Publications Catalog May 2018
Publications Catalog May 2018
Publications Catalog May 2018
May 2018
Table of Contents
Index of AGMA Standards and Information Sheets by Number ................................................................... 1
Index of AGMA Standards and Information Sheets by Topic ....................................................................... 9
Aerospace ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Calibration and Measurement Uncertainty ............................................................................................. 9
Couplings ................................................................................................................................................ 9
Design and Assembly – Bevel ................................................................................................................ 9
Design – Fine Pitch ................................................................................................................................ 9
Design – Spur and Helical ...................................................................................................................... 9
Design – Wormgears .............................................................................................................................. 9
Drive Components ................................................................................................................................ 10
Enclosed Drives .................................................................................................................................... 10
Failure Modes ....................................................................................................................................... 10
High Speed Units .................................................................................................................................. 10
Inspection and Tolerances ................................................................................................................... 10
Lubrication ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Materials ............................................................................................................................................... 10
Metric Usage......................................................................................................................................... 10
Mill Drives ............................................................................................................................................. 11
Nomenclature ....................................................................................................................................... 11
Plastics Gears....................................................................................................................................... 11
Powder Metallurgy Gears ..................................................................................................................... 11
Proportions ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Rating: Spur, Helical and Bevel Gears ................................................................................................. 11
Sound and Vibration ............................................................................................................................. 12
Style Manual ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Thermal................................................................................................................................................. 12
Vehicle .................................................................................................................................................. 12
Wind Turbine Units ............................................................................................................................... 12
Wormgears ........................................................................................................................................... 12
AGMA Standards and Information Sheets .................................................................................................. 13
ISO Standards by Technical Committee 60 ................................................................................................ 27
Fall Technical Meeting Papers: 2000–2017................................................................................................ 30
2017 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 30
2016 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 33
2015 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 37
2014 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 46
2013 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 52
2012 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 59
2011 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 68
2010 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 77
2009 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 82
2008 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 87
2007 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 91
2006 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 96
2005 PAPERS ...................................................................................................................................... 99
2004 PAPERS .................................................................................................................................... 103
2002 PAPERS .................................................................................................................................... 106
2001 PAPERS .................................................................................................................................... 108
2000 PAPERS .................................................................................................................................... 110
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Obsolete documents should not be used; please use replacements. Most obsolete and superseded documents are
available for purchase. Contact AGMA Headquarters for pricing and availability.
Couplings
AGMA 922 Load Classification and Service Factors for Flexible Couplings
ANSI/AGMA 9000 Flexible Couplings – Potential Unbalance Classification
ANSI/AGMA 9001 Flexible Couplings – Lubrication
ANSI/AGMA 9002 Bores and Keyways for Flexible Couplings (Inch Series)
ANSI/AGMA 9003 Flexible Couplings – Keyless Fits
ANSI/AGMA 9004 Flexible Couplings – Mass Elastic Properties and Other Characteristics
ANSI/AGMA 9006 Flexible Couplings – Basis for Rating
ANSI/AGMA 9008 Flexible Couplings – Gear Type – Flange Dimensions, Inch Series
ANSI/AGMA 9009 Flexible Couplings – Nomenclature for Flexible Couplings
ANSI/AGMA 9103 Flexible Couplings – Keyless Fits (Metric Edition)
ANSI/AGMA 9104 Flexible Couplings – Mass Elastic Properties and Other Characteristics (Metric Edition)
ANSI/AGMA 9110 Flexible Couplings – Potential Unbalance Classification (Metric Edition)
ANSI/AGMA 9112 Bores and Keyways for Flexible Couplings (Metric Series)
Design – Wormgears
ANSI/AGMA 6022 Design Manual for Cylindrical Wormgearing
Enclosed Drives
AGMA 940 Double Helical Epicyclic Gear Units
AGMA ISO 14179-1 Gear Reducers – Thermal Capacity Based on ISO/TR 14179-1
ANSI/AGMA 6013 Standard for Industrial Enclosed Gear Drives
ANSI/AGMA 6113 Standard for Industrial Enclosed Gear Drives (Metric)
ANSI/AGMA 6123 Design Manual for Enclosed Epicyclic Gear Drives (Metric)
Failure Modes
ANSI/AGMA 1010, Appearance of Gear Teeth – Terminology of Wear and Failure
Lubrication
ANSI/AGMA 9005 Industrial Gear Lubrication
Materials
AGMA 920 Materials for Plastic Gears
AGMA 923 Metallurgical Specifications for Steel Gearing
AGMA 938 Shot Peening of Gears
AGMA 939 Austempered Ductile Iron for Gears
ANSI/AGMA 2004 Gear Materials, Heat Treatment and Processing Manual
ANSI/AGMA 6033 Materials for Marine Propulsion Gearing
ANSI/AGMA 6133 Materials for Marine Propulsion Gearing (Metric)
Metric Usage
AGMA 904 Metric Usage
Nomenclature
AGMA 933 Basic Gear Geometry
ANSI/AGMA 1012 Gear Nomenclature, Definitions of Terms with Symbols
Plastics Gears
AGMA 905 Inspection of Molded Plastic Gears
AGMA 909 Specifications for Molded Plastic Gears
AGMA 920 Materials for Plastic Gears
ANSI/AGMA 1006 Tooth Proportions for Plastic Gears
ANSI/AGMA 1106 Tooth Proportions for Plastic Gears
Proportions
ANSI/AGMA 1003 Tooth Proportions for Fine-Pitch Spur and Helical Gears
ANSI/AGMA 1006 Tooth Proportions for Plastic Gears
ANSI/AGMA 1103 Tooth Proportions for Fine-Pitch Spur and Helical Gears (Metric Edition)
ANSI/AGMA 1106 Tooth Proportions for Plastic Gears (Metric Edition)
Style Manual
AGMA 900 Style Manual for the Preparation of Standards and Editorial Manuals
Thermal
AGMA ISO 14179-1 Gear Reducers – Thermal Capacity Based on ISO/TR 14179-1
Vehicle
ANSI/AGMA 6002 Design Guide for Vehicle Spur and Helical Gears
ANSI/AGMA 6102 Design Guide for Vehicle Spur and Helical Gears (Metric)
Wormgears
ANSI/AGMA 6034 Practice for Enclosed Cylindrical Wormgear Speed Reducers and Gearmotors
ANSI/AGMA 6035 Design, Rating and Application of Industrial Globoidal Wormgearing
ANSI/AGMA 6135 Design, Rating and Application of Industrial Globoidal Wormgearing (Metric)
AGMA 900-I11 Style Manual for the Preparation of Standards, Information Sheets and Editorial Manuals
Presents the requirements for preparing AGMA standards, editorial manuals, and other technical literature. A new
annex, “ISO symbols used in metric documents,” has been added, which includes a comprehensive listing of the
symbols used in ISO gear rating standards. Revision of AGMA 900-H06.
ISBN: 1-55589-775-4 Pages: 38
AGMA 901-A92 A Rational Procedure for the Preliminary Design of Minimum Volume Gears
Presents a simple, closed-form procedure as a first step in the minimum volume spur and helical gearset design.
It Includes methods for selecting geometry and dimensions, considering maximum pitting resistance, bending
strength, and scuffing resistance, and methods for selecting profile shift. Reaffirmed March 2015.
ISBN: 1-55589-579-4 Pages: 37
AGMA 908-B89 Geometry Factors for Determining the Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength of Spur,
Helical and Herringbone Gear Teeth
Gives the equations for calculating the pitting resistance geometry factor, I, for external and internal spur and
helical gears, and the bending strength geometry factor, J, for external spur and helical gears that are generated
by rack-type tools (hobs, rack cutters or generating grinding wheels) or pinion-type tools (shaper cutters). Includes
charts which provide geometry factors, I and J, for a range of typical gear sets and tooth forms. Reaffirmed
March 2015.
ISBN: 1-55589-525-5 Pages: 78
AGMA 914-B04, Gear Sound Manual – Part I: Fundamentals of Sound as Related to Gears; Part II: Sources,
Specifications and Levels of Gear Sound; Part III: Gear Noise Control
This information sheet discusses how noise measurement and control depend upon the individual characteristics
of the prime mover, gear unit, and driven machine, as well as their combined effects in a particular acoustical
environment. It indicates certain areas that might require special attention. This document is a revision of AGMA
299.01 to include updated references and a discussion of Fast Fourier Transform analysis. Replaces
AGMA 299.01. Reaffirmed March 15, 2018.
ISBN: 1-55589-820-3 Pages: 37
AGMA 915-3-A99 Inspection Practices – Gear Blanks, Shaft Center Distance and Parallelism
Provides recommended numerical values relating to the inspection of gear blanks, shaft center distance and
parallelism of shaft axes. Discussions include such topics as methods for defining datum axes on components;
the use of center holes and mounting surfaces during manufacturing and inspection; and, recommended values of
in-plane and out-of-plane deviations of shaft parallelism. Modified adoption of ISO/TR 10064-3:1996.
Reaffirmed September 21, 2017.
ISBN: 1-55589-738-3 Pages: 9
AGMA 918-A93 A Summary of Numerical Examples Demonstrating the Procedures for Calculating Geometry
Factors for Spur and Helical Gears
Provides numerical examples for calculating the pitting resistance geometry factor, I, and bending strength
geometry factor, J, for typical gearsets that are generated by rack-type tools (hobs, rack cutters or generating
grinding wheels) or pinion-type tools (disk-type shaper cutters). Supplement to AGMA 908-B89. Reaffirmed
March 2015.
ISBN: 1-55589-617-0 Pages: 42
AGMA 919-1-A14 Condition Monitoring and Diagnostics of Gear Units and Open Gears: Part 1 – Basics
The new information sheet provides basic overviews of key approaches to establishing a condition monitoring and
diagnostics program for open gearing and enclosed gear units. This information sheet attempts to inform the
reader of the common techniques used and parameters measured for condition monitoring of a gear unit allowing
the reader to build a program based on individual needs.
ISBN: 1-61481-087-2 Pages: 20
AGMA 922-A96 Load Classification and Service Factors for Flexible Couplings
This Information Sheet provides load classifications and related service factors that are frequently used for various
flexible coupling applications. Typical applications using smooth prime movers and special considerations
involving unusual or more severe loading are discussed. Replaces AGMA 514.02. Reaffirmed May 2015.
ISBN: 1-55589-680-4 Pages: 6
AGMA 927-A01 Load Distribution Factors – Analytical Methods for Cylindrical Gears
Describes an analytical procedure for the calculation of face load distribution factor. The iterative solution that is
described is compatible with the definitions of the term face load distribution of AGMA standards and longitudinal
load distribution of the ISO standards. The procedure is easily programmable and flow charts of the calculation
scheme, as well as examples from typical software are presented. Supplement to ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04.
Reaffirmed January 2013.
ISBN: 1-55589-779-7 Pages: 31
AGMA 929-A06 Calculation of Bevel Gear Top Land and Guidance on Cutter Edge Radius
Has the calculations for bevel gear top land and guidance for selection of cutter edge radius for determination of
tooth geometry. It integrates various publications with modifications to include face hobbing. It adds top land
calculations for non-generated manufacturing methods. It is intended to provide assistance in completing the
calculations requiring determination of top lands and cutter edge radii for gear capacity in accordance with
ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97. Supplement to standard ANSI/AGMA 2005-D03. Reaffirmed February 3, 2011.
ISBN: 1-55589-873-4 Pages: 38
AGMA 930-A05 Calculated Bending Load Capacity of Powder Metallurgy (P/M) External Spur Gears
This information sheet describes a procedure for calculating the load capacity of a pair of powder metallurgy
external spur gears based on tooth bending strength. Two types of loading are considered: 1) repeated loading
over many cycles; and 2) occasional peak loading. It also describes an essentially reverse procedure for
establishing an initial design from specified applied loads. As part of the load capacity calculations, there is a
detailed analysis of the gear teeth geometry, including tooth profiles and various fillets. Reaffirmed September
13, 2017.
AGMA 932-A05 Rating the Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength of Hypoid Gears
This information sheet provides a method by which different hypoid gear designs can be compared. The formulas
are intended to establish a uniformly acceptable method for calculating the pitting resistance and bending strength
capacity of both curved and skewed tooth hypoid gears. They apply equally to tapered depth and uniform depth
teeth. Annexes contain graphs for geometry factors and a sample calculation to assist the user. Supplement to
ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97. Reaffirmed February 3, 2011.
ISBN: 1-55589-869-6 Pages: 18
AGMA 935-A05 Recommendations Relative to the Evaluation of Radial Composite Gear Double Flank Testers
The condition and alignment of gear measuring instruments can greatly influence the measurement of product
gears. This information sheet provides qualification procedures for double flank testers that are used for the
evaluation of radial composite deviations of gears. It discusses guidelines for alignment of double flank tester
elements such as centers, ways, probe systems, etc. It also covers the application of artifacts to determine
instrument accuracy. Supplement to standard ANSI/AGMA 2116-A05. Reaffirmed June 2015.
ISBN: 1-55589-872-6 Pages: 11
ANSI/AGMA 1003-H07 Tooth Proportions for Fine-Pitch Spur and Helical Gears
Tooth proportions for fine-pitch gearing are similar to those of coarse pitch gearing except in the matter of
clearance. This standard is applicable to external spur and helical gears with diametral pitch of 20 through
120 and a profile angle of 20 degrees. It provides a system of enlarged pinions which use the involute form above
5 degrees of roll. Data on 14-1/2 and 25-degree profile angle systems, and a discussion of enlargement and tooth
thicknesses are provided in annexes. In addition, it addresses, in a new annex, an analysis of comparative
systems of selecting tooth thicknesses of pinions. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 1003-G93. Reaffirmed March 2014.
ISBN: 1-55589-902-8 Pages: 25
ANSI/AGMA 1103-H07 Tooth Proportions for Fine-Pitch Spur and Helical Gears (Metric Edition)
Tooth proportions for fine-pitch gearing are similar to those of coarse pitch gearing except in the matter of
clearance. This standard is applicable to external spur and helical gears with diametral pitch of 1.25 through
0.2 and a profile angle of 20 degrees. It provides a system of enlarged pinions which use the involute form above
5 degrees of roll. Data on 14-1/2 and 25-degree profile angle systems, and a discussion of enlargement and tooth
thicknesses are provided in annexes. In addition, it addresses, in a new annex, an analysis of comparative
systems of selecting tooth thicknesses of pinions. Metric version of ANSI/AGMA 1003-H07. Reaffirmed
March 2014.
ISBN: 1-55589-903-5 Pages: 25
ANSI/AGMA ISO 1328-1-B14 Cylindrical gears – ISO system of flank tolerance classification – Part 1:
Definitions and allowable values of deviations relevant to flanks of gear teeth
This standard establishes a tolerance classification system relevant to manufacturing and conformity assessment
of tooth flanks of individual cylindrical involute gears. It specifies definitions for gear flank tolerance terms, the
structure of the flank tolerance class system, and allowable values. Replaces ANSI/AGMA 2015-1-A01.
ISBN: 1-61481-114-5 Pages: 47
ANSI/AGMA 2001-D04 Fundamental Rating Factors and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and Helical
Gear Teeth
Presents a comprehensive method for rating the pitting resistance and bending strength of spur and helical
involute gear pairs. Contains detailed discussions of factors influencing gear survival and calculation methods.
Revisions reflected in this version include incorporating the latest AGMA accuracy standard (ANSI/AGMA 2015-1-
A01) into the determination of dynamic factor and change to the relationship between service factor and stress
cycle factor. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 2001-C95. Reaffirmed March 2016.
ISBN: 1-55589-839-4 Pages: 56
ANSI/AGMA 2002-C16, Tooth Thickness and Backlash Measurement of Cylindrical Involute Gearing
Establishes the procedures for determining the specification limits for tooth thickness of external and internal
cylindrical involute gearing. Includes equations and calculation procedures for the commonly used measuring
methods. A specific tooth thickness specification limit can be established from the design thickness or from
another tooth thickness measurement. The procedures can be used with an established design tooth thickness, or
with actual tooth thickness dimensions. The effect of tooth geometric quality variations on tooth thickness
dimensions is discussed. Calculations for backlash are included, and are based on the specified tooth thickness,
center distance, and tolerances. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 2002-B88.
ISBN: 1-55589-056-8 Pages: 151
ANSI/AGMA 2003-C10 Rating the Pitting Resistance and Bending Strength of Generated Straight Bevel, Zerol
Bevel and Spiral Bevel Gear Teeth
This standard specifies a method for rating the pitting resistance and bending strength of generated straight bevel,
zerol bevel and spiral bevel gear teeth. A detailed discussion of factors influencing gear survival and a calculation
method are provided. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 2003-B97. Reaffirmed December 2015.
ISBN: 1-55589-975-2 Pages: 71
ANSI/AGMA 2015-2-B15 Gear Tooth Flank Tolerance Classification System – Definitions and Allowable
Values of Double Flank Radial Composite Deviations
This standard establishes a classification system for double flank radial composite tolerances—allowable values
of deviations—of individual cylindrical involute gears, sector gears, racks, cylindrical worms, worm gears and
hypoid or bevel gears. It serves as a concise means of specifying allowable gear geometry deviations and
simplifies discussions between the gear manufacturer and purchaser. It specifies the appropriate definitions of
double flank radial composite gear tooth geometry deviations, the structure of the tolerance system and the
tolerances. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 2015-2-A06.
ISBN: 1-55589-005-6 Pages: 26
Supplemental Tables for AGMA 2015/915-1 Accuracy Classification System – Tangential Measurement
Tolerance Tables for Cylindrical Gears
Only provides tolerance tables as a supplement to AGMA 2015-1-A01, Accuracy Classification System –
Tangential Measurements for Cylindrical Gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-813-0 Pages: 101
ANSI/AGMA 2101-D04 Fundamental Rating Factors and Calculation Methods for Involute Spur and Helical
Gear Teeth (Metric Edition)
Presents a comprehensive method for rating the pitting resistance and bending strength of spur and helical
involute gear pairs. Contains detailed discussions of factors influencing gear survival and calculation methods.
Revisions reflected in this version include incorporating the latest AGMA accuracy standard (ANSI/AGMA 2015-1-
A01) into the determination of dynamic factor and change to the relationship between service factor and stress
cycle factor. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 2101-C95. Reaffirmed March 2016.
ISBN: 1-55589-840-8 Pages: 56
ANSI/AGMA 6001-E08 Design and Selection of Components for Enclosed Gear Drives
This standard outlines the basic practices for the design and selection of components, other than gearing, for use
in commercial and industrial enclosed gear drives. Fundamental equations provide for the proper sizing of shafts,
keys, and fasteners based on stated allowable stresses. Other components are discussed in a manner to provide
an awareness of their function or specific requirements. This standard applies to the following types of commercial
and industrial enclosed gear drives, individually or in combination: spur, helical, herringbone, bevel and worm.
Revision of ANSI/AGMA 6001-D97. Reaffirmed March 2014.
ISBN: 1-55589-951-6 Pages: 44
ANSI/AGMA 6002-C15 Design Guide for Vehicle Spur and Helical Gears
This standard provides the engineer, who is familiar with gear designing, a guide to sound design approaches for
vehicle gear applications. Through this standard, the engineer is guided to selecting design considerations
paramount to the parallel axis gear sets required in vehicle drive lines. These include tooth and blank proportions,
metallurgy, lubrication, profile and lead modification requirements, and gear tooth tolerances. Properties of the
commonly used steels and processes for their heat treatment are outlined, as well as details for calculating design
limits for bending and contact stresses. Replaces ANSI/AGMA 6002-B93.
ISBN: 1- 55589-001-8 Pages: 69
ANSI/AGMA/AWEA 6006-A03 Standard for Design and Specification of Gearboxes for Wind Turbines
This standard is intended to apply to wind turbine gearboxes. It provides information for specifying, selecting,
designing, manufacturing, procuring operating and manufacturing reliable speed increasing gearboxes for wind
turbine generator system service.
Annex information is supplied on: wind turbine architecture, wind turbine load description, quality assurance,
operation and maintenance, minimum purchaser gearbox manufacturing ordering data, lubrication selection and
monitoring, determination of an application factor from a load spectrum using equivalent torque and bearing stress
calculations. Replaces AGMA 921-A97. Reaffirmed June 29, 2016.
ISBN: 1-55589-817-3 Pages: 94
ANSI/AGMA 6014-B15 Gear Power Rating for Cylindrical Shell and Trunnion Supported Equipment
This standard specifies a method for rating the pitting resistance and bending strength of open or semi-enclosed
gearing for use on cylindrical shell and trunnion supported equipment such as grinding mills, kilns, coolers, and
dryers. This includes spur, self-aligning spur, single helical, double helical, and herringbone gears made from
steel, ductile iron, and austempered ductile iron. Annexes cover installation, alignment, maintenance, combination
drives, and lubrication. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 6014-A06.
ISBN: 1-55589-045-2 Pages: 82
ANSI/AGMA 6015-A13 Power Rating of Single and Double Helical Gearing for Rolling Mill Service
This Standard provides a method for determining the power rating of gear sets used in main mill drives, pinion
stands, and combination units used for the reduction of material size in metal rolling mills. Applications include,
but are not limited to, hot mills and cold mills, roughing and finishing stands: reducing, increasing, and 1:1 ratio
sets. Auxiliary drives, including drives listed in ANSI/AGMA 6013-A06, such as bridles, coilers, uncoilers, edge
trimmers, flatteners, loopers (accumulators), pinch rolls, scrap choppers, shears, and slitters are not covered by
this document. This standard includes a method by which different gear tooth designs can be rated and compared
at extended life cycles typical for these applications, up to 175 000 hours.
ISBN: 1-61481-056-8 Pages: 67
ANSI/AGMA 6025-D98 Sound for Enclosed Helical, Herringbone and Spiral Bevel Gear Drives
Describes a recommended method of acceptance testing and reporting of the sound pressure levels generated by
a gear speed reducer or increaser when tested at the manufacturer’s facility. The results obtained through the use
of this standard should represent only the sound of the gear unit, as other system influences, such as prime
mover or driven equipment are minimized. Annexes to the standard present sound power measurement methods
for use when required by specific contract provisions between the manufacturer and purchaser. Revision of
ANSI/AGMA 6025-C90. Reaffirmed March 2016.
ISBN: 1-55589-718-5 Pages: 21
ANSI/AGMA 6032-B13 Standard for Marine Gear Units: Rating and Application for Spur and Helical
Gear Teeth
This document considers rating practices for marine main propulsion, power take-off and auxiliary propulsion
service. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 6032-A94.
ISBN: 1-61481-084-1 Pages: 52
ANSI/AGMA 6101-E08 Design and Selection of Components for Enclosed Gear Drives (Metric Edition)
This standard outlines the basic practices for the design and selection of components, other than gearing, for use
in commercial and industrial enclosed gear drives. Fundamental equations provide for the proper sizing of shafts,
keys, and fasteners based on stated allowable stresses. Other components are discussed in a manner to provide
an awareness of their function or specific requirements. This standard applies to the following types of commercial
and industrial enclosed gear drives, individually or in combination: spur, helical, herringbone, bevel and worm.
Metric Edition of ANSI/AGMA 6001-E08. Reaffirmed March 2014.
ISBN: 1-55589-952-3 Pages: 42
ANSI/AGMA 6102-C15 Design Guide for Vehicle Spur and Helical Gears (Metric Edition)
This standard provides the engineer, who is familiar with gear designing, a guide to sound design approaches for
vehicle gear applications. Through this standard, the engineer is guided to selecting design considerations
paramount to the parallel axis gear sets required in vehicle drive lines. These include tooth and blank proportions,
metallurgy, lubrication, profile and lead modification requirements, and gear tooth tolerances. Properties of the
commonly used steels and processes for their heat treatment are outlined, as well as details for calculating design
limits for bending and contact stresses.
ISBN: 1-55589-003-2 Pages: 69
ANSI/AGMA 6113-B16 Standard for Industrial Enclosed Gear Drives (Metric Edition)
This standard includes design, rating, lubrication, testing, and selection information for enclosed gear drives,
including foot mounted, shaft mounted, screw conveyor drives, and gearmotors. These drives may include spur,
helical, herringbone, double helical, or bevel gearing in single or multistage arrangements as either parallel,
concentric, or right angle configurations. Metric version of ANSI/AGMA 6013-B16. Replaces ANSI/AGMA 6113-
A06.
