AgroLife Scientific Journal - Volume 3, Number 1, 2014

ISSN 2285-5718; ISSN CD-ROM 2285-5726; ISSN ONLINE 2286-0126; ISSN-L 2285-5718

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL METHODS TO AVOID FRUIT CRACKING

IN CHERRY

Mekjell MELAND1, Clive KAISER2, John MARK CHRISTENSEN3

1
Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research, Bioforsk, Ullensvang, N-5781
Lofthus, Norway. Email: mekjell.meland@bioforsk.no
2
Extension Horticulture Faculty, Oregon State University, Milton-Freewater, Oregon, 97862, USA.
Email: clive.kaser@oregonstate.edu
3
Pharmacy Faculty, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon,
97330, USA.

Corresponding author email: mekjell.meland@bioforsk.no

Abstract

Rain-induced fruit cracking in sweet cherries can cause heavy losses in yields and returns. Several advances in the use
of different cultural practices, which reduce the incidence of fruit cracking have been made. These practices range from
exclusion of water from the fruit surface during growth and maturation of the fruit, to reducing osmotic potential across
the fruit skins during rainfall events, to coating the fruit with elastic hydrophobic rain exclusion biofilms. Physical
exclusion of rainwater may also be achieved by covering the trees with protective plastic rain covers. Two systems have
been researched in Norway; retractable plastic rain covers and multi-bay polyethylene “high tunnels”. The supporting
framework of the former is built entirely of wood and overhead polyethylene curtains slide back and forth on three
wires per row to open or close depending on the prevailing weather. Retractable covers must be drawn over the trees
manually before rainfall events and is extremely labour intensive. The system is highly susceptible to heavy winds.
High tunnels, which are accessible to tractors, are constructed of steel bows, attached to metal posts and covered with
greenhouse–grade polyethylene. Tunnels may be fully ventilated on hot, humid days or completely closed for extending
the growing season. The plastic covering is completely removed during winter. Cherries may be covered from bloom
until harvest or only during the time when fruit are susceptible to cracking. A high density planting (1250 trees per ha)
of ‘Sweetheart’/‘Colt’ in Norway grown in high tunnels yielded 9 kg per tree on average in the 4th leaf and 19 kg per
tree on average in the 5th leaf. Fruit size measurements found that on average, more than half the fruit were larger than
32 mm in diameter by the 4th leaf. GA3 treatment at yellow straw colour delayed harvest by one week, and significantly
improved fruit size and fruit firmness.But soil moisture management is critical inside the tunnels as excess soil moisture
can induce significant percentages of fruit cracking even inside the tunnels. In the United States, Pacific Northwest,
Parka (powered by SureSeal®), a novel biofilm comprised of palm oil and cellulose, patented by Oregon State
University, resulted in 50% less fruit cracking on average, higher total soluble solids and increased retention force
between the pedicel and fruit than untreated control fruit.

Keywords: Luminance THB film, Visqueen clear UV, rain covers, Parka, SureSeal®, fruit quality, yield

