystem. 10. P. Nagendramma, S. Kaul. Journal of Renewable
However, the production of bio-lubricant has not done and Sustainable Energy Review, 16, 764-774
commercially. Besides bio-lubricant properties are (2012).
easily damaged so we need more research to improve 11. M. Shahabuddin, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam,
the shelf life of the bio-lubricant. In addition, research M.M.K. Bhuiya, H. Mehat. Journal of Industrial
must be done to improve the characteristics by adding Crops and Products, 47, 323-330 (2013).
a bio-lubricant additive. 12. K. Saroj, S.R.K. Padhi. Journal of Chemical
Pharmacy, 3, 39-49 (2011).
References 13. H.C. Ong, T.M.I. Mahlia, H.H. Masjuki, R.S.
Norhasyima. Journal of Renewable and
1. Precidential Decree Republic of Indonesia No.5. Sustainable Energy Review, 15, 3501-3515
National Energy Policy, (2006). (2011).
2. Y. Gerbig, S.I.U. Ahmed, F.A. Gerbig, H. Haefke. 14. R.V. Sharma, K.D. Ajay. Journal of Applied
Journal of Synthesis Lubricant, 21, 177-191 Catalyst B: Environment, 142, 604-614 (2013).
(2004). 15. D. Kania, Y. Robiah, O. Rozita, A.R. Suraya, M.J.
3. BPS. Produksi Bahan Bakar Minyak, (2014). Badrul. Journal of Petroleum Science and
4. S.C. Tung, M.L. McMillan. Tribology Engineering, 135, 177-184 (2015).
International Journal, 37, 517-536 (2004). 16. Z.E. Sevim, A. Atanu, K.S. Brajendra. Journal of
5. S. Asadauskas, J.M. Perez, J.I. Duda. Lubricant Synthetic Lubrication, 17, 22 (2006).
Engineering, 52, 877-82 (1996). 17. J. McNutt, S.H. Quan. Journal of Industrial and
6. S.Z. Erhan, S. Asadauskas. Journal of Industrial Engineering Chemistry, 36, 1-12 (2016).
Crops and Products, 11, 277-282 (2000). 18. Department of Ecology.. Biolubricants.
Environmentally Preferable Purchasing Fact
Sheet, Publication No. 13-07-011, (2011).

6
MATEC Web of Conferences 156, 06007 (2018) https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201815606007
RSCE 2017

19. J.C.J. Bart, G. Emmanuele, C. Stefano.

Biolubricants Science and Technology, (2013).
20. M. Hajar, V. Farzaneh. Journal of Industrial Crops
and Products, 59, 252-259 (2014).
21. M.F.M.G. Resul, T.I.M. Ghazi, A. Idris. Journal of
Industrial Crops and Products, 38, 87-92 (2012).
22. J. Oh, Y. Sungeun, K. Chanyeon, C. Inchang, H.K.
Jae. Journal of Applied Catalysis A: General, 455,
164-171 (2013).
23. N.A.M. Aziz, Y. Robiah, R. Umer, M.S. Azhari.
Industrial Crops and Products, 62, 305-312 (2014).
24. R. Yunus, A. Fakhru’l-Razi, T.L. Ooi, R. Omar, A.
Idris. Industrial Engineering Chemical, 44, 8178-
8183 (2005).
25. N.W.M. Zulkifli, S.S.N. Azman, M.A. Kalam,
H.H. Masjuki, R. Yunus, M. Gulzar. Tribology
International, 93, 555-562 (2016).
26. G.S. Dodos, D. Karonis, F. Zannikos, E. Lois.
Journal of Industrial Crops and Products, 75, 43-
50 (2015).
27. H.A. Hamid, R. Yunus, U. Rashid, T.S.Y. Choong,
A.H. Al-Muhtaseb. Chemical Engineering Journal,
200-202, 532-540 (2012).
28. M.Y. Koh., I.M.G. Tinia, I. Azni. Journal of
Industrial Crops and Products, 52, 567-574 (2014).
29. M.S. Silva, E.L. Foletto, S.M. Alves, T.N.C.
Dantas, A.A.D. Neto. Journal of Industrial Crops
and Products, 69, 362-370 (2015).
30. L.R. Rudnick, S.Z. Erhan. Natural oils as
lubricants, (2006).
31. C.J. Reeves, L.M. Pradeep, J. Tien-Chien, R.L.
Michael. Tribology International Journal, 90, 123-
134 (2015).
32. S.S. Zubaidah, A.C. Luqman, A. Fakhru’l-Razi.
Journal of Applied Energy, 7 (15): 2002-2005
(2007).
33. M.T.S. Syaima, K.H. Ong, M.N. Ishenny, M.I.M.
Zamratul, S.A. Brahim. Journal of Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 44: 669-675 (2015).