ISBN: 978-1-55589-051-3 Pages: 84
ANSI/AGMA 6114-B15 Gear Power Rating for Cylindrical Shell and Trunnion Supported Equipment
(Metric Edition)
This standard specifies a method for rating the pitting resistance and bending strength of open or semi-enclosed
gearing for use on cylindrical shell and trunnion supported equipment such as grinding mills, kilns, coolers, and
dryers. This includes spur, self-aligning spur, single helical, double helical, and herringbone gears made from
steel, ductile iron, and austempered ductile iron. Annexes cover installation, alignment, maintenance, combination
drives, and lubrication. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 6014-A06. Replaces 6114-A06. Metric edition of ANSI/AGMA
6014-B15.
ISBN: 1-55589-047-6 Pages: 82
ANSI/AGMA 6132-B13 Standard for Marine Gear Units: Rating and Application for Spur and Helical Gear
Teeth (Metric Edition)
This document considers rating practices for marine main propulsion, power take-off and auxiliary propulsion
service. Metric edition of ANSI/AGMA 6032-B13.
ISBN: 1-61481-085-8 Pages: 52
ANSI/AGMA 6135-A02 Design, Rating and Application of Industrial Globoidal Wormgearing (Metric Version)
This standard provides guidelines for the design, rating and application of globoidal wormgearing mounted at a
90-degree angle. Specific definitions for globoidal wormgearing terms are presented, along with formulas for
determining the geometric sizes of the major features for the worm and gear. Design considerations, design
procedures, gear blanks and self-locking conditions are also discussed. Procedures for rating the load capacity of
globoidal wormgearing are included. Replaces ANSI/AGMA 6017-E86 and ANSI/AGMA 6030-C87. Metric
edition of ANSI/AGMA 6035-A02. Reaffirmed August 2013.
ISBN: 1-55589-793-2 Pages: 45
ANSI/AGMA ISO 6336-6-A08 Calculation of Load Capacity of Spur and Helical Gears – Part 6: Calculation of
Service Life under Variable Load
This standard specifies the information and standardized conditions necessary for the calculation of the service
life (or safety factors for a required life) of gears subject to variable loading. While the method is presented in the
context of ISO 6336 and the calculation of load capacity for spur and helical gears, it is equally applicable to other
types of stress. Identical adoption of ISO 6336-6:2006. Reaffirmed March 2014. Warning: Users are advised
that there is a corrigendum to Clause C.6 of Annex C; see ISO 6336-6:2006/Cor.1:2007(E).
ISBN: 1-55589-928-8 Pages: 20
ANSI/AGMA 9002-C14 Bores and Keyways for Flexible Couplings (Inch Series)
This standard describes sizes and tolerances for straight and tapered bores and the associated keys and
keyways, as furnished in flexible couplings. The data in the standard considers commercially standard coupling
bores and keyways, not special coupling bores and keyways that may require special tolerances. Annexes
provide material on inspection methods and design practices for tapered shafts. Revision of ANSI/AGMA
9002-B04.
ISBN: 1-61481-091-9 Pages: 28
ANSI/AGMA 9004-B08 Flexible Couplings – Mass Elastic Properties and Other Characteristics
This standard provides calculation methods related to mass elastic properties of flexible couplings. Properties
discussed include coupling mass, polar mass moment of inertia (WR2), center of gravity, axial stiffness, axial
natural frequency, lateral stiffness, lateral natural frequency, and torsional stiffness. Calculation examples are
provided in informative annexes. Revision of ANSI/AGMA 9004-A99. Reaffirmed May 2014.
ISBN: 1-55589-973-8 Pages: 33
ANSI/AGMA 9008-B00 Flexible Couplings – Gear Type – Flange Dimensions, Inch Series
Defines the North American industry practice for the interface dimensions of the sleeve and rigid hubs of both
shrouded and exposed bole, inch series, gear type couplings. Reaffirmed December 19, 2017.
ISBN: 1-55589-736-3 Pages: 3
ANSI/AGMA 9104-A06 Flexible Couplings – Mass Elastic Properties and Other Characteristics (Metric Edition)
This standard provides calculation methods related to mass elastic properties of flexible couplings. Properties
discussed include coupling mass, polar mass moment of inertia, center of gravity, axial stiffness, axial natural
frequency, lateral stiffness, lateral natural frequency, and torsional stiffness. Calculation examples are provided in
informative annexes. Metric edition of ANSI/AGMA 9004-A99. Reaffirmed December 19, 2017.
ISBN: 1-55589-900-4 Pages: 32
ANSI/AGMA 9112-B15 Bores and Keyways for Flexible Couplings (Metric Series)
This standard describes sizes and tolerances for straight and tapered bores and the associated keys and
keyways, as furnished in flexible couplings. The data in the standard considers commercially standard coupling
bores and keyways, not special coupling bores and keyways that may require special tolerances. Annexes
provide material on inspection methods and design practices for tapered shafts. Metric edition of ANSI/AGMA
9002-C14.
ISBN: 1-61481-092-6 Pages: 36
AGMA ISO 10064-5-A06 Code of Inspection Practice – Part 5: Recommendations Relative to Evaluation of
Gear Measuring Instruments
This information sheet provides methods and examples to support the implementation of ANSI/AGMA ISO 18653-
A06. It includes evaluation and calibration procedures for involute, helix, runout, and tooth thickness measurement
processes. Methods are given for the evaluation of condition and alignment of instrument elements such as
centers, guideways, probe systems, etc. Recommendations include statistical data evaluation procedures.
Guidance is given on the application of measurement processes to the inspection of product gears, including
fitness for use and the recommended limits of U95 uncertainty based on the accuracy tolerances of product gears
to be inspected. Many of its recommendations could be applied to the measurement of worms, worm wheels,
bevel gears and gear cutting tools. Replaces AGMA 931-A02. Reaffirmed November 1, 2012.
ISBN: 1-55589-881-5 Pages: 62
AGMA ISO 10064-6-A10 Code of Inspection Practice – Part 6: Bevel Gear Measurement Methods
This document provides information on measuring methods and practices of unassembled bevel and hypoid gears
and gear pairs. Tolerances are provided in ISO 17485:2006, for calculating the maximum values allowed by the
specific tolerance grade. These methods and practices are intended to promote uniform inspection procedures
which are accurate and repeatable to a degree compatible with the specified tolerance grade. Replaces
ANSI/AGMA 2009-B01. Reaffirmed November 1, 2012.
ISBN: 1-55589-994-3 Pages: 28
AGMA ISO 14179-1 Gear Reducers – Thermal Capacity Based on ISO/TR 14179-1
This information sheet utilizes an analytical heat balance model to provide a means of calculating the thermal
transmittable power for a single- or multi-stage gear drive lubricated with mineral oil. The calculation is based on
standard conditions of 25C maximum ambient temperature and 95C maximum oil sump temperature in a large
indoor space, but provides modifiers for other conditions. Differences from ISO/TR 14179-1 are: a) errors were
identified and corrected, b) text was added to clarify the calculation methods, and c) an illustrative example was
added to assist the reader. Modified adoption of ISO/TR 14179-1.
ISBN: 1-55589-821-1 Pages: 26
Supplemental Tables for ANSI/AGMA ISO 17485-A08 Bevel Gears – ISO System of Accuracy –
Tolerance Tables
This information sheet contains tolerance tables dealing with the measurements of bevel gear tooth flanks.
While the tables may be used to estimate the tolerance, the actual tolerances are provided in ANSI/AGMA
ISO 17485-A08.
ISBN: 1-55589-950-9 Pages: 39
ANSI/AGMA ISO 18653-A06 Gears – Evaluation of Instruments for the Measurement of Individual Gears
This International Standard specifies methods for the evaluation of measuring instruments used to measure
cylindrical gear involute, helix, pitch and runout. It includes instruments that measure runout directly, or compute it
from index measurements. Of necessity, it includes the estimation of measurement uncertainty with the use of
calibrated gear artifacts. It also gives recommendations for the evaluation of tooth thickness measuring
instruments. The estimation of product gear measurement uncertainty is beyond its scope (see AGMA ISO 10064-
5-A06 for recommendations). This standard is an identical adoption of ISO 18653:2006. Replaces ANSI/AGMA
2010-A94, ANSI/AGMA 2110-A94, ANSI/AGMA 2113-A97 and ANSI/AGMA 2114-A98.
ISBN: 1-55589-882-3 Pages: 14
Many standards require additional documents for their proper use. A list of these standards is normally
supplied after the scope, in the normative references section of a document. Be sure to inquire whether
the standard you need requires other documents listed herein.
53:1998 Cylindrical gears for general and heavy engineering – Standard basic rack tooth profile
54:1996 Cylindrical gears for general engineering and for heavy engineering – Modules
677:1976 Straight bevel gears for general engineering and heavy engineering – Basic rack
678:1976 (1996) Straight bevel gears for general engineering and heavy engineering – Modules and
diametral pitches
701:1998 International gear notation – Symbols for geometric data
1122-1:1998 Glossary of gear terms – Part 1: Definitions related to geometry
1122-2:1999 Vocabulary of gear terms – Part 2: Definitions related to worm gear geometry
1328-1:2013 Cylindrical gears – ISO system of accuracy – Part 1: Definitions and allowable values of
deviations relevant to corresponding flanks of gear teeth
1328-2:1997 Cylindrical gears – ISO system of accuracy – Part 2: Definitions and allowable values of
deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout information
2203:1973 Technical drawings – Conventional representation of gears
2490:2007 Single-start solid (monoblock) gear hobs with tenon drive or axial keyway, 1 to 40 module –
Nominal dimensions
4468:2009 Gear hobs – Accuracy requirements
6336-1:2006 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 1: Basic principles, introduction
and general influence factors
6336-2:2006 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 2: Calculation of surface
durability (pitting)
6336-3:2006 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 3: Calculation of tooth
bending strength
6336-5:2016 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 5: Strength and quality
of materials
6336-6:2006 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 6: Calculation of service life
under variable load
*TS6336-20 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 20: Calculation of scuffing load
capacity (also applicable to bevel and hypoid gears) – Flash temperature method
(*NOTE: ISO/TS 6336-20 replaces ISO/TR 13989-1)
*TS6336-21 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 21: Calculation of scuffing load
capacity (also applicable to bevel and hypoid gears) – Integral temperature method
(*NOTE: ISO/TS 6336-21 replaces ISO TR 13989-2)
TR6336-30 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Part 30: Calculation examples for the
application of ISO 6336 parts 1,2,3,5
8579-1:2002 Acceptance code for gears – Part 1: Determination of airborne sound power levels emitted
by gear units
9083:2001 Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears – Application to marine gears
17FTM02. Understanding the Dynamic Influences of Gear Oils and Radial Shaft Seals
Authors: Matthias Adler, Joe Walker, Sascha Grasshoff, Craig Desrochers, Matthias Pfadt
Approximately 40 percent of long-term gearbox leakages can be traced back to poor interaction between the
Radial Shaft Seal (RSS) and the lubricant. This paper highlights the most critical interactions between the
industry’s most commonly used gear oil formulations, with emphasis on synthetic oils with Nitrile- and
Fluoroelastomers. Through an ideal combination of base oil and additives, the demand of life expectancy on the
radial shaft seals can be met.
ISBN: 1-55589-529-7 Pages: 15
17FTM03. Gear Tooth Strength Analysis of High Pressure Angle Cylindrical Gears
Authors: Alfonso Fuentes-Aznar, Ignacio Gonzalez-Perez
In this paper, the gear tooth strength of high pressure angle gears is studied and compared with that of
conventional pressure angle gears. The comparison will be performed regarding contact pressure, contact and
bending stresses, loaded function of transmission errors, and comparison of errors of alignment and shift of
contact pattern when mounted in similar shafts.
ISBN: 1-55589-537-2 Pages: 18
17FTM04. The Effectiveness of Shrouding on Reducing Meshed Spur Gear Power Loss – Test Results
Authors: Irebert R. Delgado, M. J. Hurrell
Reducing power losses to rotorcraft gearboxes, due to windage drag and viscous effects on rotating, meshed gear
components would allow gains in areas such as vehicle payload, range, mission type, and fuel consumption. One
method used in rotorcraft gearbox design attempts to reduce losses is to use close clearance walls to enclose the
gears in both the axial and radial directions. This paper examines using meshed spur gears at four shroud
configurations and compares the data to available data.
ISBN: 1-55589-547-1 Pages: 15
17FTM06. The Effect of Asymmetric Cutter Tip Radii on Gear Tooth Root Bending Stress
Authors: Abdullah Akpolat, Nihat Yildirim, Burak Sahin, Omer Yildirim, Bulent Karatas, Fatih Erdogan
The tooth root fillet is where the maximum bending stress concentration region is located during torque
transmission via gear pairs. An increase in gear root fillet radius provides a smooth transition from involute to
trochoid, increases root critical section thickness, and the moment of inertia against bending of tooth. A 10-11%
reduction in bending stress is obtained by using asymmetric cutter tip radii coefficients for two sides of the gear
tooth profile with standard center distance and no tooth interference.
ISBN: 1-55589-568-6 Pages: 20
17FTM08. Areal Evaluation of Involute Gear Flanks with Three-Dimensional Surface Data
Authors: Yue Peng, Kang Ni, Gert Goch
This paper presents the benefits of areal evaluation of gear flanks, mathematical approaches for areal description
of involute surface, deviations and modifications, and the characterization of areal data with “3D gear deviation
parameters”. Approximation and orthogonal polynomial decomposition methods are applied for surface
reconstruction and parameter calculation. Both simulated and measured gear data are analyzed, and
comparisons with conventional evaluation results are presented.
ISBN: 1-55589-578-5 Pages: 15
17FTM11. FE-Based Method for Design of Robust Tooth Flank Modifications for Cylindrical and Planetary
Gear Stages Regarding Manufacturing Tolerances
Authors: Christian Brecher, Christoph Löpenhaus, Julian Theling, Marius Schroers, Daniel Piel
The authors present a method to evaluate the quality and stability of flank modifications regarding manufacturing
tolerances during the design process, using an FE-based tooth contact analysis. The presented design process
provides a method to examine and simulate characteristics of the excitation behavior and durability of a gear pair.
This enables the engineer to choose the most robust micro-geometry in terms of quality and stability already in the
design process.
ISBN: 1-55589-616-4 Pages: 17
17FTM14. Prediction of Dynamic Factors for Helical Gears in a High-Speed Multi-Body Gearbox System
Authors: Niranjan Raghuraman, Chad Glinsky, Sharad Jain
This paper will analyze the influence of operating speed, torque, system dynamics, and gear micro-geometry on
the dynamic factors of a high-speed gearbox. It will show that the dependence of dynamic factor on torque is
significant and must not be ignored, and that the presence of system resonance modes increases dynamic
factors. The dynamic factors calculated in this study are compared with the dynamic factor values suggested by
ISO and AGMA standards.
ISBN: 1-55589-628-7 Pages: 21
17FTM16. Predicting Life on Through Hardened Steel Rack and Pinion for Jacking Applications in the
Offshore Industry
Authors: Adrian Nowoisky
It is well known in the industry that, according to AGMA and ISO gear calculation methods, the contact stresses in
rack and pinion systems for jack up applications exceed the permissible limits by a factor of 3 to 6. However,
these applications have been in service without any failures for more than 20 years. This paper will outline the
process of the analytical evaluation of a specific design and validate it with systems currently in service.
*ISBN (former): 1-55589-736-9* Pages: 14
ISBN (new): 978-1-61481-400-9
*Please note that due to a technical error, this ISBN has changed. Please disregard the previous number.
17FTM18. Effect of Non-metallic Inclusions on Bending Fatigue Performance in High Strength 4140 Steel
Authors: Michael Burnett
This paper studies the fatigue performance of three sets of quench and tempered 4140 steel samples,
representing three distinctly different inclusion populations. The inclusion populations for each of the sample sets
were characterized using both an SEM-based image analysis system, primarily for the micro-inclusions, and a
high-resolution UT system for the macro-inclusions. The sample sets were also evaluated using both longitudinal
and transverse specimens in all the bending fatigue tests. The results of these tests will be presented.
ISBN: 1-55589-759-8 Pages: 23
17FTM20. Influences of the Residual Stress Condition on the Load Carrying Capacity of Case
Hardened Gears
Authors: Christian Güntner, Thomas Tobie, Karsten Stahl
Compressive residual stresses, such as those generated by shot peening, result in an increased tooth root
bending strength. The author’s investigations show that shot peening can increase the load carrying capacity of
case hardened gears significantly. Correlations between the residual stress state and the load carrying capacity
limits were determined. This paper will give an overview of the main results of different investigations and discuss
influences of the residual stress condition on different failure modes of case hardened gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-761-1 Pages: 18
17FTM21. Calculation of Tooth Flank Fracture Load Capacity – Practical Applicability and Main Influence
Parameters
Authors: Michael Hein, Thomas Tobie, Karsten Stahl
Due to improved material qualities, new surface finishing methods, and increased heat treatment process
reliability, flank surface damages, such as pitting or micropitting, can increasingly be prevented in a reliable
manner. At the same time, this may result in an increase of unexpected flank damages such as tooth flank
fracture. A computer-aided calculation of the risk of tooth flank fracture damages will be presented.
ISBN: 1-55589-762-8 Pages: 22
17FTM22. Full Contact Analysis Versus Standard Load Capacity Calculation for Cylindrical Gears
Authors: Michael Otto, Uwe Weinberger, Karsten Stahl
In this paper, local tooth contact analysis and standard calculation are used to determine the load capacity for the
failure modes pitting, tooth root breakage, micropitting and tooth flank breakage. Analogies and differences
between both the local and the standard approaches are shown. The example presented demonstrates a valid
possibility to optimize the gear design by using local tooth contact analysis while satisfying the requirement of
documenting the load carrying capacity by standard calculations.
ISBN: 1-55589-763-5 Pages: 14
17FTM23. The Influence of a Grinding Notch on the Gear Bending Strength Rating
Authors: Ulrich Kissling, Ioannis Zotos
To achieve the requested quality, most gears today are ground. If the gear is premanufactured with a tool without
protuberance, then at the position where the grinding tool retracts from the flank, a grinding notch in the tooth root
area is produced. A review of the formulas to calculate the effects of the grinding notch is necessary. A 3D-FEM
analysis that was used to deduce an improved formula will be presented.
ISBN: 1-55589-764-2 Pages: 19
2016 PAPERS
16FTM01. Efficient Hard Finishing of Asymmetric Tooth Profiles and Topological Modifications
by Generating Grinding
Authors: Andreas Mehr & Scott Yoders
New possibilities of modifications with the continuous generating grinding method will be presented, such as
Deviation Free Topological grinding (DFT), Generated End Relief (GER), Noise Excitation Optimized modification
(NEO), and hard finishing of asymmetric gears. The focus is on the explanation of the technical challenges, their
solutions, and the principle function of the dressing and grinding processes.
ISBN: 1-55589-060-5 Pages: 13
16FTM05. Review of Microstructure and Properties of Non-Ferrous Alloys for Worm Gear Application and
Advantages of Centrifugally Cast Gears
Authors: Giri Rajendran & Jason Hassen
This paper reviews the microstructure and properties of tin bronze, manganese bronze, and aluminum bronze
material that make them suitable for specific wormgear applications. The advantages of centrifugally cast bi-metal
gear blanks, and some common causes of worm gear failures are discussed.
ISBN: 1-55589-065-0 Pages: 11
16FTM07. Performance and Machining of Advanced Engineering Steels in Power Transmission Applications
– Continued Developments
Authors: Lily Kamjou, Nicklas Bylund, Brent Marsh, Joakim Fagerlund, Thomas Björk
This paper discusses the potential gain for the power transmissions industry by making use of the material
properties of Advanced Engineering Steels to support more demanding applications. Machining the Advanced
Engineering Steels is discussed based on a number of recent studies. All studies indicate that by optimizing
machining parameters and tools, the productivity and efficiency of these processes can be maintained, or even
improved.
ISBN: 1-55589-067-4 Pages: 16
16FTM10. Computerized Design of Straight Bevel Gears with Optimized Profiles for Forging, Molding,
or 3D Printing
Authors: Alfonso Fuentes, Ignacio Gonzalez-Perez, and Harish Pasapula
Research will be presented on whether there is a reference profile that will yeild the same advantages for bevel
gears as the involute for cylindrical gears. The spherical involute and octoidal profiles will be studied, and the
virtual generation of bevel gears with the different profiles will be developed, and simulated, using advanced tools
such as tooth contact analysis and finite element analysis.
ISBN: 1-55589-111-4 Pages: 21
16FTM13. Designing Very Strong Gear Teeth by Means of High Pressure Angles
Author: Richard Miller
This paper will show a method of designing and specifying gear teeth with much higher bending and surface
contact strength than that of conventional gear teeth. The primary means of achieving this is by specifying gear
teeth with significantly higher pressure angles. This paper will show calculation procedures, mathematical
solutions, and the theoretical background and equations to achieve this.
ISBN: 1-55589-114-5 Pages: 22
16FTM14. Impact of Surface Condition and Lubricant on Effective Gear Tooth Friction Coefficient
Authors: Aaron Isaacson, Matthew Wagner, Suren Rao, and Gary Sroka
Using a four-square, power re-circulating gear test rig with high accuracy torque transducers, losses due to
operating speed, surface roughness, and torque level, including two different lubricants, were compared, and
measurements of the effective coefficient of friction at the gear tooth flanks are provided. This paper summarizes
the results obtained.
ISBN: 1-55589-118-3 Pages: 12
16FTM17. Analysis of Excitation Behavior of a Two-Stage Gearbox Based on a Validated Simulation Model
Authors: Marius Schroers, Christian Brecher, and Christoph Löpenhaus
In order to reduce development and production costs of a gearbox, simulation models have been set up to predict
the noise and vibration behavior of a gearbox before the prototype phase. A simulation model, verified by
experimental results, is presented that is able to calculate the dynamic excitation behavior of a two-stage gearbox.
ISBN: 1-55589-121-3 Pages: 16
16FTM18. An Experimental and Analytical Comparison of the Noise Generated by Gears of Austempered
Ductile Iron (ADI) and Steel Materials
Authors: Dr. Donald Houser, Samuel Shon, Kathy Hayrynen, Justin Lefevre
Many have made claims concerning the relative noise performance of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) versus
steel as a gearing material. Predictions based on measured tooth topographies of the transmission error and "sum
of forces" gear noise metrics show that the iron gears should be slightly quieter than the steel gears at loads
beneath the transmission error optimization "notch" torque and slightly louder above this torque. This paper
presents results from a systematic experimental study to ascertain these differences.
ISBN: 1-55589-122-0 Pages: 25
16FTM19. Numerical Thermal 3D Model to Predict the Surface and Body Temperature of Spur and Helical
Plastic Gears
Authors: Niranjan Raghuraman, Donald Houser, and Zachary Wright
Tooth surface wear is an important failure mode in plastic gears and this primarily caused by the surface
temperature increasing to a value close to the melting point of the material. Thus, it is critical to compute the
temperature of the gear pair in an accurate fashion. This paper will focus on the prediction of gear temperature of
plastic gears using a numerical heat transfer model based on 3D finite difference method.
ISBN: 1-55589-123-7 Pages: 17
16FTM20. Influence of the Defect Size on the Tooth Root Load Carrying Capacity
Authors: Jens Brimmers, Christian Brecher, Christoph Löpenhaus, and Jannik Henser
Conventional calculation methods for the flank and tooth root load carrying capacity are well-established, but
models that consider the defect size on the tooth root strength have not yet been applied in fatigue models for
gears. This paper will introduce a method for calculating the tooth root load carrying capacity for gears while
considering the influence of the defect size on the endurance fatigue strength of the tooth root.
ISBN: 1-55589-176-3 Pages: 14
16FTM21. Influence of Contact Conditions on the Onset of Micropitting in Rolling-Sliding Contacts Pertinent
to Gear Applications
Authors: Dr. Amir Kadiric & Dr. Pawel Rycerz
Recently, increased sliding has been one of the factors suggested to be responsible for the onset of micropitting,
with the proposed underlying mechanism being the potential reduction of film thickness through increased sliding
speed. This paper attempts to shed light on the tribological conditions that may lead to the onset of micropitting in
lubricated, concentrated contacts representative of those occurring between gear teeth. In particular, the effect of
slide-roll-ratio, surface roughness and film thickness is studied.