INTRODUCTION however, been made. These practices include

exclusion of water from the fruit surface during
Rain-induced fruit cracking in cherries remains growth and maturation of the fruit using plastic
a problem at an international level and can rain covers (Meland & Skjervheim, 1998;
cause heavy losses in yields and returns Børve et al. 2003) and reducing osmotic
(Pennell & Webster, 1996; Vittrup Christensen, potential across the fruit skins during rainfall
1996; Lang & Flore, 1999; Sekse, 2005). Fruit events using calcium products (Lang et al.
cracking is the result of morphological, 1997). Some cherry scion cultivars crack more
physiological, environmental and genetic easily than others (Ystaas & Frøynes, 1998;
factors. Unfortunately, a lack of understanding Cline et al., 1995) but why susceptible cultivars
of several of the fundamental mechanisms are more predisposed to cracking than resistant
involved in these phenomena persists. Several ones has not been explained satisfactorily.
advances in the use of different cultural Indeed, investigations have found that genetic
practices, which reduce fruit cracking have differences in skin morphology (Belmans &
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Keulemans, 1996), variable cuticle thickness, uptake to the tree by its roots. Control of such
differences in stomatal density (Beyer & water uptake will improve the reduction or
Knoche, 2002), cutin content (Schreiber et al., avoidance of fruit cracking in sweet cherries.
1996; Knoche et al., 2000) and exocarp polar Water relations in sweet cherry fruit play a
pathways are all implicated. However, all pivotal role in fruit cracking. Internal water
cherry fruit cuticles consist of both cutin and potential of the fruit is affected mainly by sap
wax. Cutin is the largest constituent (90-99%) import through the fruit pedicel but external
but only plays a minor role in water exclusion. water uptake through the fruit surface has also
The wax component (1-10%) however, been implicated.
accounts for most hydrophobicity of the Cherry fruit cracking may also occur as a result
cuticle. Hovland and Sekse (2004) found that of free surface water or an imbalance in
water loss from the fruit skin under low air internal water relations of the fruit. Cherry fruit
humidity was linear with time, whereas fruit at will crack when water remains in contact with
high air humidity accumulated water for 4-6 the fruit surface for a certain period of time.
hours and this explains why in some cases, fruit However, fruit have been known to crack even
cracking can take place following harvest. This under cover, when the fruit surface is not wet.
also has major implications for both harvest, The traditional opinion is that that water uptake
when prevailing conditions are cool and through the fruit surface during and after a
overcast, resulting in high relative humidity rainfall event increases turgor pressure, thus
and postharvest hydrocooling. Cuticular inducing cracking. The water penetrates the
fractures increased the conductance for water wetted fruit cuticle by osmosis due to the
uptake (Beyer & Knoche, 2002). Knoche et al. difference in osmotic potential between the
(2002) found an 8% increase of the total rainwater and the fruit sap (Glenn & Poovaiah,
conductance for water loss of the cuticle due to 1989). Two hydrophobic products are available
fractures. The number of cuticular fractures on commercially the first, Raingard® is a carnauba
the fruit surface influenced water loss wax based product developed by Washington
significantly. Indeed, more cuticular fractures State University. Due to the rigid nature of
resulted in more water loss under low air carnauba, the coating must be reapplied up to 5
humidity (Hovland & Sekse, 2004). This means times during stage III of fruit growth. The
that these fractures represent pathways for second product, ParkaTM, powered by
water transport through the sweet cherry SureSeal® is an elastic co-polymer of cellulose
surface. and palm oil and was developed by two of the
Cherry fruit has a double sigmoid growth authors at Oregon State University. Due to the
pattern (Coombe, 1976), which may contribute elasticity of the product, Parka only requires
to fracture development during the last part of two applications for optimal coverage.
fruit growth and maturation resulting in rapid In this report we document the use of physical
weight and volume increases, probably leading methods to prevent fruit cracking i.e.
to significant mechanical stress in the cuticle retractable plastic rain covers and multi-bay
(Considine & Brown, 1981). Irregular water polyethylene high tunnels as well as the use of
supply to cherry trees during this period (Sekse, Parka to prevent fruit cracking based on a wax-
1995) increased the number of cuticular based biofilm, which seal off the cuticular
fractures. Consequently, fruit volume fractures, retain elasticity and allows for
expansion caused by water uptake through the normal shrink-swell processes during fruit
fruit pedicel probably occurs faster than the growth.
fruit cuticle can correspondingly stretch.
Consequently fractures developed. Børve et al. MATERIALS AND METHODS
(2000) found that cuticular fractures acted as
infection sites for and promoted post harvest Physical exclusion of rainwater utilizes
fruit rot in sweet cherries; the more cuticular protective plastic rain covers, which take many
fractures the more rot was observed. Cuticular different forms. Two systems that have been
fractures in the sweet cherry fruit promotes researched in Norway include retractable
fruit cracking, and are influenced by water

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plastic rain covers and multibay polyethylene operates. If birds are a problem, bird-netting
high tunnels. may be installed over the plastic on extra wires
connected to the top of the poles.
Bioforsk three-wires system
It consists of a main frame with wooden poles Multibay polyethylene tunnels
supporting three overhead wires running the Here we wish to take appropriate green house
length of each tree row. Within the rows, 5 m technology to field scale at a low cost for high
long wooden poles (100-120 mm in diameter) value crops like top and soft fruits for summer
are spaced 12 m apart (Figure 1). and fall production. These tunnels are
comprised of galvanized metal arches spaced
2m apart, attached to galvanized metal posts,
which are driven 0.7 m into the soil. For
cherries a bay width of up to 8.5 m is most
appropriate. In May 2005, a tractor-accessible 4
bay Haygrove® tunnel with open kit strut, was
installed at the experimental farm at Bioforsk,
Ullensvang, Norway (Figure 2).

