SURVEYING

BY: NIEL ARVIN B. GALOS

CORRECTION APPLIED FOR
MEASURING OF DISTANCES
1. TEMPERATURE CORRECTION

Ct = ± K (T2 – T1) L1

Where:

K = coefficient of linear expansion

T2 = temperature during measurement
T1 = temp when the tape is standard length
L1 = standard length of the tape
Ct = correction when the length is L1
2. PULL CORRECTION

(P2 − P1 ) L1
Cp = ±
AE

Where:

P2 = pull during measurement

P1 = pull when the tape is standard length
L1 = standard length of the tape
A = cross-sectional area of tape
E = modulus of elasticity
Cp = correction when the length is L1
3. SAG CORRECTION

w 2L3
Cs = -
24P2
Where:

P = pull during measurement

w = weight of tape per unit length
L = unsupported length of the tape
Cs = correction when the distance
between support is L
4. SLOPE CORRECTION

S
h

h2
Cs = - H = S - Cs
2S
Where:
h = difference in elev bet ends points
S = corrected distance along sloping
distance
Cs = correction due to slope
H = corrected horizontal distance
5. REDUCTION TO SEA LEVEL

B’

B’ = B(RF)
h
h
RF = 1-
R R

Where:
h = altitude between B and B’
B = horizontal distance at sea level
B’ = corrected horizontal distance
R = radius of the earth
RF = reduction factor
6. NORMAL TENSION UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS

1 tally = 10 pins
0.204 A E 1 pin = 50 meters
PN = 1 link = 1 foot
PN − P1 1 pin = 100 links
1 perch = 1 rod
Where:
1 rod = 16.5 feet
PN = normal tension 1 vara = 33 inches

P1 = pull when the tape is standard length

A = cross-sectional area of tape
E = modulus of elasticity

TAPE TOO LONG:

 Add correction when measuring distances.
 Subtract correction when laying out distances.

TAPE TOO SHORT:

 Subtract correction when measuring distances.
 Add correction when laying out distances.
ERRORS AND MISTAKES
∑V 2
PROBABLE ERROR = ± 0.6745
n(n − 1)

∑V 2
Standard Deviation = ±
n −1

standard deviation
Standard Error = ±
n
Where:

V = residual
= recorded value – mean value
n = no. of trials
LEVELING

FS
BS
B

A
el. A + BS – FS = el. B

e
Where:

TR B.S. = backsight reading

B F.S. = foresight reading
e = error in line of sight
A T.R. = true reading
CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
CORRECTION
A
☃C

K h
☃ B

Curvature and Refraction Correction:

h = 0.067 K2
Where:

h = combined curvature & refraction

correction, in meters
K = distance between A & B, in km
 B
h
A
C
h2
h1

D1 D2

mean sea level (el. 0)

Derive equation considering the effect of curvature and

refraction correction:

D2
h = h2 + (h1 − h2 ) − 0.067 D1 D2
D1 + D2
COMPASS SURVEYING

TN
MN
B
θ α
Where:
β α = east declination

Magnetic Bearing of AB: N β0 W

W E True Bearing of AB: N θ0 W

A
Bearing = an angle of the line
from North or South of not
more 900.
Azimuth = an angle of the line
from South in clockwise
direction.
S
ERRORS IN TRANSIT WORK
NON-ADJUSTMENT OF TRANSIT

A. Error of line of sight: Line of sight not

perpendicular to the horizontal axis

E = e Sec h
1. Line of sight deflected to the right of 2. Line of sight deflected to the left of
line of collimation. (clockwise) line of collimation. (clockwise)

T = true horizontal angle T = M - E’

T = M + E’

E’ = e (sec h2 – sec h1)

Note:
1. When h1 = h2, there is no error
2. When one angle is depression and the
other is angle of elevation having
numerically equal values, there is no
error.
B. Error of traverse axis of the telescope is not
horizontal or horizontal axis not perpendicular to the
vertical axis.

E = e tan h

For small angles,

tan E = E
tan e = e

1. Left end of transverse axis higher.

Angle measurement clockwise
T = M + (e tan h2 – tan h1)

2. Right end of traverse axis higher.

T = M - (e tan h2 – tan h1)

Line of Collimation – a line segment joining the intersection of

the cross hairs and the optical center of the objective-lens when
in proper adjustment.
LATITUDE & DEPARTURE
N
B

Lat Latitude = (Distance) (Cosine of Bearing)

θ
d
Lat = d x cosθ
Departure = (Distance) (Sine of Bearing)
W E
Dep A Dep = d x sinθ

Sign Convention:

North Latitude & East Departure are

positive
S
South Latitude & West Departure are
negative
LINEAR ERROR OF CLOSURE

LEC = (∑ L )2 + (∑ D )2
∑D
tan θ =
∑L
Where:
Linear Error of Closure:
LEC ΣL = algebraic sum of latitude

ΣD = algebraic sum of departure

θ LEC Note: For a closed traverse, the

ΣL algebraic sum of latitude (ΣL) is zero
and the algebraic sum of departure
(ΣD) is zero.