ISBN: 1-55589-480-1 Pages: 19
16FTM22. Comparison of Tooth Interior Fatigue Fracture Load Capacity to Standardized Gear Failure Modes
Authors: Baydu Al, Paul Langlois, Rupesh Patel
This study aims to improve the existing understanding of Tooth Interior Fatigue Fracture (TIFF) load capacity and
compare calculated load capacity to the allowable loading conditions for bending and pitting fatigue failure, based
on standard calculation procedures. Possible methods that could be used to mitigate TIFF risk are presented, and
the effect of these methods on the performance with respect to the other failure modes are quantified.
ISBN: 1-55589-497-9 Pages: 19
2015 PAPERS
15FTM01. Influence of Surface Finishing on the Load Capacity of Coated and Uncoated Spur Gears
Authors: P. Konowalczyk, C. Brecher
In order to increase the power density of tribologically stressed drive train components, different approaches are
being pursued in material and production technology. In addition to the development of efficient base materials,
especially the optimization of surface finishing processes and the application of coating systems are promising. By
combining mechanically highly stressable substrate materials and tribologically effective, extremely thin coatings,
the components show modified wear and friction properties, which often lead to an increase of tooth flank load
carrying capacity. A major advantage of this approach is that the highly accurate component geometry is only
slightly changed by the coating.
The influence of PVD/PECVD hard coatings on the load carrying capacity of cylindrical gears made of alloy steel
is the subject of scientific research since the nineties. Several reports show that diamond-like carbon (DLC)
coating systems reduce the occurrence of specific forms of gear damages, such as pitting or scuffing, and
optimize the frictional behavior of gears. Despite the good results, PVD/PECVD coating technology could not be
established in gear transmission technology yet. The use of a PVD/PECVD coating leads to higher component
costs and longer manufacturing time. Furthermore, the surface finishing process before coating can influence the
resulting tooth flank load capacity, and in some studies, a reduction of tooth root strength by the application of a
coating can be observed. An extensive research concerning the influence of specific surface finishing processes
on the tooth flank load capacity of uncoated and coated gears have not been focused in existing works.
Furthermore, the existing works focus on the coating of both gears in contact and not on the coating of just one
gear combined with optimized surface finishing processes.
Therefore, the aim of this work is the investigation and determination of the influence of surface finishing
processes on the impact of PVD/PECVD coatings concerning the pitting load capacity of gears. By means of
running tests, the influence of different surface finishing processes on the pitting resistance is examined for the
uncoated and coated tooth flank contact. The coated tooth flank contact will be further separated in the cases with
just one or two coated gears in contact. By coating only one gear, a possible reduction of coating costs with
simultaneous increase of the pitting resistance is targeted. As a DLC coating, a modified tungsten carbide coating
(a-C:H:W (WC/C)) will be applied. Due to an optimized coating process, consistent coating adhesion without loss
of hardness of the substrate material will be achieved. The result of this optimization will additionally be proven by
the investigation of tooth root strength by means of pulsator testing.
ISBN: 1-55589-006-3 Pages: 11
15FTM02. Improved Materials and Enhanced Fatigue Resistance for Gear Components
Authors: Dr. Volker Heuer, Dr. Klaus Loeser, Gunther Schmitt
This paper shows the latest progress in steel grades and in case hardening technology for gear components.
To answer the demand for fuel-efficient vehicles, modern gear boxes are built much lighter. Improving fatigue
resistance is a key factor to allow for the design of thin components to be used in advanced vehicle transmissions.
The choice of material and the applied heat treat process are of key importance to enhance the fatigue resistance
of gear components.
By applying the technology of Low Pressure Carburizing (LPC) and High Pressure Gas Quenching (HPGQ), the
tooth root bending strength can be significantly enhanced, compared to traditional heat treatment with
atmospheric carburizing and oil quenching.
Besides heat treatment, significant progress has been made over the past years on the steels being used for gear
components. The hardenability of case hardening steels such as 5130H, 5120H, 20MnCr5, 27MnCr5,
18CrNiMo7-6 etc. has been stepwise increased in recent years. An important factor for fatigue resistance is the
grain size after heat treatment. Therefore, grain size control is a key goal when developing new modifications of
steel grades.
15FTM05. Innovative Steel Design and Gear Machining of Advanced Engineering Steel
Authors: Lily Kamjou, Patrik Ölund, Erik Claesson, Joakim Fagerlund, Garry Wicks, Mats Wennmo,
Hans Hansson
The basis for high fatigue performance in high hardness steel originates in precise inclusion engineering. In
addition, recent research shows that by changing the alloying strategy, an increase in the bending fatigue limit can
be achieved similar to an additional shot-peening process. Therefore, the near surface structure will exhibit
excellent mechanical properties and compressive residual stresses in the as-carburized condition.
The current paper describes the potential of clean steel for new approaches in transmission gear box
manufacturing and possibilities to meet the future demands of being smaller, lighter and managing higher torque.
One important factor is the bending fatigue performance of the gear teeth where an increasing fatigue strength is
required. The paper discusses how shot peening might be eliminated in high-cleanliness, as-carburized steel
components using an alternative composition. The fatigue performance of such a solution is compared to
conventional grades used today, both with and without shot peening.
The full benefit of this new steel design can be obtained by using a high-quality steel with a decreased number of
critically-sized inclusions in the loaded volume. Results from extensive testing support how this type of steel
compares to commonly used carburizing steels. The effect of material cleanliness on contact fatigue is also
examined through FZG pitting testing.
To address potential machining issues of clean steels, the paper also deals with the production process, including
quantitative machining trials and the importance of tooling selection. The study is focused on the production of
gears, dealing mainly with turning and hobbing. Initial results show how these clean steels can be machined in full
scale production in standard conditions with equal or better efficiency and cost.
ISBN: 1-55589-016-2 Pages: 12
15FTM11. Selecting the Proper Gear Milling Cutter Design for the Machining of High Quality Parallel Axis,
Cylindrical Gears and Splines
Author: Brent Marsh
Gear milling cutters offer a versatile and timesaving solution for milling of high-quality gear profiles. Application
methods vary. There are many ways to utilize these cutters. Machines range from traditional gear hobbing
machines with single indexing capability to horizontal and vertical CNC machining centers with 4- or 5-axis
capability, modern multi-task turning and milling centers, CNC lathes with live milling capability, and dedicated
special-purpose machines.
Tool selection will depend on a number of factors, such as module size, work piece material, gear quality level
desired, spur or helical design, tooth count, size of gear blank, and available equipment options. The desired post-
milling operations needed—such as hardening, grinding, honing, and shaving—also have an influence on the
milling tool design.
When planning for successful process methods, rigidity, tool holding (arbor supported vs. unsupported), and
material removal rate, all must be addressed.
Power and torque requirements as related to gear material, number of passes, cutter design, and diameter, are
very important in the planning phase. Tool selection has a significant impact on this. Rake angles and cutter
geometry are important. Tools are designed according to rough, semi-finish, and finish requirements. Tandem,
multi-cutter designs will improve productivity but bring on specific challenges to the process engineer.
Surface finish requirements are also very important. Milling methods can vary from climb cutting to conventional
milling. Both methods have their place and impact surface finish and tool life. Radial infeed and reduced or
increased feed rate on entry are other factors. Wet-versus-dry machining and oil-versus-water-soluble coolants
impact tool life, part quality, and environmental concerns. Proper chip thickness and calculations for feed rate
compensation must be considered.
This paper takes a comprehensive view of all of the above mentioned topics to assist the manufacturing engineer
or process planner in successfully choosing the design of gear milling cutters to make cost-effective cylindrical
gears to the appropriate quality desired.
ISBN: 1-55589-022-3 Pages: 12
15FTM12. Simulation of Hobbing and Generation Grinding to Solve Quality and Noise Problems
Author: Günther Gravel
Due to increasing tolerance requirements for gearboxes and gears, it has become more and more important to
establish quality circles in production. A quick detection and correction of the causes of tolerance violation is
essential for high quality. This paper shows the possibilities and procedures of searching for the root cause in
general, especially with problems in hobbing and generation grinding using multi-start tools.
A new simulation tool has been developed, which allows for the simulation of typical faults that occur during
hobbing and generation grinding. The calculated contour on the workpiece is treated as a measured curve,
making it easy to compare workpiece measurements and simulations. In this way, possible error causes can be
simulated and compared with the real gear surface.
15FTM15. New Refinements to the Use of AGMA Load Reversal and Reliability Factors
Author: Ernie Reiter
15FTM17. Homogeneous Geometry Calculation of Arbitrary Tooth Shapes – Mathematical Approach and
Practical Applications
Authors: Maximilian Zimmer, M. Otto, Karsten Stahl,
As an extensive machine element to transfer and convert rotational movement, gears meet high requirements for
construction and assembly. Due to existing modern production techniques, more sophisticated gear types can be
produced with high precision and maintainable financial effort. The benefits of traditional gear profiles, such as an
involute, are thus no longer of major importance. In particular, for gear types such as bevel, worm, and hypoid
gears, but also for non-standard gear types (e.g., beveloid gears, crown gears, or spiroid gearings), modern gear
production systems ensure high quality and reliability to the operator. Depending on the context of application,
different gear types have advantages and disadvantages concerning load carrying capacity, effectiveness, or
noise excitation. Supported by various calculation software tools for the particular gear type, it is possible to create
the optimal gear design, depending on the respective application. A homogeneous calculation software for
ubiquitous gear geometries—irrespective of the gear type, and especially for analyzing non-standard gears—
would be preferable.
This paper provides a mathematical framework and its implementation for calculating the tooth geometry of
arbitrary gear types, based on the basic law of gear kinematics. The rack or gear geometry can be generated in
two different ways: by calculating the conjugate geometry and the line of contact of a gear to the given geometric
shape of a known geometry (e.g., a cutting hob), or by prescribing the surface of action of two gears in contact
and calculating the correspondent flank shapes. Besides so-called standard gears like involute spur and helical
gears, bevel or worm gears, it is possible to analyze the tooth geometry of non-standard gears (e.g., non-involute
spur, conical, or spiroid gears). Depending on the type of gear, a distinction is made between tool-dependent and
tool-independent geometry calculation.
The described mathematical algorithms are summarized in implemented software modules for the particular gear
types. Two practice-oriented examples are presented to illustrate the calculation model: beveloid gears for use in
vehicle or marine gear boxes as well as rack-and-pinion meshing with variable ratio, as it is used for steering
systems on automobiles. Since the geometry is exported as a point cloud, a further analysis of the generated
gear types is possible, e.g., by computer-aided design or finite-element software tools as well as manufacturing
on 5-axis CNC or forging machines. Thus, a detailed analysis—especially of non-standard gears—is feasible that
currently cannot be calculated and evaluated with common industrial gear calculating software.
ISBN: 1-55589-029-2 Pages: 17
15FTM23. Noise Reduction in an EV Hub Drive Using a Full Test and Simulation Methodology
Authors: Owen J. Harris, P.P. Langlois, G.A. Cooper
With the current trend towards Electric Vehicles (EVs), there is likely to be increasing focus on the noise impact of
the gearing required for the transmission of power from the electric motor (high speed) to the road. Current
automotive Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) understanding and methodologies for total in-vehicle noise
presuppose relatively large Internal Combustion (IC) contributions compared to gear noise. Further, it may be
advantageous to run the electric motors at significantly higher rotational speed than conventional automotive IC
engines putting the gear trains into higher speed ranges. Thus, the move to EV or Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)
places greater or different demands on gear train noise.
This work combines both a traditional NVH approach (in-vehicle and rig noise, waterfall plots, Campbell diagrams,
and Fourier analysis)—with highly detailed transmission error measurement and simulation of the complete
drivetrain—to fully understand noise sources within an EV hub drive.
The transmission error testing has been performed on both the full assembly with the three-stage gear train and
on individual gear pairs using a dedicated transmission error measurement rig. Highly accurate rotary encoders
are used to measure transmission error through different stages of the gear train in order to identify sources of
excitation.
For comparison, a full Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE) model has been built, which includes the flexibilities of
all components, gears, shafts, bearings, and casing. Standard analysis is used to simulate the system deflection
under input loads with corresponding gear misalignments, contact patches, and transmission errors. Contact
patches are compared to tooth marking test results. Further, a novel advanced calculation is performed which
iteratively couples deflections of the full system model with detailed tooth contact analysis at the gear meshes.
This analysis shows how the gear meshes and the deflections of the full transmission change through the gear
meshing cycles. This analysis can include detailed, measured, manufactured gear geometry, and various
tolerances and errors within the system and calculate both the associated individual mesh and system
transmission errors and their harmonic content.
Detailed test and simulation identifies the noise sources to be the meshes of the three gear sets and captures a
full understanding of them. Methods are presented to accurately derive and compare the individual gear mesh
transmission errors from test and simulation of the complete unit. Further analysis of the individual results
indicates both gear design and manufacturing considerations to be optimized to reduce noise. The results of
prototype testing of design changes are given showing significant in-vehicle noise reductions.
A detailed methodology is presented, combining both a full series of tests and advanced simulation to
troubleshoot and optimize an EV hub drive for noise reduction.
ISBN: 1-55589-035-3 Pages: 22
15FTM24. Tribological Coating Wear and Durability Performance Guideline for Gear Applications
Authors: Randy Kruse, Carl Hager, Ryan D. Evans
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) tribological coatings have demonstrated the ability to provide gear and bearing
performance enhancements in an initially narrow but increasing range of applications. These experiences have
heightened awareness and curiosity in industry about the potential of DLC coatings to enhance the performance
of gear train systems. Valuable benefits may include reducing the probability of micropitting wear and increasing
scuffing resistance, perhaps even to enable improved oil-out performance in aerospace applications. The
application of these coatings may be used to increase gearbox efficiency, not by reducing friction within tooth
contacts, but by increasing tooth surface durability to allow for less viscous lubricants and reduced lubricant
quantities.
It is generally known that extreme contact pressure and sliding velocity operating conditions can lead to coating
wear. However, a better understanding of the thresholds that constrain coating durability and usefulness are
needed so that gear and bearing engineers can more accurately specify and predict system life. This paper
reports the results of testing a tungsten carbide-reinforced diamond-like carbon coating (W-DLC) as applied to
15FTM25. An Experimental Evaluation of the Procedures of the ISO/TR 15144 Technical Report for the
Prediction of Micropitting
Authors: Donald R. Houser, Samuel Shon
This paper presents the results of several experimental analyses to explore some of the features and
methodologies of ISO 15144. A summary of ISO 15144 is first discussed, as is a spreadsheet that has been
written, to accept contact stresses calculated from load distribution analyses. Sample load distribution analyses
and subsequent ISO predictions are made for several experimental results that are reported in the literature.
Following these analyses, a series of experimental durability tests were run using the AGMA tribology gears
running with Dexron 6 automatic transmission fluid as the lubricant. An FVA 54 test was run to obtain the lubricant
pass/fail level and the permissible value of Lambda needed to calculate the safety factor for micropitting.
ISBN: 1-55589-037-7 Pages: 18
15FTM26. Calculating the Risk of Micropitting Using ISO Technical Report 15144-1:2014 – Validation with
Practical Applications
Authors: Burkhard Pinnekamp, Michael Heider
Micropitting is a surface fatigue phenomenon on highly loaded gears with case-hardened gear flanks. Main
contributors are local stress, surface roughness, sliding speed, and lube oil properties.
General influence factors, testing, and earlier calculation methods were described in 11FTM15 [1]. Meanwhile, a
new version of the ISO Technical Report, TR 15144-1:2014 [2], was issued. It is intended to become an ISO
Standard within the next years.
This paper describes the definition of micropitting, the actual calculation method, and its application to practical
examples where micropitting has either occurred or not. The examples give evidence that the Technical Report
reliably predicts the risk of micropitting where it is later found on the gear flanks. For cases where no micropitting
occurs, the calculated safety factors are sufficiently high. Operating conditions for some examples are out of the
validated range of the Technical Report.
ISBN: 1-55589-038-4 Pages: 16
In this paper, the method to calculate the risk of tooth flank fracture, which is defined in the current draft of ISO
DTS 19042-1, is investigated and discussed. Part of this investigation is a sensitivity analysis with respect to the
main gear parameters. Therefore, parameters including pressure angle, helix angle, normal module, hardness
depth, tip relief, and crowning were systematically varied and the respective safety factor against tooth flank
fracture was calculated.
With this method, it can be shown that the risk of tooth flank fracture and the risk of pitting might have opposite
trends. It is also shown that a tip relief on spur gears typically has no effect or might even increase the risk of tooth
flank fracture. On helical gears, the situation is more complex. For lead modifications, a certain beneficial effect is
seen by compensating misalignments of the flanks; however, if the modification chosen is too large, it will increase
the risk of tooth flank fracture.
In the first part of the paper, some formulas of the draft are discussed. There, it is shown that the definition of the
material factor and the calculation of the course of the hardness into the depth of the material could be improved.
ISBN: 1-55589-043-8 Pages: 11
2014 PAPERS
14FTM01 Molecular Decomposition Process = Electrochemical Assisted Precision Form Grinding
Author: J.A. DeAngelo
Molecular decomposition process (MDP) is an anodic dissolution process (electrochemical) whereby the work
piece is the anode and the grinding wheel is the cathode. Specific controls of electrical, mechanical and chemical
actions are applied to enable the MDP system to remove stock without mechanical or thermal deformation. This
process enables stock removal rates in sample materials such as nickel and titanium alloys to occur at rates more
aggressively than conventional creep-feed grinding. Migrating the system to employ super-abrasives greatly
increases the rate of stock removal. The anodic process implemented permits the perishable wheel geometry to
be preserved which equates to longer perishable life and dimensional stability, which enables longer production
runs with consistent dimensional results.
MDP has proven to produce gear involute geometries from “as supplied” blanks with minimal stock for finishing.
Roughing and finishing of forms in full hardened 4140 tool steel yielding an MDP produced product with surfaces
to less than 1 Ra µin while maintaining dimensional stability to achieve a 1.67 CPK. The MDP system removes
large or small amounts of stock while providing a safe work environment for operators and the environment.
ISBN: 1-61481-093-3 Pages: 11
14FTM03 Surface Roughness Measurements of Cylindrical Gears and Bevel Gears on Gear
Inspection Machines
Author: G. Mikoleizig
Alongside the macro test parameters on tooth flanks for profile and tooth traces, surface properties (roughness)
play a decisive role in ensuring proper toothed gear function.
The generally increased load stresses on gear teeth can only be implemented by maintaining precisely defined
roughness parameters.
Roughness measurements are therefore conducted on the gearing flanks in all highly developed drives, in the
automotive industry, aircraft industry, or the area of wind energy drives, for example.
This article addresses roughness measurement systems on tooth flanks. In addition to universal test equipment,
modified test equipment based on the profile method for use on gears is addressed in particular. The equipment
application here refers to cylindrical gear flanks and bevel gear flanks.
ISBN: 1-61481-095-7 Pages: 13
14FTM08. The Efficiency of a Simple Spur Gearbox – A Thermally Coupled Lubrication Model
Authors: A.I. Christodoulias, A.V. Olver, A. Kadiric, A.E. Sworski, F.E. Lockwood
A thermally coupled efficiency model for a simple dip-lubricated gearbox is presented. The model includes
elastohydrodynamic friction losses in gear teeth contacts as well as bearing, seal and churning losses. An iterative
numerical scheme is used to fully account for the effects of contact temperature, pressure and shear rates on EHL
friction. The model is used to predict gearbox efficiency with selected transmission oils whose properties were first
obtained experimentally through rolling-sliding tribometer tests under representative contact conditions.
Although the gearbox was designed using standard methods against a fixed rating, the model was used to study
efficiency over a much wider range of conditions. Results are presented to illustrate the relative contribution of
different sources of energy loss and the effect of lubricant properties on the overall gearbox efficiency under
varying operating conditions.
ISBN: 1-61481-100-8 Pages: 18
14FTM10. Involute Spiral Face Couplings and Gears: Design Approach and Manufacturing Technique
Authors: A.L. Kapelevich, S.D. Korosec
Face gears typically have a straight or skewed tooth line and varying tooth profile in normal cross section at
different radii from major to minor diameter. These face gears are engaged with spur or helical involute pinions at
intersecting or crossed axes.
This paper presents spiral face gears with involute tooth line and identical tooth profile in the normal section at any
radius. There are two main applications for such face gears. One of them is an alternative solution with certain
advantages in performance and fabrication technology to the straight tooth, Hirth, or Curvic flange couplings.
Another application is when a face gear is engaged with an involute helical pinion or worm at intersecting or
crossed axes. Such engagement is also used in Helicon® type gears.
The paper describes gear geometry analysis, and design technique of spiral face involute gears with symmetric
and asymmetric tooth profiles. It also explains a highly productive hobbing method of these gears and tool design
specifics, and illustrates gear and tool design with numerical examples.
ISBN: 1-61481-102-2 Pages: 9
14FTM11. Mathematical Modeling for the Design of Spiroid®, Helical, Spiral Bevel and Worm Gears
Author: G. Kazkaz
This paper will present a novel work for spiroid and worm gears that mathematically calculates the gear tooth
profile in terms of the geometry of the machining tool (hob) and the machining setup. Because of similarity, the
work was also expanded to spiral bevel gear. We have developed software to plot the gear tooth when the
parameters of the geometry of the tool and machining setup are entered. The gear tooth shape can then be
altered and optimized by manipulating the input parameters until a desired tooth profile is produced. In effect, the
result will be designing the hob and machining setup for best gear tooth profile on the computer. Afterward, the
generated gear tooth data are entered into CAD software to generate a true 3D model of the gear. The tool path
will also be generated from the data for CNC machining instead of hobbing.
ISBN: 1-61481-103-9 Pages: 16
14FTM14. Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Frictional Losses of Radial Shaft Seals for
Industrial Gearbox
Authors: M. Organisciak, P. Baart, S. Barbera, A. Paykin M. Schweig
In this paper SKF presents an engineering model for the prediction of radial lip seal friction based on a physical
approach. The friction model includes the generation of friction due to rubber dynamic deformation and lubricant
viscous shear between the surfaces of a seal and a shaft. The friction model is coupled with a heat generation
and seal thermal model. Indeed, seal friction and seal temperature are closely related: the heat generated in the
sealing lip is conducted through the seal and shaft and dissipated into the environment. This changes for instance
the lubricant viscosity.
The model is verified step by step in an extensive experimental study. Measurements of seal friction, seal
temperature and lubricant film thickness have been performed for various dynamic lip seals. The analyzed
parameters are: surface speed, oil viscosity, seal material, seal size, seal lip style and duty cycles. The correlation
between model predictions and experimental friction measurements can therefore be verified.
ISBN: 1-61481-106-0 Pages: 12
14FTM16. The Modified Life Rating of Rolling Bearings – A Criterion for Gearbox Design and
Reliability Optimization
Authors: A. Doyer, A. Gabelli, G. Morales-Espejel
This The concepts of rolling bearing rating life and basic load rating (load carrying capacity) were introduced by
Arvid Palmgren in 1937 [1]. At that time, until the 1950s, most bearing manufacturers listed in their catalogues the
load admissible on the bearing for thousands hours of operation at five different speeds. In those days the
selection of a bearing size for a given application was a rather simple and approximate matter.
The concept of a single rating factor to characterize the dynamic capacity of the bearing was new and initially
used only within the bearing company that developed this new technology. This rating method was backed by the
theory of Lundberg & Palmgren (L-P) [2] and by the Weibull statistics [3]. It was found that it could provide a
correct interpretation of the many series of endurance tests available at the time, [2], [4], [5]. This calculation
method prevailed on all the others methods used at the time and was adopted by ISO in 1962.
ISBN: 1-61481-108-4 Pages: 16
14FTM17. The Impact of Surface Condition and Lubricant on Gear Tooth Friction
Authors: S. Rao, A. Isaacson, G. Sroka, L. Winkelmann
Frictional losses in gear boxes are of significant interest to gear box designers as these losses transform into
heat. The direct result is a reduction in the fuel efficiency of the vehicle involved. Further, in many instances, this
heat has to be absorbed and dissipated so that lubricant properties and gear box performance are not significantly
compromised. This effort is to measure and document the comparative friction losses in a gear mesh due to gear
tooth surface condition and lubricant. Three distinct surface conditions are considered. They are ground, Isotropic
Superfinished (REM ISF®) and tungsten-incorporated diamond-like carbon coating (W-DLC). Two lubricants, MIL-
PRF-23699 and Mobil SHC 626 lubricants are considered.