Figure 1. The Norwegian three-wires-system

In order to stabilise the poles, they are buried 1-

1.2 m in the ground by machinery or hand. This
results in a maximum above ground height of 4
m. At the ends of the tree rows thicker poles of
140 mm diameter are recommended. Leaning
and securing the end poles outwards
strengthens the main frame. Poles are
connected to each other with transverse Figure 2. Multibay polyethylene tunnels for sweet
woodwork (4’’x 4’’at the anchor poles and 2’’x for prevention of fruit cracking cherry production in
Norway.
4’’ in the rows) 997). Overhead curtains slide
back and forth to open and close on three wires
Each bay was 8.5 m width and 70 m long, with
down the row. The top wire is positioned about
legs 2.5 m in height. Bays were covered with
4 m above the ground and not more than 0.5 m
one layer of greenhouse–grade polyethylene.
higher than the side wires. The polyethylene
The sides and doors were also covered with
cover is therefore gabled around the centre
polyethylene, but if left open allow for
axis. Horizontal distance between the two side
ventilation. Closing allows for growing season
wires is row width minus 0.1 m. A maximum
extension. Plastic coverings are completely
tree height of about 3.5 m in the beginning of
removed during winter and stored in the gutter
the season is appropriate.
area between bays and protected using black
Cross-laminated or woven polyethylene sheets
plastic. There is no permanent heating system,
are used as curtains. Curtain length is similar to
nor electrical connection. Tunnels are however,
the pole spacing in the row. When sheets with
fed by an external trickle irrigation system that
eyelets are used, width should be the row
may provide nutrients through fertigation. Each
spacing minus 0.5 m. Recommended eyelets
tunnel was divided in half and each half was
distance along the sheet side is 1 m. Through
covered with either Luminance THB film
each eyelet an elastic rubber band is treaded
(absorbing infrared light) or traditional
and equipped with a snap hook. These hooks
Visqueen clear UV polythene film. These overs
are connected to the side wires and slide back
have different light spectral transmittance.
and forth on these wires when the curtain