ΣD
CORRECTION OF LINEAR ERROR OF CLOSURE

1. COMPASS RULE

 Dis tan ce 
Correction in Lat = Error in Lat  
 Perimeter 
 Dis tan ce 
Correction in Dep = Error in Dep  
 Perimeter 
2. TRANSIT RULE
 Latitude 
Correction in Lat = Error in Lat  
 Arithmetic Sum of Lat 

 Departure 

Correction in Dep = Error in Dep  
 Arithmetic Sum of Dep 
HOW TO APPLY CORRECTION?

1. LATITUDE CORRECTION:
 if the sum of North Lat is greater than the sum of South
Lat the correction is negative.

 if the sum of North Lat is less than the sum of South Lat
the correction is positive.

2. DEPARTURE CORRECTION:

 if the sum of East Dep is greater than the sum of West Dep
the correction is negative.

 if the sum of East Dep is less than the sum of West Dep the
correction is positive.
AREA OF CLOSE TRAVERSE
1. AREA BY DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE

 Computation of Double Meridian Distance (DMD)

1. DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of that
course.
2. DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the preceding
course, plus the departure of the preceding course, plus the
departure of the course itself.
3. DMD of the last course is numerically equal to the departure of
the last course but opposite in sign.

Line Lat Dep DMD 2A = DMD x Lat

AB +35.51 +48.05 +48.05 + 1706.26
BC -27.61 +64.73 +160.83 - 4441.9
CD -66.94 -37.31 +188.25 -12601.46
DA +58.94 -75.47 +75.47 + 4448.20

2A = 10888.90
A = 5444.45 sq.m.
2. AREA BY DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE
 Computation of Double Parallel Distance (DMD)
1. DPD of the first course is equal to the latitude of that course.
2. DPD of any other course is equal to the DPD of the preceding
course, plus the latitude of the preceding course, plus the
latitude of the course itself.
3. DPD of the last course is numerically equal to the latitude of
the last course but opposite in sign.

Line Lat Dep DPD 2A = DPD x Dep

1–2 -18.63 -11.77 -18.63 +219.275
2–3 +8.03 -5.96 -29.23 +174.211
3–4 +4.81 -1.36 -16.39 +22.290
4–1 +5.79 +19.09 -5.79 -110.531

2A = 305.245
A = 152.622
3. AREA BY TRIANGLES

4. AREA BY COORDINATES

1 x1 x 2 x3 x 4 x1
A=
2 y1 y 2 y 3 y 4 y1
AREA OF IRREGULAR BOUNDARIES

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 hn
d d d d d

d = common intervals
h1 = first offset
hn = last offset

1. TRAPEZOIDAL RULE

 h1 + hn 
A=d + ∑ h
 2 
Σh = sum of intermediate offsets.
2. SIMPSON’S ONE THIRD RULE
- Applicable only to even intervals or odd offsets.

A = [(h1 + hn ) + 2 ∑ hodd + 4 ∑ heven ]

d
3
STADIA SURVEYING
A. HORIZONTAL SIGHTS

O F
L S

c f d

S + ( f + c)
F = principal focus f
f = focal length
D=
O = optical center
i
i = distance between stadia hairs f
= stadia interval factor
c = dist. From optical center to
center of instrument
i
f + c = stadia constant

S = stadia interval of intercept

B. INCLINED SIGHTS

H = S cos 2 θ + ( f + c ) cos θ
f
i
f sin 2θ
V = S + ( f + c ) sin θ
i 2
SIMPLE CURVES
1. Degree of Curve: (Arc Basis)

20 m

D
R R
•

a. Metric System b. English System

1145.916 5729.58
D= D=
R R
2. Degree of Curve: (Chord Basis)