The experimental effort is conducted on a high speed, power re-circulating (PC), gear test rig, which had been
specially instrumented with a precision torque transducer to measure input torque to the 4-square loop. The
torque required to drive the loop is measured under various speeds and tooth loads within the torque loop, with
test gears with different surface conditions and with different lubricants. Two operating torque levels within the
4-square loop at speeds ranging from 4,000 rpm (pitch-line velocity of 19 m/sec) to 10,000 rpm (pitch-line velocity
of 47 m/sec) are evaluated.
Based on the collected data a qualitative analysis of the effect of gear tooth surface condition on frictional losses
is presented. Further, the surface characteristics of the tooth flanks of the ground, superfinished and coated gears
are also described.
ISBN: 1-61481-109-1 Pages: 9
14FTM20. Influence of Central Members Radial Support Stiffness on Load Sharing Characteristics of
Compound Planetary Gear Sets
Authors: Z. Peng, S. Wu
In this study, a non-linear dynamics model of Ravigneaux compound planetary gear set which adopts the
intermediate floating component is set up based on concentration parameter. By considering the position errors
and eccentric errors, the dynamic load sharing factors of the gear set are calculated. The relationship between
central members radial support stiffness and the dynamic load sharing factors is obtained and the influence of
central members radial support stiffness on load sharing characteristic is analyzed. The research results show
that central members radial support stiffness effect obvious to the gear pairs which are directly contacted to the
central members, while the effect is rather small to the gear pairs which are not directly connected. Reducing the
radial support stiffness of the central members helps improve the load sharing performance of the system.
ISBN: 1-61481-112-1 Pages: 12
14FTM21. On the Correlation of Specific Film Thickness and Gear Pitting Life
Author: T. Krantz
The effect of the lubrication regime on gear performance has been recognized, qualitatively, for decades. Often
the lubrication regime is characterized by the specific film thickness defined as the ratio of lubricant film thickness
to the composite surface roughness. It can be difficult to combine results of studies to create a cohesive and
comprehensive dataset. In this work gear surface fatigue lives for a wide range of specific film values were studied
using tests done with common rigs, speeds, lubricant temperatures, and test procedures. This study includes
previously reported data, results of an additional 50 tests, and detailed information from lab notes and tested
gears. The dataset comprised 258 tests covering specific film values [0.47 to 5.2]. The experimentally determined
surface fatigue lives, quantified as 10-percent life estimates, ranged from 8.7 to 86.8 million cycles. The trend is
one of increasing life for increasing specific film. The trend is nonlinear. The observed trends were found to be in
good agreement with data and recommended practice for gears and bearings. The results obtained will perhaps
allow for the specific film parameter to be used with more confidence and precision to assess gear surface fatigue
for purpose of design, rating, and technology development.
ISBN: 1-61481-113-8 Pages: 18
13FTM02. Performance and Technological Potential of Gears Ground by Dressable cBN Tools
Authors: J. Reimann, F. Klocke, M. Brumm, A. Mehr and K. Finkenwirth
Dressable vitrified bond cBN grinding tools combine the advantages of other common tool systems in generating
gear grinding. The cBN grains are a highly productive cutting material due to their high specific stock removal rate.
Vitrified bonds are dressable and thereby very flexible: By dressing different profile modifications can be set up
and constant gear quality can be guaranteed during the tool life time. Despite those technological advantages
there is only a small market distribution of these grinding tools due to high tool costs. Furthermore, only a few
published scientific analysis of generating gear grinding with dressable cBN exist. Especially, the influence of the
grinding tool system on manufacturing related component properties has not been analyzed yet. The research
objective of this report is to determine the advantages of dressable cBN tools in generating gear grinding.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-059-9 Pages: 12
13FTM03. Analysis of Gear Root Forms: A Review of Designs, Standards and Manufacturing Methods for
Root Forms in Cylindrical Gears
Authors: N. Chaphalkar, G. Hyatt, and N. Bylund
Gear root is an important but often neglected element of the gear. The stress concentration point typically lies in
the tooth to root transition area and it is this point that determines the life or the fatigue life of a gear in many
applications. Specific standards are in place on design of the involute part of a gear tooth, the root area however
is less standardized. New manufacturing methods enable the designer of gears greater latitude in the design of
strong alternative root forms. The standards on design and specification for the root geometry are lax so these
root forms fit into current standards.
This paper reviews the designs of various root forms for the gears. It compares the various root forms on basis of
their strength, fatigue resistance and other parameters. This analysis will be based on compilation of various
research previously conducted on gear root forms.
The paper also discusses current manufacturing methods to produce the roots, and recently introduced
alternatives. It will compare the traditional methods with new methods of gear manufacturing it terms of types of
roots produced and overall control over the root profile.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-060-5 Pages: 9
13FTM05. Cubitron™ II: Precision Shaped Grains (PSG) Turn the Concept of Gear Grinding Upside Down
Author: W. Graf
To date, grinding, according to the German DIN Standard 8580, is “machining with geometrically undefined cutting
edges" while other machining processes such as turning and milling are classified as processes with
“geometrically defined cutting edges". New abrasive grains, called PSG and developed by 3M, stand this definition
on its head. For the first time, grinding wheels made with PSG, called Cubitron™ II, can claim to be made up of
“geometrically defined cutting edges" as each and every grain is exactly the same engineered shape. Hence, it
might be more appropriate to talk about “micro-milling" rather than grinding. This is borne out by looking at the
resulting “flowing" chips which are akin to chips seen in milling operations, just finer.
These free-flowing chips no longer clog up the grinding wheel and, therefore, the grinding wheel remains free-
cutting and dressing becomes only necessary due to loss of from rather than loss of cutting ability. In repeated
tests, this has shown to drastically reduce the risk of burning and to give consistent and predictable results.
Furthermore, tests and subsequent long term trials under production conditions have shown that grinding time can
be cut in most cases by at least 50% in comparison to grinding wheels made of standard ceramic abrasives.
Based on more than 100 carefully monitored and documented gear grinding trials, this paper will demonstrate how
Cubitron™ II grinding wheels work both in continuous generating grinding of car and truck gears, and in form
grinding of large diameter gears for wind generators, for example. Furthermore, the paper will discuss chip
formation, filmed with high resolution slow motion; and the benefits of the free-flowing chips in terms of resulting
consistent surface finish, superior form holding and extended dressing cycles.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-062-9 Pages: 10
13FTM07. Finite Element Analysis of a Floating Planetary Ring Gear with External Splines
Authors: V. Kirov and Y. Wang
This study investigates the stresses and deflections of a floating ring gear with external splines working in a large
planetary wheel motor of a mining truck. Such calculations carried out with conventional engineering approaches
described in popular standards and textbooks are not comprehensive because of the complexity of the problem.
These approaches can give us good stress numbers for non-floating gears and some guidance about the rim
thickness factor but they lack the capabilities to effectively calculate the deflections and their influences on the
stresses, especially for floating gears. Moreover, they cannot calculate an entire gearing system and the
interdependent influences of the different components.
The model studied consists of a floating ring gear driving a torque tube. The ring gear is driven through internal
gear meshing by three planets and it transmits the torque to the torque tube through its external splines. The
torque tube transmits the motion to the hub and the truck tires. A nonlinear static analysis of the ring gear and
torque tube was conducted in ABAQUS. Linear 8-node hex elements and linear tetra elements were used to
model the ring gear and torque tube. External torque was resolved into corresponding tangential force, which was
then applied directly onto three of the ring gear's internal teeth. Contact pairs were used to capture the load
transfer between the ring gear and torque tube through the splines.
13FTM08. Application and Improvement of Face Load Factor Determination Based on AGMA 927 (Accurate
and Fast Algorithm for Load Distribution Calculation, for Gear Pair and Planetary Systems, Including Duty
Cycle Analysis)
Author: U. Kissling
The face load factor KHβ, which in rating equations represents the load distribution over the common face width in
meshing gears, is one of the most important items for a gear strength calculation. In the international standard for
cylindrical gear rating, the ISO 6336-1, using method C, some formulas are proposed to get a value for this factor.
But as the formulas are simplified, the result is often not very realistic. Also AGMA 2001 (or AGMA 2101)
proposes a formula for KHβ, different from ISO 6336, but again not always appropriate. Therefore, a note in AGMA
stipulates, that “it may be desirable to use an analytical approach to determine the load distribution factor".
In the last edition of ISO 6336 (2006), a new annex E was added: “Analytical determination of load distribution".
This annex is entirely based on AGMA 927-A01. It is a well-documented procedure to get a direct and precise
number for the face load factor. Today an increasing number of gear designers are using tooth contact analysis
(TCA) methods to get precise information over the load distribution on the full gear flank. Contact analysis is very
time consuming and does not permit to get a value for KHβ, as defined by the ISO or AGMA standard. A contact
analysis result combines different factors of ISO 6336 as KHβ, KHα, Zε, Zβ, ZB, ZD and buttressing effects, etc., thus
to `extract' KHβ from a TCA is not possible.
The use of the algorithm, as proposed by AGMA 927, is a good solution to get proper values for K Hβ; it is simpler
and therefore much quicker than a contact analysis calculation. The paper explains how this algorithm can be
applied for classic gear pair rating procedure, for ratings with complex duty cycles and even for planetary systems
with interdependent meshings between sun, all planets and ring.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-065-0 Pages: 19
13FTM09. Investigations on Tooth Root Bending Strength of Case Hardened Gears in the Range of High
Cycle Fatigue
Authors: N. Bretl, S. Schurer, T. Tobie, K. Stahl and B.-R. Höhn
Tooth root load-carrying capacity is one of the determining factors in gear design. In addition to the strength of the
material itself, the existing state of stress significantly influences tooth root load-carrying capacity.
Based on extensive experimental investigations of gears, the beginning of the fatigue strength range is generally
set 3×106 load cycles, which common calculation methods, like ISO 6336, also take into account. According to
this, standard test methods for tooth root bending endurance strength usually assume a load cycle limit of 3-6 106.
However, current as well as completed studies on tooth root load carrying capacity show tooth root fractures with
relatively high numbers of load cycles in a range of general fatigue strength and above. Analysis of these fracture
surfaces shows that these late breakages are often initiated by small inclusions or microstructural defects in the
material. These tooth fractures that initiate with cracks under the surface have a negative effect on the tooth root
load-carrying capacity in the range of high cycle fatigue. Therefore, experimental investigations regarding high
cycle fatigue have been carried out in a pulsator test rig on gears of various sizes, materials and residual stress
conditions. As a result, depending on the existing residual stress condition, there are different levels of tooth root
load carrying capacity, different failure behaviors in high cycle fatigue and different types of damage. Especially
for test variants with high residual stresses, the size of the gear and the cleanness of the material have an impact
on the tooth root load-carrying capacity and the damage pattern.
This paper discusses the different fracture modes by means of examples. Furthermore, it presents the influence of
residual stresses, size and material cleanness on the tooth root load-carrying capacity and on the type of tooth
root fractures with crack initiation on and under the surface. These influences will be additionally confirmed by
examples of experimental test results.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-066-7 Pages: 16
13FTM10. Calculation of the Tooth Root Load Carrying Capacity of Beveloid Gears
Authors: C. Brecher, M. Brumm and J. Henser
In this paper, two developed methods of tooth root load carrying capacity calculations for beveloid gears with
parallel axes are presented. The first method calculates the tooth root load carrying capacity in an FE-based
approach. The initial step of the method is the manufacturing simulation in the WZL software GearGenerator. The
13FTM11. Striving for High Load Capacity and Low Noise Excitation in Gear Design
Authors: K. Stahl, M. Otto and M. Zimmer
In the design process of gearboxes, common requirements are high load capacity and low noise excitation.
Reaching both goals is laborious and normally requires a trade-off. Detailed analyses of contact conditions and
deformations are necessary. These should take place in an early design stage to realize a mostly straightforward
design approach and prevent late design changes. Focused on cylindrical gears, the paper covers an approach
starting at the first draft of a gearbox.
Defining the macrogeometry of the teeth regarding load capacity calculation according to standards leads to a
reasonable gear design. On that basis, the micro geometry of the teeth is specified and load distribution as well as
noise excitation is calculated. The design parameters are interdependent so provisions have to be made to adjust
each step on the remaining ones. Effects resulting from changing profile contact ratio under load and contact
patterns not covering the whole flank have to be regarded. The beneficial effect of a modified microgeometry is
dependent on the ability to precisely account for contact conditions and meshing clearances.
To find an optimal solution for the competing goals of capacity and excitation, detailed calculation methods are
required. To be able to apply latest research results, these are implemented in highly specialized software. The
task described above is handled by using the software that was developed at the Gear Research Center (FZG)
with funding by the German Research Association for Gears and Transmissions (FVA). The underlying calculation
methods and analyzed phenomena are covered.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-068-1 Pages: 14
13FTM12. Practical Considerations for the Use of Double Flank Testing for the Manufacturing Control
of Gearing
Authors: E. Reiter and F. Eberle
The gearing industry has developed many unique measuring techniques for the production control of their
products. Each technique has inherent advantages and limitations which should be considered by designers and
manufacturers when selecting their use. Double flank composite inspection, (DFCI) is one such technique that can
functionally provide quality control results of test gears quickly and easily during manufacturing. The successful
use of DFCI requires careful planning from product design, through master gear design and gage control methods
in order to achieve the desired result in an application.
This document explains the practical considerations in the use of double flank testing for the manufacturing
control of spur, helical, and crossed axis helical gearing including:
- a general description of double flank inspection equipment including an explanation of what can
be measured;
- recommendations on practical master gear design;
- the calculation of tight mesh center distance and test radius limits;
- the resulting backlash that can be anticipated in gear meshes based on applying double flank tolerances in a
design;
- initial and ongoing statistical techniques in double flank testing and how they can be practically used to
improve gear quality;
- double flank gage measurement system analysis including case studies of gage repeatability and
reproducibility (R&R) and uncertainty analysis.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-069-8 Pages: 32
13FTM13. Gear Failure Analysis and Lessons Learned in Aircraft High-Lift Actuation
Authors: A. Wang, S. Gitnes, L. El-Bayoumy and J. Davies
Several gear failure cases and lessons learned in the development phase of aircraft high lift actuation systems are
presented, including leading edge geared rotary actuators, and trailing edge geared rotary actuators, sector gears
and pinions, and offset gearboxes. The high lift system of an aircraft, which contains trailing edge flaps and/or
13FTM15. White Structure Flaking in Rolling Bearings for Wind Turbine Gearboxes
Authors: H. Uyama and H. Yamada
Bearing failures in wind turbine gearboxes were investigated and rolling contact fatigue tests to reproduce them
using a hydrogen-charge method were conducted. Two main failure modes in wind turbine gearbox bearings were
white structure flaking and axial cracking, which were involving a microstructural change. Both failure modes can
be reproduced by using specimens charged with hydrogen. Operating conditions, which can induce hydrogen
generation from lubricant and penetration of the bearing steel were discussed. Effects of bearing material on white
structure flaking life were suggested as one of the countermeasures.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-072-8 Pages: 13
13FTM16. The Anatomy of a Lubrication Erosion Failure – Causation, Initiation, Progression and Prevention
Authors: R.J. Drago, R.J. Cunningham, W. Flynn
Visual examination of a compressor box revealed that the Low Speed (LS) Pinion exhibited pitting type defects on
each of its forty-seven (47) helical teeth. Review of the failed component revealed a somewhat repetitive type of
damage at one end of the teeth only. Each tooth showed what appeared to be one defect at a similar location
3600 around the Pinion. Each defect was located within ~0.5 inch of the end of the helical tooth. It was noted that
each tooth defect was observed on the coast side of the teeth only.
Visual examination of the mating gear revealed no evidence of similar damage. While of and by itself, this pitting
may not be cause for alarm, debris from the pitting can adversely affect other components in the gearbox,
especially the bearings, and the stress concentration effect of the pitting, even though it is on the coast flank,
could lead to partial tooth fracture in the region of the distress.
This paper presents a discussion of the causation, diagnosis and metallurgical failure investigation of this
lubrication erosion failure. Our effort was aimed at identifying the nature of the pitting and providing
recommendations to avoid repeat instances of this failure in this specific application and in other future designs for
similar applications.
The subject is presented by way of the discussion of detailed destructive metallurgical evaluations of this specific
lubrication erosion failure which the authors have conducted in order to analyze and characterize the failures.
Lubrication erosion is generally limited to helical gears but the authors have also found this type of distress when
evaluating damage to carburized, hardened and hard finished spiral bevel gears as well when operated under the
“right" circumstances. Lubrication erosion observed on helical gears only, however, will be addressed in this
presentation. Although a specific failure “case" is used as the vehicle for presentation, information has been
extracted and condensed from several individual actual failure investigations conducted by the authors so that a
better understanding of the specific conditions that lead to micropitting and the actual progression from
micropitting to fracture can be presented.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-073-5 Pages: 30
13FTM19. Gear Resonance Analysis and Experimental Verification Using Rapid Prototyped Gears
Authors: S.R. Davidson and J.D. Hayes
Determination of gear resonance frequencies is necessary in the design of light weight aerospace gears.
Resonant frequencies and mode shapes calculated are then identified as damaging or non-damaging and
compared to the gear's mesh frequencies to determine if gear tooth bending stresses will be amplified in a
particular operating speed range. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is well suited to determining gear resonant
frequencies and modes. In order to verify the analysis quickly, rough gear geometry is fabricated and tested using
accelerometers and a calibrated hammer in a modal excitation test. In past efforts, rough geometry fabricated was
a simplified version of the final part minus gear teeth or other features. To reduce the time of fabrication and to
increase the accuracy of the prototype part, modern rapid prototyping manufacturing techniques may hold
promise in approaching the realism of the actual part with material properties that are similar to material properties
of gear steels.
This paper studies gear resonance modal excitation testing of two stage idler spur gear rapid prototyped parts,
using two different rapid prototyping techniques and compares results to the final production part and FEA model.
Damaging and non-damaging modes and nomenclature will be reviewed as well as the testing method.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-076-6 Pages: 11
13FTM24. Innovative Induction Hardening Process with Preheating for Improved Fatigue Performance of
Gear Component
Author: Z. Li
Contact fatigue and bending fatigue are two main failure modes of steel gears. Surface pitting and spalling are two
common contact fatigue failures, which are due to the alternating subsurface shear stresses from the contact load
13FTM25. Press Quenching and the Effects of Prior Thermal History on Distortion during Heat Treatment
Author: A.C. Reardon
Precision components such as industrial bearing races and automotive gears often distort unpredictably during
heat treatment due to the deleterious effects of free or unconstrained oil quenching. Press quenching is a method
that can be utilized to minimize the distortion of these complex components during heat treatment. This is
accomplished in a quenching machine by utilizing specialized tooling for generating concentrated forces to
constrain the movement of the component during oil quenching. When performed correctly, this method of
quenching can often achieve the relatively stringent geometrical requirements stipulated by industrial
manufacturing specifications. It can be performed on a wide variety of steel alloys. These include high carbon
through-hardening grades such as AISI 52100 and A2 tool steel, as well as low carbon carburizing grades such as
AISI 3310, 8620, and 9310. The relevant aspects of this specialized quenching technique will be presented
together with a case study of the effects of prior thermal history on the distortion that is generated during press
quenching.
ISBN: 978-1-61481-082-7 Pages: 9
2012 PAPERS
12FTM01. Balancing – No Longer Smoke and Mirrors
Author: R. Mifsud Hines
In the late 1970's a balancing machine salesman visited a customer's plant who had just received a new balancer
from the salesman's competitor. The plant manager said they were very happy with their automatic balancing
machine and offered to show it to the salesman. The manager walked the salesman out on the floor and the two
of them watched the operator and balancer in action.
The operator placed a part on the balancer and closed the door. The balancer spun up the part, welded on a
weight, spun up again, and displayed “good part.” The operator removed the balanced part, put in a new part, and
closed the door. The balancer spun up the part, welded on a weight, spun up again, and displayed “good part.”
This scenario was repeated several more times as the salesman and the manager watched.
The manager commented, “We just love our new machine. All day long it balances parts by welding on weights
and puts out good parts.” The salesman suggested having the operator place a “balanced part” back in the
balancer again just to see what would happen. So the operator placed the previously balanced part back in the
balancer again and closed the door. The balancer spun up the part, welded on a second weight, spun up again,
and displayed “good part.” The manager had the operator take another balanced part and put it into the balancer
again. Again, the balancer spun up the part, welded on another weight, spun up again, and displayed “good part.”
12FTM02. Power Loss and Axial Load Carrying Capacity of Radial Cylindrical Roller Bearings
Authors: S. Söndgen, W. Predki
The application of cylindrical roller bearings (CRB) is widely spread in mechanical engineering. CRB can carry
comparatively high loads and are usable in high speed ranges. These bearings have been proven to be variously
applicable and economic. With lipped inner and outer rings CRB permit the transmission of axial loads in addition
to radial loads. The axial load is induced on the lip of the inner or the outer ring and transferred by the roller end
face contacts to the opposing lip. In comparison to an only radially loaded bearing there are additional friction
losses in the contact between the lip and the roller ends as a result of sliding.
The limiting factors for the permissible axial load are high temperatures which can cause smearing and seizing, lip
fracture, fatigue failure and wear. In consequence of the axial loading the stresses in the contact between the
roller and the raceway rise and the fatigue durability of the bearing is reduced.
At high speeds the permissible thrust load is dominantly limited by high temperatures. At low speeds the limiting
factors are lip fracture and wear.
Within the examination an extensive test program with different bearing geometries is carried out. Thereby the
decisive measure is the friction torque of the bearings.
The friction torque of a thrust loaded radial cylindrical roller bearing is mainly dependent on the parameters speed,
load, size and design of the bearing.
An analytical simulation model which has been developed at the institute allows calculating the lubrication
conditions, the stresses within the lip-roller contact and the axial load dependent friction torque.
The intention of the study is to enlarge the application range of radial cylindrical roller bearings by means of a
more precise determination of the thrust load capacity and to allow more economic designs.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-033-9 Pages: 11
12FTM05. Combined Effects of Gravity, Bending Moment, Bearing Clearance, and Input Torque on Wind
Turbine Planetary Gear Load Sharing
Authors: Y. Guo, J. Keller, W. LaCava
This computational work investigates planetary gear load sharing of three-mount suspension wind turbine
gearboxes. A three dimensional multi-body dynamic model is established, including gravity, bending moments,
fluctuating mesh stiffness, nonlinear tooth contact, and bearing clearance. A flexible main shaft, planetary carrier,
housing, and gear shafts are modeled using reduced degrees-of-freedom through modal compensation. This drive
train model is validated against the experimental data of Gearbox Reliability Collaborative for gearbox internal
loads. Planet load sharing is a combined effect of gravity, bending moment, bearing clearance, and input torque.
Influences of each of these parameters and their combined effects on the resulting planet load sharing are
investigated. Bending moments and gravity induce fundamental excitations in the rotating carrier frame, which can
increase gearbox internal loads and disturb load sharing. Clearance in carrier bearings reduces the bearing load
carrying capacity and thus the bending moment from the rotor can be transmitted into gear meshes. With bearing
clearance, the bending moment can cause tooth micropitting and can induce planet bearing fatigue, leading to
reduced gearbox life. Planet bearings are susceptible to skidding at low input torque.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-036-0 Pages: 16
12FTM07. Validation of a Model of the NREL Gearbox Reliability Collaborative Wind Turbine Gearbox
Authors: C.K. Halse, Z.H. Wright, A.R. Crowther
Gearboxes in the wind industry have been suffering from a poor reputation due to major issues with reliability.
There has been a long list of issues; e.g. grind temper, material inclusions, axial cracking in bearings, poor load
sharing on shaft-bearing arrangements, significant gear misalignment, bearing ring creep, gear scuffing, gear and
bearing micropitting; all of which are common and often serial problems. There has been improvement in the last
few years for some of the products, yet it is not uncommon for wind sites built as recently as 2008 to have 20–
40% of gearboxes requiring a component replacement (such as a high speed pinion or intermediate shaft bearing)
already (by 2012) and 5–10% complete gearbox failures. An important program for the industry, “The Gearbox
Reliability Collaborative" (GRC), has been funded by the US Department of Energy and run by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory for several years to aid the industry in improving the reliability of this key
component. The collaborative has brought together manufacturers, academia, national laboratories, engineering
consultants and gear and bearing software providers as part of a program to model, build, simulate and test
gearboxes with a goal to improve reliability and reduce the cost of energy.