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In each tunnel, two rows of feathered 1-year protect the cherry fruit from being exposed to
old ‘Sweetheart’/‘Colt’ cherry trees were water on the fruit surface. However, it is
planted 2x4m apart, in four-tree plots with a important have a regular water supply to the
‘Lapins’ guard tree in between. All trees were
roots as fruit can still crack due to rapid fruit
trained as free spindles. Tunnels were covered
before bloom (before the end of April) and volume expansion caused by water uptake
covers were only removed after harvest was through the fruit pedicel. Average temperature
completed. Subplots consisted of 1) treating from May to mid-September were 14.3˚C in
with 20ppm gibberellin at yellow straw colour 2008 season (data not shown). On only a few
and 2) of reflective ground covers. Records of days did maximum temperatures rise above
environmental modifications, evaluation of tree 30˚C and it was necessary to ventilate the
growth, and yield performance were kept.
tunnels. On average, there were small
Organic biofilm differences between daily temperatures
A unique formulation of complex between the two different tunnel coverings and
carbohydrates and phospholipids was the outside temperature in the open land.
formulated in the College of Pharmacy, Oregon However, on sunny days, maximum
State University in late 2006. The formulation temperatures were 2˚C higher inside the
was tested for elasticity by coating a semi- tunnels. In 2008, control trees were first harvest
flaccid balloon followed by repeated inflating
on September 15. In 2009, control trees were
and deflating of the balloon. No cracking or
flaking of the Biofilm was observed. The base harvested on September 1. Trees treated with
formulation has however, been further GA3 trees were first harvested one week later in
refinement as a result of several in vivo field both years.
tests beginning in May 2007. An international In contrast to similar trees grown in the open,
patent was applied for in April, 2009 and the all trees grown in the tunnels were extremely
Organic Biofilm has tentatively been named precocious and average yield per tree was 9 kg
SureSeal®. in the fourth leaf and double that in the fifth
• In Vivo Field Testing leaf (Table 1).
A 5X5 completely randomized block design Within the tunnels however, there were no
was laid out at Ullensvang Research Center in differences in yield between the different
2008. There were four different treatments and tunnel coverings, nor different ground covers in
an untreated control. Treatments included a)
either year. Fruit size from trees grown under
two applications of 1% Biofilm (one at straw
color and another 10 days later); b) two tunnels was favorable in the fourth leaf, with
applications of Biofilm plus fungicide more than 60% of fruit being >32 mm in
fenhexamid; c) two applications of Biofilm diameter. When yields doubled the following
plus plastic ground covers; d) two applications year, average fruit size was significant smaller.
of Biofilm plus fenhexamid plus plastic ground Only about 20 % of the fruit were >32 mm in
covers. Fruit were harvested according to
diameter and the majority of the yield were in
industry standards. On the day of harvest, the
number of cracked fruit per tree was recorded. the fruit size between 28-32 mm (data on
In addition, a sample of 50 fruit was harvested shown) suggesting over-cropping of the trees.
from each of the trees and analyzed for fruit Fruit weight increases with fruit maturity
firmness (g.mm-1), average fruit weight (g) and (Table 2) and neither GA3 treatments, tunnel
TSS (% Brix). coverings nor different ground coverings had
any negative effect on this compared to
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
untreated control trees. In contrast however, all
Multibay polyethylene tunnels
fruit treated with GA3 were significantly firmer
Norway has a rather cool growing season
at four successive selective pick harvest dates.
accompanied by heavy rainfall. These tunnels

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Table 1. The effects of the bioregulator GA3 and two tunnel covers (Luminance and clear plastic) on total yield of the
sweet cherry cultivar ‘Sweetheart’ in the fourth (2008) and fifth growing season (2009).

Treatment Kg per tree Tons per ha Kg per tree Tons per ha

2008 2008 2009 2009
Gibberellin
Control 8.9 11.1 19.3 24.1
20 ppm 8.7 10.8 18.4 23.0

Significance NS NS NS NS

Film
Luminance 8.7 10.9 19.1 23.8
Clear film 8.9 11.1 18.5 23.2

Significance NS NS NS NS

Table 2. The effects of the bioregulator GA3 and two tunnel covers (Luminance and clear plastic) on fruit weight and
fruit firmness at four different harvest windows of the sweet cherry cultivar ‘Sweetheart’ in 2008

Treatment Fruit weight, g – four harvest windows Fruit firmness – four harvest windows 1)

12.Aug. 15.Aug. 18.Aug. 21.Aug. 12.Aug. 15.Aug. 18.Aug. 21.Aug.

Gibberellin

Control 12.4 13.0 12.4 13.0 74 70 69 74

20 ppm 14.0 14.7 14.7 14.6 81 79 77 73

F-test ** * *** ** *** *** *** IS

Film

Luminance 13.6 14.1 13.9 14.3 79 74 73 69

Clear film 12.8 13.6 13.1 13.3 76 75 73 77

F-test NS NS * * NS NS NS NS

Gibberellin x NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
cover

1) Durofel. Highest readings are the firmest fruit

Surface colour development of fruits was Two applications of 1% Biofilm reduced the
delayed by a week when GA3 treated compared average fruit cracking to 17% and further
to untreated control trees (data not shown). In inclusion of a preharvest fungicide
general, average total soluble solid content was (fenhexamid) in combination with plastic
high but no significant differences were found ground covers reduced fruit cracking even
between different treatments (17-18 % Brix). more significantly to 9.8%.
Utilization of plastic ground covers is essential
Organic Biofilm. under heavy rainfall conditions, as the use of
In Vivo Field Testing 1% Biofilm and fungicide only (18.2%) did not
In 2008, fruit cracking in the untreated control result in an improvement over the use of 1%
averaged 24.6% (Figure 3). Biofilm alone.