10 m 10 m
D/2 D/2
R R
•

a. Metric System b. English System

10 50
R= R=
D D
sin sin
2 2
Elements of a Simple Curve

backward
P.C. tangent
P.I.
I/2 Lc •

C/2 E I
P.C. = point of curvature
R M forward P.T. = point of tangency
tangent
P.I. = point of intersection
C/2 R = radius of the curve
I/2 D = degree of the curve
I/2 P.T. T = tangent distance
I = angle of intersection
R
E = external distance
M = middle ordinate
Lc = length of curve
C = long chord
1. Tangent Distance 4. Length of Chord

I I
T = R tan C = 2 R sin
2 2
2. External Distance 5. Length of Curve

 I 
E = R  sec −1 Lc =
20 I
(metric )
 2  D
3. Middle Ordinate Lc =
100 I
(english )
 I D
M = R1−cos 
 2
COMPOUND CURVES

- consists of two or more consecutive simple curves having different

radius, but whose centers lie on the same side of the curve, likewise
any two consecutive curves must have a common tangent at their
meeting point. The point of the common tangent where the two curves
join is called the point of compound curvature (P.C.C.).
Elements of a Compound
Curve I = I1 + I2

I1
T1

P.C. P.C.C.
I2
T1

T2

T2
R1 I2

P.T.
O’ R2
I1
R1 = radius of 1st curve
R2 = radius of 2nd curve
T1 = tangent dist. of 1st curve
O T2 = tangent dist. of 2nd curve
T1 + T2 = common tangent
I1 = central angle of 1st curve
I2 = central angle of 2nd curve
I = angle of intersection of tangents
REVERSED CURVES
- is formed by two circular simple curves having a common tangent but
lies on opposite sides. At the point where the curve reversed in its
direction is called Point of Reversed Curvature (P.R.C.).

Four Types of Reversed Curve:

1. Reversed curve with equal radii and parallel tangents.

2. Reversed curve with unequal radii and parallel tangents.
3. Reversed curve with radii and converging tangents.
4. Reversed curve with unequal radii and converging tangents.
Elements of a Reversed Curve

R1 & R2 = radii of curvature

θ = angle bet. converging tangents
= I2 – I1
P.C. = point of curvature
P.T. = point of tangency
P.R.C. = point of reverse curvature
Lc = length of reverse curve
= Lc1 + Lc2
PARABOLIC CURVES
- to provide gradual change in vertical direction, a parabolic vertical
curve is adopted on account of its slope which varies at constant rate
with respect to horizontal distances.

A. Symmetrical Parabolic Curves

g1L/2
P.I.
(g1 – g2)L/2
g1
H -g2
g2L/2
P.C. H
P.T.
L/2 L/2

Backward tangent Forward tangent

Properties of Vertical Parabolic Curves:

a. The vertical offsets from the tangent to the curve are proportional to
the squares of the distances from the point of tangency.

y1 H
2
= 2
x1 L
 
2
b. The curve bisects the distance between the vertex and the midpoint of
the long chord.

2H =
( g1 − g 2 )L / 2
2

H=
( g1 − g 2 )L
8
 c. If the algebraic difference in the rate of grade of the two slopes is
positive, that is (g1 – g2), we have a “summit” curve, but if it is
negative, we have a “sag curve”.

d. The length of the curve of a parabolic vertical curve, refers to the

horizontal distance from the P.C. to the P.T.

e. The rate of change of the slope is constant.

g 2 − g1
r=
L
Location of highest or lowest point of the curve.

g1 L Location of the highest or lowest point of

S1 =
g1 − g 2 the curve from the P.C.

g2 L Location of the highest or lowest point of

S2 = the curve from the P.T.
g 2 − g1
B. Unsymmetrical Parabolic Curves

g1L2
P.I.
(g1 – g2)L2
h1 g1 h2
H -g2
g2L2
P.C. H
P.T.
L1/2 L1/2 L2/2
L2 L2/2
L1

Backward tangent Forward tangent

1 2 H L2
h1 = H L1 =
4 L2 ( g1 − g 2 )− 2 H

1
h2 = H
4
Location of highest or lowest point of the curve.

a. From P.C. when L1g1/2 < H

2 Location of the highest or lowest point of

g1 L1
S1 = the curve from the P.C.
2H
b. From P.T. when L1g1/2 > H

2 Location of the highest or lowest point of

g 2 L2
S2 = the curve from the P.T.
2H
When L1g1/2 > H, the highest or lowest point of the curve is located on
the right side of the curve.