The team at NREL have instrumented two gearboxes with over 125 channels, for measurements such as
planetary tooth load distributions, annulus gear hoop strains, planet bearing load distribution, sun orbit and carrier
deflection. They were then subjected to a rigorous testing regime, both up-tower and on the NREL 2.5MW
dynamometer. Romax Technology have been a collaborator in the GRC Analysis Group and have developed
detailed computer simulation models of the gearbox including gear macro and micro-geometry, bearing macro
and micro-geometry, structural stiffness of gearbox housing, carrier and annulus gear, system clearances and
preloads, and surrounding boundary conditions (such as main shaft, rotor hub and bedplate). The model is used
12FTM09. Systematic Approach for the Psychoacoustic Analysis of Dynamic Gear Noise Excitation
Authors: C. Brecher, M. Brumm, C. Carl
The sound quality of technical products is an increasingly important quality criterion and has a significant influence
on the product acceptance. But sound quality does not only depend on the physical attributes of the sound signal.
It is defined to a large extent by human sound and noise perception. This perception is based on a physiological
and psychological signal processing. These aspects depend on complex properties of the physical signal like the
spectral distribution and a relative comparison. However, today the sound design of gearboxes is mainly based on
the physical reduction of the noise level that is detected by absolute and objectivized parameters. The noise
oriented gear design is based on a fundament of physical key parameters like the reduction of transmission error
in compliance with achievable manufacturing tolerances. Nevertheless, these design rules may lead to a minimal
sound pressure level but cannot solely be applied for an optimal sound quality in every case. Under economic and
technical aspects there is no excitation free gear set. Furthermore, modern tendencies such as lightweight design
and masking noise reduction (engine downsizing and electrification) lead more and more to scenarios where the
sound of a gear set, which is only designated to have low transmission error, can be perceived as annoying. This
requires design guidelines which take also the human related aspects of gear noise into account. Nowadays the
gear design does not yet consider human noise perception sufficiently.
Thus, a research project at the WZL has been established that investigates the correlation between gear mesh
excitation and the evaluation of gear noise. The objective of this project is to deduce a method for the
consideration of perception-based noise evaluation already in the stage of gear design. Therefore,
psychoacoustics metrics are used to analyze the gear noise of different gear sets in the dimensions of airborne
noise, structural vibration and the excitation due to meshing. The aim of this paper is to discuss the correlation
between the signal properties of the excitation and the radiated noise in order to investigate the possibilities to
transfer the perception related evaluation from sound pressure to the gear mesh excitation. The paper firstly
shows central psychoacoustic parameters that are most relevant for the properties of gear noise. Furthermore, a
new test fixture will be introduced that allows a dynamic measurement of gear mesh excitation directly adjacent to
the meshing. Regarding these aspects two different gear sets are discussed concerning the calculated
transmission error and the experimentally determined excitation, surface vibration and noise radiation. These
aspects are accordingly examined with respect to human noise perception, which is described by
psychoacoustics. It is shown that operating conditions, order distributions as well as the gear geometry are the
main influences on the signal evaluation. The influence of dynamic aspects and especially the influence of
resonance effects on the noise characteristics are additionally considered.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-040-7 Pages: 22
12FTM10. Development of Novel CBN Grade for Electroplated Finish Grinding of Hardened Steel Gears
Authors: U. Sridharan, S. Kompella, S. Ji, J. Fiecoat
The unique requirements of an electroplatable superabrasive CBN grit used in profile grinding of hardened steel
gears as well as the attributes and grinding behavior of a new CBN developed specifically for this application are
discussed. Profile gear grinding parameters were simulated in through-hardened AISI 4140 steel (56 HRC) and
the grinding performance of the new CBN was compared against a competitive CBN grade widely used in the
12FTM12. Manufacturing Method of Pinion Member of Large-Sized Skew Bevel Gears Using Multi-Axis
Control and Multi-Tasking Machine Tool
Authors: I. Tsuji, K. Kawasaki, H. Gunbara, H. Houjyou, S. Matsumura
In this paper, a manufacturing method of the pinion member of large-sized skew bevel gears using multi-axis
control and multi-tasking machine tool considering that the gear member is provided is proposed. First, the tooth
surface forms of skew bevel gears are modeled. Next, the real tooth surfaces of the gear member are measured
using a coordinate measuring machine and the deviations between the real and theoretical tooth surface forms
are formalized using the measured coordinates. It is possible to analyze the tooth contact pattern of the skew
bevel gears with consideration of the deviations of the real and theoretical tooth surface forms expressing the
deviations as polynomial equations. Moreover, the deviations of the tooth surface form of the gear member are
fed back to the analysis of the tooth contact pattern and transmission errors, and the tooth surface form of the
pinion member that has a good performance mating with the gear member. Finally, the pinion member is
manufactured by swarf cutting using multi-axis control and multi-tasking machine tool. Afterward, the real tooth
surfaces of the manufactured pinion member were measured using a coordinate measuring machine and the
tooth surface form errors were detected. As a result, although the tooth surface form errors were large relatively
on the heel side, those were small on the other side. In addition, the tooth contact pattern of the manufactured
pinion member and provided gear member was compared with those of tooth contact analysis. As a result, there
was good agreement.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-043-8 Pages: 15
12FTM14. Large Pinions for Open Gears: The Increase of Single Mesh Load – A New Challenge for
Manufacturing and Quality Inspection
Author: M. Pasquier, and F. Wavelet
Most of the large open gear sets for mining industry are designed according to AGMA 6014-A06 and AGMA 2001-
D04. and rating according to AGMA standard (service factor) involve the final design of the pinion such as:
material and heat treatment (through hardening or case carburized pinion), and the finishing process of the teeth
(to achieve the design geometry).
12FTM15. New Methods for the Calculation of the Load Capacity of Bevel and Hypoid Gears
Authors: C. Wirth, B.-R. Höhn, C. Braykoff
A failure mode called “flank breakage" is increasingly observed in different applications of cylindrical and bevel
gears. These breakages typically start from the active flank approximately in the middle of the active tooth height
and propagate to the tooth root of the unloaded flank side. Crack initiation can be localized below the surface in
the region between case and core of surface hardened gears. This failure mode can neither be explained by the
known mechanism of tooth root breakage nor by the mechanism of pitting. Even bevel gears in truck and bus
applications are at the risk to suffer from subsurface fatigue, if the optimum utilization of the material should be
achieved. In this case a balance between the flank breakage and pitting risk has to be found. The purpose of this
paper is to describe a new material physically based calculation method to evaluate the risk of flank breakage
versus the risk of pitting. The verification of this new method by experimental tests is exemplarily shown.
In cooperation with “ZG-Zahnräer und Getriebe GmbH” (ZG) “MAN truck and bus AG" (MTB) developed a new
method for the calculation of the risks of flank failure by flank breakage and pitting. The calculation method has
been adjusted and approved by experimental tests on powertrain test rigs of MAN. The ten different test gear
variants had an outer diameter of de2 = 390 mm to 465 mm, a ratio i = 4,5 to 5,7 and a normal module of m mn = 6
mm to 8 mm. Also variants with the same main geometry but different Ease-Off designs were examined. All gear
sets were tested under a defined load spectrum. Based on the research work at the FZG (Gear Research Center
at the Technical University of Munich in Germany) of Oster, Hertter and Wirth a calculation method for bevel gears
was established. The principle of the calculation model is the local comparison of the occurring stresses and the
available strength values over the whole tooth volume. Therefore, it is possible to evaluate the risk of initial cracks
beyond the surface of the flank. Close to the surface cracks may grow and cause pitting— especially in the flank
area with negative specific sliding. Cracks in the transient area between case and core lead to a high flank
breakage risk.
First the local stresses and forces on the flank are determined by a loaded tooth contact analysis followed by the
calculation of the maximum exposure (regarding yielding) and dynamic exposure (regarding fatigue) of the
material inside the tooth. Thereby the stress components from the Hertzian contact, bending, thermal effects
(flash temperature) and friction are considered. Furthermore, the positive effect of residual compressive stresses
and accordingly the disadvantageous effect of the residual tensile stresses can be implicated. Finite elements
method investigations have been carried out in order to achieve a sufficient approximation of the residual stress
distribution in the transverse tooth section. The strength values are locally considered, depending on the material
depth and the position on the flank.
The recalculation of the test gears showed a good correlation between the occurred type of damage and the
determined material exposure inside the tooth. The variants failed with flank breakage could be reliably
distinguished from the variants failed by pitting by the new material-physical method. With this knowledge it is now
possible to optimize the main geometry parameters of the gear set (e.g. number of teeth, spiral angle, pressure
angle) as well as the micro geometry (Ease-Off) that influences the load distribution on the flank. Altogether this
new method leads to an insured increase of the permissible material utilization and hence to smaller gear sizes
while keeping the load capacity on a constant level.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-046-9 Pages: 21
12FTM21. Typical Heat Treatment Defects of Gears and Solutions Using FEA Modeling
Authors: Z. Li, B.L. Ferguson
Steel gears are heat treated to obtain enhanced properties and improved service performance. Quench hardening
is one of the most important heat treatment processes used to increase the strength and hardness of steel parts.
Defects seen in quenched parts are often due to high thermal and phase transformation stresses. Typical defects
include excessive distortion, surface decarburization, quench cracks, large grain growth, and unfavorable residual
stresses. Gear geometries with large section differences may suffer high stress concentrations and crack during
quenching. Surface decarburization before quenching may lead to high surface residual tension and possible post
heat treatment cracking. In this paper, the commercial heat treatment software DANTE is used to investigate three
examples of heat treatment defects. Improved processes are suggested with the help of modeling. The first
example is an oil quench process for a large gear. Peeling cracks were observed on the gear surface during
grinding of the quench hardened gears. Computer modeling showed that surface decarburization was the cause.
The second example is a press quench of a large face gear. Unexpected large axial bow distortion was observed
in quenched gears, and computer modeling indicated that an incorrect press load and die setup were the reasons.
The third example is an in-process quenching crack caused by high concentrated tensile stress from unbalanced
temperature and phase transformations in a spiral bevel pinion gear. The quenching process was modified to
solve the problem. This example also emphasizes the need for heat treatment modeling in gear design to reduce
the possibility of heat treatment defects. The three examples illustrate how to effectively use heat treatment
modeling to improve the quality of the gear products.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-052-0 Pages: 14
12FTM22. Crack Testing and Heat Treat Verification of Gears Using Eddy Current Technology
Authors: D. DeVries
While eddy current technology has long been used in the testing of bar, tube, and wire stock, advances in
electronics, automation, and coil design have paved the way for a new generation of testers specifically designed
for component testing applications. This includes the testing of gears and bearings which go into automotive and
industrial applications. These testing systems easily integrate into production processes allowing for in-line testing
at production line speeds. In addition to enabling 100% of production components to be inspected, it can help
monitor upstream processes notifying operators that something is not functioning correctly. This greatly reduces
scrap and warranty costs for gear and bearing manufacturers.
Eddy current crack testing is performed by passing a small pair of coil windings over a section of the component
to be tested. These coil windings are small enough to test between gear teeth, and with multi-coil probes can test
very complex shapes. Most crack test applications require only one test frequency since most tests require the
detection of only surface flaws. Simultaneous testing with multiple frequencies allows for testing of both surface
and sub-surface defects when inspecting nonferromagnetic parts.
While not an absolute hardness test like a Rockwell test, eddy current heat treat verification can achieve sorting
results on par with Rockwell testing. This has been demonstrated with both forged and powder metal gears. Eddy
current heat treat inspection coils come in both standard encircling coil configurations and multi-coil custom
12FTM24. Recent Inventions and Innovations in Induction Hardening of Gears and Gear-like Components
Author: V. Rudnev
Presentation focuses on recent inventions and innovations (last 4–6 years) in induction hardening of gears and
gear-like components, including but not limited to:
- “Know-how" in controlling distortion of induction hardened gears.
- Simultaneous dual-frequency induction hardening.
- Advanced induction hardening process recipes when hardening small and medium size gears.
- Novel inductor designs to minimize a distortion when induction hardening of hypoid and spiral bevel gears.
- IFP technology for induction gear hardening.
- Induction tempering and stress relieving of gear-like components with improved temperature uniformity.
Presentation also provides a review of basic principles and applications devoted to induction hardening small,
medium and large size gears using tooth-by-tooth techniques and encircling method.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-055-1 Pages: 9
11FTM02. Generating Gear Grinding – New Possibilities in Process Design and Analysis
Authors: J. Reimann, F. Klocke, and C. Gorgels
To improve load carrying capacity and noise behavior, case hardened gears usually are hard finished. One
possible process for the hard finishing of gears is the continuous generating gear grinding, which has replaced
other grinding processes in batch production of small to medium sized gears due to its high process efficiency.
Despite the wide industrial application of this process only a few published scientific analyses exist. The science-
based analysis of generating gear grinding needs a high amount of time and effort. This is due to the complex
contact conditions between tool and gear flank, which change continuously during the grinding process. These
complicate the application of the existing knowledge of other grinding processes onto the generating gear
grinding.
The complex contact conditions lead to high process dynamics which pose challenges in the design of machine
tools, the control engineering and the process design. Furthermore, unfavorable contact conditions can lead to
process related profile form deviation. So the knowledge of the cutting forces and their time dependent behavior is
necessary to describe and optimize the process dynamics and results.
The aim of this report is to determine the existing cutting forces for a sample gear in trials for the first time and to
analyze their connection to the process parameters and the appearance of profile form deviations. Simultaneously
for the sample gear the same process design will be analyzed using a manufacturing simulation. The results of
the trials and the simulation will be compared. The report will present new possibilities in process analysis and will
give the process user ideas for future process improvements.
ISBN: 1-61481-001-8 Pages: 15
11FTM03. Towards an Improved AGMA Accuracy Classification System on Double Flank Composite
Measurements
Author: E. Reiter
AGMA introduced ANSI/AGMA 2015-2-A06 – Accuracy Classification System – Radial System for Cylindrical
Gears – in 2006 as the first major rewrite of the double flank accuracy standard in over twelve years. Although this
document is not yet in wide use, many practical problems exist in the standard which affects its intended benefit.
This document explains the issues related to the use of ANSI/AGMA 2015-2-A06 as an Accuracy Classification
System and recommends a revised system which can be of more service to the gearing industry.
ISBN: 1-61481-002-5 Pages: 14
11FTM08. A Comprehensive System for Predicting Assembly Variation with Potential Application to
Transmission Design
Authors: K.W. Chase and C.D. Sorensen
Recent advances in tolerance analysis of assemblies allow designers to: predict tolerance stack-up due to
process variations; examine variation in clearances and fits critical to performance; use actual production variation
data or estimates from prior experience; and use engineering design limits to predict the percent rejects in
production runs.
A comprehensive system has been developed for modeling 1D, 2D, and 3D assemblies, which includes three
sources of variation: dimensional (lengths and angles), geometric (GD&T), and kinematic (small internal
adjustments due to dimensional variations).
Once the assembly has been described, an algebraic model is created, in which each dimension is represented
by a vector, with a nominal +/- tolerance. The vectors are linked into chains or loops, describing each critical
clearance or assembly feature in terms of the contributing dimensions. The chains form vector loops describing
the interaction and accumulation of the three sources of variation in the assembly.
Small variations are applied to each source and analyzed statistically to predict the resulting variation in the critical
assembly features. Solutions for the mean and standard deviations are obtained by matrix algebra. Only two
assemblies are analyzed: one for the mean and another for the variance of the assembly features. The same
modeling elements may be used to model complex assemblies.
Benefits of tolerance analysis include reduced reject rates, fewer problems on the assembly floor, reduced costs,
and shorter time to market. Critical requirements of shaft alignment, gear meshing and controls in transmissions
and gear trains are ideally suited for this efficient, comprehensive system.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-007-0 Pages: 18
11FTM09. Standardization of Load Distribution Evaluation: Uniform Definition of KHβ for Helical Gears
Author: K. Nazifi
The load distribution measurement of gear teeth and the determination of the face load factor for contact stress
KHβ are of fundamental importance to the gear manufacturing industry. The factor is a measure for the uniformity
of the load along the face width. The closer this factor is to one the more uniform is the load distributed along the
face width. In the design phase this factor is determined with the help of approximation equations and finite
element analysis and is used to dimension the flank modifications. In addition, KHβ is used in the lifetime
calculations according to DIN 3990 and ISO 6336 required by the certification societies. In the testing phase this
factor is experimentally determined by strain measurements of the tooth fillets in order to verify the load
distribution calculations and the suitability of the used modifications.
For spur gears with no helix angle the interpretation of the measurements to a face load factor is intuitively easy.
For helical gears, used more frequently in large gearboxes, the determination of the factor gets more difficult. The
line of contact of these gears runs inclined over the face width of the teeth flank. In this context the question arises
whether the face load factor is evaluated along the face width or along the path of contact.
Evaluation of the measured values and the interpretation to a face load factor is a complex challenge and is not
standardized. The standardization of load distribution evaluation and a uniform definition of KHβ especially for
helical gears enable a safer design for the manufacturers and an easier comparability of the results for the
customers.
The paper will compare the different suggestions to the KHβ definition and will derive a new definition suitable for
the calculation methods in DIN 3990 and ISO 6336.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-008-7 Pages: 18
11FTM10. New Methods for the Calculation of the Load Capacity of Bevel and Hypoid Gears
Authors: B.-R. Höhn, K. Stahl, and C. Wirth
Pitting and tooth root breakage are still the two most frequent failure types occurring in practical applications of
bevel gears. There are several national and international standards for the calculation of the load carrying
capacity of these gears such as DIN 3991, AGMA 2003 and ISO 10300. But up to now these standards do not
cover bevel gears with offset (hypoid gears). For that reason, a research project was carried out at FZG (Gear
Research Centre, Munich, Germany) to analyze the influence of the hypoid offset on the load capacity of bevel
gears by systematic theoretical and experimental investigations.
11FTM11. Marine Reversing Main Gear Rating Factor Versus Number of Loading Reversals and Shrink
Fit Stress
Authors: E.W. Jones, S. Ismonov and S.R. Daniewicz
The marine vessel reversing main gear tooth is subjected to three different loading cycles: ahead travel with load
pulsing from zero to 100% of full power; astern travel with load pulsing from zero to about minus 66% of full
power; and reversal of direction with load changing from 100% of full power to about minus 66% of full power.
The number of repetitions of these three different loading cycles varies with the vessel duty cycle and life. The
published values of allowable design stress for teeth are based on pulsing loads, which must be modified for this
third loading cycle. The tooth may also be subjected to mean stress due to shrink fitting of the gear onto a hub.
Publications which address these conditions include:
- Guide values for mean stress influence factor, Ym, of ISO 6336-3 gives a factor, which de-rates the pulsing,
i.e. unidirectional, allowable stress value for non-pulsing load.
- The American Bureau of Shipping Rules, derate the allowable unidirectional bending strength by 10% for the
reversing main gear tooth. (Idler gear teeth, which are under bidirectional loading at full power, are de-rated
by 30%).
- Det Norske Veritas DNV Classification Notes No. 41.2 addresses gears: with other working conditions than
pure pulsations; with periodical changes of rotational direction; and with shrink fitting stresses. For gears
with occasional full load in reversed direction such as the main wheel in a reversing gearbox, the derating
factor of 10% is recommended.
This paper evaluates the derating factor for marine reversing main gear tooth allowable bending stress using the
Goodman fatigue line and Miners equation as a function of the average number of changes in vessel direction per
hour, shrink fitting stress values, and different materials based on the AGMA values for allowable stress and life
factor.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-010-0 Pages: 18
11FTM12. The Application of the First International Calculation Method for Micropitting
Authors: U. Kissling
The international calculation method for micropitting, ISO/TR 15144, was recently published. It is the first official
international calculation method to check for the risk of micropitting ever published. Years ago AGMA published a
method for the calculation of the specific oil film thickness containing some comments about micropitting, and the
German FVA published a calculation method based on intensive research results. The FVA and the AGMA are
close to the ISO/TR. New is the calculation of the micropitting safety factors.
The technical report presents two calculation rules, method A and B. Method A needs as input the Hertzian
pressure on every point of the tooth flank, based on an accurate calculation of the meshing of the gear pair,
considering tooth and shaft deflections to get the load distribution over the flank line in every meshing position.
Method B is much simpler; the load distribution is defined for different cases as spur or helical gears, with and
without profile modifications.
11FTM13. Investigations on the Flank Load Carrying Capacity in the Newly Developed FZG Back-to-Back Test
Rig for Internal Gears
Authors: B.-R. Höhn, K. Stahl, J. Schudy, T. Tobie, and B. Zornek
Micropitting, pitting and wear are typical gear failure modes, which can occur on the flanks of slowly operated and
highly stressed internal gears. However, the calculation methods for the flank load carrying capacity have mainly
been established on the basis of experimental investigations on external gears.
The target of a research project was to verify the application of these calculation models to internal gears.
Therefore, two identical back-to-back test rigs for internal gears have been designed, constructed and
successfully used for gear running tests. These gear test rigs are especially designed for low and medium
circumferential speeds and allow the testing of the flank load carrying capacity of spur and helical internal gears
for different pairings of materials at realistic stresses. The three planet gears of the test rig are arranged uniformly
around the circumference. Experimental and theoretical investigations regarding the load distribution across the
face width, the contact pattern and the load sharing between the three planet gears have been carried out.
Furthermore, substantial theoretical investigations on the characteristics of internal gears were performed. Internal
and external spur gears were compared regarding their geometrical and kinematical differences as well as their
impact on the flank load. Based on the results of these theoretical investigations an extensive test program of load
stage tests and speed stage tests on internal gears of different material, different finishing of the flanks and
different operating conditions has been carried out. The main focus of this test program was on the fatigue failures
of micropitting and wear at low circumferential speeds.
The paper describes the design and functionality of the new developed test rigs for internal gears and shows
basic results of the theoretical studies. Furthermore, it presents basic examples of experimental test results.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-012-4 Pages: 16
11FTM14. AGMA 925-A03 Predicted Scuffing Risk to Spur and Helical Gears in Commercial Vehicle
Transmissions
Author: C.H. Wink
The risk of gear tooth scuffing in commercial vehicle transmissions has gained more attention because of
increasing demand for fuel-efficient powertrain systems in which diesel engines run at lower speeds, power
density is higher, and lubricants are modified to improve efficiency and compatibility with components of new
technologies, such as dual clutch transmissions. Thus, predicting scuffing risk during the design phase is vital for
the development of commercial vehicle transmissions. AGMA 925-A03 is a comprehensive method to predict the
probability of gear scuffing. Therefore, this paper presents the AGMA 925-A03 scuffing risk predictions for a series
of spur and helical gear sets in transmissions that are used in commercial vehicles ranging from SAE class 3
through class 8. Limiting scuffing temperatures of mineral and synthetic lubricants were determined from FZG
scuffing tests, dynamometer tests and field data. The agreement between prediction, test results and actual usage
can provide confidence in the predictor of scuffing risk of gears in commercial vehicle transmissions.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-013-1 Pages: 11
11FTM20. Case Study Involving Surface Durability and Improved Surface Finish
Authors: G. Blake and J. Reynolds
Gear tooth wear and micro-pitting is a very difficult phenomenon to predict analytically. The failure mode of micro-
pitting is closely correlated to the lambda ratio. Micropitting can be the limiting design parameter for long-term
durability. Also, the failure mode of micropitting can progress to wear or macropitting, and then manifest into more
severe failure modes such as bending. The results of a gearbox test and manufacturing process development
program will be presented to evaluate super finishing and its impact on micropitting.
Testing was designed using an existing aerospace two stage gearbox with a low lambda ratio. All gears were
carburized, ground and shot peened. Two populations were then created and tested. One population was finish
honed and the second was shot peened and isotropic super finished.
A standard qualification test was conducted for 150hrs at maximum continuous load. The honed gears
experienced micro and macro pitting during the test. The Isotropic Super Finishing (ISF) gears were also tested
for 150hr under the same loading. The ISF gears were absent of any surface distress. The ISF gears were further
subjected to a 2000hr endurance test. The ISF gears had less surface distress after 2000hr than the baseline
honed gears after 150hrs.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-019-3 Pages: 18
11FTM21. Gearbox Bearing Service Life – A Matter of Mastering Many Design Parameters
Author: H. Wendeberg
The service life of a gearbox is determined by many factors. The bearings in the gearbox play a major role since
they themselves deliver an important function, and in addition interact with the shafts, the casing and the oil.