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Figure 3. Average percentage fruit cracking of ‘Sweetheart’cherries in Loftus, Norway sprayed twice with 1% Biofilm
in 2008 in combination with or without a preharvest fungicide (fenhexamid) and plastic ground covers, compared to
untreated control trees on the day of harvest.

Consequently, since exclusion of soil water in as a result of internal water relations is to be

combination with the Biofilm plus fungicide avoided. This has major implications for
reduced fruit cracking from 17% to 9.8%, we irrigation of cherries especially where they are
conclude that almost half the fruit cracking in grown under dry conditions and further
Norway was the result of internal (soil-plant) research should look at clarifying this aspect.
water relations. Under the Norwegian Indeed evidence for this can be found where
conditions, fruit firmness was improved with cherry fruit still crack in the Pacific Northwest
the use of 1% Biofilm however, this was not even in the absence of rainfall during the three
significant. In contrast, total soluble solid weeks preceding harvest.
concentrations were significantly higher in all
treatments (ranging from 20.4% to 21.4% Brix) CONCLUSIONS
that included 1% Biofilm compared to the
untreated control (18.6% Brix). Average fruit Clearly, cherry fruit cracking may be prevented
by excluding water from the surface of the
weight was however, only affected by the use
fruit. This may be achieved by erecting
of Biofilm in combination with ground covers physical barriers such as Haygrove® multi-bay
but in the absence of a fungicide (8.9g) tunnels and utilizing organic biofilms such as
compared to the untreated control (10.6 g). SureSeal. The choice of covering for the
Average fruit weight of the control fruit was tunnels influences fruit quality, yield and
however, not significantly different from those maturity. Indeed, these tunnels allow for season
fruit treated with 1% Biofilm and fungicide in extension too when used in conjunction with
GA3 treatments. The latter also results in firmer
combination with plastic ground covers
fruit. However, these tunnels have their
(10.2g). It is possible that exclusion of rain limitations as subsequent research has found
during the early part of the growing season may significant fruit cracking inside the tunnels
have affected fruit size and a drip irrigation under conditions of extremely high rainfall and
system under the plastic covers is implicated. internal soil water relations are implicated. In
In any event, careful monitoring of the soil the current study where fruit cracking was less
moisture content is imperative if fruit cracking than 25% under natural conditions, SureSeal®,

182
the hydrophobic elastic biofilm patented by Knoche M., Peschel S., Hinz M., Bukovac M. J., 2000.
OSU, was found to reduce fruit cracking Studies of water transport through the sweet cherry
fruit surface: characterizing conductance of the
significantly when used in conjunction with cuticular membrane using pericarp segments. Planta.
fungicides and soil covers. SureSeal® also 212, p. 127-135.
increased fruit size, total soluble solids and the Knoche M., Peschel S., Hinz M., 2002. Studies on water
force needed to remove the pedicels from the transport through the sweet cherry fruit surface. III.
fruit. Subsequent research (not presented here) Conductance of the cuticle in relation to fruit size.
Phys. Plant. 114, p. 414-421.
is finding however, that limitations also exist Lang G., Flore J., 1999. Reducing raincracking in
for SureSeal®, when rainfall is excessive and cherries. Good Fruit Grower 50, p. 34-38.
natural fruit cracking exceeds 50%. Again, Lang G., Flore J., Southwick S., Azarenko A., Facteau
internal soil water relations are implicated and T., Kappel F., 1997. Overtree sprinkler calcium
this only serves to demonstrate the importance shows widespread potential to reduce cherry rain-
cracking. Good Fruit Grower 48, p. 27-30.
of soil water management for the prevention of Meland M., Skjervheim K., 1998. Rain cover protection
cherry fruit cracking both in the open and under against cracking for sweet cherry orchards. Acta
protective covers. Gibberellic acid also has a Hort. 468, p. 441-447.
major effect on cherry fruit cracking in Pennell D., Webster A.D., 1996. Sweet cherries:
combination with the soil moisture and protection of fruit from bird and rain damage. In
Cherries: crop physiology, production and uses
additional research is aimed at identifying these (Webster, A. D. and Looney, N. E., eds.), p. 393-407.
effects. CAB International, Oxon, UK. ISBN 0 85198 936 5.
Schreiber L., Kirch T., Riederer M., 1996. Diffusion
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