when L1g1/2 > H when L1g1/2 < H

2 2
g 2 L2 from the P.T. g1 L1 from the P.C.
S2 = S1 =
2H 2H
SPIRAL CURVE Elements of a spiral curve:
S.C. = spiral to curve
C.S. = curve to spiral
S.T. = spiral to tangent
Ts = tangent distance
Tc = tangent distance for the curve
I I = angle of intersection of spiral
Ts easement curve.
100-I/2
Ic = angle of intersection of simple curve
T.S. = tangent to spiral
θ Rc = radius of simple curve
Ic
Yc Xc Dc = degree of simple curve
C.S.
Y X L.T. = long tangent
S.C.
S.T. = short tangent
L.T.
Es = ext. dist. of the spiral curve
Lc Lc L.C. = long chord of spiral transition
T.S. Rc Rc S.T. Xc = offset from tangent at S.C.
Yc = dist. along the tangent from
The T.S. to S.C.
X = offset from tangent at any point
on the spiral
Y = dist. along tangent at any point
on the spiral
Sc = spiral angle at S.C.
i = deflection angle at any point on
the spiral
Lc = length of spiral
L = length of spiral from T.S. to any point
along the spiral.
SUMMARY OF FORMULAS FOR SPIRAL CURVE

1. Spiral angle at any point on the spiral, (s).

L2 180
s = x
2 Rc Lc π
2. Spiral angle at S.C. (Sc). arc basis, metric system).

Dc Lc
2 Lc 180
Sc = Sc = x
40 2 Rc π
3. Offset distance from tangent at S.C. (Xc)

Lc
2
L3
Xc = X = Xc 3
6 Rc Lc
4. Deflection angle at any point on the spiral, (i).

s
i =
3
5. Distance along tangent at any point in the spiral. (y)

L5
y =L− 2 2
40 Rc Lc
6. Distance along tangent at S.C. from T.S. (yc)

3
Lc
yc = Lc − 2
40 Rc
7. Tangent distance for spiral (Ts).

Lc  Xc  1
Ts = +  Rc +  tan
2  4  2
8. External distance (Es).

 Xc  1
Es =  Rc +  sec − Rc
 4  2
9. Angle of intersection of simple curve (Ic)

I c = I − 2Sc
10.

Xc L2
p = −
4 24 Rc
11. Super-elevation, (e).

0.0079 K 2
e= Where K = kph
R

0.004 K 2 Considering 75% of K to

e= counteract the super-elevation.
R
12. Desirable length of spiral (Lc)

0.036 K 3
Lc =
R

13. Deflection angle vary as the squares of the length from the T.S.

i L2
= 2
ic Lc

14. Degree of curve varies directly with the length from the T.S.

D L
=
Dc Lc
MINE SURVEY
MINING TERMINOLOGY:
VEIN - a relatively thin deposit of mineral between definite
boundaries.

STRIKE – the line of intersection of the vein with a horizontal plane.

DIP – the vertical angle between the plane of the vein and horizontal
plane measured perpendicular to the strike.

OUTCROP – the portion of the vein exposed at the ground surface.

DRIFT – an inclined passage driven in a particular direction.

SITE DISTANCES
A. HORIZONTAL CURVES
S>L
S<L S L

L S

M •
P.C.
M •
P.T.

L(2 S − L )
P.C. P.T.
2
S
M= M=
8R 8R
where:
S = sight distance along the center of roadway
L = length of curve
M = clear distance from center of roadway to the obstruction.
R = radius of center line curve
B. VERTICAL SUMMIT CURVES
S<L
S

h1 h2
L

2 when h1 = h2 = h
AS
L=
100 ( 2h1 + 2h2 )2
L=
S 2 ( g1 − g 2 )
h
where:
S = sight distance along the center of roadway
L = length of curve
h1 = height of drivers eye above the pavement
h2 = height of object above pavement
g1, g2 = grade or slope of tangent line
A = g1 – g2
S>L

h1 h2
• L •

L = 2S −
100 ( 2h1 − 2h2 )
2

A
when h1 = h2 = h

2 S ( g1 − g 2 ) − 8h
L=
g1 − g 2
 C. VERTICAL SAG CURVES
S<L S>L
S S

h1 h2 h2 h1
• •
L
L

AS 2
L = 2S −
(122 + 3.5S )
L=
122 + 3.5S A
STOPPING SITE DISTANCE
- is the total distance traveled during three time interval.

1. The time for the driver to perceive the hazard.

2. The time to react.

3. The time to stop the vehicle after the brakes are applied.

Vo Vo Vf=0

Vo.t
D
S
where:
S = Vo .t + D Vo = initial velocity of car
t = perception time
2 D = braking distance
Vo
S = Vo .t + f = coeff. of friction bet tires & pavement
2g( f ± G) g = 9.81 m/s²
G = grade/slope of pavement