Without a doubt, the sizing of the bearings is of great importance for the gearbox reliability. Since more than 50
years the bearing dynamic carrying capacity has been used to determine a suitable size needed to deliver a
sufficient fatigue life – but despite the advanced calculation methods developed, the methods do not fully predict
service life. Producers of high quality bearings have introduced high performance class bearings and, lacking
better ways to express the improved performance, this is only represented by increased dynamic carrying
capacity.
The availability of high-strength shaft materials in combination with bearings with high carrying capacity allows
slimmer shafts to be used. The modulus of elasticity remains the same, so seat design for bearings and gears
must be given close attention.
This paper covers the following: sizing of bearings based on dynamic carrying capacity and how this relates to
service life; how the design of the interface between bearing and shafts should be adapted to modern shaft
materials; how the design of the interface between bearing and gearbox casing influences service life of the
gearbox; and influence of modern electric motor speed controls in bearing type selection.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-020-9 Pages: 17
11FTM22. Bearing Contribution to Gearbox Efficiency and Thermal Rating: How Bearing Design Can Improve
the Performance of a Gearbox
Author: A. Doyer
Gearbox efficiency is a topic of rising interest amongst both OEM and end-users due to an increased sensitivity to
gearbox performance, reliability, total cost of ownership (energy cost), overall impact on the environment, and also
anticipating future regulations.
11FTM23. Integration of Case Hardening into the Manufacturing-Line: “One Piece Flow”
Authors: V. Heuer, K. Löser, G. Schmitt and K. Ritter
For decades the gear industry has addressed the challenge to produce high performance components in a cost-
efficient manner. To meet quality specifications, the components need to be heat treated, which traditionally takes
place in a central hardening shop. However, this separation between machining and heat treatment results in high
costs for transportation and logistics within the production plant. Therefore, for many years it has been being
discussed how to integrate heat treatment into the manufacturing line.
For about 10 years it has been possible to integrate heat treatment into the machining facility by applying the
technology of Low Pressure Carburizing (LPC) and High Pressure Gas Quenching (HPGQ). The components are
collected after soft-machining into big batches and treated with LPC- and HPGQ-technology. This means however
that the heat treatment is not synchronized with soft- and hard-machining since the components must be collected
in buffers before heat treatment and must be singularized again after heat treatment.
In order to totally integrate heat treatment into the manufacturing line and in order to synchronize heat-treatment
with machining, a new heat treatment cell has been developed. Following the philosophy of “One Piece Flow” the
parts are: taken one by one from the soft machining unit; then heat treated in time with the cycle-time of soft
machining (“synchronized heat treatment”) and then passed down one-by-one to the hard machining unit. To
allow for rapid case hardening, the components are low pressure carburized at high temperatures (1050°C)
followed by gas quenching.
In addition to the cost-savings for logistics, the new concept in equipment offers the following advantages:
individual processes customized for each gear-component; homogenous and quick heating of the components
and therefore low spread of distortion; homogenous and controllable gas quenching and therefore low spread of
distortion; environmentally friendly carburizing and quenching; and compact and space-saving heat treat unit.
The paper shows first results achieved with the new process technology applied in the new heat treatment cell.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-023-0 Pages: 12
11FTM24. Induction Hardening of Gears with Superior Quality and Flexibility Using Simultaneous Dual
Frequency (SDF®)
Authors: C. Krause, F. Biasutti, and M. Davis
Induction hardening of gear teeth is well known for its challenges, but also for its potential for improved quality and
process control. For complex geometric parts like gears, the power density and induction frequency need to be
adjusted very precisely to achieve the required hardening pattern. Since 1940s it is known that working with two
simultaneous frequencies (1–15 kHz and 200–20 000 kHz) is the optimal way to heat a geared part to hardening
temperature. The key point in this process is that the medium frequency (about 10 kHz) affects primarily the tooth
root and the high frequency affects first of all the tip of the tooth and the flanks. The right combination of the power
densities of medium- and high-frequency energy values and the heating time are the crucial factors to reach a
contour true heating pattern and, thereby, a contour true hardening pattern.
The authors will describe the state of the art of induction hardening of gears with simultaneous dual frequency
using some examples of use and present the possibilities to manipulate the hardening pattern in a positive way for
different gear geometries.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-024-7 Pages: 8
11FTM25. Controlling Gear Distortion and Residual Stresses During Induction Hardening
Authors: Z. Li and B.L. Ferguson
Induction hardening is widely used in both automotive and aerospace gear industries to reduce distortion and
obtain favorable residual stresses. The heating process during induction hardening has a significant effect on the
quality of the heat-treated parts, but the importance of the quench portion of the process often receives less
attention. However, experiences have shown that the cooling rate, cooling fixture design and cooling duration can
11FTM27. Manufacturing and Processing of a New Class of Vacuum-Carburized Gear Steels with Very
High Hardenability
Authors: C.P. Kern, J.A. Wright, J.T. Sebastian, J.L. Grabowski, D.F. Jordan and T.M. Jones
Ferrium C61 and C64 are new secondary-hardening steels that provide superior mechanical properties versus
9310, 8620, Pyrowear Alloy 53 and other steels typically used for power transmission, such as significantly higher
core tensile strength, fracture toughness, fatigue strength and thermal stability (i.e. tempering temperature). One
recent example of their application is the application of C61 to the forward rotor shaft of CH-47 Chinook helicopter,
in order to reduce the weight of the shaft by 15–25% and provide other benefits.
This paper reviews the significant manufacturing and processing benefits that arise from this new class of
secondary-hardening steels, and analyze the potential implications and opportunities. C61 and C64 were
computationally designed to take advantage of high-temperature, low-pressure (i.e. vacuum) carburization
technology, in part by combining carburizing and austenizing steps as well as being designed to have very high
hardenability. The very high hardenability of these steels permits a mild gas quench subsequent to low-pressure
vacuum carburizing and reduces part distortion, thus reducing grind stock removal, simplifying final machining and
heat treat operations. A framework analysis is used to compare total manufacturing/production costs and impacts
(including environmental) of these new steels versus traditional gear steels. Conclusions and recommendations
are drawn regarding best manufacturing practices and appropriate use of these new steels for product
applications.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-027-8 Pages: 14
11FTM28. Simulation of Wear for High Contact Ratio Gear – A Mixed FE and Analytical Approach
Authors: G. Venkatesan, M. Rameshkumar and P. Sivakumar
High contact ratio gears offer high load carrying capacity and increased life with less volume and weight. Gear
tooth wear of high contact ratio gears is of great importance as excessive wear is characterized by loss of tooth
profile and thickness, which might result in higher dynamic gear mesh and tooth forces. Surface wear changes not
only the contact pattern and load distribution, but also the vibration and noise characteristics of the gear system.
This paper deals with the simulation of wear for high contact ratio (HCR) and normal contact ratio (NCR) gears
using a Mixed Finite Element (FE) and analytical approach. A numerical model for wear prediction of gear pair is
developed. The methodology employs single point, observation-based gear contact mechanics in conjunction with
the Archard's wear formulation to predict the tooth wear in spur gears. The contact pressure and loads are
determined using a FE approach in which a two dimensional deformable body contact model of HCR and NCR
gears is analyzed in ANSYS software, and ANSYS Parametric Design language (APDL) is used for capturing the
load sharing ratio and contact stress variation on the complete mesh cycle of the gear pair. A MATLAB code
program is developed to determine the sliding velocities, equivalent contact radius and contact width along the
path of contact for both HCR and NCR gears. The contact loads and pressures obtained using FEM are used for
predicting the wear depth for NCR and HCR gear pair.
ISBN: 1-978-61481-021-6 Pages: 12
10FTM02. Improving Heat Treating Flexibility for Wind Turbine Gear Systems through Carburizing,
Quenching and Material Handling Alternatives
Author: W. Titus
Part handling and processes for heat treating large gears have created challenges for decades. Growth in wind
energy technology has focused more attention on this issue in recent years. The vast majority of installations
processing such large parts utilize conventional methods via pit furnace systems. Such equipment has inherent
limitations with respect to quench flow and part handling, making true improvements in areas such as distortion
control difficult due to physical limitations of this processing approach. This presentation will explain alternative
methods for heat treating large components that allow part distortion to be minimized. Benefits will be quantified
regarding cost savings to produce such gearing and quality.
ISBN: 1-55589-977-6 Pages: 19
10FTM05. Comparison of the AGMA and FEA Calculations of Gears and Gearbox Components Applied in the
Environment of Small Gear Company
Author: V. Kirov
The current AGMA standards provide a lot of information about the calculations of loose gears and gearbox
components – shafts, splines, keys, etc. These recommendations are based mostly on the “traditional" methods of
mechanical engineering, found in many classical textbooks and research papers. Their accuracy and reliability
have been proven in many years of gearbox design and field tests. They are clear, concise, in most cases easy to
program and apply even by a small gear company with limited resources. However new methods for calculations
of mechanical engineering components like FEA (finite element analysis) are becoming wide spread. Once these
techniques were used only by big companies because of their complexity and price but with the development of
the computer technology they become more and more accessible to small gear companies which are the majority
of participants in the market.
Nowadays, in the gear business, even a small gear company is usually in possession of a modern CAD system
which always includes a basic or advanced FEA package. Such CAD systems are most often run by one gear
engineer who makes 3D models, engineering calculations and production drawings. The level of the FEA
packages is such that it allows the gear engineer to be able to do components calculations without deep
knowledge in the FEA itself.
So the question about the effectiveness of the traditional AGMA calculations and the new FEA methods becomes
of vital importance particularly for small firms.
ISBN: 1-55589-980-6 Pages: 9
10FTM07. A New Statistical Model for Predicting Tooth Engagement and Load Sharing in Involute Splines
Authors: J. Silvers, C.D. Sorensen and K.W. Chase
Load-sharing among the teeth of involute splines is little understood. Designers typically assume only a fraction of
the teeth are engaged and distribute the load uniformly over the assumed number of engaged teeth. This
procedure can widely over- or underestimate tooth loads.
A new statistical model for involute spline tooth engagement has been developed and presented earlier, which
takes into account the random variation of gear manufacturing processes. It predicts the number of teeth engaged
and percent of load carried by each tooth pair. Tooth-to-tooth variations cause the clearance between each pair of
mating teeth to vary randomly, resulting in a sequential, rather than simultaneous tooth engagement. The
sequence begins with the tooth pair with the smallest clearance and proceeds to pick up additional teeth as the
load is increased to the maximum applied load. The new model can predict the number of teeth in contact and the
load share for each at any load increment.
This report presents an extension of the new sequential engagement model, which more completely predicts the
variations in the engagement sequence for a set of spline assemblies. A statistical distribution is derived for each
tooth in the sequence, along with its mean, standard deviation and skewness. Innovative techniques for
determining the resulting statistical distributions are described. The results of an in-depth study are also
presented, which verify the new statistical model. Monte Carlo Simulation of spline assemblies with random errors
10FTM08. Calculation of Load Distribution in Planetary Gears for an Effective Gear Design Process
Authors: T. Schulze, C. Hartmann-Gerlach, B. Schlecht
The design of gears—especially planetary gears—can just be carried out by the consideration of influences of the
whole drive train and the analysis of all relevant machine elements. In this case the gear is more than the sum of
its machine elements. Relevant interactions need to be considered under real conditions. The standardized
calculations are decisive for the safe dimensioning of the machine elements with the consideration of realistic load
assumptions. But they need to be completed by extended analysis of load distribution, flank pressure, root stress,
transmission error and contact temperature.
ISBN: 1-55589-983-7 Pages: 11
10FTM10. Evaluation of Methods for Calculating Effects of Tip Relief on Transmission Error, Noise and
Stress in Loaded Spur Gears
Author: D. Palmer and M. Fish
The connection between transmission error and noise and vibration during operation has long been established.
Calculation methods have developed to describe the influence such that it is possible to evaluate the relative
effect of applying a specific modification at the design stage. The calculations can allow the designer to minimize
the excitation from the gear pair engagement at a specific load. This paper explains the theory behind
transmission error and the reasoning behind the method of applying the modifications through mapping the
surface profiles and deducing the load sharing. It can be used to explain the results of later experimental
validation on various types of tip relief in low contact ratio (LCR) gears, from very long to very short. The paper will
also demonstrate that though the effects of modification in any specific case can be modeled with some certainty,
the same modifying strategy cannot be applied universally but must consider the required operating conditions. It
illustrates that the effect of tip relief on transmission error and load sharing is not a black art but can be fully
explained by applying existing theory.
A study of high contact ratio (HCR) gears will be presented to demonstrate why it is often necessary to apply
different amounts and extents of tip relief in such designs, and how these modifications affect load sharing and
highest point of tooth loading. Specific attention will be paid to the phenomenon of extended contact, where if no
modification or insufficient tip relief is applied, contact does not stop at the end of active profile but continues
beyond this point as the gear rotates resulting in contact on the tip. This effectively increases contact ratio and has
implications for the tooth load and in particular how this may affect the loading position, highest point of single
tooth contact (HPSTC), which is relevant to both ISO and AGMA standard rating. The paper will consider 3
methods commonly employed in the industry; a simple 2D mapping procedure carried out on graph paper, a 3D
linear tooth stiffness computation method, and a 3D finite element analysis (FEA) calculation. The paper will
demonstrate that though in some cases these methods can produce similar results, albeit with varying degrees of
accuracy, further examples will be presented which demonstrate behavior which can only be detected using some
of the more complex analysis methods. The commercial viability of implementing a better quality models against
the time constraints in the development process will be discussed and conclusions drawn.
ISBN: 1-55589-985-1 Pages: 15
10FTM12. Flank Load Carrying Capacity and Power Loss Reduction by Minimized Lubrication
Authors: B.-R. Höhn, K. Michaelis and H.-P. Otto
The lubrication of gears has two major functions: Reducing friction and wear as well as dissipating heat. The
power losses, especially the no-load losses, decrease with decreasing immersion depth using dip lubrication. The
load-dependent gear power losses are nearly unaffected by minimized lubrication. However, the gear bulk
temperatures rise dramatically by using minimized lubrication due to a lack of heat dissipation.
With minimized lubrication the scuffing load carrying capacity decreased by up to more than60%compared to rich
lubrication conditions. The dominating influence of the bulk temperature is therefore very clear. Starved lubrication
leads to more frequent metal-to-metal contact and the generation of high local flash temperatures must be
considered. An additional factor for the scuffing load carrying capacity calculation in case of minimized lubrication
conditions is proposed.
Concerning pitting damage test runs showed that by lowering the oil level the load cycles without pitting damage
decreased by approximately 50% up to 75% for minimized lubrication compared to the results with rich lubrication
conditions. The allowable contact stress is clearly reduced (up to 30%) by minimized lubrication. A reduced oil film
thickness as a consequence of increased bulk temperatures results in more frequent metal-to-metal contacts
causing a higher surface shear stress. In combination with a decreased material strength due to a possible
tempering effect at high bulk temperatures the failure risk of pitting damage is clearly increased. The common
pitting load carrying capacity calculation algorithms according to DIN/ISO are only valid for moderate oil
temperatures and rich lubrication conditions. For increased thermal conditions, the reduction of the pitting
endurance level at increased gear bulk temperatures can be approximated with the method of Knauer (FZG TU
München, 1988). An advanced calculation algorithm for pitting load carrying capacity calculation at high gear bulk
temperatures (valid for high oil temperatures as well as for minimized lubrication) is proposed.
The micropitting risk was increased by low oil levels, especially at high loads and during the endurance test. The
micropitting damage is caused by poor lubrication conditions which are characterized by a too low relative oil film
thickness due to high bulk temperatures. Again, the actual bulk temperatures are of major significance for
calculation of the micropitting load carrying capacity.
The wear rate of the gears is almost unaffected by the oil level. Only a slight increase of wear could be observed
with minimized lubrication. This increase can be explained by the higher bulk temperature of the gears running
under minimized lubrication conditions. The investigations showed that there exists a natural limitation for lowering
the oil quantity in transmissions without detrimental influence on the load carrying capacity. Knowing these
limitations enables the user to determine the possible potential benefits of reduced oil lubrication. The correct
prediction of the actual gear bulk temperatures is of major importance in this context. A method for the estimation
of the gear bulk temperature at reduced immersion depth respectively poor lubrication conditions is proposed.
ISBN: 1-55589-987-5 Pages: 15
10FTM13. Gear Design for Wind Turbine Gearboxes to Avoid Tonal Noise According to ISO/IEC 61400-11
Author: J. Litzba
Present wind turbine gearbox design usually includes one or two planetary gear stages and at least one high
speed helical gear stage, which play an important role regarding noise and vibration behavior. Next to the overall
noise of the gearbox and the structure-born noise on the gearbox housing also tonal noise is becoming a much
more important issue in recent years. Since tonal noise is problematic due to the human perception as
“uncomfortable", avoidance is important. Conventional theories regarding low noise gear design are not
developed in view of tonal noise. This leads to the question: How to deal with tonal noise in the design stage and
which gear parameters can be used for an optimization regarding good tonal noise behavior?
Within a research project measurements have been performed on different gearboxes using different gear
designs. These measurements have been evaluated according to ISO/IEC 61400-11 and the results have been
analyzed in view of the influence of different gear parameters. It was also investigated if it is possible to rank
gearboxes in wind turbines according to their tonal noise behavior as observed on the test rig.
The paper will give an introduction into the definition of tonal noise according to ISO/IEC 61400-11 and give
insight in measurement results from test rigs and from gearboxes in the field, where noise behavior is also
evaluated according to ISO/IEC 61400-11. Furthermore, the paper will show and discuss the link between
10FTM14. Analysis and Testing of Gears with Asymmetric Involute Tooth Form and Optimized Fillet Form for
Potential Application in Helicopter Main Drives
Authors: F.W. Brown, S.R. Davidson, D.B. Hanes, D.J. Weires and A. Kapelevich
Gears with an asymmetric involute gear tooth form were analyzed to determine their bending and contact stresses
relative to symmetric involute gear tooth designs which are representative of helicopter main drive gears.
Asymmetric and baseline (symmetric) toothed gear test specimens were designed, fabricated and tested to
experimentally determine their single-tooth bending fatigue strength and scuffing resistance. Also, gears with an
analytically optimized root fillet form were tested to determine their single-tooth bending fatigue characteristics
relative to baseline specimens with a circular root fillet form. Test results demonstrated higher bending fatigue
strength for both the asymmetric tooth form and optimized fillet form compared to baseline designs. Scuffing
resistance was significantly increased for the asymmetric tooth form compared to a conventional symmetric
involute tooth design.
ISBN: 1-55589-989-9 Pages: 15
10FTM15. Drive Line Analysis for Tooth Contact Optimization of High Power Spiral Bevel Gears
Authors: J. Rontu, G. Szanti and E. Mäsä
It is a common practice in high power gear design to apply relieves to tooth flanks. They are meant to prevent
stress concentration near the tooth edges. Gears with crownings have point contact without load. When load is
applied, instantaneous contact turns from point into a Hertzian contact ellipse. The contact area grows and
changes location as load increases. To prevent edge contact, gear designer has to choose suitable relieves
considering contact indentations as well as relative displacements of gear members. In the majority of spiral bevel
gears spherical crownings are used. The contact pattern is set to the center of active tooth flank and the extent of
crownings is determined by experience. Feedback from service, as well as from full torque bench tests of
complete gear drives have shown that this conventional design practice leads to loaded contact patterns, which
are rarely optimal in location and extent. Too large relieves lead to small contact area and increased stresses and
noise; whereas too small relieves result in a too sensitive tooth contact.
Today it is possible to use calculative methods to predict the relative displacements of gears under operating load
and conditions. Displacements and deformations originating from shafts, bearings and housing are considered.
Shafts are modeled based on beam theory. Bearings are modeled as 5-DOF supports with non-linear stiffness in
all directions. Housing deformations are determined by FEM-analysis and taken into account as translations and
rotations of bearing outer rings. The effect of temperature differences, bearing preload and clearances are also
incorporated.
With the help of loaded tooth contact analysis (LTCA), it is possible to compensate for these displacements and
determine a special initial contact position that will lead to well centered full torque contact utilizing a reasonably
large portion of the available tooth flank area. At the same time, crownings can be scaled to the minimum
necessary amount. This systematic approach leads to minimum tooth stressing, lower noise excitation as well as
increased reliability and/or power density as compared to conventional contact design method.
During recent years ATA Gears Ltd. has gained comprehensive know-how and experience in such analyses and
advanced contact pattern optimization. The methodology and calculation models have been verified in numerous
customer projects and case studies.
ISBN: 1-55589-990-5 Pages: 14
2009 PAPERS
09FTM01. Influence of the Residual Stresses Induced by Hard Finishing Processes on the Running
Behavior of Gears
Authors: V. Vasiliou, C. Gorgels and F. Klocke
Low noise and high load carrying capacity are two important characteristics of competitive power transmissions.
The challenge in the development, design and manufacturing of these power transmissions is to meet these
requirements economically. One of the ways to meet both of these requirements is through a process known as
hard finishing. There are various types of hard finishing and it is important to know which process produces which
requirement.
The aim of this research project is to induce residual stresses in the edge of the work pieces by different hard
finishing processes and to analyze their influence on the durability of the gears. The tested gears are
manufactured by profile grinding, gear honing and generating grinding. The gear deviations and the finish quality
have to be comparable. Through this the influence of the residual stresses on the durability can be analyzed
independent from the geometrical conditions. The presentation will show the results of the load carrying capacity
tests depending on the values of the residual stresses.
ISBN: 1-55589-954-7 Pages: 11
09FTM02. Implementing ISO 18653, Evaluation of Instruments for the Measurement of Gears
Authors: R.C. Frazer and S.J. Wilson
A trial test of the calibration procedures outlined in ISO 18653, Gears – Evaluation of instruments for the
measurement of individual gears, showed that the results are reasonable, but a minor change to the uncertainty
formula is recommended.
Gear measuring machine calibration methods are reviewed. The benefits from using work-piece like artifacts are
discussed and a procedure for implementing the standard in the work place is presented.
Problems with applying the standard to large gear measuring machines are considered and some
recommendations are offered.
ISBN: 1-55589-955-2 Pages: 15
09FTM05. HYPOLOID™ Gears with Small Shaft Angles and Zero to Large Offsets
Author: H. Stadtfeld
Beveloid gears are used to accommodate a small shaft angle. The manufacturing technology used for beveloid
gearing is a special set up of cylindrical gear cutting and grinding machines.
A new development, called Hypoloid gearing, addresses the desire of gear manufacturers for more freedom in
shaft angles. Hypoloid gear sets can realize shaft angles between zero and 20 and at the same time allow a
second shaft angle (or an offset) in space which provides the freedom to connect two points in space.
In all wheel-driven vehicles that traditionally use a transfer case with a pinion/idler/gear arrangement or a chain,
the exit of the transfer case needs to be connected with the front axle. This connection necessitates the use of two
CV joints, because the front axle input point has a vertical offset and is shifted sideways with respect to the
transfer case exit. Compared to a single CV joint, the two CV connections are more costly and less efficient.
However, the newly developed Hypoloids can remedy the situation by offering more freedom in shaft angle and
additional offset which eliminates the need for an additional CV joint. Moreover, the Hypoloid technology offers
enhanced performance compared to beveloids with straight teeth. In addition to the automotive drive trains,
Hypoloid technology can be applied to aircraft as well as general gearbox manufacturing.
ISBN: 1-55589-958-5 Pages: 15
09FTM06. Dependency of the Peak-to-Peak Transmission Error on the Type of Profile Correction and
Transverse Contact Ratio of the Gear Pair
Author: U. Kissling
Profile corrections on gears are a commonly used method to reduce transmission error, contact shock, and
scoring risk. There are different types of profile corrections. It is a known fact, that the type of profile correction
used will have a strong influence on the resulting transmission error. The degree of this influence may be
determined by calculating tooth loading during mesh. The current method for this calculation is very complicated
and time consuming; however, a new approach has been developed which could reduce the calculation time.
This approach uses an algorithm which includes the conventional method for calculating tooth stiffness in regards
to bending and shearing deformation, flattening due to Hertzian pressure, and tilting of the tooth in the gear body.
The new method was tested by comparing its results with FEM and LVR.
This paper illustrates and discusses the results of this study. Furthermore, the maximum local power losses are
compared with the scoring safety calculated following the flash temperature criteria of AGMA 925 and DIN 3990.
ISBN: 1-55589-959-2 Pages: 19
09FTM07. Optimizing Gear Geometry for Minimum Transmission Error, Mesh Friction Losses and
Scuffing Risk
Authors: R.C. Frazer, B.A. Shaw, D. Palmer and M. Fish
Minimizing gear mesh friction losses is important if plant operating costs and environmental impact are to be
minimized. This paper describes how a validated 3D FEA and TCA can be used to optimize cylindrical gears for
09FTM08. Load Sharing Analysis of High Contact Ratio Spur Gears in Military Tracked Vehicle Application
Authors: M. Rameshkumar, P. Sivakumar, K. Gopinath and S. Sundaresh
Military tracked vehicles demand a very compact transmission to meet mobility requirements. Some of the
desirable characteristics of these transmissions include: increased rating, improved power to weight ratio, low
operating noise and vibration, and reduced weight. To achieve all or some of these characteristics, it is has been
decided to apply a High Contact Ratio (HCR) spur gearing concept which will improve load carrying capacity,
lower vibration, and reduce noise. Similar to helical gears, the load in HCR gearing is shared by minimum two pair
of teeth. Therefore, load sharing analysis was conducted on Normal Contact Ratio (NCR) gearing used in sun-
planet gears of an existing drive.
This paper deals with analysis of load sharing of individual teeth in mesh for different load conditions throughout
the profile for both sun and planet gears of NCR/HCR gearing using Finite Element Analysis. Also, the paper
reveals the variation of bending stress and deflection along the profile of both gearing designs.
ISBN: 1-55589-961-5 Pages: 12
09FTM09. Designing for Static and Dynamic Loading of a Gear Reducer Housing with FEA
Authors: M. Davis, Y. S. Mohammed, A.A. Elmustafa, P.F. Martin and C. Ritinski
A recent trend has been toward more user friendly products in the mechanical power transmission industry. One
of these products is a high horsepower, right angle, shaft mounted drive designed to minimize installation efforts.
Commonly referred to as “alignment-free” type, this drive assembly offers quick installation with minimum level of
expertise required. It is also more cost effective. These characteristics make this type of drive ideal for use in
applications such as underground mining where there is little room to maneuver parts.
An alignment free drive is direct coupled to the driven shaft only; it is not firmly attached to a foundation or rigid
structure. A connecting link or torque arm connects the drive to a fixed structure, which limits the drive's rotational
movement about the driven shaft. The electric motor is supported by the reducer housing through a fabricated
steel motor adapter; the coupling connecting the motor shaft and reducer shaft is enclosed by this motor adapter.
FEA was used to test the cast iron housing to determine any potential problem areas before production began.
Once analyses were completed, the motor adaptor was redesigned to lower stresses using the information from
the FEA and comparing it to the infield test data.
ISBN: 1-55589-962-2 Pages: 9
09FTM10. The Effect of Flexible Components on the Durability, Whine, Rattle and Efficiency of a
Transmission Geartrain System
Author: A. Korde and B.K. Wilson
Gear Engineers have long recognized the importance of considering system factors when analyzing a single pair
of gears in mesh. These factors include: load sharing in multi-mesh gear trains, bearing clearances, and effects of
flexible components such as housings, gear blanks, shafts, and carriers for planetary gears. Quality requirements
and expectations in terms of durability, lower operating noise and vibration, and efficiency have increased. With
increased complexity and quality requirements, a gear engineer must use advanced system design tools to
ensure a robust gear train is delivered on time, meeting all quality, cost, and weight requirements.
As a standard practice, finite element models have traditionally been used for analyzing transmission system
deflections, but this modeling environment does not always include provisions for analysis of vibration, efficiency,
or any considerations for attribute variation. And that often requires many runs of the test to ensure all variations
have been included and tested.
An advanced software tool is available for the analysis of transmission system durability, noise, vibration, and
efficiency, all within a single programming environment, including the effects of flexible components such as
housings, gear blanks, and shafting, while also allowing manufacturing variation studies to be performed. This
paper includes the results of a case study of this program.
ISBN: 1-55589-963-9 Pages: 13
09FTM12. The Anatomy of a Micropitting Induced Tooth Fracture Failure – Causation, Initiation, Progression
and Prevention
Authors: R.J. Drago, R.J. Cunningham, and S. Cymbala
Micropitting has become a major concern in certain classes of industrial gear applications, especially wind power
and other relatively highly loaded somewhat slow speed applications, where carburized gears are used to
facilitate maximum load capacity in a compact package. While by itself the appearance of micropitting does not
generally cause much perturbation in the overall operation of a gear system, the ultimate consequences of a
micropitting failure can, and frequently are, much more catastrophic.
Micropitting is most often associated with parallel axis gears (spur and helical) however, the authors have also
found this type of distress when evaluating damage to carburized, hardened and hard finished spiral bevel gears.
This paper presents a discussion of the initiation, propagation and ultimate tooth fracture failure mechanism
associated with a micropitting failure. The subject is presented by way of the discussion of detailed destructive
metallurgical evaluations of several example micropitting failures that the authors have analyzed on both parallel
axis and bevel gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-965-3 Pages: 12
09FTM13. Bending Fatigue, Impact Strength and Pitting Resistance of Ausformed Powder Metal Gears
Authors: N. Sonti, S. Rao and G. Anderson
Powder metal (P/M) process is making inroads in automotive transmission applications because of substantially
lower cost of P/M steel components for high volume production as compared to wrought or forged steel parts.
Although P/M gears are increasingly used in powered hand tools, gear pumps, and as accessory components in
automotive transmissions, P/M steel gears are currently in limited use in vehicle transmission applications.
The primary objective of this project was to develop high strength P/M steel gears with bending fatigue, impact,
and pitting fatigue performance equivalent to current wrought steel gears. Ausform finishing tools and process
were developed and applied to powder forged (P/F) steel gears in order to enhance the strength and durability
characteristics of P/M gears, while maintaining the substantive cost advantage for vehicle transmission
applications.
This paper presents the processing techniques used to produce Ausform finished P/F steel gears, and
comparative bending fatigue, impact and surface durability performance characteristics of Ausform finished P/F
steel gears, as well as conventional wrought steel gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-966-0 Pages: 14
09FTM16. Allowable Contact Stresses of Jacking Gear Units Used in the Offshore Industry
Author: A. Montestruc
An offshore jack-up drilling rig is a barge upon which a drilling platform is placed. The barge has legs which can
be lowered to the sea floor to support the rig. Then the barge can be “jacked-up” out of the water providing a
stable work platform from which to drill for oil and gas. The rack and pinion systems used to raise and lower the
rig are enormous in terms of gear pitch or module by gear industry standards. Quarter pitch (101.6 module)
pinions are common. Lifetime number of cycles for these units are—again, by gear industry standards—small, as
rack teeth typically have 25-year lifetime cycles measured in the low hundreds. That is off the charts for AGMA
(and ISO or DIN) design rules which draw a straight line to zero cycles for contact stress cycles less than 10,000.
Use of any standards was abandoned from the start in the offshore industry for jacking applications. The author
presents methods, and experience of that industry and suggested allowable contact stresses in such applications.
ISBN: 1-55589-969-1 Pages: 8
09FTM18. Does the Type of Gear Action Affect the Appearance of Micro-Pitting and Gear Life?
Authors: A. Williston
Early results from testing conducted have raised questions concerning the role of gear action with the appearance
of micropitting as well as surface fatigue (macropitting). Comparisons between similar gear sets with the same
loads, speeds, and lubrication but operated either as speed increasers or as speed reducers have yielded
strikingly different propensities for wear. Further, these observations are not limited to lubrication based failures
such as micropitting, but, so far, have applied to traditional surface fatigue failures (macropitting) as well.
Findings point to an increase in the presence of micropitting on gearing operated as speed reducers. All
components are operating at the same speed and load, yet wear is greatly reduced for the driven components.
Perhaps more intriguing is that to date all macropitting failures have occurred to the driving pinions of gear sets
operated as speed reducers. While the number of samples is decidedly small, the length of life for these
components is much less than would be anticipated under smooth load circumstances. The other gear sets
(operated as speed increasers) do not show any fatigue wear.
In addition to how gear action affects micropitting in gearing is the question of how the gear action affects fatigue
life. Current gear rating standards are based upon statistical analysis of real-world experience and mathematical
stress-versus-cycle calculations. If gear action affects how gearing fails in fatigue, there may be significant
ramifications in the industry. However, before any such conclusion may be made, additional testing is necessary.
2008 PAPERS
08FTM01. Parametric Study of the Failure of Plastic Gears
Authors: M. Cassata and Dr. M. Morris
This paper presents the results of collaboration to develop tools for the prediction of plastic gear tooth failure for
any given set of operating conditions and to classify failure modes of these gears. The goal of the project is to
characterize and predict the failure of plastic gears over a range of given parameters.
A test plan was developed to explore the effect of rotational speed, root stress, and flank temperature on the life of
plastic gears. The dependent variable for the experiments was the number of cycles (or rotations) until failure.
ISBN: 1-55589-931-8 Pages: 7
08FTM02. A Methodology for Identifying Defective Cycloidal Reduction Components Using Vibration
Analysis and Techniques
Authors: V. Cochran and T. Bobak
For several years, predictive maintenance has been gaining popularity as method for preventing costly and time
consuming machine breakdowns. Vibration analysis is the cornerstone of predictive maintenance programs, and
the equations for calculating expected vibration frequencies for bearings and toothed gear sets are widely
available. Cycloidal reducers present a special case due to the nature of their reduction mechanism. This paper
will describe a method for utilizing vibration analysis in order to identify a defective Cycloidal ring gear housing,
disc, and eccentric bearing.
ISBN: 1-55589-932-5 Pages: 25
08FTM04. The Effect of Manufacturing Microgeometry Variations on the Load Distribution Factor and on Gear
Contact and Root Stresses
Authors: D. Houser
Traditionally, gear rating procedures directly consider manufacturing accuracy in the application of the dynamic
factor, but only indirectly through the load distribution consider such errors in the calculation of stresses used in
the durability and gear strength equations. This paper discusses how accuracy affects the calculation of stresses
and then uses both statistical designs of experiments and Monte Carlo simulation techniques to quantify the
effects of different manufacturing and assembly errors on root and contact stresses. Manufacturing deviations to
be considered include profile and lead slopes and curvatures, as well as misalignment. The effects of spacing
errors, runout and center distance variation will also be discussed.
ISBN: 1-55589-934-9 Pages: 15
08FTM06. Tooth Fillet Profile Optimization for Gears with Symmetric and Asymmetric Teeth
Authors: A. Kapelevich and Y. Shekhtman
Involute flanks are nominally well described and classified by different standard accuracy grades, depending on
gear application and defining their tolerance limits for such parameters as runout, profile, lead, pitch variation, and
others.
The gear tooth fillet is an area of maximum bending stress concentration. However, its profile is typically
marginally described as a cutting tool tip trajectory. Its accuracy is defined by a usually generous root diameter
tolerance. The most common way to reduce bending stress concentration is application of the basic (or
generating) rack with full radius.
This paper presents a fillet profile optimization technique based on the FEA and random search method, which
allows for a substantial bending stress reduction, by 15 to 30% compared to traditionally designed gears. This
reduction results in higher load capacity, longer lifetime, and lower cost. It includes numerical examples confirming
the benefits of fillet optimization.
ISBN: 1-55589-936-3 Pages: 11
08FTM11. Bending Fatigue Tests of Helicopter Case Carburized Gears: Influence of Material, Design and
Manufacturing Parameters
Authors: G. Gasparini, U. Mariani, C. Gorla, M. Filippini, and F. Rosa
For helicopter gears many aspects of design and manufacturing must be analyzed, such as material cleanliness,
case depth and hardness, tooth root shape and roughness, and compressive residual stresses. Moreover, these
gears are designed to withstand loads in the gigacycle field, but are also subjected to short duration overloads.
Therefore, a precise knowledge of the shape of the S-N curve is of great importance for assessing their in-service
life.
A single tooth bending (STB) test procedure has been developed to optimally map gear design parameters and a
test program on case carburized, aerospace standard gears has been conceived and performed in order to
appreciate the influence of various technological parameters on fatigue resistance, and to draw the curve shape
up to the gigacycles region.
The program has been completed by failure analysis on specimens and by static tests. Some accessory
investigations, like roughness and micro-hardness measurements, have also been performed. Gigacycle tests
confirm the estimations done on the basis of the shorter tests, both in term of fatigue limit and of curve shapes.
ISBN: 1-55589-941-7 Pages: 12
08FTM13. Hydrogen & Internal Residual Stress Gear Failures – Some Failure Analyses and Case Studies
Author: R. Drago
Hydrogen and internal stress failures are relatively rare; however, when they occur they are often very costly and
sometimes quite catastrophic. While hydrogen and internal stress issues are generally recognized as significant in
the design and manufacture of larger gears, they are also important for smaller gears as well.
This paper presents, via illustrated actual case studies, the mechanisms by which these failures occur, the
manner in which they progress, and methods for testing finished gears for the possibility of internal problems. In
08FTM14. Effects of Axle Deflection and Tooth Flank Modification on Hypoid Gear Stress Distribution and
Contact Fatigue Life
Authors: H. Xu, J. Chakraborty, and J.C. Wang
Flank modifications are often made to overcome the influences of errors coming from manufacturing and
assembly processes, as well as deflections of the system. This paper presents a semi-analytical approach on
estimating the axle system deflections by combining computer simulations and actual loaded contact patterns
obtained from lab tests. By using an example hypoid gear design, influences of axle deflections and typical flank
modifications (lengthwise crowning, profile crowning and twist) on stress distribution of the hypoid gear drive are
simulated. Finally, several experimental gear samples are made and tested. Tooth surface topography is
examined by using a Coordinate Measuring Machine. Test results are reported to illustrate the effect of tooth flank
modifications on contact fatigue life cycles.
ISBN: 1-55589-944-8 Pages: 11
08FTM19. How Are You Dealing with the Bias Error in Your Helical Gears?
Author: J. Lange
Using illustrations this paper explains that bias error (“the twisted tooth phoneme”) is a by-product of applying
conventional radial crowning methods to produced crowned leads on helical gears. The methods considered are
gears that are finished, shaped, shaved, form and generated ground. The paper explains why bias error occurs in
these methods, and then addresses what techniques are used to limit/eliminate bias error. Profile and lead
inspection charts will be used to detail bias error and the ability to eliminate it.
The paper details the simultaneous interpolation of multiple axes in the gear manufacturing machine to achieve
the elimination of bias error. It also explains that CNC machine software can be used to predict bias error, and
equally important that it could be used to create an “engineered bias correction” to increase the load carrying
capacity of an existing gear set.
ISBN: 1-55589-949-3 Pages: 14
2007 PAPERS
07FTM01. Estimation of Lifetime of Plastic Gears
Author: S. Beermann
This paper gives an overview on the state of art in plastic gear resistance calculation. The main problem with
plastics is the dependency of the stress cycle curve (Woehler line) with temperature. Today, more plastic gears
(as in automobile headlights) are used in a high temperature range. Furthermore, flank resistance depends
strongly on lubrication (lifetime may vary by a factor of ten and more, if oil, grease lubricated or dry running).
As no secure data for plastic gears is available, how can nevertheless plastic gear design and life time prediction
be improved? The best strategy is to use the feedback of existing reducers. Plastic gearboxes, before starting
production in big series, are normally submitted to endurance tests. If these tests are used to check also the real
lifetime limits — or by increasing test length, or by increasing applied torque — these results can be used to
define the required safety factors for future gear design. This procedure has been very successful, and will be
described with some examples.
ISBN: 1-55589-905-9 Pages: 14
07FTM02. Study of the Correlation Between Theoretical and Actual Gear Fatigue Test Data on a Polyamide
Author: S. Wasson
Fatigue tests have been run on actual molded gears in order to provide design data, using fully lubricated, plastic
on plastic spur gears in a temperature controlled experiment. The purpose of the testing is to see if there is a good
correlation between fatigue data, generated in a lab on test bars, versus the actual fatigue performance in a gear.
In order to do this, the theories of gear calculations to get root stresses also had to be examined. Advanced FEA
showed that there are corrections needed to account for high loading or high temperatures in plastic gears. The
chemistry of various nylons used in gears is explained. A high crystalline nylon has been found which is an
excellent material for gears in demanding applications and can withstand high torques and operating
temperatures. The material has very good wear properties and excellent retention of mechanical properties
(strength, stiffness, and fatigue) especially at elevated temperatures. Several commercial gear applications are
currently utilizing these properties. These will be shown to demonstrate the benefits and manufacturability of this
material.
ISBN: 1-55589-906-6 Pages: 6
07FTM03. Material Integrity in Molded Plastic Gears and Its Dependence on Molding Practices
Author: T. Vale
The quality of molded plastic gears is typically judged by dimensional feature measurements only. This practice
overlooks potential deficiencies in the plastic injection molding process and its effect on the integrity of the plastic
material. These deeper issues are often not given proper consideration until a related gear failure demands its
study and evaluation. This paper identifies some of these oversights in the molding process, the resultant effect
on the plastic material, and discusses their likely effect on short and long term gear performance.
ISBN: 1-55589-907-3 Pages: 11
07FTM05. Vacuum Carburizing Technology for Powder Metal Gears and Parts
Authors: J. Kowalewski and K. Kucharski,
Carburizing is one of the leading surface hardening processes applied to the sintered, low-alloyed steel gears in
the automotive industry. While diffusion of carbon in wrought steel is well documented, this is not the case for PM
steel subject to carburizing in vacuum furnaces. This paper presents results that show that the density of the
powder metal is the main factor for the final carbon content and distribution. Also important is the state of the
surface of the part; either sintered with open porosity or machined with closed porosity. The way the carburizing
gas moves through the furnace might be of some influence as well.
ISBN: 1-55589-909-7 Pages: 5
07FTM06. Using Barkhausen Noise Analysis for Process and Quality Control in the Production of Gears
Authors: S. Kendrish, T. Rickert and R. Fix
The use of magnetic Barkhausen Noise Analysis (BNA) has been proven to be an effective tool for the non-
destructive detection of microstructural anomalies in ferrous materials. Used as an in-process tool for the
detection of grinding burn, heat treat defects and stresses, BNA is a quick comparative and quantitative
alternative to traditional destructive methods.
This paper presents examples that demonstrate how BNA is used to evaluate changes in microstructural
properties. Quantitative results correlate BNA test values to x-ray diffraction values for the detection of changes in
residual stress. Qualitative results correlate BNA test values to acid etch patterns/colors for the detection of
grinding burn defects.
ISBN: 1-55589-910-3 Pages: 5
07FTM11. Helicopter Accessory Gear Failure Analysis Involving Wear and Bending Fatigue
Authors: G. Blake and D. Schwerin
Gear tooth wear is a very difficult phenomenon to predict analytically. The failure mode of wear is closely
correlated to the lambda ratio, and can manifest into more severe failure modes, such as bending. Presented is a
failure analysis in which this occurred. A legacy aerospace gear mesh experienced nine failures within a two-year
time period. The failures occurred after more than eight years in service and within tight range of cycles to one
another. Each failure resulted in the loss of all gear teeth with origins consistent with classic bending fatigue.
Non-failed gears, with slightly lower time than the failed gears, were removed from service and inspected. Gear
metrology measurements quantified a significant amount of wear. The flank form of these worn gears was
measured and the measured data used to analytically predict the new dynamic load distribution and bending
stress. To predict if the failure mode of wear was expected for this gear mesh, an empirical relationship of wear to
lambda ratio was created using field data from multiple gear meshes in multiple applications. Presented are the
metallurgical failure analysis findings, dynamic gear mesh analysis, the empirical wear rate curve developed, and
design changes.
ISBN: 1-55589-915-8 Pages: 12
07FTM12. The Effect of Start-Up Load Conditions on Gearbox Performance and Life – Failure Analysis and
Case Study
Author: R.J. Drago
When gearboxes are used in applications in which the connected load has high inertia, the starting torque
transmitted by the gearbox can be much higher than the rated load of the prime mover. Power plants often require
several evaporative cooling towers or large banks of air cooled condensers (ACC) to discharge waste heat.
Because of the very large size of the fans used in these applications, they fall into this category of high inertia
starting load devices. When started from zero speed, a very high torque is required to accelerate the fan to normal
operating speed. If the fan is started infrequently and run continuously for long periods of time, this high starting
torque is of minimal significance. However, when the fan is started and stopped frequently, the number of cycles
at the high starting torque can accumulate to a point where they can cause extensive fatigue damage, even if the
gear system is adequately rated.
07FTM13. Influence of Grinding Burn on the Load Carrying Capacity of Parts under Rolling Stress
Authors: F. Klocke, T. Schröder and C. Gorgels
The demand for continuous improvement concerning economic efficiency of products and processes leads to an
increasing cost pressure in manufacturing and design of power transmissions. Also, the power density of gears
has been increased which leads to a demand for higher gear quality. In more and more cases this can only be
achieved using hard finishing processes.
The demand for higher gear qualities leads to an increased use of gear grinding, which incurs the risk of thermal
damage, such as grinding burn on the gear flank. The influence of thermal damage on the set in operation is
nevertheless hard to judge so that damaged gears are often scrapped. This leads to increasing failure costs.
The lack of knowledge of the effect of grinding burn on the load carrying capacity of gears leads to the point that
the same degree of damage is judged differently by different companies. Therefore, it is necessary to do trials with
thermally damaged parts in order to know how much a certain degree of thermal damage influences the load
carrying capacity.
The investigations described in this report are aimed at determining the load carrying capacity of parts under
rolling stress. Thermally damaged rollers are employed on a roller test rig, since with this analogy process the part
geometry is easier to describe and easier to damage reproducibly.
ISBN: 1-55589-917-2 Pages: 10
07FTM17. Simulation Model for the Emulation of the Dynamic Behavior of Bevel Gears
Authors: C. Brecher, T. Schröder and A. Gacka
The impact of bevel gear deviations on the noise excitation behavior can only be examined under varying working
conditions such as different rotational speed and torque. The vibration excitation of bevel gears resulting from the
tooth contact is primarily determined by the contact conditions and the stiffness properties of the gears. By the use
of a detailed tooth contact analysis, the geometry based gear properties can be developed and provided for a
dynamical analysis of the tooth mesh.
A model has been developed for the simulation of the dynamic behavior of bevel gears. With the aid of a load-free
tooth contact analysis, the geometry-based part of the path excitation is determined. With a tooth contact analysis
under load, the path excitation caused by deflections can be calculated. The geometry based part of the path
excitation and a characteristic surface of the excitation values is created and provided for dynamic simulation.
This dynamic model is able to consider every deviation of the micro- and macrogeometry from the ideal flank
topography, i.e., waves and/or grooves in the surface structure, in combination with two and three dimensional
flank deviations like profile deviations, helix deviations and twists. It is also possible to consider the influence of
friction and the contact impact caused by load and/or manufacturing errors with a test rig to verify the calculations.
ISBN: 1-55589-921-9 Pages: 8
06FTM03. Detailed Procedure for the Optimum Design of an Epicyclic Transmission Using Plastic Gears
Authors: I. Regalado and A. Hernández
Shows the steps to get an optimum (volume based) design for an epicyclic transmission using plastic materials,
the tooth proportions of ANSI/AGMA 1006-A97, the recommendations given in ANSI/AGMA 6023-A88, and
ANSI/AGMA 2101-C95. It gives the effect of changing the number of planets, the bending fatigue and contact
strength of the plastic materials, and the temperature effects on the size of the gears. The design procedure starts
with a preliminary analysis of gear performance in a proposed (not optimized) transmission; going step by step to
an optimum design for the given load conditions and expected minimum life.
ISBN: 1-55589-885-8 Pages: 11
06FTM08. An Evaluation of FZG Micropitting Test Procedures and Results for the Crowned AGMA Test Gears
Authors: D.R. Houser, S. Shon and J. Harianto
This paper reports on surface fatigue testing. The goal was to develop models for predicting wear. As part of this
goal, the study reports on developing an understanding of the stresses and wear predictors using FZG tests.
Since the focus was on micropitting, the first tests used the method described in FVA Information Sheet
No. 54/I-IV. Later, the procedure was modified to account for higher contact stress levels that are predicted for the
heavily crowned and tip relieved AGMA test gears that were manufactured as a part of the AGMA tribology test
program. This paper provides extensive analysis that includes detailed topography measurements of the tooth
profiles, predictions of contact stresses and contact patterns. It discusses factors that affect contact stresses, flash
temperatures, and test film thickness.
ISBN: 1-55589-890-4 Pages: 12
06FTM10. Fabrication, Assembly and Test of a High Ratio, Ultra Safe, High Contact Ratio, Double Helical
Planetary Transmission for Helicopter Applications
Authors: F.W. Brown, M.J. Robuck, M. Kozachyn, J.R. Lawrence and T.E. Beck
An ultra-safe, high ratio planetary transmission, for application as a helicopter main rotor final drive, has been
designed, fabricated and tested. The transmission improvements are reduced weight, reduced noise and
improved fail-safety and efficiency. This paper discusses the fabrication, assembly and testing of the planetary
transmission. An existing planetary transmission utilized a two-stage conventional spur gear design with fixed
internal ring gears. The new double helical planetary (DHP) system design uses a compound planetary
arrangement with staggered planets and high contact ratio gearing in a unique configuration. Double helical gears
in the planet to ring meshes balance axial tooth forces without axial planet bearing reactions. The spur gear sun to
planet meshes are staggered to achieve a compact arrangement. The sun gear is fully floating.
ISBN: 1-55589-892-0 Pages: 12
06FTM14. The Optimal High Speed Cutting of Bevel Gears – New Tools and New Cutting Parameters
Author: H.J. Stadtfeld
High speed carbide dry cutting improvements have a dependency of many important parameters upon the
particular job situation, which makes it difficult for a manufacturing engineer to establish an optimal cutting
scenario. An analysis of the different parameters and their influence on the cutting process, allows the
establishment of five, nearly independent areas of attention: blade geometry and placement in the cutter head;
cutting edge micro geometry; surface condition of front face and side relief surfaces; speeds and feeds in the
cutting process; and, kinematic relationship between tool and work (climb or conventional cutting, vector feet).
This paper presents explanations and guidelines for optimal high speed cutting depending on cutting method, part
geometry and manufacturing environment. Also, how to choose the blade system, thus giving the manufacturing
engineer information to support optimizing cutter performance, tool life and part quality.
ISBN: 1-55589-896-3 Pages: 13
06FTM15. Optimal Tooth Modifications in Spiral Bevel Gears Introduced by Machine Tool Setting Variation
Author: V. Simon
A method for the determination of optimal tooth modifications in spiral bevel gears based on load distribution,
minimized tooth root stresses, and reduced transmission errors is presented. Modifications are introduced into the
pinion tooth surface considering the bending and shearing deflections of gear teeth, local contact deformations of
mating surfaces, gear body bending and torsion, deflections of the supporting shafts, and manufacturing and
alignment of mating members. By applying a set of machine tool setting parameters, the maximum tooth contact
pressure can be reduced by 5.4%, the tooth fillet stresses in the pinion by 8% and the angular position error of the
driven gear by 48%, based on a spiral bevel gear pair manufactured by machine tool settings determined by a
commonly used method.
ISBN: 1-55589-897-1 Pages: 12
05FTM02. The Effects of Pre Rough Machine Processing on Dimensional Distortion During Carburizing
Author: G. Blake
A study to isolate the influence of pre-rough machine processing on final dimensional distortion. Methods are
discussed to aid process development and minimize dimensional change during carburizing. The study examined
the distortion during carburizing between five possible raw material starting conditions. Coupons were used and
manufactured from each population of material processing. Dimensions were made before and after carburizing
using a scanning coordinate measurement machine. The results show that dimensional distortion during
carburizing increases with mechanical and thermal processing.
ISBN: 1-55589-850-5 Pages: 18
05FTM04. Tooth Meshing Stiffness Optimization Based on Gear Tooth Form Determination for a Production
Process Using Different Tools
Authors: U. Kissling, M. Raabe, M. Fish
The variation of the tooth meshing stiffness is a source of noise and the exact calculation of tooth form is
important for the stiffness determination. For this purpose, software was written with the concept of an unlimited
number of tools such as hobs, grinding disk, and honing defining a manufacturing sequence. Stiffness variation
can be improved by optimization of final gear geometry with a calculation of the contact path under load. The
meshing stiffness is derived making it possible to study the effect of a proposed profile correction of a gear under
different loads. Calculations with AGMA2001 or ISO6336 check the point with the highest root stress. Effect of a
grinding notch is also included.
ISBN: 1-55589-852-1 Pages: 11
05FTM05. Computerized Design of Face Hobbed Hypoid Gears: Tooth Surface Generation, Contact Analysis
and Stress Calculation
Authors: M. Vimercati and A. Piazza
Face milled hypoid gears have been widely studied. Aim of this paper is just to propose an accurate tool for
computerized design of face hobbed hypoid gears. A mathematical model able to compute detailed gear tooth
surface is presented. Then, the obtained surfaces will be employed as input for an advanced contact solver that,
using a hybrid method combining finite element technique with semi analytical solutions, is able to efficiently carry
out contact analysis under light and heavy loads and stress calculation of these gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-853-3 Pages: 13
05FTM08. New Developments in Tooth Contact Analysis (TCA) and Loaded TCA for Spiral Bevel and Hypoid
Gear Drives
Authors: Q. Fan and L. Wilcox
Tooth Contact Analysis (TCA) and Loaded Tooth Contact Analysis (LTCA) are two powerful tools for the design
and analysis of spiral bevel and hypoid gear drives. TCA and LTCA respectively simulate gear meshing contact
characteristics under light load and under significant load. Application of CNC hypoid gear generators has brought
new concepts in design of spiral bevel and hypoid gears with sophisticated modifications. This paper presents
new developments in TCA and LTCA of spiral bevel and hypoid gears. The first part of the paper describes a new
universal tooth surface generation model with consideration of capabilities of CNC bevel gear generators. The
universal model is based on the kinematical modeling of the basic machine settings and motions of a virtual bevel
gear generator which simulates the hypoid gear generator and integrates both face milling and face hobbing
processes. Mathematical descriptions of gear tooth surfaces are represented by a series of coordinate
transformations in terms of surface point position vector, unit normal, and unit tangent. Accordingly, a generalized
TCA algorithm and program are developed. In the second part of this paper the development of a finite element
analysis (FEA) based LTCA is presented. The LTCA contact model is formulated using TCA generated tooth
surface and fillet geometries. The FEA models accommodate multiple pairs of meshing teeth to consider a
realistic load distribution among the adjacent teeth. An improved flexibility matrix algorithm is formulated by
introducing specialized gap elements with considerations of deflection and deformation due to tooth bending,
shearing, local Hertzian contact, and axle stiffness. Two numerical examples, a face-hobbing design and a face
milling design, are illustrated to verify the developed mathematical models and programs.
ISBN: 1-55589-856-4 Pages: 12
05FTM18. Planet Pac: Increasing Epicyclic Power Density and Performance through Integration
Author: D.R. Lucas
Epicyclical gear systems are typically equipped with straddle-mounted planetary idlers and are supported by pins
on the input and output sides of a carrier. These carriers can be either one-piece or two-piece carrier designs.
Traditionally many of the higher power rated epicyclic gear systems use cylindrical roller bearings to support the
planetary gears. This paper will demonstrate that using a preloaded taper roller bearing in an integrated package
should be the preferred choice for this application to increase the bearing capacity, power density, and fatigue life
performance. Based on DIN281-4 calculations, this patented, fully integrated solution allows for calculated bearing
fatigue lives to be 5 times greater than a non-integrated solution and more than 1.5 times greater than a semi-
integrated solution, without changing the planet gear envelope.
ISBN: 1-55589-866-1 Pages: 7
05FTM19. The Application of Very Large, Weld Fabricated, Carburized, Hardened & Hard Finished Advanced
Technology Gears in Steel Mill Gear Drives
Authors: R.J. Drago, R. Cunningham and S. Cymbala
In the 1980's, Advanced Technology Gear (ATG) steel rolling mill gear drives consisting of carburized pinions in
mesh with very large, weld fabricated, high through hardened gears were introduced to improve capacity.
Recently, even the improvements obtained from these ATG gear sets were not sufficient to meet higher
production rates and rolling loads. For greater load capacity ATG sets have been developed consisting of
carburized, hardened pinions in mesh with very large, weld fabricated, carburized and hard finished gears. Single
and double helical gears of this type, ranging in size from 80 to 136 inches pitch diameter have been implemented
in several steel rolling applications. This paper describes the conditions that require the use of these gears and
the technology required to design, manufacture, and, especially, heat treat, these very special, very large gear
sets.
ISBN: 1-55589-867-0 Pages: 16
2004 PAPERS
04FTM1. Gear Noise – Challenge and Success Based on Optimized Gear Geometries
Authors: F. Hoppe and B. Pinnekamp
Airborne and structure borne noise behavior becomes more and more an important feature for industrial
applications. Noise excitation requirements may differ with applications. Industrial conveyor belts or cement mills
are less sensitive with respect to noise emission than military applications, such as navy ship propulsion. This
paper describes requirements and solutions with regard to noise behavior focusing on examples taken from wind
turbine gear transmissions and navy applications. The individual approaches have to be a suitable compromise to
meet the challenge of noise requirement and cost optimization without restrictions on gear load carrying capacity.
Therefore, the paper shows requirements and measurements examples from shop and field tests in comparison
to gear micro geometry and calculation results.
ISBN: 1-55589-824-6 Pages: 15
04FTM3. A Method to Define Profile Modification of Spur Gear and Minimize the Transmission Error
Authors: M. Beghini, F. Presicce, and C. Santus
The object of this presentation is to propose a simple method to reduce the transmission error for a given spur
gear set, at a nominal torque, by means of profile modification parameters. Iterative simulations with advanced
software are needed. A hybrid method has been used, combining the finite element technique with semi analytical
solutions. A two dimensional analysis is thought to be adequate for this kind of work; in fact, the resulting software
does not require much time for model definition and simulations, with very high precision in the results. The
starting configuration is presented. At each subsequent step, little alteration of one parameter is introduced, and
the best improvement in terms of static transmission error is followed, until a minimum peak-to-peak value is
achieved. At the end a check is needed to verify that the tip relief is enough to avoid the non-conjugate contact on
the tip corner for a smooth transfer load.
ISBN: 1-55589-826-2 Pages: 11
04FTM6. The Effect of a ZnDTP Anti-Wear Additive on Micropitting Resistance of Carburized Steel Rollers
Authors: C. Benyajati and A.V. Olver
Zinc di-alkyl dithio-phosphate (ZnDTP) compounds are widely used in engine and transmission oils both as anti-
oxidants and as anti-wear additives. However, recent work has shown that many anti-wear additives appear to
have a detrimental effect on the resistance of gears and other contacting components to various types of rolling
contact fatigue, including micropitting. The paper examines the effect of a secondary C6 ZnDTP presence in low
viscosity synthetic base oil on the resistance to micropitting and wear of carburized steel rollers, using a triple-
contact disk tester. It was found that the additive caused severe micropitting and associated wear, whereas the
pure base oil did not give rise to any micropitting. It was further found that the additive was not detrimental unless
it was present during the first 100 000 cycles of the test when it was found to exert a strong effect on the
development of roughness on the counter-rollers. It is concluded that the additive is detrimental to micropitting
resistance because it retards wear-in of the contact surfaces, favoring the development of damaging fatigue
cracks. This contrast with some earlier speculation that suggested a direct chemical effect could be responsible.
ISBN: 1-55589-829-7 Pages: 10
04FTM7. A Short Procedure to Evaluate Micropitting Using the New AGMA Designed Gears
Authors: K.J. Buzdygon and A.B. Cardis
At the 1998 AGMA Fall Technical Meeting, encouraging results of a prototype micropitting test using specially
designed gears on the standard FZG test rig were reported. Additional gear sets became available from AGMA in
2000. Subsequently, several sets of these experimental AGMA test gears were used in an attempt to develop a
relatively short test procedure to evaluate micropitting. The detailed results of these tests are discussed in the
paper. The procedure involved running the test gears on the standard FZG test rig with oil circulation for 168
hours. At the end of test, the gears are rated for micropitting, weight loss, pitting, and scuffing. Five commercially
available ISO VG 320 gear oils, with performance in the FVA Procedure 54 micropitting test ranging from FLS 9-
low to FLS >10-high, were evaluated using this procedure. The degree of micropitting coverage ranged from 34%
to 7% in the new test procedure. Micropitting generally originated in the middle of the gear tooth, instead of the
root or tip. Overall, there was excellent correlation of the degree of micropitting damage between the new test
procedure and FVA Procedure 54.
ISBN: 1-55589-830-0 Pages: 8
04FTM12. Improved Tooth Load Distribution in an Involute Spline Joint Using Lead Modifications Based on
Finite Element Analysis
Authors: F.W. Brown, J.D. Hayes and G.K. Roddis
Involute splines are prone to non-uniform contact loading along their length, especially in lightweight, flexible
applications such as a helicopter main rotor shaft-to-rotor hub joint. A significantly improved tooth load distribution
is achieved by applying, to the internally splined member, complex lead corrections which vary continuously along
the length of the spline. Rotor hub splines with analytically determined lead corrections were manufactured and
tested under design load conditions. A standard rotor shaft-to-hub joint, which uses a step lead correction
between splines, was also tested as a baseline. Test data indicated that the complex lead corrections resulted in a
nearly uniform contact load distribution along the length of the spline at the design torque load. The data also
showed that the load distribution for the splines with the complex lead corrections was significantly improved
relative to the baseline splines.
ISBN: 1-55589-835-1 Pages: 16
2002 PAPERS
02FTM1. The Effect of Chemically Accelerated Vibratory Finishing on Gear Metrology
Authors: L. Winklemann, M. Michaud, G. Sroka, J. Arvin and A. Manesh
Chemically accelerated vibratory finishing is a commercially proven process that is capable of isotropically
superfinishing metals to an Ra < 1.0 in. Gears have less friction, run significantly cooler and have lower noise and
vibration when this technology is applied. Scuffing, contact fatigue (pitting), and bending fatigue are also reduced
or eliminated both in laboratory testing and field trials. This paper presents studies done on aerospace Q13 spiral
bevel gears showing that the amount of metal removed to superfinish the surface is both negligible and
controllable. Media selection and metal removal monitoring procedures are described ensuring uniform surface
finishing, controllability and preservation of gear metrology.
ISBN: 1-55589-801-7 Pages: 18
02FTM2. Development and Application of Computer-Aided Design and Tooth Contact Analysis of Spiral-Type
Gears with Cylindrical Worm
Authors: V.I. Goldfarb and E.S. Trubachov
This paper presents the method of step-by-step computer-aided design of spiroid-type gears, which involves gear
scheme design, geometric calculation of gearing, drive design, calculation of machine settings and tooth-contact
analysis. Models of operating and generating gearing have been developed, including models of manufacture and
assembly errors, force and temperature deformations acting in real gearing, and drive element wear. Possibilities
of CAD-technique application are shown to solve design and manufacture tasks for gearboxes and gear-motors
with spiroid-type gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-802-5 Pages: 15
02FTM3. The Application of Statistical Stability and Capability for Gear Cutting Machine Acceptance Criteria
Author: T.J. Maiuri
Over the years the criteria for gear cutting machine acceptance has changed. In the past, cutting a standard test
gear or cutting a customer gear to their specification was all that was expected for machine acceptance. Today,
statistical process control (SPC) is required for virtually every machine runoff. This paper will cover the basic
theory of stability and capability and its application to bevel and cylindrical gear cutting machine acceptance
criteria. Actual case studies will be presented to demonstrate the utilization of these SPC techniques.
ISBN: 1-55589-803-3 Pages: 26
02FTM7. Selecting the Best Carburizing Method for the Heat Treatment of Gears
Authors: D. Herring, G. Lindell, D. Breuer and B. Madlock
Vacuum carburizing has proven itself a robust heat treatment process and a viable alternative to atmosphere
carburizing. This paper will present scientific data in support of this choice. A comparison of atmosphere
carburized gears requiring press quenching to achieve dimensional tolerances in a “one piece at a time” heat
treating operation, with a vacuum carburized processing a full load of gears that have been high gas pressure
quenched within required tolerances.
ISBN: 1-55589-807-6 Pages: 13
02FTMS1 Design and Stress Analysis of New Version of Novikov-Wildhaber Helical Gears
Author: I. Gonzalez-Perez
This paper covers design, generation, tooth contact analysis and stress analysis of a new type of Novikov-
Wildhaber helical gear drive. Great advantages of the developed gear drive in comparison with the previous ones
will be discussed, including: reduction of noise and vibration caused by errors of alignment, the possibility of
grinding, and application of hardened materials and reduction of stresses. These achievements are obtained by
application of: new geometry based on application of parabolic rack-cutters, double-crowning of pinion and
parabolic type of transmission errors.
ISBN: 1-55589-812-2 Pages: 25
2001 PAPERS
01FTM1. Carbide Hobbing Case Study
Author: Y. Kotlyar
Carbide hobbing improves productivity and cost, however many questions remain regarding the best application,
carbide material, hob sharpening, coating and re-coating, hob handling, consistency and optimum hob wear, best
cutting conditions, and concerns for the initial cutting tool investment. This paper is a case study of a successful
implementation of carbide hobbing for an annual output of 250,000 gears, average lot size of about 200–300
gears, producing gears of about 150 different sizes and pitches, with 4 setups per day on average.
ISBN: 1-55589-780-0 Pages: 16
01FTM4. How to Inspect Large Cylindrical Gears with an Outside Diameter of More Than 40 Inches
Author: G. Mikoleizig
This paper discusses the design and function of the relevant machines used for individual error measurements
such as lead and profile form as well as gear pitch and runout. The author will cover different types of inspection
machines such as: stationary, CNC-controlled gear measuring centers, and transportable equipment for checking
individual parameters directly on the gear cutting or gear grinding machine.
ISBN: 1-55589-783-5 Pages: 20
01FTM7. Chemically Accelerated Vibratory Finishing for the Elimination of Wear and Pitting of Alloy
Steel Gears
Authors: M. Michaud, G. Sroka and L. Winkelmann
Chemically accelerated vibratory finishing eliminates wear and contact fatigue, resulting in gears surviving higher
power densities for a longer life compared to traditional finishes. Studies have confirmed this process is
metallurgically safe for both through hardened and case carburized alloy steels. The superfinish can achieve an
Ra < 1.5 μinch, while maintaining tolerance levels. Metrology, topography, scanning electron microscopy,
hydrogen embrittlement, contact fatigue, and lubrication results are presented.
ISBN: 1-55589-786-4 Pages: 16
01FTM8. The Effect of Spacing Errors and Runout on Transverse Load Sharing and the Dynamic Factor of
Spur and Helical Gears
Authors: H. Wijaya, D.R. Houser and J. Harianto
This paper addresses the effect of two common manufacturing errors on the performance of spur and helical
gears; spacing error and gear runout. In spacing error analysis, load sharing for two worst-case scenarios are
treated, one where a tooth is out of position and the second where stepped index errors are applied. The analyzed
results are then used as inputs to predict gear dynamic loads, dynamic tooth stresses and dynamic factors for
gear rating.
ISBN: 1-55589-787-8 Pages: 16
2000 PAPERS
2000FTM1. Minimization of In-Process Corrosion of Aerospace Gears
Authors: S.T. Nguyen, A. Manesh, and J. Reeves
This paper discusses problems and root causes associated with the corrosion of aerospace gears during the
manufacturing process.
Specimens of common base materials used in precision gearing were subjected to process conditions that
contribute to corrosion initiation including: different coolant types and concentrations, material heat treat
conditions, base material magnetism, surface finish and iron particles in coolant.
ISBN: 1-55589-762-2 Pages: 7
2000FTM2. The Calculation of Optimum Surface Carbon Content for Carburized Case Hardened Gears
Author: P.C. Clarke
At present, there is not a method to calculate eutectoid carbon from chemical analysis and the eutectoid carbon is
not the best element upon which to base surface carbon requirements. This paper will define the conditions and
propose a method to calculate an optimum carbon level to minimize the possibilities of retained austenite,
cementite and bainite.
ISBN: 1-55589-763-0 Pages: 8
2000FTM3. Comparison of New Gear Metallurgy Documents, ISO 6336-5 and AGMA 923 with Gear Rating
Standards AGMA 2001 and 2003
Author: A.A. Swiglo
This paper will compare and contrast these four documents. What's new, what's different and what's hidden in the
footnotes. Knowing the differences will be important to the users of these documents.
ISBN: 1-55589-764-9 Pages: 110
2000FTM4. Parametric Influences in the ISO Project Concerning Worm Gear Rating
Author: M. Octrue
This paper analyzes the influence of different parameters in CD ISO 14561 Load Capacity Calculation of Worm
Gears such as; efficiency, wear load capacity, pitting, deflection and tooth root stress. The influencing parameters
are divided into different categories such as external parameters of loading conditions, environmental parameters
of lubricant temperature and driving and driven machines.
ISBN: 1-55589-765-7 Pages: 10
2000FTM5. Systematic Investigations on the Influence of Viscosity Index Improvers on EHL-Film Thickness
Authors: B.-R. Hohn, K. Michaelis and F. Kopatsch
This paper compares film thickness calculations to measurements taken using polymer containing oils in a twin
disk machine. Results will show all polymer containing oils form lower film thicknesses than straight mineral oils of
the same viscosity after shearing. A polymer correction factor is derived from test results improving the accuracy
of film thickness calculation.
ISBN: 1-55589-766-5 Pages: 11
2000FTM7. An Analytical-FEM Tool for the Design and Optimization of Aerospace Gleason Spiral Bevel Gears
Author: C. Gorla, F. Rosa, and P.G. Schiannini
To save time and money during the design process a tool based on analytical algorithms and on FEM models is
introduced. As a first step, the conjugate surfaces theory is applied to a bevel set. An analytical tooth contact
analysis is performed to determine the theoretical contact points on flank surfaces versus the meshing points.
Information is then derived by the contact analysis and used to generate Finite Element models of the gear pair on
the basis of the theoretical contact pattern. A final simulation by means of FEM models takes into account load
sharing between tooth pairs.
ISBN: 1-55589-768-1 Pages: 12
2000FTM9. Cylindrical Gear Inspection and Bevel Gear Inspection – A Simple Task by Means of Dedicated
CNC-Controlled Gear Inspection Machines
Author: G. Mikoleizig
This paper will discuss the design, function, software management and probe systems of the inspection
machines. Analytical tooth contact analysis of a cylindrical gear set by means of the combined effects of gear and
pinion is shown on the basis of individual profile and alignment measurements. A fully automatic correction
system will be introduced for checking the flank form on spiral bevel gears.
ISBN: 1-55589-770-3 Pages: 25
2000FTM10. Bending Fatigue Investigation under Variable Load Conditions on Case Carburized Gears
Authors: B.-R. Hohn, P. Oster, K. Michaelis, Th. Suchandt and K. Stahl
Variable load spectrum tests are carried out at different load levels in a step program and at random loading. The
results of step programmed tests show a substantial influence of the period of the programmed subsequence of
fatigue life. Fatigue life decreases when the subsequence period is shortened. With substantially shortened
subsequences in step programmed test nearly the same fatigue life is reached as in random load tests.
ISBN: 1-55589-771-1 Pages: 14
2000FTM11. UltraSafe Gear Systems – Single Tooth Bending Fatigue Test Results
Authors: R.J. Drago, A. Isaacson and N. Sonti
This paper will discuss a system from a point of view of “what happens when a failure occurs.” Gears were
manufactured with seeded faults to simulate unexpected defects in various portions of the highly loaded gear
tooth and rim sections. Crack propagation was monitored by measuring effective mesh stiffness and applied
loading to provide both warning of an impending failure and a reasonable period operation after initiation of a
failure for a safe landing.
ISBN: 1-55589-772-7 Pages: 9
2000FTM12. The Finite Strips Method as an Alternative to the Finite Elements in Gear Tooth Stress and
Strain Analysis
Authors: C. Gosselin and P. Gagnon
The Finite Strip Method (FSM), which may be considered a subset of the Finite Element Method (FEM), is
presented as an alternative to (FEM) that requires very little meshing effort and can be applied to virtually any
tooth geometry while offering precision comparable to that of Finite Elements. This paper will cover the (FSM)
2000FTMS1. Effects of Helix Slope and Form Deviation on the Contact and Fillet Stresses of Helical Gears
Authors: R. Guilbault
An investigation is conducted on the effects of helix slope and form deviation tolerances specified for grades 5
and 7 of the ANSI/AGMA ISO 1328-1 for cylindrical gears. The results show and almost linear correspondence
between deviation amplitude and tooth load and fillet stress increases: using grade 7 instead of grade 5 can
double the tooth flank load increase and associated fillet stress increase. Results also show that effects are even
more significant on the maximum contact pressure.
ISBN: 1-55589-774-6 Pages: 21